How To Listen and Appreciate Jazz PDF

HOW TO
LISTEN TO AND
APPRECIATE JAZZ
COURSE GUIDE
Professor Ted Buehrer

KENYON COLLEGE
How to Listen to and
Appreciate Jazz
Kenyon College
How to Listen to and Appreciate Jazz

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Lecture content ©2006 by Ted Buehrer

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Course Syllabus
How to Listen to and Appreciate Jazz
About Your Professor...................................................................................................4
Introduction...................................................................................................................5
Lecture 1 Listening to Jazz: Part I: Basic Parameters of Music and

the Jazz Rhythm Section.......................................................................6
Lecture 2 Listening to Jazz: Part II: The Sounds and Forms of Jazz ...................8
Lecture 3 Listening to Jazz: Part III: Appreciating Jazz Improvisation ................10
Lecture 4 The Origins of Jazz..............................................................................11
Lecture 5 New Orleans ........................................................................................16
Lecture 6 Chicago and the Transition to Early Swing .........................................22
Lecture 7 The Swing Era .....................................................................................28
Lecture 8 Swing to Bebop ...................................................................................38
Lecture 9 Bebop: The Birth of Modern Jazz........................................................46
Lecture 10 The 1950s and a Profusion of Styles ..................................................56
Lecture 11 Into the 1960s ......................................................................................62
Lecture 12 Jazz in the 1960s.................................................................................71
Lecture 13 Jazz Fusion..........................................................................................79
Lecture 14 The Contemporary Jazz Scene ...........................................................86
Course Materials ........................................................................................................94
Notes ..........................................................................................................................96
3
About Your
Professor
Ted Buehrer
Ted Buehrer is in his ninth year
in the music department at
Kenyon College, currently at the
rank of associate professor. He
holds an undergraduate degree
in music from Kenyon, as well as
a master of music in jazz studies
and Ph.D. in music theory from
Indiana University (Bloomington).
At Kenyon, Professor Buehrer
teaches courses in music theory
and composition; jazz history,
theory, and arranging; and
music technology.
Professor Buehrer’s most recent
Photo courtesy of Ted Buehrer
research has been a study of the

big band compositions of jazz
pianist, composer, and arranger
Mary Lou Williams. He is prepar-
ing a scholarly edition of twelve
of these compositions to be pub-
lished by A-R Editions as a part of the forty-volume Music of the United States
of America (MUSA) series. For this work, Professor Buehrer was awarded a
fellowship at the National Humanities Center in Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina, for the 2006–2007 academic year. Other honors have included the
Mrs. Giles Whiting Foundation Whiting Teaching Fellowship and the Mrs. Giles
Whiting Foundation Whiting Summer Stipend, both of which allowed Professor
Buehrer to pursue research and study of Williams’s music.
Professor Buehrer has been an invited speaker at a Mary Lou Williams con-
ference sponsored by the Institute of Jazz Studies at Rutgers University-
Newark, and he has also presented numerous papers at regional, national,
and international music conferences, including those hosted by the Society
for Music Theory, the American Musicological Society, the College Music
Society, and the International Association of Jazz Educators. He has also
published articles in journals such as Annual Review of Jazz Studies and
Indiana Theory Review.
Musical selections from the two-CD set Jazz: The First 100 Years are
cited throughout this guide to help listeners gain a better understanding
of jazz.
Martin, Henry, and Keith Waters. Jazz: The First 100 Years. 2nd ed. Two-CD
set. New York: G. Schirmer, Inc. and AMP, Inc., 2005.
4
Introduction
hat is jazz? On the one hand, answers to this seemingly harmless
question have given rise to a host of detailed—and controversial—
definitions that never quite agree with one another, as one definition
ends up excluding a body of music that another includes. At the other
end of the spectrum, there is Louis Armstrong’s purported, pithy response: “If
you have to ask, you’ll never know.”
Jazz is often referred to as “America’s art form” or “America’s contribution to
art music.” But what do these expressions mean? Rather than focus on defin-
itions, allow me to briefly offer a glimpse of this music that focuses on three
of its attributes that have been historically valued in jazz: improvisation, inter-
action, and individuality. Is jazz a totally improvised music? Is it a free-for-all
among the musicians playing together? No, yet throughout its history, impro-
visation is an element that has been consistently valued to one degree or
another. How and how much do jazz musicians interact with each other in
performance? This, too, varies by type and by degree, but again, interaction
is a property of the music that is evident throughout the history of jazz. What
makes jazz so individualistic? Jazz is a music of intense personal style and
innovation, and there are many ways that jazz musicians have tried to com-
municate their own distinctive voices.
These themes and others will be developed throughout this series of lec-
tures, helping you to become more knowledgeable about jazz. I hope that the
lectures will help you to become better attuned, more sophisticated listeners
and that they will provide you with historical and cultural contexts for the
many styles of jazz and their leading contributors. But jazz music is not
meant to be merely talked about; it is meant to be experienced. Therefore I
strongly encourage you to take advantage of the two-CD music compilation
that accompanies these lectures. Drummer Max Roach once remarked that
recordings are the textbooks of jazz, and I agree; I view this two-CD set as a
“required text” for this course. Listen to the music, listen to the corresponding
lecture, and listen to the music again. The detailed listening guides contained
in this course guide are designed to assist your listening to the music, and I
encourage you to take advantage of them as well. The “Further Listening”
sections at the end of each listening guide are starting points for you to begin
building your own jazz CD collection, and the “Further Reading” sections pro-
vide easily accessible readings (usually in the form of books rather than hard-
er-to-find journal articles) for deeper investigation into the music or important
figures in its history.
The biographical sketches, the cultural overviews, and the stylistic descrip-
tions contained in the lectures are meant merely to provide a backdrop for the
music itself. If I am passionate about jazz (and I am), I owe that passion not
only to the things I’ve read and studied about jazz, but chiefly to my experi-
ences playing and listening to the music. I hope that this course ignites a sim-
ilar passion in you. Enjoy.
5
Lecture 1: Listening to Jazz: Part I:
Basic Parameters of Music and the Jazz Rhythm Section
he first three lectures in this course seek to assist you in becoming

more astute, more sophisticated jazz listeners. In this lecture I introduce
some terminology and concepts common to nearly all forms of music
and then focus on the unique roles of the various instruments in the jazz
rhythm section.
A Glossary of Terms and Concepts in This Lecture
Melody: The horizontal dimension of music; the “theme.”
Harmony: The vertical dimension of music. Harmony refers to the chords (col-
lections of two or more notes played simultaneously) that are played that fre-
quently accompany a melody.
Rhythm: The temporal dimension of music. Rhythm involves the manner in
which the sound events in music unfold in time.
Meter: The organization of beats into recurring groupings.
Measure (“bar”): One complete grouping of beats in a given meter.
Syncopation: The emphasis of a normally weak beat so that it receives an
unexpected stronger accent.
Timbre: The sound quality in music. The timbre of a musical instrument is
created by its unique, audible characteristics.
Texture: Refers to the combination of instruments that you hear at any given
time, and the resulting “thickness” of the composite sound.
Head (or “head melody”): The main melody of a song, usually stated at the
beginning and again at the end of a jazz performance.
Comp, comping: Short for “accompany” or “accompanying,” refers to the
chordal playing provided by an instrument like a piano or guitar.
LECTURE ONE
6
7
© Clipart.com
Lecture 2: Listening to Jazz: Part II:
The Sounds and Forms of Jazz
introduced the instruments common to jazz rhythm sections in the first

lecture. In this lecture, I discuss a number of other common instruments
in jazz ensembles as well as a variety of techniques that jazz musicians
use to create an individual, personal sound. I then explore strategies for lis-
tening for musical form in jazz, and introduce two of the most common forms
that govern jazz performances: The twelve-bar blues and AABA form.
A Glossary of Terms and Concepts in This Lecture
Front Line Instruments: Instruments that typically play the melody or in har-
mony with the melody in a song. Trumpets, cornets, saxophones, clarinets,
and trombones are possible front line instruments. Violins, flutes, cellos, and
other melodic instruments are less frequently used in this role in a jazz set-
ting, but are possible nevertheless.
Back Line Instruments (rhythm section): Instruments that typically provide
accompanimental or harmonic/rhythmic support to a melody are pianos, gui-
tars, basses, tubas, and banjos.
Vibrato: A musical technique of wavering slightly above and below the intend-
ed pitch, creating a slightly fluctuating sound. Vibrato is used as a means of
providing expression and warmth to a given pitch.
Blue Notes: Certain pitches that can be played or sung that do not fit into typi-
cal major and minor scales. Blue notes correspond roughly to a lowered third,
lowered fifth, and lowered seventh degree of the major scale, although they
derive from traditional practice in certain African-American musics. They are
used expressively in music performance.
Blues Scale:
LECTURE TWO
8
12-bar Blues Form: Each slash mark “/” indicates one beat.
AABA Song Form: Each slash mark “/” indicates one beat.
9
Lecture 3: Listening to Jazz: Part III:
Appreciating Jazz Improvisation
n this final introductory lecture on listening to jazz, I discuss several

practices and techniques typically encountered in jazz performance
and improvisation.
Anatomy of a
Jazz Performance
Introduction
(optional)
Melody (“Head” or “Head chorus”)

1 Chorus (or 2 if Blues)
Improvisation: Soloists take turns improvising music

while rhythm section provides the chords and rhythmic
swing through repeated choruses.
Possible variety and interest created in the

following ways:
1. Trading Fours: Each soloist improvises for four
measures before the next soloist takes over for four
measures. They can also trade twos, eights, etc.
2. Double Time: Soloist starts playing as if the

tempo were double its original rate.
3. Quotation: Soloist borrows a melodic fragment

from another song, another player, or even from
him- or herself.
4. Riff: A short melodic idea, 1 to 2 measures long,

played as a background behind a soloist.
5. Stop Time: Punctuating a distinct beat or beats,

either at the beginning of a solo or during a particu-
lar solo.
Melody (“Head” or “Out chorus”)

LECTURE THREE
1 Chorus (or 2 if Blues)
Ending
(optional)
10
Lecture 4: The Origins of Jazz
Music recordings and the accompanying listening guides are refer-

enced from the two-CD compilation set Jazz: The First 100 Years by
Henry Martin and Keith Waters.
• Scott Joplin, “Maple Leaf Rag” (excerpt), Martin/Waters, CD 1, track 5
• Bessie Smith, “Backwater Blues,” Martin/Waters, CD 1, track 7
agtime is a style of music that achieved widespread American popu-

larity during the last decade of the nineteenth century, and it remained
a popular music into the second decade of the twentieth century. It
emerged as a partially improvised music played primarily by traveling piano
players and other instrumentalists in the Midwest, and though there is little
documentation from which to trace its origins, it is believed to have been in
its formative stages since at least the 1870s. “Ragging” a melody meant
spicing it up, altering it with syncopations and added notes, without complete-
ly eliminating its recognizable character.
Over time, ragtime evolved into a more formalized type of written-out compo-
sition in which the improvisational aspect was seriously diminished if not
removed altogether. Its sectional structure was influenced by the prevalence of
march music: several (three or four) different strains, usually sixteen measures
in length, were typically repeated, with at least one change of key occurring
somewhere before the end of the piece. Midwestern pianists such as Scott
Joplin, Tom Turpin, and Joseph Lamb codified these musical practices of the
style in their compositions: steady bass notes and middle-register chords pro-
vided an easy-to-follow, march-like rhythmic framework in the left hand, leav-
ing the right hand to play syncopated, catchy melodies. Soon, this became a
music to be sung, danced to, and played by larger bands and orchestras.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Maple Leaf Rag” (excerpt)

Martin/Waters, CD 1, track 5
Scott Joplin (piano)
Recorded to piano roll in April 1916
“Maple Leaf Rag” is arguably Joplin’s best-known rag. It was composed

and published as sheet music in 1899 and was a commercial success. The
excerpt provided on this recording demonstrates many of ragtime’s distin-
guishing features: rigid rhythms in the lower parts; syncopated, running
melodies in the upper part; and repeated strains with contrasting content.
0:00 Section A (16 measures, “A strain”): Notice the very regular bass line
pattern, moving consistently in a “long-short-long-short” pattern as
the piece begins. In between the longer bass notes, two mid-register
11
chords are played consecutively. Later in this strain, this pattern
changes, but the overall rigid, march-like feel does not. Above this
framework, Joplin’s right hand is full of syncopations and accents on
unexpected beats.
0:22 A strain, repeated (16 measures)
0:44 B strain (16 measures, excerpt fades during eleventh measure): Now
the left-hand pattern has become more normalized, the customary
“oom-pah” left hand created by alternating a low bass note with a
mid-range chord. The right-hand melody continues its syncopated
character.

More on Scott Joplin and Ragtime
Further Listening
Joplin, Scott. Scott Joplin: Piano Works, 1899–1904. RCA-Victor, 7993-2-RG.

Lamb, Joseph F. Complete Stark Rags of Joseph F. Lamb. Basta
Records, 30-9087.
Paragon Ragtime Orchestra. Paragon Ragtime Orchestra: On the Boardwalk.
Newport Classics, NC60039.
Further Reading
Berlin, Edward. King of Ragtime: Scott Joplin and His Era. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1994.
———. Ragtime: A Musical and Cultural History. Berkeley, University
of California Press, 1980.
Hasse, John Edward, ed. Ragtime: Its History, Composers, and Music. New
York: Schirmer Books, 1985.
Jasen, David A., and Gene Jones. That American Rag: The Story of Ragtime
from Coast to Coast. New York: Schirmer Books, 2000.
LECTURE FOUR
12
essie Smith is the best-known of the female “classic blues” (or “city
blues”) singers from the 1910s and 1920s (others include Ma Rainey,
Ethel Waters, Clara Smith, and Mamie Smith). Known as the
“Empress of the Blues,” Bessie Smith’s first recording, “Down-Hearted
Blues,” from 1923, was very successful, and helped her to become the lead-
ing African-American performer of the time. She performed in various min-
strel and black vaudeville shows, and as her reputation and fame grew, she
performed with many of the other leading early jazz musicians of her time:
Louis Armstrong, Fletcher Henderson, and James P. Johnson, just to name
a few. Johnson was instrumental in the development of the piano style that
emerged from Harlem in the 1920s known as “stride.”
In the age before sound amplification and microphones, a successful singer
needed to be able to project. Smith’s voice not only had this quality, it also
possessed a rich timbre and tremendous emotive power. Her ability to use
“blue notes” and other vocal embellishments, along with a loose melodic
phrasing, became hallmarks of jazz and blues inflection that other musicians
(singers and instrumentalists) emulated. In this recording of “Backwater
Blues,” we can hear these techniques at work, and they stand in contrast to
the very structured twelve-bar blues form of the song. Notice, however, that
although the form remains the same throughout, pianist James P. Johnson’s
accompaniment style frequently changes during different verses of the song,
as he interacts musically with Smith and attempts to depict the meaning of
her lyrics through his playing.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Backwater Blues”

Bessie Smith (vocal); James P. Johnson (piano)
Recorded in New York, February 17, 1927
0:00 Introduction: Johnson begins the performance with two measures of

a rolling left-hand figure, providing the basic pulse for the tune.
0:04 1st chorus:
When it rains five days and the skies turn dark as night
When it rains five days and the skies turn dark as night
Then trouble’s takin’ place in the lowlands at night.
As Johnson’s rolling left-hand figure provides a constant rhythmic and
harmonic underpinning throughout this chorus, Smith’s bright vocal sound
shines above it. Notice the way in which she frequently slides into and out
of notes. In the first line alone, she slides into “five” and “skies” from
below, and slides down out of “night.” The entire lyric is filled with blue
notes. Notice, too, that in contrast to Johnson’s very rhythmically precise
playing, Smith’s phrasing is more relaxed: she frequently sings just a bit
late, a little behind the beat. As each of Smith’s lines comes to an end,
Johnson fills in with his right hand, playing a musical response to her
melodic line.
13
0:32 2nd chorus:
I woke up this mornin’, can’t even get out of my door
I woke up this mornin’, can’t even get out of my door
There’s been enough trouble to make a poor girl wonder where
she want to go.
1:00 3rd chorus:
Then they rowed a little boat about five miles ’cross the pond
Then they rowed a little boat about five miles ’cross the pond
I packed all my clothes, throwed them in and they rowed me along.
These two choruses unfold much like the first. Listen to the variety of
ideas Johnson provides in response to Smith’s melodic lines, even as his
left hand continues playing the same rolling figure as in the begining.
1:27 4th chorus:
When it thunders and lightnin’ and when the wind begins to blow
When it thunders and lightnin’ and the wind begins to blow
There’s thousands of people ain’t got no place to go.
The feel of the tune changes at this point, as Johnson’s accompaniment
shifts to an almost boogie-woogie feel, with a dark, descending left-hand
figure and low chords played by his right hand. This change may reflect
imagery in the lyrics, specifically, that of thunder and lightning. Smith con-
tinues telling her story, embellishing the same basic melody used in each
of the choruses so far.
1:54 5th chorus:
Then I went and stood upon some high old lonesome hill
Then I went and stood upon some high old lonesome hill
Then looked down on the house were I used to live.
Johnson’s accompaniment changes again, as in this chorus he begins
playing with a more march-like, strident manner. Smith continues to remain
true to the original melody.
2:21 6th chorus:
Backwater blues done call me to pack my things and go
Backwater blues done call me to pack my things and go
’Cause my house fell down and I can’t live there no more.
As Smith’s story unfolds, she begins to free herself from the original
melodic line and deliver her lyrics with a more improvised melody.
Johnson’s accompaniment continues the steady, march-like pulse in his
left hand and provides interesting chordal responses to Smith’s lyrics with
LECTURE FOUR
his right hand.
14
2:49 7th chorus:
Mmm, I can’t move no more
Mmm, I can’t move no more
There ain’t no place for a poor old girl to go.
In perhaps the clearest example in this entire recording, notice how
Johnson’s response after Smith’s first line of text (2:49–2:57) mimics her
vocal inflection, even staying in the same range as Smith’s voice. Clearly,
the two are interacting with one another through their musical ideas. As
Smith sings her last line of lyrics, Johnson neatly brings the tune to a close
in succinct fashion and without fanfare or bravado, reflecting the sorrowful
nature of the story.

More on Bessie Smith and the Blues
Further Listening
Smith, Bessie. Bessie Smith: The Complete Recording. Vols. 1–5. Each
volume is a 2-CD set, and each may be purchased separately.
Sony/Columbia.
Further Reading
Grimes, Sara. Backwaterblues: In Search of Bessie Smith. Amherst, MA:

Rose Island Publications, 2000.
Jackson, Buzzy. A Bad Woman Feeling Good: Blues and the Women Who
Sing Them. New York: W.W. Norton, 2005. (See especially chapter 2.)
Manera, Alexandria. Bessie Smith. Chicago: Raintree, 2003.
You Might Also Consider
Son House Gertrude “Ma” Rainey

Robert Johnson Mamie Smith
Charley Patton
15
Lecture 5: New Orleans

• Jelly Roll Morton’s Red Hot Peppers, “Grandpa’s Spells,” Martin/Waters,
CD 1, track 10
• Louis Armstrong and His Hot Five, “West End Blues,” Martin/Waters, CD 1,
track 11
elly Roll Morton (1890–1941) was an important figure in the early

advancement of jazz, but not nearly as important as he told everyone
he was. Though known as “Jelly Roll,” his given name was Ferdinand
Joseph Lamothe, and when his mother remarried, he took an anglicized ver-
sion of her new name: Morton. Morton was playing the piano in bars and clubs
in the bordellos of New Orleans in the district known as Storyville by the time
he was fifteen, and he subsequently performed and led bands regionally: in
Florida, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Alabama. He gradually expanded his
reach, performing in Texas, St. Louis, New York, and Chicago. He turned up
in Los Angeles by 1917 and liked it so much that he stayed five years.
While these early professional experiences didn’t lead to Morton “inventing”
jazz all on his own, as he claimed, they certainly helped Morton to develop
into the first important jazz composer, arranger, and bandleader. By the mid-
1920s he had moved to Chicago and began recording, and eventually
formed a group called the Red Hot Peppers. The recordings of this group
capture some of the musical characteristics often associated with 1920s
New Orleans: an ensemble consisting of a handful of wind instruments plus
a rhythm section, and musical passages in which the full ensemble plays,
contrasting with sections in which soloists take turns improvising melodies.
But they each also have Morton’s individual stamp placed on them, and his
minute attention to the details of each arrangement is apparent. This record-
ing of “Grandpa’s Spells” serves as a perfect example. Note in the listening
guide below all of the features of the arrangement that were not simply left
to chance, but rather were planned and rehearsed in advance.
LECTURE FIVE
16
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Grandpa’s Spells”
Jelly Roll Morton’s Red Hot Peppers: Morton (piano and arranger); George
Mitchell (cornet); Kid Ory (trombone); Omer Simeon (clarinet); Johnny St.
Cyr (banjo); John Lindsey (bass); Andrew Hilaire (drums); Marty Bloom
(sound effects)
Recorded in Chicago, September 26, 1926
0:00 Introduction: A four-measure ensemble march-like introduction

is played.
0:05 A strain (8-measure section): The guitar (suggesting the so-called
“Spanish Tinge” Morton stated was an important ingredient of New
Orleans music) gets two two-measure solo breaks at the beginning of
the section. Notice that in the last four measures of the section the full
band plays, with the three horns (clarinet, trumpet, and trombone) uti-
lizing collective improvisation as the rhythm section provides chordal
and rhythmic accompaniment.
0:14 A strain, repeated
0:23 A strain (8-measure section): This section uses the same material as
A, but now the trumpet gets the two-measure solo breaks played
earlier by the guitar. Otherwise A and A’ are the same.
0:41 B strain (16-measure section): The full band improvises in an entirely
new section. Trumpet clearly has the lead (melody), with the clarinet
playing figures around and above the trumpet, and the trombone
generally playing slower, lower notes below the melody (more collec-
tive improvisation). Notice the two-measure stop time solo break in
the middle of the section, filled in by Morton’s piano solo.
1:17 A strain (8-measure section): The song returns to the first section,
but there seems to be confusion about what is supposed to happen
during the two-measure solo breaks. It sounds like it might be a
trombone solo, but the trombone player stops playing after one mea-
sure. The resulting sound is rather empty as the rhythm section just
chugs along. The last four measures of the section return to the col-
lective improvisation as before.
1:36 C strain (16-measure section): A solo played by muted trumpet is
heard with the rhythm instruments in this new section of the song.
1:54 C strain, repeated: This time, the clarinet plays a solo, with the rest
of the band playing an interesting rhythmic figure in the background
that signals stop time breaks.
2:13 C strain, repeated: Another chorus of C material, this time with a
piano solo supported by the guitar alone. Halfway through the chorus
17
(after eight measures), the clarinet takes over and improvises a solo
until the end of the section, still with just guitar accompaniment.
2:31 C strain, repeated: A final chorus, with the full band playing.
Collective improvisation is heard all around.
2:49 Ending: A quick, two-measure ending featuring one last solo break
for the guitar and two punctuated chords played by the full band to
finish the song.

More on Jelly Roll Morton and New Orleans Jazz
Further Listening
King Oliver’s Creole Jazzband. King Oliver’s Creole Jazzband, 1923–1924.

Challenge Records (Retrieval Records), RTR 79007.
Martin, Henry, and Keith Waters. Jazz: The First 100 Years. 2nd ed. King
Oliver’s Creole Jazz Band. “Dippermouth Blues.” CD 1, track 9. New
York: Sony BMG Music Entertainment, 2005.
———. Jazz: The First 100 Years. 2nd ed. Original Dixieland Jazz Band.
“Tiger Rag.” CD 1, track 8. New York: Sony BMG Music
Entertainment, 2005.
Morton, Jelly Roll. Ferd “Jelly Roll” Morton: 1923–1926. Challenge
Records (Retrieval Records), RTR 79002.
———. Jelly Roll Morton Centennial: His Complete Victor Recordings.
Bluebird 2361 (5-CD set).
Further Reading
Lomax, Alan. Mister Jelly Roll: The Fortunes of Jelly Roll Morton, New
Orleans Creole, and “Inventor of Jazz.” Berkeley: University of California
Press, 2001.
Reich, Howard, and William Gaines. Jelly’s Blues: The Life, Music, and
Redemption of Jelly Roll Morton. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2003.
LECTURE FIVE
18
o much has been written about Louis Armstrong (1901–1971) that it
scarcely seems possible to sum up his accomplishments in one or two
paragraphs. Arguably, Armstrong is the best-known, most recognizable
figure in all of jazz history, and certainly the earliest figure to be so well known.
His stardom is international, due not only to his influential performing style, but
also his contagious smile and infectious personality, on stage and off.
Known as “Satchmo” (a shortened form of “Satchel-mouth,” another nick-
name) and later as “Pops,” Armstrong revolutionized jazz by elevating the
status of the soloist in the context of a jazz performance to new heights.
Though he grew up in New Orleans and his ears had been fully saturated
with the sound of its music, Armstrong’s music could not be contained by this
style. His tone was the brightest, his facility on his instrument the most supe-
rior, and his improvisatory ideas the most imaginative of any of his contempo-
raries. In short, Armstrong was jazz’s first virtuoso on his instrument; people
wanted to hear what he would play next. This emphasis on solo improvisation
has remained a focus for jazz musicians ever since.
From the very first note of “West End Blues,” a tune composed by Joe
“King” Oliver, one can immediately sense the shift that was occurring in jazz
through Armstrong’s influence. From his introductory, fanfare-like opening to
his solo later in the recording, Armstrong displays his power, range, and
unique personality on the trumpet. Pianist Earl Hines is also featured. This
recording is considered a masterpiece, one of the singular performances in
the history of jazz.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “West End Blues”

Louis Armstrong and His Hot Five: Louis Armstrong (trumpet, vocal); Earl
Hines (piano); Fred Robinson (trombone); Jimmy Strong (clarinet); Mancy
Carr (banjo); Zutty Singleton (drums)
Recorded in Chicago, February 28, 1928
0:00 Introduction: Armstrong’s solo trumpet cadenza in the first twelve

seconds of this recording is unlike anything previously recorded in
jazz. Indeed, it became one of the most widely imitated phrases for
aspiring trumpet players for a time. Notice the speed of his melodic
lines, the wide range (high to low) that it traverses, and its rhythmic
complexity. A sustained chord played by all three horns (trumpet,
clarinet, and trombone) rounds out the introduction and sets the
stage for the head melody to follow.
0:15 Head (main melody; 1st chorus, 12-bar blues): This arrangement of
Oliver’s tune follows the simple twelve-bar blues structure faithfully,
with Armstrong playing the melody and Jimmy Strong (clarinet) and
Fred Robinson (trombone) providing harmonized support. The rhythm
section provides chords and the basic pulse. Notice that while
Armstrong’s interpretation of the melody begins simply, by the middle
19
of its presentation (0:33) he begins to elaborate the basic melody as
Strong and Robinson maintain their simpler background roles.
0:50 Trombone solo (2nd chorus): Robinson plays an improvised solo that
maintains a relatively narrow range and uses longer note values.
Notice his use of slides into and between notes. The rhythm section
provides very simple chordal accompaniment behind Robinson’s
solo, and for the sake of variety Singleton’s woodblocks figure promi-
nently in this chorus.
1:24 Clarinet solo (3rd chorus): Strong’s solo might be more accurately
described as a duet with Armstrong, who doesn’t play his trumpet
but rather scat-sings some nonsense syllables. Listen for the inter-
play between the two performers: each of Strong’s “calls” prompts a
“response” from Armstrong.
1:58 Piano solo (4th chorus): Earl Hines was a significant figure in the
development of jazz piano, particularly in the area of stride piano.
Among his contributions was his manner of right-hand playing. In this
solo, Hines begins in an ethereal manner, with an easy-going left
hand providing the pulse and harmonic support and his right hand
playing very high and light. By the 2:10 mark, however, Hines
becomes much more aggressive, playing in the so-called “trumpet
style” he was known for: right-hand melodic lines in octaves, punctu-
ated and phrased as though it might be played by a horn, with
tremelos suggesting a horn’s vibrato. Hines backs away from this
style near the end of his solo (by 2:21), setting the mood for
Armstrong’s entrance.
2:31 Trumpet solo (5th chorus–partial): Armstrong announces himself
from the opening of his solo, holding a high B-flat for four measures,
his tone soaring over the rest of the ensemble (notice that both the
clarinet and trombone are playing, as well as the rhythm section, but
they are very much in the background). The ensuing four measures
(beginning at 2:43) find Armstrong playing fast melodic figures, cas-
cading down from the high point from which he began.
2:55 Ending: Rather than completing the full twelve measures of
Armstrong’s solo chorus, his solo ends after just eight measures
before Hines decreases the energy built up during Armstrong’s solo
by playing a slow, descending figure. The tune ends with Armstrong,
Strong, and Robinson leading the ensemble in three final chords.
LECTURE FIVE
20

More on Louis Armstrong and His Hot Five
Further Listening
Armstrong, Louis. Louis Armstrong: Hot Fives and Sevens (complete 4-CD
set). JSP Records, JSPCD 312-315.
Further Reading
Armstrong, Louis. Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans. Reprint. New York:

Da Capo, 1986.
Bergreen, Laurence. Louis Armstrong: An Extravagant Life. New York:
Broadway Books, 1997.
Giddins, Gary. Satchmo: The Genius of Louis Armstrong. New York:
Da Capo, 2001.
King Oliver’s Creole Jazz Band

The Original Dixieland Jazz Band
21
Lecture 6: Chicago and the Transition to Early Swing

• Art Tatum, “Tiger Rag,” Martin/Waters, CD 1, track 13
• Duke Ellington and His Orchestra, “East St. Louis Toodle-Oo,”
hile there are several other jazz pianists who were important to the
evolution and development of the style known as “stride” (such as
Willie “The Lion” Smith, James P. Johnson, Fats Waller, and Earl
Hines), none perfected and extended the style with such genius as Art
Tatum. Tatum combined prodigious technique at the piano with advanced
harmonic twists and turns that provided new and exciting colors to his impro-
visations. So revered was his playing that on one occasion, when Tatum
walked into a club in which Fats Waller was playing, Waller got up from the
piano bench to make room for Tatum and said, “I only play the piano, but
tonight God is in the house.”
“Tiger Rag” is a standard in the early jazz repertoire, originally composed
and recorded in 1917 by Nick LaRocca and his group, the Original Dixieland
Jazz Band. In this performance, one hears several characteristics of stride
piano: the steady, “oom-pah” bass provided by Tatum’s left hand, the faster,
syncopated improvisations in the higher register of the piano, and the occa-
sional displacement of the steady left-hand rhythms caused by Tatum’s use
of “back beating” or “change stepping” (see instances referenced below). But
one also hears characteristics that are unmistakably Tatum: fast, seemingly
impossible cascading runs in the right hand, unexpected changes of harmo-
ny, and moments in which time seems to be suspended as Tatum stops play-
ing the steady “oom-pah” bass (almost like a stop-time break) and floats
along in the higher register, playing an improvisatory fill or run. As you listen
to this entire performance, keep in mind that Tatum alone is playing, in a sin-
gle take, with no overdubbing.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Tiger Rag”

Art Tatum (solo piano)
Recorded in New York, March 21, 1933
LECTURE SIX
0:00 Introduction: Tatum’s slow, melancholy introduction is lovely, yet it

sounds quite peculiar as an introduction to the rapid, edge-of-your-
seat music that defines the rest of this performance. The introduc-
tion’s “exotic” beauty is created through Tatum’s use of a collection
22
of notes that are part of neither the major nor minor scale, but rather
what is called the “whole-tone” scale. Tatum was ahead of his time
in the jazz world in his use of scales outside of the more typical
major and minor to produce new and different coloristic effects.
0:14 A strain (8 measures repeated; 16 measures in all): Tatum doesn’t
play the melody normally associated with this tune, but rather uses
its chord progression as a vehicle for his improvisatory performance.
As the tune begins, we hear Tatum playing a relatively simplistic
bass figure with his left hand and extremely fast melodic lines impro-
vised with his right hand.
0:25 B strain (8 measures): While Tatum’s right-hand melody work does-
n’t change, he simplifies his left hand even further, punctuating a pat-
tern of simple chords.
0:30 A strain (8 measures): As Tatum returns to the A strain, he resumes
the basic bass figure in his left hand.
0:35 C strain (24 measures, divided into three 8-measure sections): In
this strain we hear for the first time Tatum’s prodigious stride tech-
nique. After the first eight measures, a call-and-response between
brief chordal passages and fast, cascading runs, Tatum launches
into the stride style. Try to imagine how quickly his left hand must
move as he strikes a bass note (sometimes in octaves) and grabs a
middle-range chord to create the fast “oom-pah” sound, all as his
right hand is playing fast, syncopated melodic lines in octaves!
0:50 D strain (32 measures, divided into two 16-measure sections): This
final strain, repeated four times, is the most memorable theme to
emerge from “Tiger Rag” (so much so that notable schools such as
LSU, Auburn, and Clemson adopted the tune as one of their fight
songs). Again, Tatum does not play the familiar melody, but instead
improvises on the chord progression on which the melody is based.
In this strain Tatum focuses on a fast left-hand figure while his right
hand plays a pattern of punctuated chords. Near the end of the
strain (beginning around 1:05), Tatum abandons the left-hand motive
and ends with a flourish of harmonies derived from the whole-tone
scale, recalling the introduction and returning its “exotic” flavor.
1:11 D strain: In Tatum’s second pass through this strain, he returns to
the straight-ahead stride style. Listen for that rapid oom-pah left
hand and the dazzlingly quick melody played in his right hand. At
1:21, the stride bass suddenly stops, as Tatum creates a stop-time
break that he fills with a rising line in his right hand. When the stride
bass resumes by 1:23, the tension created by its absence is
resolved and the right-hand line continues its ascent before begin-
ning a similar descent.
1:33 D strain: Tatum begins this strain by changing his left hand to a boo-
gie-woogie, walking line while his right hand plays a chordal riff.
Halfway through the strain, after another stop-time break (at 1:42),
he resumes the stride style for the remainder of the strain.
23
1:54 D strain: To close this performance, Tatum’s stride bass continues
while he plays a breathtaking series of cascading right-hand runs.
The recording ends abruptly, without any sort of tag, in this
stride style.

More on Art Tatum and Stride Piano
Further Listening
Johnson, James P. James P. Johnson: Harlem Stride Piano, 1921–1929.

Hot n’ Sweet, 151032.
———. James P. Johnson: Snowy Morning Blues. GRP, GRD-604.
Martin, Henry, and Keith Waters. Jazz: The First 100 Years. 2nd ed. Fletcher
Henderson and His Orchestra. “Down South Camp Meeting.” CD 1, track
16. New York: Sony BMG Music Entertainment, 2005.
———. Jazz: The First 100 Years. 2nd ed. Frank Trumbauer and His
Orchestra. “Singin’ the Blues.” CD 1, track 12. New York: Sony BMG
Music Entertainment, 2005.
Tatum, Art. Art Tatum: Classic Early Solos. GRP/Decca 607.
———. Art Tatum: The Complete Pablo Solo Masterpieces. 3-CD set.
Pablo, 7PACD-4404-2.
Waller, Fats. Fats Waller: Turn on the Heat. Bluebird, 2482.
———. Fats Waller: The Early Years. 3 vol. set, each with 2 CDs. Bluebird,
66618, 66640, 66747.
Further Reading
Brown, Scott. James P. Johnson: A Case Of Mistaken Identity. Metuchen,

NJ: Scarecrow Press and Institute of Jazz Studies, Rutgers, State
University of New Jersey, 1986.
Fell, John L., and Terkild Vinding. Stride! Fats, Jimmy, Lion, Lamb, and All
the Other Ticklers. Lanham, MD, and Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press and
Institute of Jazz Studies, Rutgers, State University of New Jersey, 1999.
Lester, James. Too Marvelous for Words: The Life and Genius of Art Tatum.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
LECTURE SIX
24
ike “Ko-Ko,” “The Mooche,” “Black and Tan Fantasy,” and a number of
other compositions by Duke Ellington during this period, “East St. Louis
Toodle-Oo” is an example of a tune that was intended to accompany
the floorshow at the Cotton Club, where Ellington’s orchestra had a regular
engagement from 1927 to 1931. These nightly shows emphasized jungle-like
themes: décor, costumes, and dancing were all intended to look exotic and
primitive. Yet this particular style of music was only one of several Ellington’s
band played during this period, and the band’s sound continued to evolve
over its long career. We will hear Ellington’s band playing another style in a
tune to be studied later in this course.
Ellington used a number of sounds and techniques in these so-called “jun-
gle” compositions to evoke this imagery in his music. First, he typically used
dark-sounding chords and voicings, and frequently wrote these tunes in
minor keys. Second, he used non-traditional scales, such as whole-tone,
pentatonic, or chromatic scales, to introduce colors not typically found in
music using major and minor scales. Third, he featured unusual timbres:
mournful, almost-wailing clarinets, growling, muted brass. Certain members
of his orchestra were featured because they could produce these “exotic”
sounds from their instruments, in particular Bubber Miley (trumpet) and Joe
“Tricky Sam” Nanton (trombone), both of whom used plungers and mutes to
produce a variety of growling and other special effects on their respective
instruments. All of these elements are employed in this composition.
This is also one of the first compositions we have encountered in this course
that uses such a large ensemble. To facilitate so many musicians playing
together, Ellington needed to write out scores and individual parts in much
greater detail than any of the other tunes we have studied so far. This is also
true of big band music in general: the more players performing, the more
each musical arrangement had to be written out.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “East St. Louis Toodle-Oo”

Duke Ellington Orchestra: Ellington (piano, composer, arranger); Louis
Metcalf, Bubber Miley (trumpet); Joe Nanton (trombone); Otto Hardwick
(clarinet, alto saxophone); Harry Carney (clarinet, alto saxophone, bari-
tone saxophone); Rudy Jackson (clarinet, tenor saxophone); Fred Guy
(banjo); Wellman Braud (bass); Sonny Greer (drums)
Recorded in New York, December 19, 1927
0:00 Introduction (8 measures): One immediately senses the dark, myste-

rious mood Ellington is trying to create through the low, dark, and
mournful chords played by the saxophones and rhythm section
throughout this introduction. The chords build gradually in volume
and range and then fall again, as in an arch. The same music serves
as the background for the main melody beginning at 0:13.
0:13 A strain (8 measures repeated, 16 measures in all): As the saxo-
phones and rhythm section continue their plodding, mournful chords
in the background, trumpeter Bubber Miley plays the main melody of
25
this tune. Notice all of the special effects and timbres he obtains
from his trumpet: slides into and out of notes, growls, “wah-wah”
sounds, all meant to evoke animal-like imagery.
0:43 B strain (8 measures): In a dramatic shift, this section is in a bright
key, and Miley plays a much more cheerful melody, though still with
some use of his signature sounds. Notice that the background
changes as well, with Nanton’s muted trombone now providing a
counterpoint to Miley’s melody.
0:58 A strain (8 measures): The music returns to the dark, sinister
sounds of the jungle, as does Miley’s melody and use of perfor-
mance techniques.
1:13 C strain (18 measures, 8 + 10): This section features new music,
with an improvised melody provided by baritone saxophonist Harry
Carney. This strain can easily be divided into two parts, and while
they begin the same way, the second part (beginning at 1:27) con-
tains an extension, causing the asymmetry with the first part (ten
measures instead of eight). Notice the stop time break (at 1:23) as
the first part comes to an end. Here the rhythm section drops out,
leaving Carney to fill it with his improvised line.
1:45 C strain (18 measures): This time through the same material, trom-
bonist Joe “Tricky Sam” Nanton plays an improvised solo as the
rhythm section provides accompaniment. Notice again the stop time
break at the similar location, just before the end of the first part of
this strain (1:56). Nanton is known for his playful, sometimes flam-
boyant playing, and he does not disappoint in this solo, played high
in the trombone’s range and containing lots of smears and slides
between notes.
2:18 A strain (8 measures repeated, 16 measures in all): As the horns
resume their melancholy progression of chords, a clarinet solo
emerges (probably played by Otto Hardwick), starting with several low
growls before moving into the middle and high portions of its range.
2:46 C strain (18 measures): In this final time through the C strain,
Ellington provides a punchy, harmonized melody for the brass instru-
ments, while retaining the stop time break (at 2:57) from previous C
strains. In an illustration that recording sessions didn’t always go
smoothly, notice in the second half of this strain (beginning at 3:01)
how the brass players’ performance deteriorates considerably (3:08
and onward); they play with far less assertiveness and cohesiveness.
3:18 A strain (8 measures): To close the arrangement, Ellington returns to
the opening material, as Bubber Miley restates the main melody a
final time while the saxophones return to their low, moaning chords.
LECTURE SIX
26

More on Duke Ellington and His Orchestra
Further Listening
Ellington, Duke. Duke Ellington: Early Ellington. 3-CD set. GRP/Decca, 640.
———. Duke Ellington: OKeh Ellington. 2-CD set. Columbia Records,
CK 46177.
Further Reading
Hasse, John Edward. Beyond Category: The Life and Genius of Duke
Ellington. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993.
Simon, George. The Big Bands. 4th ed. New York: Schirmer Books, 1981.
Tucker, Mark. The Duke Ellington Reader. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1993.
———. Ellington: The Early Years. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1991.
27
Lecture 7: The Swing Era

• Jones-Smith Incorporated (Count Basie), “Shoe Shine Boy,” Martin/Waters,
CD 1, track 18
• Andy Kirk and His Twelve Clouds of Joy, “Mary’s Idea,” Martin/Waters,
CD 1, track 17
• Benny Goodman and His Orchestra, “Solo Flight,” Martin/Waters, CD 1,
track 19
he music stemming from the late 1920s and early 1930s represented
a definite change compared to the music from just a decade earlier.
This new style that was emerging placed emphasis on larger ensem-
bles and on tight-knit arrangements that placed families of like instruments
together and frequently voiced harmonized melodies in one family and
answered those melodies with countermelodies or riffs in another (the tech-
nique frequently identified as “antiphony” or “call and response”). These
arrangements incorporated solo improvisation but in a limited way, and con-
tained almost no collective improvisation. A transformation was also begin-
ning to occur in rhythm sections as well, where the bass and drums began
playing “in 4” (playing a note on every beat of each measure) rather than “in
2” (playing a note only on beats 1 and 3 of each measure). While this new
style did not evolve in all bands in precisely the same manner, gradually the
new music shared enough attributes that it fell under the umbrella that
became known as “swing,” and it represented the first jazz style to achieve
national popularity. Indeed, swing was the popular music for an entire gener-
ation, from roughly 1935 to 1945.
One of the most popular bands to emerge in the Swing Era was the Count
Basie Orchestra. The music of Count Basie is known for its irresistible, dri-
ving swing while still maintaining a light, buoyant quality. Basie’s sound epit-
omizes the jazz music that came out of the Southwest, or more specifically,
Kansas City, during the 1930s. Several elements contributed to the music’s
appeal. First, many of the tunes utilize a “riff” as a main component of the
melody. This riff, which is easy to learn and easy to recognize, is repeated
time and again, yet it does not lose its appeal because of its catchy rhythm
or melodic idea. Second, the rhythm section plays in a manner that provides
a good deal of energy and propels the music forward. Walter Page was
among the first to play walking bass lines, that is, bass lines with a note on
LECTURE SEVEN
each beat that is connected to the note before and after as smoothly as pos-
sible. Jo Jones kept the basic pulse on his hi-hat cymbal rather than on his
bass drum, and overall was much more active than previous drummers.
When playing behind the melody and improvised solos, Count Basie played
chords much less frequently than other pianists, choosing his spots carefully
28
instead of playing on every beat, which would frequently double the guitar
(as played by long-time Basie guitarist Freddy Green, not present on this
recording). Together, this rhythm section floated along playing “four beats to
the bar” and provided a lot of energy; indeed, this rhythm section revolution-
ized the way that jazz rhythm sections would play and work together from
that time on. Third, the prevalence of riff-based compositions left ample
room for solo improvisation provided by members of Basie’s band. Indeed,
“Shoe Shine Boy” is almost entirely a vehicle for solo improvisation. Chief
among Basie’s featured soloists was tenor saxophonist Lester Young,
whose mellow, melodic sound fit well with Basie’s rhythm section and con-
trasted the heavier, more powerful sound of other influential saxophonists
such as Coleman Hawkins.
These characteristics shine through both Basie’s big band music as well as
his small group jazz. “Shoe Shine Boy” belongs to the latter category; the
personnel were all derived from Basie’s big band. This tune is the first
encountered in this course that displays a quaternary, or four-part, form. As
discussed in lecture two, this form is extremely common in songs performed
by jazz musicians, though it can take several different shapes. This tune is in
AABA form, and in the listening guide, terms like “A-section” and “B-section”
refer to a specific eight-measure passage in the form.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Shoe Shine Boy”

Jones-Smith Incorporated: Carl Smith (trumpet); Lester Young (tenor sax);
Count Basie (piano); Walter Page (bass); Joe Jones (drums)
Recorded in Chicago, March 21, 1936
0:00 Introduction (8 measures repeated, 16 measures in all): If there is a

melody to this tune, we hear it immediately as the recording begins.
Basie begins in the stride style, with bassist Walter Page joining him
in the second eight measures. True to form, the melody we hear is
riff-based, with Basie’s solo piano repeating the riff three times
before a short response closes out each eight-measure section.
This opening really functions as an introduction because this
melody is not heard again during the rest of the recording. Rather,
this performance features one improvised solo after another with no
further reference to the melody.
0:15 1st improvised chorus (32 measures, AABA): Basie’s solo piano con-
tinues in the stride style for a full thirty-two-measure chorus.
Drummer Jo Jones plays softly along with Page’s walking bass line
to complement the swing feel.
0:29 The B section begins: Notice the musical contrast this section
brings, as Basie improvises over a new and different progres-
sion of chords.
0:37 The final A section of Basie’s improvised chorus returns.
29
0:44 2nd improvised chorus (32 measures, AABA): Lester Young takes
the next improvised solo as the rhythm section continues to provide
swinging accompaniment.
0:59 As the B section unfolds, listen to how Young and Jones try to
punctuate certain beats together, establishing clear communi-
cation between these two members of the group.
1:15 3rd improvised chorus (32 measures, AABA): As the featured soloist
in this performance, Young’s improvisation continues for another
chorus. Notice how Young gets the most out of small melodic ideas,
altering them slightly and stringing them together to form longer lines
that are motivically related.
1:45 4th improvised chorus (32 measures, AABA): Trumpeter Carl Smith
is next, playing his improvised solo with a cup mute for a softer,
more mellow timbre.
2:16 5th improvised chorus (32 measures, AABA): In this chorus, individ-
ual band members begin taking turns improvising. This device,
known as “trading” (“trading 2’s” in this case, because each turn lasts
two measures), is fairly common from the swing period on. In the
first A section (beginning at 2:16), Basie, Young, and Smith each
take brief two-measure solos as they move through the chord pro-
gression. For heightened tension, Page’s bass line continues but the
rest of the rhythm section has stopped playing, so the listener’s
sense of the basic pulse and swing rhythm is less secure.
2:24 In the second A section, Jones’s drumming returns and the
trading 2’s continues.
2:32 The B section serves as a vehicle for Jones’s drum solo, as
Basie plays just enough chords to keep the momentum mov-
ing forward.
2:40 In the final A section, the full band jams boisterously, with each
of the primary soloists (Young, Smith, Basie) each improvising
their own lines, reminiscent of the collective improvisation that
characterized early New Orleans jazz.
2:47 Ending: To end this tune, each band member (Basie, then Young,
Jones, Page, and Smith) take one more two-measure improvised
segment before closing with a prearranged ensemble tag.
LECTURE SEVEN
30

More on Count Basie and His Orchestra and Kansas City Swing
Further Listening
Benny Moten Orchestra. Benny Moten Orchestra: Vol. 1—Justrite and

Vol. 2—Kansas City Breakdown. Frog, 29 and 30, respectively.
Count Basie Orchestra. Count Basie Orchestra: The Complete Decca
Recordings. 3-CD set. GRP/Decca, 611.
Martin, Henry, and Keith Waters. Jazz: The First 100 Years. 2nd ed.
International Sweethearts of Rhythm. “Vi Vigor.” CD 1, track 21.
New York: Sony BMG Music Entertainment, 2005.
The Real Kansas City of the ’20s, ’30s, and ’40s. Columbia, CK 64855.
Further Reading
Basie, Count. Good Morning Blues: The Autobiography of Count Basie. New
York: Random House, 1985.
Driggs, Frank, and Chuck Haddix. Kansas City Jazz: From Ragtime to
Bebop—A History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Russell, Ross. Jazz Style in Kansas City and the Southwest. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1983.
Sheridan, Chris. Count Basie: A Bio-Discography. Westport, CT: Greenwood
Press, 1986.
31
uring the height of the swing era, orchestras known as “big bands”
became the preferred ensemble to provide music for dancing and
entertainment. These ensembles typically consisted of three or four
trumpets, two or three trombones, four or five saxophones (with some saxo-
phonists also capable of playing other reed instruments such as clarinet),
and a rhythm section of piano, guitar, bass, and drums. Hundreds of big
bands formed nationwide, and the best-known of these bands traveled
around the country to perform. Several, such as those led by Benny
Goodman, Glenn Miller, Duke Ellington, and Count Basie, became house-
hold names. Many bands never achieved such fame, yet these were very
talented bands in their own right.
Andy Kirk’s band, known as the Clouds of Joy, fits this profile. Kirk’s band
was formed in the southwest and initially called Kansas City its home, but as
its popularity grew, the band found its way east to New York. Soon it was
traveling extensively from gig to gig. It recorded numerous records, and it
could be heard nationwide on the radio, all important achievements for a
successful big band. Despite the fact that Kirk’s band never attained the
popularity of some of the top bands, the Clouds of Joy was an excellent
band. With pianist Mary Lou Williams as the band’s chief composer and
arranger, much of the band’s music blended elements of the southwest style
with elements of East Coast arrangements: more (and more intricate) writing
for the brass and reed instruments, more complex arrangements, yet without
abandoning riff-based melodies and room for solo improvisation. Williams is
arguably one of the most underappreciated musicians in the history of jazz.
So well-respected were Williams’s arrangements by her peers that she
began providing a number of other bands with music, including both
Ellington and Goodman. “Mary’s Idea” is a tune that Williams first composed
and recorded with the Clouds of Joy in 1930; this version from almost a
decade later features a number of modifications reflecting the stylistic
changes that had occurred during that time.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Mary’s Idea”

Andy Kirk and His Twelve Clouds of Joy: Andy Kirk (director); Harry
Lawson, Clarence Trice, Earl Thomson (trumpet); Ted Donnelly, Henry
Wells (trombone); John Harrington (clarinet, alto saxophone, baritone sax-
ophone); John Williams (alto saxophone, baritone saxophone); Earl Miller
(alto saxophone); Dick Wilson (tenor saxophone); Mary Lou Williams
(piano, composer, arranger); Ted Robinson (guitar); Booker Collins (bass);
Ben Thigpen (drums)
LECTURE SEVEN
0:00 Introduction (4 measures): Williams’s arrangement begins with a uni-

son saxophone section riff, as drummer Ben Thigpen provides the
swing rhythms on his opening and closing hi-hat cymbal.
0:06 1st chorus (32 measures, AABA): The melody of “Mary’s Idea” is
32
played by the brass instruments, in harmony, as the saxophones
continue the introductory riff idea in the background.
0:17 The second A section begins, a near repeat of the first A section.
0:29 In the B section, the saxophones abandon their riff and play the
melody in harmony for the first half of the section, and an
improvised trombone solo with soft harmonized saxophone
chords rounds out this section.
0:40 The last A section returns to the brass melody and sax riff
(see above).
0:51 2nd chorus (32 measures, AABA): This chorus is opened up for
improvisation. In the first two A sections, a trumpet solo is played
above background saxophone chords.
1:15 In the B section of this chorus, pianist Mary Lou Williams
begins her improvisation. Notice the striding left hand and the
simple yet swinging melodies in her right hand.
1:27 Williams’s solo continues to the end of the chorus. Notice the
flurry of notes in her final right-hand melodic idea, displaying
her virtuosity as a pianist.
1:38 Interlude (19 measures, 8 + 11): As muted brass play a harmonized
line against a new progression of chords, an improvised clarinet solo
weaves in and around the melody. The second half of this interlude
begins similarly to the first, though it is extended with the entrance of
the saxophones playing an octave riff (beginning at 1:58), soon
joined by the brass, as the band builds tension toward a climax.
Notice how this extension seems to lose its sense of meter; this is
due to Williams’s quite intentional juxtaposition of 3/4 meter against
the prevailing 4/4 meter.
2:05 3rd chorus (30 measures, AABA): This final chorus returns to the
original material on which the tune was based, except now the
arrangement has reached its peak: all instruments are playing, gen-
erating a strong sense of swing and lots of energy. This climactic
section is often referred to as a shout chorus. Here, the shout is
most evident in the first two A sections.
2:28 As the B section begins, the energy begins to dissipate. A
brief trombone solo is heard, followed by the brass instru-
ments’ gradually louder harmonized riff (the “wah-wah” effect
heard in the brass is created through the use of an object like
a hat or a plunger alternately covering and uncovering the
instruments’ bells).
2:40 Williams’s arrangement closes in the final A section with a final
reference to the opening melody (compare this music to that at
0:06, for example). However, near the end, she truncates what
should be an eight-measure section to six measures, and uses
the saxophone riff to transition smoothly to a short tag ending.
2:48 Tag: In this smart ending, a single trumpet is answered by punched,
full-band chords several times, before everyone comes together for
the final two chordal hits.
33

More on Andy Kirk and Mary Lou Williams
Further Listening
Kirk, Andy, and His Twelve Clouds of Joy. Andy Kirk and the Clouds of Joy:
Andy Kirk and Mary Lou Williams. GRP/Decca, GRD-622.
Further Reading
Kernodle, Tammy. Soul on Soul: The Life and Music of Mary Lou Williams.
Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2004.
Kirk, Andy. Twenty Years on Wheels. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan
Press, 1989.
Tucker, Sherrie. Swing Shift: All-Girl Bands of the 1940s. Durham, NC: Duke
LECTURE SEVEN
34
y the late 1930s, Benny Goodman was dubbed the “King of Swing,”
the face of the popular swing era in America. It was the combination of
his prodigious abilities on his instrument (he was classically trained,
and continued to play classical music throughout his career) along with his
successful big band leadership that allowed him, more than any other single
musician, to popularize the genre. He developed a keen sense for what
appealed to audiences, and relied heavily on the musical arrangements of
others while demanding precise, highly polished playing from his instrumen-
talists to achieve the sound he desired. Goodman’s first wave of success in
the mid-1930s coincided with his appropriation of the musical style that had
been innovated by black bands; his purchase of several arrangements by
Fletcher Henderson and Edgar Sampson testifies to this fact. Where
Henderson and his band had failed to achieve success, Goodman’s orchestra
met widespread popularity playing essentially the same music.
Goodman was among the first to break the racial barrier that separated
white bands from black bands, recording with pianist Teddy Wilson in 1935
and hiring Wilson into his band one year later. His band’s personnel would
later include many African-Americans, among them Lionel Hampton, Jimmy
Mundy, Fletcher Henderson, Mary Lou Williams, and Charlie Christian. “Solo
Flight” is an arrangement by Mundy that served to spotlight guitarist Charlie
Christian. The arrangement also sparkles with the band’s signature precision
and a short solo by Goodman. Christian’s contributions to the development of
the jazz guitar are numerous: his use of amplification and his linear, horn-like
melodies (as opposed to chords) are the most significant, and most on dis-
play in this recording.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Solo Flight”

Benny Goodman and His Orchestra: Benny Goodman (clarinet, leader);
Alec Fila, Jimmy Maxwell, Cootie Williams, Irving Goodman (trumpet);
Lou McGarity, Cutty Cutshall (trombone); Lloyd Martin, Gus Bivona
(alto saxophone); George Auld, Pete Mondello (tenor saxophone); Bob
Snyder (baritone saxophone); Johnny Guarnieri (piano); Charlie Christian
(guitar); Artie Bernstein (bass); Dave Tough (drums)
0:00 Introduction (8 measures): The opening of this tune pits saxophone

lines against brass hits. This practice of pitting sections against one
another became a hallmark of big band arranging, and is certainly a
common technique throughout this arrangement. Goodman’s clarinet
can be heard briefly as this tune begins, and a two-measure break at
the end of the introduction signals Charlie Christian’s solo entrance.
0:12 1st chorus (16 measures, AB): Christian’s improvised solo begins in
full, with muted brass and saxophones each providing short hits and
punched chords in the background. In the B section (beginning at
0:23), the saxophones provide soft chordal “pads” beneath Christian’s
solo. Notice how Christian’s smooth, legato playing contrasts the very
35
accented, staccato style of the horns. Notice, too, the brief segment
at the end of this chorus (and subsequent choruses) that includes a
solo break for Christian followed by an ensemble “turnaround” that
moves the arrangement forward into the next chorus.
0:33 2nd chorus (16 measures, AB): Christian’s solo continues, this time
with just saxophones (plus rhythm section) providing background
support. The end of the chorus features the same break and ensem-
ble turnaround as the previous chorus.
0:55 3rd chorus (16 measures, AB): Christian’s solo continues with brass
and saxophones playing off each other in the background. This cho-
rus in particular almost seems too cluttered with horn writing; it is
more difficult to hear Christian’s guitar licks amidst all of the horn
activity.
1:16 Interlude (16 measures, CCDC): A full ensemble fanfare and change
of key kick off a new section, one featuring a call and response
between the horns and Christian’s guitar in the C sections and more
of Christian’s guitar solo with saxophone chords in the background
during the D section. (Notice how this entire section forms its own
“AABA” form in miniature. Rather than four sections of eight mea-
sures, each section consists of just four measures, and, for the sake
of clarity, has been labeled “CCDC” so as not to confuse these sec-
tions with the A and B sections labeled in other sections of the tune.)
1:38 4th chorus (16 measures, AB): Another change back to the original
key coincides with a return to the original AB structure, as Christian’s
improvised solo continues. Horn writing continues in the background,
though it comes to the foreground in the second half of this chorus
(beginning at 1:49), as Christian stops playing until the solo break
near the end of the chorus.
2:00 Interlude (16 measures, CCDC): Another key change signals the
interlude’s return, with Christian resting as Goodman plays an
improvised solo. While this is a rather brief solo, we catch a glimpse
of a few of Goodman’s style characteristics: complete mastery over
his instrument (he enters majestically, soaring over the band on a
high F), inventive if not daring melodic lines, and well-placed, swing-
ing rhythms.
2:21 5th chorus (16 measures, AB): A final key change back to the home
key is necessary for the final chorus in which Christian resumes his
guitar solo. The horn writing in this chorus is exactly the same as in
the fourth chorus above; correspondingly, Christian lays out during
the second half of the chorus (beginning at 2:32), and when he
returns for the solo break (2:38), notice the slightly distorted, out-of-
tune effect he creates with his guitar. This break lasts an additional
LECTURE SEVEN
two measures, and the full band ends the arrangement with two
final chords.
36

More on the Benny Goodman Orchestra
Further Listening
Benny Goodman Orchestra. Benny Goodman Orchestra: The Birth of Swing.

3-CD set. Bluebird, 61038.
Benny Goodman Orchestra with Charlie Christian. Benny Goodman
Orchestra with Charlie Christian: The Genius of the Electric Guitar.
Columbia, CK 40846.
Fletcher Henderson Orchestra. Fletcher Henderson Orchestra: 1932–1934.
Classics, 535.
Further Reading
Firestone, Ross. Swing, Swing, Swing: The Life and Times of Benny
Goodman. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1993.
37
Lecture 8: Swing to Bebop

• Duke Ellington and His Famous Orchestra, “Sepia Panorama,”
• Billie Holiday and Her Orchestra, “Body and Soul,” Martin/Waters, CD 1,
track 23
• Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong, “They Can’t Take That Away from Me,”
y 1940, the swing era had hit full stride and Ellington’s band was at its
peak of productivity and professionalism. Many critics and scholars
point to the period of 1938 to 1942 as Ellington’s best, with 1940 as the
peak year of that timeframe. This has much to do with new personnel
Ellington brought into the band, including bass player Jimmy Blanton (added
in 1939), who revolutionized the way the bass was played with his full sound
and virtuosic dexterity; tenor saxophonist Ben Webster (added in 1940), who
was Ellington’s first permanent tenor saxophone soloist, and whose tone and
keen rhythmic sense was reminiscent of Coleman Hawkins yet possessed its
own unique sound; and composer, arranger, and pianist Billy Strayhorn
(added in 1939), who formed a deep friendship and musical partnership with
Ellington and whose creative compositions and arrangements left a perma-
nent mark on Ellington’s bands. Ellington’s band from this period is some-
times referred to as “Duke Ellington’s Famous Orchestra,” or more simply, the
“Blanton-Webster Band.”
“Sepia Panorama” is a composition that displays this band’s keen ability to
swing while featuring one of the main contributors to its success, bassist
Jimmy Blanton. Much has been made of the innovative use of an “arch form”
in this composition. That is, after presenting the first four (unique sections),
“Sepia” repeats them in reverse order to create a kind of arch shape
(ABBCDDCBA, see the following listening guide). The only thing that pro-
hibits the tune from achieving complete formal symmetry is that the B section,
initially repeated, is only stated once upon its return; speculation suggests
that perhaps timing limitations on recordings of that day forced this repeat to
be cut. As you listen to the piece and observe this arch form at work, don’t
lose sight of the precise instrumental playing, the tasteful improvisations, and
the fact that it really swings! Overall, the tune serves as an excellent example
LECTURE EIGHT
of the Blanton-Webster Band at its finest.
38
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Sepia Panorama”
Duke Ellington Orchestra: Ellington (piano/arrangement); Wallace Jones,
Cootie Williams (trumpet); Rex Stewart (cornet); Joe Nanton, Lawrence
Brown (trombone); Juan Tizol (valve trombone); Barney Bigard (clarinet,
tenor saxophone); Johnny Hodges (clarinet, soprano saxophone, alto
saxophone); Harry Carney (clarinet, alto saxophone, baritone saxophone);
Ben Webster (tenor saxophone); Fred Guy (guitar); Jimmy Blanton (bass);
Sonny Greer (drums)
Recorded in Chicago, March 28, 1940
0:00 A section (12-bar blues): The arrangement begins without introduc-

tion, with the full ensemble presenting the harmonized melody.
Ellington subdivides this initial blues chorus into three parts; after the
initial four measures, the texture changes as bassist Jimmy Blanton
is thrust into a soloist’s role. Notice the rich, full sound he gets from
his bass and the dexterity with which he improvises. The last four
measures of this blues chorus are shared: first a harmonized melody
to the saxophones, followed by a brief response to the saxophones
from Blanton as the chorus ends.
0:26 B section (8 measures repeated, 16 measures in all): In this entirely
new section, the saxophones play soft chords behind a trombone
solo, then a growling, plunger trumpet solo. Jazz scholar Lawrence
Gushee points out that these saxophone chords in this section
themselves form an arch, first rising and then falling as the
section unfolds.
1:01 C section (8 measures): This section, by far the most raucous, fea-
tures the brass section playing a sharply punctuated, harmonized riff
that is played over an improvised tenor saxophone melody. Besides
the noticeable increase in volume and the catchy riff used, another
difference between this section and prior sections is that the tune
has changed keys.
1:20 D section (12-bar blues): This blues chorus features an improvised
solo by pianist Duke Ellington (with rhythm section accompaniment).
Ellington’s style in this solo is reflective and subdued, with sparse yet
effective playing in both hands. Some have identified Ellington’s use
of the whole tone scale in this solo as a source of inspiration for later
pianists such as Thelonious Monk.
1:45 D section (12-bar blues): In a second blues solo chorus, we hear
tenor saxophonist Ben Webster’s improvisation. His style is similarly
relaxed, and though he doesn’t play fast flurries of notes in this solo,
the notes he does play are well-placed and full of meaning; he tells a
story as his improvisation progresses. Compared to the other great
swing era tenor saxophonist we have studied, Lester Young, notice
Webster’s relatively deeper, heavier tone quality as well as his thick-
er, faster vibrato that he puts on the end of his notes.
39
2:11 C section (8 measures): The arrangement returns to the more stri-
dent brass harmonies heard in the earlier C section, again over a
tenor saxophone improvised line.
2:29 B section (8 measures): The arrangement returns to the material
presented in the earlier B section, heard this time only once. This
means that the key changes again, returning to the original key.
2:47 A section (12-bar blues): Ellington finishes the composition with
a return to the main melody. Again, Blanton is featured during
this chorus.
3:13 Ending: A short, two-measure full ensemble passage brings the tune
to a close.

More on Duke Ellington and the Blanton-Webster Band
Further Listening
Duke Ellington: Never No Lament: The Blanton-Webster Band. 3-CD set.

BMG, 82876-50857-2.
Duke Ellington: The Carnegie Hall Concerts–January 1943. 2-CD set.
Prestige, 34004.
Coleman Hawkins and His Orchestra. “Body and Soul.” CD 1, track 22.
Further Reading
Ellington, Duke. Music Is My Mistress. New York: Da Capo Press, 1976.

Hasse, John E. Beyond Category: The Life and Genius of Duke Ellington.
New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993.
Leur, Walter van de. Something to Live For: The Music of Billy Strayhorn.
New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Tucker, Mark. The Duke Ellington Reader. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1993.
LECTURE EIGHT
40
nstrumental music was not the only form of jazz in the 1930s and ’40s.
Indeed, every big band during the swing era counted at least one singer
among its members, and many of the popular songs of the day were
those with lyrics and were sung by a vocalist fronting a big band. Yet even in
the midst of the big band craze, small groups (or “combos”) continued to exist
and thrive, especially on the late-night, “after-hours” scene, and vocalists
were important members of these groups. Billie Holiday is arguably the best-
known singer to emerge from these small groups, as her vocal styling proved
as unique and influential to future jazz singers as Louis Armstrong’s.
Holiday was discovered in an obscure Harlem night club by record producer
John Hammond, who brought her into the studio for her first recording in
1933, when she was just nineteen years old. Through Hammond’s connec-
tions with other jazz musicians, she began performing and recording with
Benny Goodman and pianist Teddy Wilson, and gradually made a name for
herself. This recording of “Body and Soul” was made during the height of her
most productive years, and before heavy drug and alcohol use got her into
legal trouble and affected her health. Holiday’s vocal timbre, along with her
emotive power and her ability to adapt a musical phrase both rhythmically
and melodically despite a rather narrow vocal range, are the hallmarks of her
style. Throughout this performance, Holiday alters the melody’s pitches and
its rhythms, often singing notes just “behind” the beat—called back-phras-
ing—to give her performance a more relaxed feel.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Body and Soul”

Billie Holiday and Her Orchestra: Billie Holiday (vocal); Roy Eldridge (trum-
pet); Jimmy Powell, Carl Frye (alto saxophone); Kermit Scott (tenor saxo-
phone); Sonny White (piano); Lawrence Lucie (guitar); John Williams
(bass); Harold West (drums)
0:00 Introduction (4 measures): One of the underappreciated musicians

from the swing era, trumpeter Roy “Little Jazz” Eldridge begins this
recording with a four-measure improvised melody, as the saxophones
provide sustained chords in the background (as they do throughout
most of this recording). Eldridge could play in a very flashy, flamboy-
ant style in addition to the more tender, controlled style on display
here, and he was influential in the evolving jazz trumpet tradition
begun by Louis Armstrong.
0:11 Main melody (32 measures, AABA): From the very beginning of
Holiday’s interpretation, she personalizes the melody by altering
notes and rhythms, lending it far more emotion than a “straight” per-
formance could provide. Chords provided by saxophones continue in
the background, as does the unobtrusive rhythm section.
0:35 Second A section: Holiday’s very personal interpretation of this
ballad continues. Notice, for example, how she lays slightly
behind the beat on each of the words in “I spend my days in”
41
before sliding into the next word, “longing.” The notes and
rhythms she sings on these words are different than those she
sang at the corresponding point of the first A section (compare
0:35 to 0:11). At the end of this section, in preparation for the B
section of the tune, Eldridge joins the saxophones with his
muted trumpet.
0:58 B section: Eldridge continues with the saxophones, as they
together provide soft chordal support in the background for
Holiday’s vocal.
1:22 Final A section: As Holiday finishes the chorus, Eldridge enters
in a more prominent role, introducing his improvised trumpet solo
to follow.
1:45 2nd chorus (24 measures, truncated ABA): As is typical in vocal per-
formances of jazz ballads, due both to the slow tempo as well as to
time limitations of recordings, instrumental solo space is relatively
brief, usually because the form of the tune is truncated in some way.
Here, only one of the two A sections is played at the beginning of this
chorus, and Eldridge plays an improvised solo, still using his mute.
2:09 B section: Eldridge’s solo ends, and Holiday returns to finish
the song as the B section begins.
2:32 Final A section: Holiday brings the chorus—and the recording—
to a close as Eldridge rejoins the saxophones in their soft back-
ground role.
Further Listening

More on Billie Holiday
Holiday, Billie. Billie Holiday. Commodore, 7001.

———. Billie Holiday & Lester Young: A Musical Romance. Columbia,
CK 86635.
Holiday, Billie, and Lester Young. Billie Holiday: The Quintessential. Vols. 4
and 5. Columbia, CK 44252, and CK 44423.
Further Reading
Clarke, Donald. Billie Holiday: Wishing on the Moon. Cambridge, MA: Da

Capo, 2002.
Gourse, Leslie, ed. The Billie Holiday Companion: Seven Decades of
Commentary. New York: Schirmer Books, 1997.
LECTURE EIGHT
Nicholson, Stuart. Billie Holiday. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1995.
42
he career of Ella Fitzgerald rose through the swing era, though it
extended well beyond this period. After winning an amateur talent com-
petition at the Apollo Theater in Harlem in late 1934 and another in early
1935 at just seventeen years old, she was hired as a vocalist in Chick Webb’s
big band. In 1936, she recorded with a combo led by pianist Teddy Wilson,
substituting in the place of Billie Holiday, and appeared with Benny
Goodman’s big band. But she achieved fame with her 1938 recording of “A
Tisket, a Tasket” with Webb’s band, and after Webb’s untimely death in 1939,
she took over its leadership and held the band together. During the 1940s she
launched her solo career and could be heard scatting improvised bebop-like
melodies with Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker or interpreting American pop-
ular songs with various ensembles. Her association with jazz promoter and
producer Norman Granz led to a series of recordings of “Songbooks” in the
1950s, albums devoted to the music of a single composer: George Gershwin,
Cole Porter, Irving Berlin, and others.
The music example given here was recorded in 1956, and although this date
comes well after the swing era had passed, it still provides an excellent
example of Fitzgerald’s tone and vocal techniques. As we will observe in
future lectures, by the middle of the 1950s, several jazz styles could be heard
at the clubs or on record: bebop (or more accurately, its direct descendant,
hard bop), cool jazz, traditional “New Orleans” jazz (sometimes referred to as
“trad jazz” or “Dixieland jazz”) were all in vogue, and singers of American
popular songs, many of whom had come up through the ranks of the big
bands—Frank Sinatra, Nat King Cole, Sarah Vaughan, Mel Torme, and
Fitzgerald, to name a few—held widespread appeal as well.
Fitzgerald collaborated with Louis Armstrong on several occasions during the
1940s and 1950s, including three LP recordings of American popular songs in
the mid-1950s. Gershwin’s “They Can’t Take That Away from Me” is the result
of one such collaboration. This song is an excellent vehicle for Fitzgerald’s
sweet tone, interpretive skill, and impeccable delivery of the lyrics. Although
she does not have an improvised solo in which she employs the scat syllables,
near the end of the recording we hear her improvising a new melody using the
words of the song, another characteristic of her style. Armstrong was fifty-five
years old at the time the record was made, and one hears in his raspy voice
and relaxed trumpet melodies the experience of nearly four decades in the
business. The rhythm section, primarily featuring long-time collaborators with
Fitzgerald, were all-stars in their own right, and the restraint they show in their
accompaniment style demonstrates their deference to the headliners of this
album, but in no way showcases how truly capable they were as musicians.
43
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “They Can’t Take That Away from Me”
Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong: Fitzgerald (vocal); Armstrong (trumpet
and vocal); Oscar Peterson (piano); Herb Ellis (guitar); Ray Brown (bass);
Buddy Rich (drums)
Recorded in Hollywood, California, August 16, 1956
0:00 Introduction (4 measures): Pianist Oscar Peterson leads the rhythm

section in a simple introductory phrase. Notice the soft attacks pro-
duced on the drums, due to Buddy Rich’s use of wire brushes rather
than wooden sticks throughout this recording.
0:08 The rhythm section breaks for Fitzgerald’s entrance, and the
head begins.
0:11 Head melody (36 measures, AABA): Fitzgerald’s interpretation of
Gershwin’s melody is simple and straightforward. As she sings, the
rhythm section provides relaxed swing accompaniment and
Armstrong improvises on the trumpet around Fitzgerald’s melody.
Fitzgerald’s style, compared to a singer like Billie Holiday, is perhaps
less intimate and emotional, as Fitzgerald tends to stay closer to the
original melody, especially during the head chorus. Still, Fitzgerald
uses back-phrasing, slides into and out of notes, and a warm vibrato
effectively in her interpretation.
0:28 A stop-time break kicks off the second A section (beginning
at 0:30).
0:49 The B section begins. Another break near the end of this sec-
tion (at 1:06) prepares us for the final A section.
1:08 The final A section begins. It is in this section of the tune, at
the very end, where the “extra” four measures are found in the
form of a repeat of the title lyric. A two-measure break (at 1:32)
is filled by Armstrong, now singing, as he scats for one mea-
sure, effectively changing the key to put the song in his vocal
range, and then begins a second chorus, singing the same
lyrics as Fitzgerald just completed.
1:37 Armstrong’s vocal chorus (38 measures, AABA): Fitzgerald sits out
as Armstrong and the rhythm section perform this chorus. The
relaxed swing is irresistible, and listening to this chorus is pure joy.
2:13 The B section begins.
2:32 The final A section begins. Near the end (beginning at 2:55),
with Armstrong prodding the rhythm section to “Swing it, boys,”
an additional two-measure vamp is added, giving Armstrong
LECTURE EIGHT
time to position his trumpet for his improvised solo.

3:04 Final chorus (40 measures, AABA): Armstrong begins the final cho-
rus with an improvised trumpet solo, which itself begins with an
embellished reference to the actual melody. Fitzgerald continues to
sit out as Armstrong’s solo spans the first two A sections.
44
3:40 Fitzgerald enters again as the B section begins. Here, although
she sings the correct words for this section, she invents (impro-
vises) an entirely different melody, fitting the words to the new
melody. As she sings, Armstrong urges her on with another
“Swing it, Ella” and later “yeah, man.”
3:58 A duet emerges as the final A section unfolds. Fitzgerald con-
tinues singing her improvised melody with words as Armstrong
sings scat vocals underneath her. Then Armstrong briefly takes
over the melody (at 4:05) before both singers join together for
the title lyric “No, they can’t take that away from me.” One final
entreaty from Armstrong (“will you repeat that again, dearie,
please?”) results in the title lyric sung in harmony one last time,
and the song ends.

More on Ella Fitzgerald
Further Listening
Fitzgerald, Ella. The Best of the Song Books. Verve, 314 519 804-2.
———. The Complete Ella in Berlin. Verve, 314 519 584.
———. Ella and Louis. Verve, 825 373.
———. The War Years. GRP/Decca, 628.
Further Reading
David, Norman. The Ella Fitzgerald Companion. Westport, CT: Praeger

Publishers, 2004.
Gourse, Leslie, ed. The Ella Fitzgerald Companion: Seven Decades of
Nicholson, Stuart. Ella Fitzgerald: The Complete Biography. New York:
Routledge, 2004.
45
Lecture 9: Bebop: The Birth of Modern Jazz

• Dizzy Gillespie and His All Stars, “Salt Peanuts,” Martin/Waters, CD 1,
track 24
• Dizzy Gillespie and His Orchestra, “Manteca,” Martin/Waters, CD 1, track 25
• Thelonious Monk Quintet, “Four in One,” Martin/Waters, CD 1, track 26
as bebop a music of revolution or evolution? Those who take the for-

mer view argue that this genre’s radical departures from the stylistic
norms of swing music—faster tempos, difficult, angular melodic lines,
more active and prominent rhythm sections, and emphasis on solo improvisa-
tion—highlight its “revolutionary” nature. In contrast, those who argue for the
latter view assert that this music had evolved out of the after-hours experi-
mentation of impromtu combos and jam sessions that had been in existence
for several years. Social, cultural, and economic realities also influenced the
creation of this new style.
Regardless of which side of this debate one falls on, there is no disputing the
fact that the two most important progenitors of the style that was to become
known as “bebop” were trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie and alto saxophonist Charlie
Parker. Though they came from vastly different musical backgrounds, they
met while both were members of the Earl Hines Orchestra and were insepara-
ble on the after-hours club scene. Each possessed amazing ability on his
respective instrument, allowing them to develop this new style of jazz by the
middle of the 1940s.
“Salt Peanuts” is a Gillespie composition that uses AABA form and is further
based on a familiar chord progression, namely the progression to Gershwin’s
famous “I Got Rhythm.” So frequently has this famous song been used as the
basis for new melodies that jazz musicians now refer to “rhythm changes” to
indicate a tune built on this progression of chords. But this tune also reveals
Gillespie’s sense of humor, and this recording demonstrates his and Parker’s
prodigious technique on their instruments as well as a number of other char-
acteristics of the bebop style that, in May of 1945, was still evolving.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Salt Peanuts”

Dizzy Gillespie and His All-Stars: Gillespie (trumpet, vocal); Charlie Parker
LECTURE NINE
(alto saxophone); Al Haig (piano); Curley Russell (bass); Sid Catlett (drums)
Recorded in New York, May 11, 1945
0:00 Drum introduction (8 measures): The first clue that something is new
about this music comes immediately, with the prominence of the
46
drums. Here, drummer Sid Catlett begins by establishing the groove
on his hi-hat cymbal as any swing drummer might do, but the tempo
is lightning fast, and Catlett then switches over to the snare drum for
a brief solo in which he foreshadows the rhythm of the main melody
to come.
0:06 Ensemble introduction (8 measures): As Catlett provides the rhyth-
mic drive, the rest of the band plays a burst of quick, relatively disso-
nant notes that gains in momentum near the end of the introduction.
0:12 Main melody (or “Head,” 32 measures, AABA): With “rhythm
changes” being supplied by the piano and bass, Gillespie and Parker
play the head to “Salt Peanuts” in unison. Notice how fast and dis-
junct this melody is (many notes, frequent changes of direction, wide
leaps between notes), especially during the B section (beginning at
0:25) and how technically proficient on their instruments they need to
be just to play the melody. Just as significantly, notice how Catlett
maintains his overall higher profile. Where swing drummers remain
largely in the background except for obvious solo moments, a bebop
drummer like Catlett is much more active: he plays the basic swing
rhythms on his ride cymbal rather than the hi-hat, and plays various
“kicks” and hits on his snare or bass drum, providing energy and
prodding the other instrumentalists. Meanwhile, bass player Curly
Russell walks a fast bass line four beats to the measure, and pianist
Al Haig chooses his spots, playing accompanying chords sparingly.
0:38 Interlude 1 (8 measures): As the rhythm section continues its torrid
pace, Gillespie and Parker embark on a unison melody that is obvi-
ously worked out in advance (since they are playing together) yet
sounds improvisatory because of its speed, direction, and range.
This interlude bridges the first chorus of the “head” with the second,
to come next.
0:45 Main melody, 2nd chorus (32 measures, AABA): This time, Parker
plays the call of the “Salt Peanuts” melody, and Gillespie answers
him each time by singing “Salt Peanuts, Salt Peanuts.” Meanwhile,
the rhythm section provides a break for each vocal by stopping every
time the lyric approaches. The overall effect is amusing both
because of the wide leap Gillespie must sing each time as well as
the silliness of the lyric itself. During the B section of this chorus
(beginning at 0:58), the melody is temporarily abandoned, and
Parker improvises a melody over the rhythm section.
1:12 Interlude 2 (16 measures): In the first eight measures of this inter-
lude, the rhythm section plays the chord progression to one A sec-
tion of the form. In the second eight measures, Gillespie and Parker
play another episodic melody in unison, one that pauses every two
measures. A two-measure break at the end of this interlude is filled
by pianist Al Haig, who launches his solo from there.
1:24 Piano solo (32 measures, AABA): Haig’s improvised piano solo con-
tinues for an entire chorus of the tune. Notice that in contrast to
older styles of jazz piano such as stride, here, Haig’s solo is
47
achieved almost exclusively in the right hand. As his right hand
moves rapidly and throughout the upper registers, his left hand is
much less active, and plays shorter, less prominent chords in the
middle of the keyboard.
1:50 Alto saxophone solo (32 measures, AABA): Charlie Parker’s impro-
vised solo chorus immediately follows Haig’s, a mixture of rapid
melodic lines that span the lower and upper ranges of the instrument
with slower, blues-infused licks. Notice Parker’s impeccable timing
and rhythmic placement of notes; even at fast tempos such as these
his improvised lines swing incredibly hard. Behind Parker’s solo, the
rhythm section remains active: Russell walks a fast bass line, Haig
plays chords just often enough to allow the chord progression to be
perceived yet sparsely and in unexpected places, and Catlett pro-
vides energy on the ride cymbal and surprises with his hard accents
on the snare drum.
2:16 Interlude 3 (10 measures): Parker and Gillespie trade a bluesy riff as
the rhythm section vamps on a single note for six measures. What
ensues is a breathtaking solo break filled by Gillespie, launching his
solo chorus.
2:24 Trumpet solo (32 measures, AABA): The tension created during the
rhythm section’s absence is released upon their entrance at the
beginning of Gillespie’s improvised solo. Gillespie’s playing is equal
to that of Parker: fast, high, bold, rhythmically flawless, and swinging.
Gillespie, like Parker, allows space or gaps between melodic ideas
so that his solo does not become too cluttered. As before, behind
Gillespie’s solo, the rhythm section remains typically active.
2:50 Drum solo (24 measures): Catlett receives a truncated solo. During
his first sixteen measures he plays more freely, yet still in perfect
tempo. In the last eight measures, he returns to the swing rhythms
and melodic reference of his introduction at the beginning of the tune.
3:08 Ending (8 measures): The tune ends as it began: the introductory
material is reprised (see 0:06), with the full ensemble calling “Salt
Peanuts, Salt Peanuts” to bring the song to an end.
LECTURE NINE
48

More on Dizzy Gillespie, Charlie Parker, and Bebop
Further Listening
Parker, Charlie, and Dizzy Gillespie. Bird and Diz. Verve, 314 521 426-2.
———. The Complete Jazz at Massey Hall. Jazz Factory, JFCD 22856.
Import. This recording is remastered from the original concert, without Mingus’s overdubbed
bass lines.
———. The Quintet: Jazz at Massey Hall. Original Jazz Classics, 044-2.
This version includes overdubbed bass lines added after the concert by Mingus.
Powell, Bud. The Amazing Bud Powell. Vol. 1. Blue Note, 81503.
Further Reading
Deveaux, Scott. The Birth of Bebop: A Social and Musical History. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1997.
Gillespie, Dizzy. To Be or Not to Bop: Memoirs. Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1979.
Martin, Henry. Charlie Parker and Thematic Improvisation. Lanham, MD:
Scarecrow Press, 2001.
Owens, Thomas. Bebop: The Music and Its Players. New York: Oxford
Shipton, Alyn. Groovin High: The Life of Dizzy Gillespie. New York: Oxford
Woideck, Carl. Charlie Parker: His Music and Life. Ann Arbor, MI: University
of Michigan Press, 1996.
———. The Charlie Parker Companion: Six Decades of Commentary. New
York: Schirmer Books, 1998.
49
ne argument that favors the “bebop as evolution” viewpoint is the
observation that one of its leading innovators, Dizzy Gillespie, loved
the medium of the big band and continued performing with this ensem-
ble well after bebop had emerged as a new musical style. He was not alone.
Despite financial pressures and other external forces that brought on the
demise of many big bands by the end of 1946, including bands led by big
names such as Benny Goodman, Woody Herman, Harry James, and Tommy
Dorsey, others survived, at least in some form, and continued playing into the
1950s and beyond.
But Gillespie’s big band was important for another reason: his interest in fus-
ing elements of jazz with elements of Cuban music. Some argue that Latin
influence in jazz is as old as jazz itself, pointing to Jelly Roll Morton’s obser-
vation that one of the defining characteristics of early New Orleans jazz was
its so-called “Spanish Tinge.” For many jazz listeners, that connection was
latent until Gillespie and others made more overt attempts to integrate these
styles. When Gillespie invited, on the advice of friend and fellow trumpet play-
er Mario Bauza, an unknown conga player named Chano Pozo into his big
band in the fall of 1947, the band began producing several recordings that
signal the beginnings of Afro-Cuban jazz, a sub-genre of jazz that continues
today under the more general title of “Latin jazz.” “Manteca” is a product of
Pozo’s first recording session with the band and compositional collaboration
with Gillespie, and has been hailed by one jazz critic as “one of the most
important records ever made in the United States.” Not only does it fuse ele-
ments of jazz with Cuban music, it also adopts a different, slower conception
of chord progression that pre-dates modal jazz, another sub-genre of jazz
that would not come to the fore for more than a decade.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Manteca”

Dizzy Gillespie and His Orchestra: Gillespie (trumpet, vocal); Dave Burns,
Elmon Wright, Lamar Wright, Jr., Benny Bailey (trumpet); Bill Shepherd,
Ted Kelly (trombone); Howard Johnson, John Brown (alto saxophone);
Joe Gales, George Nicholas (tenor saxophone); Cecil Payne (baritone
saxophone); John Lewis (piano); Al McKibbon (bass); Kenny Clarke
(drums), Chano Pozo (conga, vocal)
0:00 Introduction (28 measures): This tune, unlike those studied so far, is
based on layered ostinati, short, repeating melodic figures stacked
on top of one another to create interesting polyrhythms and melodic
interplay. The introduction to the tune brings in each ostinato one at
a time. At the beginning, we hear the first ostinato, played by the
bass, along with Chano Pozo’s conga beat:
LECTURE NINE
50
0:08 To the bass ostinato, the second ostinato is added, played by
the baritone saxophone:
0:17 The layering grows in complexity as the third ostinato is added,

played by the trombones:
Above this, Dizzy Gillespie announces himself with a high, fast, com-
plicated flurry of improvised notes. As the excitement generated from
Gillespie improvising above these three simultaneous layers builds, a
short, quick, ensemble figure dispels the energy (0:29).
0:33 A short, four-measure passage returns to the first ostinato and
conga, preparing us for the main melody to follow.
0:38 Main melody (40 measures, AABA): As the ostinato continues with
conga and drums, the saxophones and brass play a call and
response figure that together constitutes the main melody of the tune.
0:49 The second A section is played, a virtual repeat of the first
A section.
1:00 The B section begins. Notice that this B section is twice the
length (sixteen measures) of a single A section. In its first half,
the saxophones play the melody in harmony. In the second
half, Gillespie takes the melody on his trumpet as the saxo-
phones provide soft chordal accompaniment in the background.
1:23 The final A section is played.
1:34 Interlude: As the bass plays a figure similar to but not quite its origi-
nal ostinato, the trombones enter playing the bass’s ostinato and the
saxophone ostinato is added. This interlude climaxes with the
entrance of the trumpets, who play a short but dramatic repeated fig-
ure that propels the arrangement into the next section.
1:48 Solo chorus (40 measures, AABA): As the brass and saxophones
continue a high-energy, harmonized line during the first eight mea-
sures of the form, tenor saxophonist George Nicholas plays an
improvised solo. Also notice that the rhythmic feel changes slightly:
Pozo continues playing his Cuban rhythms on the conga, but these
are now juxtaposed against more swing-like rhythms on Kenny
Clarke’s drumset, and the bass plays a walking line instead of the
ostinato figure.
51
1:59 Nicholas’s solo continues as the rest of the brass and saxo-
phones drop out.
2:10 In the first half of the B section, the swing and conga rhythms
continue to be juxtaposed, and the brass and saxophones play
a shout chorus-like harmonized melody. In the second half
(2:21), Gillespie enters triumphantly again, playing a solo clearly
derived from the melody he played initially at 1:11, yet with
much greater improvisatory flair. Beneath him, the saxophones
provide chordal accompaniment and the swing/conga
rhythms continue.
2:32 To bring this chorus to a close, the band returns to the main
melody as it was played in the final eight measures of the
first chorus.
2:44 Ending: All three ostinatos are layered, and one by one, the trom-
bones, then the saxophones, then the bass all drop out, leaving just
the drums, which end the tune with three sharp hits.

More on Dizzie Gillespie and Latin-Influenced Jazz
Further Listening
Gillespie, Dizzy. Dizzy Gillespie Orchestra, 1947–1949. Melodie Jazz

Classics, 1102.
Further Reading
Gillespie, Dizzy. To Be or Not to Bop: Memoirs. Garden City, NY:

Doubleday, 1979.
Roberts, John Storm. Latin Jazz: The First of the Fusions, 1880s–Today.
New York: Schirmer Books, 1999.
Shipton, Alyn. Groovin High: The Life of Dizzy Gillespie. New York: Oxford
LECTURE NINE
52
izzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker were not the only innovators of the
new music called bebop, only the most prominent. Others were active
in the after-hours club scene in Harlem as well, including drummer
Kenny Clarke, pianist Bud Powell, and fellow pianist Thelonious Monk.
Though this musical scene encompassed a dozen or so Harlem clubs, the
nexus of musical developments was focused on two clubs: Minton’s
Playhouse on West 118th Street and Monroe’s Uptown House on West
132nd Street. Monk was a frequent contributor at these clubs, helping to
forge the new language of bebop, yet he simultaneously developed a person-
al style all his own. With practice, Thelonious Monk is one of the easiest jazz
musicians to identify by his playing in all of jazz.
The stylistic traits Monk held in common with other bebop pianists were his
sparse accompaniment style (playing few and often syncopated chords, some-
times with unexpected, surprising accent), his use of advanced, more compli-
cated harmonies, and mostly right-handed, improvised melodies full of unex-
pected dissonance, irregular phrase lengths, and unpredictable rhythmic
twists. Yet Monk put a unique twist on each of these characteristics. He was
not known for his right-hand speed or dexterity, a trait highly valued by other
bebop musicians, and so his improvisations are often less about rapid, agile
playing and are more carefully crafted, economical, and rhythmically complex.
His use of extreme dissonance frequently defied even his coconspirators, who
sometimes expressed that Monk seemed to be playing “wrong” notes. And
finally, being deeply rooted in the stride tradition, Monk’s playing was far more
likely to contain remnants of that style than other bebop pianists. Monk
became known for his unique compositions as well, and many of these share
these same characteristics.
“Four in One” is one such composition. The tune is structured in a very
clear AABA form. Yet its numerous bursts of fast, unsustained melodic fig-
ures contain numerous dissonant clashes with the underlying harmonies as
well as phrases of irregular lengths and judicious use of space in between
these figures. The melody in itself is extremely difficult to perform and is
unmistakably Monk.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Four in One”

Thelonious Monk Quintet: Monk (piano); Edmond Gregory [aka: Sahib
Shihab] (alto saxophone); Milt Jackson (vibraphone); Al McKibbon (bass);
Art Blakey (drums)
Recorded in New York, July 23, 1951
0:00 Introduction (8 measures): Monk introduces the tune by playing an

introductory A section in which he previews—with only light accom-
paniment from drummer Art Blakey—the first eight measures of
the head.
0:12 Main melody (32 measures, AABA): The head begins with the
entrance of the full ensemble. Alto saxophonist Sahib Shihab and
53
vibraphonist Milt Jackson join Monk playing the melody, sometimes
in unison and sometimes in harmony. Yet the selection of notes used
to harmonize the melody, along with rhythmic disjointedness and the
sometimes-exotic flavor of the melody itself (due in part to its use of
the whole-tone scale) makes this head sound rather dissonant and
harsh. Notice, too, Monk’s playful accompanying style in the back-
ground, as well as drummer Art Blakey’s active and prominent role in
the musical conversation.
0:24 The A section repeats.
0:37 In the B section, as the front-line instruments (the alto saxo-
phone and vibraphone) play a repeated, fast-moving lick in the
melody, the rhythm section—including Monk—take a more sub-
dued role during this section. Notice how Blakey shifts timbres
on the drums to provide a new and contrasting feel, and how
Monk recedes into the background with very simple chords in
the piano.
0:49 The final A section returns to the opening melody and more
active rhythm section.
1:01 Piano solo (32 measures, AABA): Monk’s improvised piano solo,
with bass and drum accompaniment, spans an entire chorus. In the
first two A sections, Monk uses an active right hand but a fairly pas-
sive left hand. Indeed, his left hand focuses mainly on bass notes,
occasionally filling in a chord in the middle of the keyboard. Part of
his improvisation in this section draws from the rhythmic and whole-
tone character of the head itself (listen to the three quick ascending
scales played beginning at 1:04, clearly derived from but not an
exact duplication of 0:15–0:17 of the head). Mostly, however, Monk’s
solo stays within the chord progression in this section and he avoids
harsh dissonance. As Monk plays, Blakey’s drumming is clearly audi-
ble but is relatively restrained.
1:26 In the B section of the form, Monk’s solo takes on more of an
edge as he introduces a few harsh dissonances near the end
of the section. He also uses pauses between ideas effectively
for the first time in his improvisation.
1:38 In the final A section of Monk’s solo chorus, he quotes liberally
from the melody of the tune before a nifty, descending triplet
figure brings his solo to a close.
1:50 Alto saxophone/vibraphone solo (32 measures, AABA): Following the
form of the tune, Shihab and Jackson split the next chorus, each get-
ting sixteen measures to improvise. Shihab goes first, and during the
first two A sections, we hear his improvisation sounding much like an
underdeveloped Charlie Parker. Vibraphonist Milt Jackson, who
LECTURE NINE
would become an important and founding member of the influential

Modern Jazz Quartet in the 1950s, continues the chorus from the B
section to the end, improvising in a style similar to a bebop horn play-
er. Notice during the final eight measures of Jackson’s solo how
54
Monk’s accompanying style changes from mid-range chords inter-
spersed with occasional bass notes to two harmonized lines high in
the register, providing a slightly different timbre to the performance.
2:39 Final chorus/main melody (32 measures, AABA): The final chorus
of this performance returns to the main melody, played as it was at
the outset. Monk ends the tune innocently with a whimsical three-
chord figure.

More on Thelonious Monk
Further Listening
Monk, Thelonious. The Complete Blue Note Recordings. 4-CD set. Blue
Note, 30363. For a sampling of this set, see Best of the Blue Note Years.
Blue Note, 95636.
———. The Complete Prestige Recordings. 3-CD set. Prestige, 4428.
Further Reading
Bliek, Rob Van der. The Thelonious Monk Reader. New York: Oxford
Gourse, Leslie. Straight No Chaser: The Life and Genius of Thelonious Monk.
New York: Schirmer Books, 1997.
Sheridan, Chris, compiler. Brilliant Corners: A Bio-Discography of Thelonious
Monk. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001.
55
Lecture 10: The 1950s and a Profusion of Styles

• Miles Davis and His Orchestra, “Jeru,” Martin/Waters, CD 1, track 27
• Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers, “Moanin’,” Martin/Waters, CD 2, track 1
iles Davis is recognized as one of jazz’s great trailblazers, one who

constantly pushed ahead in search of new directions for his music.
Others have pioneered new approaches to playing jazz, but none
changed directions as frequently, as purposefully, or with as lasting an
impact as he. Davis had, says jazz writer Dan Morgenstern, that “rare gift of
being able to give birth and life to new things that, no matter how startling,
always seem natural and logical, and open up new roads for others to travel
after he has moved on.”
Davis cut his musical teeth during the rise of bebop in mid-1940s New York.
He convinced his parents to allow him to go to New York in early 1945 to pur-
sue a musical education at the esteemed Juilliard School. But his real educa-
tion came in the night clubs of New York and were taught by Dizzy Gillespie,
Charlie Parker, and other leading jazz musicians of the day. Davis lasted only
a semester at Juilliard before dropping out and pursuing a career as a jazz
musician full time. By 1948 Davis had earned the respect of musicians in the
city, and when several of them began discussing and experimenting with new
sounds, instrumentation, and approaches to playing jazz, Davis provided the
direction and impetus to make the talk into a reality.
Davis’s nine-piece orchestra was the result of conversations between
Davis, arranger Gil Evans, baritone saxophonist Gerry Mulligan, pianist John
Lewis, and others about replicating the complex harmonies and instrumental
timbres of the Claude Thornhill big band using the minimal number of instru-
ments required. New arrangements were written and rehearsed, and the
result was approximately one dozen new compositions. The ensemble per-
formed publicly only a few times, and recorded these pieces in three sepa-
rate sessions spread across 1949 and 1950. They were given limited initial
exposure until 1957, when eleven of the arrangements were released on the
same album under the title Birth of the Cool. Though bebop continued and
evolved, these compositions signaled a new approach to jazz that inspired
others to pursue a similar aesthetic throughout the 1950s. “Jeru,” a contribu-
tion by Mulligan, is representative of the selections on this album, which has
remained so influential that it has never gone out of print since its release.
LECTURE TEN
The playing is refined and restrained, the harmonies rich, the arrangement
complex, and improvisation understated. All of these traits became sine qua
non for the style that became known as “cool.”
56
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Jeru”
Miles Davis and His Orchestra: Davis (trumpet); Kai Winding (trombone);
Junior Collins (French horn); Bill Barber (tuba); Lee Konitz (alto saxo-
phone); Gerry Mulligan (baritone saxophone, composer/arranger); Al Haig
(piano); Joe Shulman (bass); Max Roach (drums)
Recorded in New York, January 21, 1949
0:00 Main melody (37 measures, AABA): Unlike many AABA tunes
exhibiting thirty-two-measure forms, Mulligan’s composition is thirty-
seven measures: the initial A sections are each eight measures, the
B section is twelve measures with changing time signatures, and the
final A section is extended to nine measures creating this unique lay-
out. In the A sections, Davis’s trumpet carries the melody as the
other horns play in dense harmony with Davis. Notice how smooth
and easy each line unfolds; there are very few accents or wide
leaps, common characteristics of bebop melodies. Piano and bass
follow the fast-moving chord progression, and the drums play very
straightforward swing rhythms.
0:21 In the B section, Davis continues to lead a harmonized melody.
It becomes difficult to maintain the sense of meter because it
keeps changing throughout this section. Near the end, Mulligan
plays a brief improvised solo as other horns provide back-
ground harmonies.
0:36 The final A section sounds like the first two until its end, when
the arrangement is stretched a bit to extend the section by one
measure. The tension created by this extra measure is
released once Davis’s ensuing improvised solo begins.
0:48 Trumpet solo (32 measures, AABA): For Davis’s solo chorus, the
form is simplified to a more typical thirty-two-measure AABA. This
requires that the B section is simplified somewhat: its harmonic pro-
gression and meter changes are smoothed over to make this section
conform to the eight-measure norm. Notice Davis’s relaxed impro-
visatory style in this chorus. In contrast to bebop musicians like
Gillespie or Parker, Davis’s lines are slower, with deliberate use of
space or pause between ideas, smoother, and typically stay within
the middle range of the trumpet. During the final A section (beginning
at 1:19), the other horns enter playing soft background chords.
1:30 Baritone saxophone solo (34 measures, AABA): Mulligan improvises
a melody during another modified chorus. This time, he is preceded
in the first two A sections with a short, five-measure, stopping-and-
starting horn figure that is also characterized by its change of meter.
In both cases, Mulligan responds with four measures of improvised
melody. The B section and final A section (beginning at 1:51) consist
of Mulligan improvising alone with rhythm-section accompaniment.
57
2:12 Shout chorus (41 measures, AABA): For the last chorus of this
arrangement, rather than returning to the main melody a final time,
Mulligan writes a shout chorus of sorts, restrained though it may be.
Mulligan writes a new harmonized melody that follows the original
harmonic progression. There are a few more accents and syncopated
notes, and drummer Max Roach is much more active, but overall this
shout chorus stays within the relaxed parameters established thus far.
2:35 The B section begins. Near the end, Davis plays a short impro-
vised melody as the other horns provide chordal accompaniment.
2:50 This final A section is extended by four measures, using a
series of chords to bring the arrangement to a close.

More on Miles Davis and Cool Jazz
Further Listening
Davis, Miles. Birth of the Cool. Blue Note, 30117, or Capitol, 72435 3011727.
———. Miles Ahead. Columbia/Legacy, CK 90590.
Modern Jazz Quartet. Django. Prestige/Fantasy, OJCCD-057-2.
Mulligan, Gerry. Best of the Gerry Mulligan Quartet with Chet Baker. Blue
Note, 95481.
———. Konitz Meets Mulligan. Blue Note, 46847.
Further Reading
Chambers, Jack. Milestones: The Music and Times of Miles Davis. New York:
Da Capo Press, 1998.
Davis, Miles. Miles: The Autobiography. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990.
Gioia, Ted. West Coast Jazz: Modern Jazz in California, 1945 –1960.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.
Kirchner, Bill, ed. A Miles Davis Reader. Washington, DC: Smithsonian
Institute Press, 1997.
Szwed, John. So What: The Life of Miles Davis. New York: Simon &
Schuster, 2002.
LECTURE TEN
58
rt Blakey was among a large number of musicians in the 1950s who
were associated with the style that became known as hard bop. This
style of jazz had its roots in bebop; indeed, one could argue that hard
bop was an extension or intensification of the style characteristics of bebop.
With its emphasis on virtuosic improvisation within standard forms like the
blues or AABA, fast tempos, and active, driving rhythm sections, hard bop
may be viewed as a mature, evolved form of bebop. Yet, in seeming contra-
diction, a good number of hard bop performances feature carefully crafted
arrangements: intricate head and/or final melody statements, insertion of
interludes between improvised solo choruses, “trading” (trading fours, eights,
etc.), even nonstandard formal structures.
With his active listening and reactions and his aggressive style of drumming,
Blakey effectively led combos from the back line. Characteristic (and in evi-
dence on this recording) were the force with which he closed his hi-hat cym-
bal on beats 2 and 4, his tight, powerful press roll that managed to suspend
time and build energy between musical phrases, his use of cross-rhythms,
and the sheer amount of activity (or chatter) he provided behind soloists. But
this activity was never overpowering or in bad taste, rather, it complemented
his soloists well. Blakey was also a torchbearer for training younger jazz
musicians, and from 1955 until his death he led his Jazz Messengers, an
ever-changing combo that provided important apprenticeship opportunities for
young, talented, aspiring jazz musicians.
“Moanin’” is a composition by pianist Bobby Timmons, and was one of the
group’s true hits. The tune rightly belongs in a sub-category of hard bop that
became known as funky or soul jazz. Tunes of this type display greater influ-
ence from rhythm and blues and gospel music through their simpler forms,
blues inflections, vamps and catchy rhythmic grooves, and overall earthy
character. “Moanin’” is a wonderful example of many of these characteris-
tics. Though the form is AABA, the A sections consist of a bluesy call-and-
response melody over a simple alternation between two chords. In the B
section and throughout the improvised solo choruses, Blakey’s rhythmic
groove is an irresistible, laid-back shuffle.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Moanin’ ” (excerpt)

Art Blakey and His Jazz Messengers: Blakey (drums); Lee Morgan
(trumpet); Benny Golson (tenor saxophone); Bobby Timmons (piano);
Jymie Merritt (bass)
Recorded in New York, October 30, 1958
0:00 Head melody (32 measures, AABA): The head begins immediately,
with pianist Bobby Timmons playing a short lick at the piano that is
then answered by a two-chord response from the horns, playing in
harmony (with rhythm section hits behind them). In the horns’
response it seems possible to hear the tune’s name, “moan-in’”
being played through their instruments (an alternate possibility,
59
based on the observation that the response is built on the same two-
chord sequence used at the end of many church hymns—“amen”—is
that this response can be heard as the “amen” being uttered instru-
mentally. This call and response continues throughout each A sec-
tion, though the horns and piano reverse roles in the second A sec-
tion, with the horns playing the call and the piano joining the rest of
the rhythm section for the response.
0:30 In the B section, the horns take the melody, first in unison, and
then in harmony, as the rhythm section moves into a shuffle
groove.
0:44 The final A section returns to the call-and-response figure
described above. As this section comes to a close, notice
Blakey’s powerful press roll (at 0:58) that seems to urge the
group into the ensuing solo chorus.
1:00 Lee Morgan trumpet solo (64 measures, two choruses of AABA):
Morgan was one of hard bop’s finest trumpet players, and this solo is
one of his best (and best-known). Throughout, he shows off his
range, his ability to create blues inflection by sliding into and out of
notes, and his ability to subtly alter melodic motives to develop his
solo. From the first idea, where he enters on a high note and plays a
bluesy, descending lick, he then repeats that lick, changing it slightly,
and repeats it a final time, extending it to the end of the first A sec-
tion. In the second A section he does a similar thing with a short,
staccato motive. Notice how he bends notes and creates different
timbres on notes by pressing his trumpet valves down just halfway.
1:30 1st chorus B-section begins: During this section, Morgan plays
slightly faster lines, picking up the intensity of his improvisation.
1:45 1st chorus final A section: Here Morgan develops a repeated-
note motive, bending every attack of that note the second time
he plays the motive. As he moves into his second chorus,
notice how the new triplet motive he plays and repeats is
picked up by Timmons in the piano.
2:00 2nd chorus A sections: Here again Morgan develops his solo
by playing with short melodic motives. In the first A section, he
develops a fast alternating-note idea that expands in range; in
the second A section, a slower, bluesy lick captures his fancy.
2:31 2nd chorus B section begins: This section contains a great
example of quotation, where Morgan incorporates a fragment
from an external source into his improvisation, a common
device used by improvisers. Listen at 2:40 for a short piece of
a common sailor’s whistle theme, and its altered repetition to
make it fit the chord progression.
LECTURE TEN
2:46 2nd chorus, final A section: Morgan closes his improvisation

developing and extending yet another melodic idea, and con-
cludes with a lick so inviting that Golson steals it, beginning his
solo by directly quoting Morgan.
60
3:02 Benny Golson tenor saxophone (64 measures, two choruses of
AABA): After introducing his solo improvisation quoting Morgan’s last
lick (and then altering the same lick a second time), Golson plays for
two choruses in which he gradually opts for much greater speed and
more running lines than did Morgan, especially in his second chorus
(beginning at 4:03).
5:03 Bobby Timmons piano solo (64 measures, two choruses of AABA):
Excerpt fades out here.
On the full recording, the song continues for another seventy-six measures,
as outlined below:
7:02 Jymie Merritt bass solo (32 measures, AABA).
8:00 Head melody returns (32 measures, AABA).
8:58 Ending (12 measures, first half of B section repeated three
times): Soft, gradually louder, and loud at the end.

More on Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers
Further Listening
Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers. Moanin’. Blue Note, 95324.
———. A Night at Birdland. 2 vols. Blue Note, 32146 and 32147.
Further Reading
Gourse, Leslie. Art Blakey: Jazz Messenger. New York: Schirmer Books, 2002.
Mathieson, Kenny. Cookin’: Hard Bop and Soul Jazz, 1954–65. Edinburgh:
Canongate, 2002.
61
Lecture 11: Into the 1960s

• Clifford Brown-Max Roach Quintet, “Powell’s Prances,” Martin/Waters, CD 2,
track 2
• Charles Mingus and His Orchestra, “Hora Decubitus,” Martin/Waters,
CD 2, track 3
• Miles Davis Sextet, “So What” (excerpt), Martin/Waters, CD 2, track 4
lifford Brown was another leader in hard bop during the 1950s. With the
encouragement of Fats Navarro (himself a Gillespie-like trumpeter),
Brown played gigs in and around Philadelphia and overcame an auto-
mobile accident in 1950 that left him hospitalized for almost a year, eventu-
ally getting the chance to record for the first time in 1952. After successful
stints with numerous groups in the early 1950s, he formed a quintet with
drummer Max Roach in 1955. This group became very well known during its
relatively short existence; Brown died in another automobile accident in June
of 1956, just a few short months after this recording was made.
Brown was known for his bright, bold trumpet style and endlessly inventive
improvisations. As you listen throughout this recording, notice his complete
command of the instrument and his unique style of cleanly articulating every
note he plays, even at such a fast tempo. This recording is also notable for its
inclusion of tenor saxophonist Sonny Rollins, a major force in jazz from the
1960s on, and for composer Richie Powell’s inventive tune (explained below).
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Powell’s Prances”

Clifford Brown-Max Roach Quintet: Brown (trumpet); Sonny Rollins (tenor
saxophone); Richie Powell (piano); George Morrow (bass); Max Roach
(drums)
Recorded in New York, January 4, 1956
0:00 Introduction: A brief (two measure) drum cadence by Max Roach

announces the beginning of the tune.
0:02 Head melody (24 measures, ABA): Powell’s composition is a bit out
of the ordinary, ABA instead of the more common AABA. The
LECTURE ELEVEN
melody is played in unison and octaves by Brown and Rollins, and

requires amazing dexterity just to get through it.
0:08 As the B section begins, the rhythm section stops playing its
swinging accompaniment and instead provides accented, syn-
copated hits behind the melody.
62
0:15 With the return of the A section, the rhythm section resumes its
normal accompaniment style. At the end of this section, to build
energy for the first solo chorus, Roach plays a short “press roll”
on the snare drum that ends just as the solo chorus begins.
0:22 Clifford Brown trumpet solo (48 measures, two choruses of ABA):
Brown improvises over two choruses of the tune. His melodic ideas
are fascinating; they spin out of his horn effortlessly one after another.
Notice his clear tone, his style of tonguing (or articulating) every note,
and his smooth lines that meander up and down in the middle register
of the instrument but occasionally venture into the high register. Just
as interesting are the ways in which the rhythm section, and especial-
ly Max Roach, provide energy, excitement, and interaction with the
soloist. Specific moments of note are briefly documented below.
0:27 To kick off the B section that is to come (beginning at 0:28),
Roach plays several hits on the snare drum while maintaining
the swing rhythms on his ride cymbal.
0:34 During the final A section of Brown’s first solo chorus, notice
how Roach gets different timbres out of his ride cymbal. This is
achieved by striking the cymbal at different locations and with
varying accent; the variety of timbres he achieves creates a
nice contrast.
0:41 As Roach provides lots of “chatter” on his snare, Brown con-
trasts the running, scalar nature of his first chorus and plays
rhythmic improvisation on a single note for the first half of this
A section.
0:47 Roach’s chatter continues as Brown’s improvisation picks up
intensity in the B section and his final A section (beginning at
0:53).
1:00 Sonny Rollins tenor saxophone solo (48 measures, two choruses of
ABA): Rollins can play fast improvisatory lines like Brown, and does
so throughout his solo. However, we might notice that Rollins choos-
es to use more longer note values in his solo and, during some of
these longer notes, he develops melodies from shorter motives. The
following are a few highlights to listen for.
1:05 At the end of Rollins’s first A section, he develops a brief,
slightly dissonant idea based on notes of the whole-tone scale.
1:12 During the final A section of Rollins’s first chorus, notice the high
note that he repeats three times. This idea is then picked up by
Powell and Roach, who both play figures similar to Rollins’s
motive (around 1:17).
1:18 As the first A section of Rollins’s second chorus develops, he
begins playing a short ascending figure, repeats it, and then
transposes and develops it in order to make it work with the B
section harmonies (at 1:25).
1:31 Rollins and Roach share an interesting rhythmic interplay in the
final A section, as Roach plays spurts of snare drum chatter
and Rollins responds with short two-note bursts of his own.
63
1:38 Richie Powell piano solo (48 measures, two choruses of ABA):
Powell bases much of his improvisation on the repetition and devel-
opment of motivic ideas as well. This is especially evident in his first
A and B sections, where he develops a single idea, and later in the
first A section of his second chorus (beginning at 1:56), where he
repeats and develops a single bluesy lick. Notice in that same sec-
tion how Powell’s rapid alternation between two notes, Eb and C, is
picked up and mimicked in Roach’s snare drum chatter.
2:14 Max Roach drum solo (48 measures): It is difficult to claim that
Roach’s drum solo follows the ABA format of the tune, since that
designation is based in large part upon a harmonic progression that
is not present in a drum solo. Nevertheless, he clearly is aware of
the number of measures contained in two choruses of the form, and
his drum solo is precisely the same length as each solo that preced-
ed him. His solo stays in tempo the entire time, and focuses on
snare and tom ideas until the very end, where he signals the return
of the head melody with a cymbal hit.
2:48 Head chorus (29 measures, ABC): The return of the main melody
follows typical procedure for the first sixteen measures (the A and B
sections). However, what follows (beginning at 3:01) is a new sec-
tion: a rapid, formulaic melody played by Brown and Rollins that
extends the form by five additional measures and culminates in an
ametric coda.
3:11 Coda: The ending of this tune sounds dissonant. As Brown and
Rollins play sustained notes in dissonant harmony with one another,
the rhythm section plays a series of sustained, dissonant chords as
Roach fills in the gaps on the drums.

More on the Clifford Brown-Max Roach Quintet
Further Listening
Clifford Brown-Max Roach Quintet. Clifford Brown and Max Roach. Verve,
314 543 306-2.
———. Clifford Brown and Max Roach at Basin Street. EmArcy, 814 648-2.
———. Study in Brown. EmArcy, 814 646-2.
Further Reading
Catalano, Nick. Clifford Brown: The Life and Art of the Legendary Jazz
LECTURE ELEVEN
Trumpeter. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
64
harles Mingus’s legacy in jazz history is twofold. First, as a performer,
he took bass playing to new levels of virtuosity like no one since Jimmy
Blanton, accomplishing things on the instrument that had not been done
before. By 1953, he was recognized as one of the best bass players in jazz
and performed in the legendary “Greatest Jazz Concert Ever” at Massey Hall
in Toronto alongside indisputable giants Dizzy Gillespie, Charlie Parker, Bud
Powell, and Max Roach. He elevated the bass as a solo instrument as well
as an accompanying instrument.
Second, he was influential as a jazz composer. Mingus organized a
Composer’s Workshop in 1953 dedicated to experimental compositions in
jazz, and attracted numerous musicians to be a part of this workshop. For his
part, Mingus desired freshness and spontaneity in his music, and soon dis-
covered that musical notation alone could not convey the ideas he had to his
players. Further, he wanted his players to have latitude and decision-making
ability to mold and shape his music. Therefore, he adopted the practice of
providing his players mere sketches of ideas and dictated other instructions
to his players as a tune was rehearsed. Many of his recorded compositions
have a raw, unabashed quality to them that captures this aesthetic.
Unfortunately, the same part of Mingus’s personality that desired freshness
made it difficult for him to hold a working band together very long, and as a
result, he had a good deal of turnover in his Composer’s Workshops, which
ran informally off and on into the 1960s.
Mingus’s ensembles during the 1950s and 1960s ranged in size from five to
ten musicians. He drew inspiration from bebop, blues, gospel music, and
even New Orleans jazz. He was not averse to dark, sometimes dissonant
chord voicings, and he frequently employed dramatic reharmonizations, shift-
ing time signatures, changing tempos, and collective improvisation. “Hora
Decubitus” (“hour of sleep,” as he translated) had initially been recorded as
“E’s Flat, Ah’s Flat Too” in 1959, but was reworked and renamed for this
recording; it features many of the characteristics described above.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Hora Decubitus”

Charles Mingus and His Orchestra: Mingus (bass); Eddie Preston, Richard
Williams (trumpet); Britt Woodman (trombone); Don Butterfield (tuba); Eric
Dolphy, Dick Haffer, Booker Ervin, Jerome Richardson (woodwinds); Jaki
Byard (piano); Walter Perkins (drums)
Recorded in New York, September 20, 1963
0:00 Introduction (12 measures, 12-bar blues): Mingus begins this tune
himself with a solo improvisation on the twelve-bar blues progres-
sion. He focuses primarily on a repeated rhythmic figure, using dou-
ble stops (playing two notes simultaneously) and sliding between
chords. At the end of the chorus he abandons this technique and
begins walking a bass line in preparation for the head melody.
0:12 Head—1st chorus (12-bar blues): A baritone saxophone plays the
head as the rhythm section provides accompaniment.
65
0:24 Head—2nd chorus (12-bar blues): The rest of the saxophones join
the baritone sax and play the head again, mainly in unison except for
two departures where they play in harmony.
0:37 Head—3rd chorus (12-bar blues): As saxophones play the head
again, a repeated trombone lick is layered on top of the melody. This
increase in melodic activity is accompanied by an increase in tension.
0:49 Head—4th chorus (12-bar blues): As saxophones play the head
again with the trombone countermelody, another saxophone plays a
second line against the already congested melodic texture, building
tension even further.
1:02 Head—5th chorus (12-bar blues): Mingus thickens the texture even
further, adding a trumpet line (played with a plunger mute to give it a
“wah-wah” sound). The resulting sound of three distinct layers on top
of the melody resembles the busy, layered textures of collective
improvisation (reminiscent of New Orleans jazz), even though none
of these horns are improvising.
1:15 Tenor saxophone improvisation (48 measures, 4 choruses of 12-bar
blues): Booker Ervin plays a solo improvisation for four choruses, dur-
ing which the textures underneath him shift to provide contrast and
variety. Ervin’s solo overall is bluesy, as he stays primarily within the
notes of the blues scale. It begins slowly, but builds in the third cho-
rus where he explores faster, more exciting lines. During his second
chorus (beginning at 1:26) the other horns play a slow-moving, unison
melodic figure in the background, and in his third chorus (beginning at
1:38) they play more powerful harmonized licks. Ervin’s fourth chorus
(beginning at 1:51) is accompanied by just the rhythm section.
2:03 Alto saxophone improvisation (48 measures, 4 choruses of 12-bar
blues): Four measures of a full ensemble lick played in unison signal
the start of Eric Dolphy’s improvised solo. Dolphy was an important
contributor to the jazz avant-garde during the 1960s, and one can
hear his unique approach to improvisation immediately. In contrast to
Ervin, Dolphy’s melodic language is much more dissonant, more
harsh, and more fragmented. He is concerned less with staying with-
in the notes that “fit” the underlying harmonies and more focused on
free, creative expression. The resulting sound is filled with squawks,
squeals, and wailing, lots of sudden stops and starts, and fast bursts
of notes. The ensemble plays background figures during Dolphy’s
third chorus (beginning at 2:28). During his fourth chorus (beginning
at 2:40), notice that Mingus reprises his double-stop motive used
originally in the introduction.
2:52 Trumpet improvisation (48 measures, 4 choruses of 12-bar blues):
An ensemble chord, sustained for four measures, introduces the solo
LECTURE ELEVEN
improvisation by trumpeter Richard Williams. Williams plays in much

the same vein as Clifford Brown or Lee Morgan and stays primarily
within the range of notes suggested by the underlying harmonies. He
plays mostly fast lines that build intensity toward the high register,
where he focuses most of his improvisation in the third and fourth
choruses (beginning at 3:16 and 3:28, respectively). During these
66
last two choruses, Williams is accompanied by ensemble back-
grounds that are reminiscent of the dense layering during the head,
and in fact foreshadow the return of the head that follows.
3:40 Head melody—1st chorus (12 measures, 12-bar blues): The return
to the head and its repetitions proceed in the opposite manner to the
way it unfolded at the outset. Here, it begins with the multiple layers
played by the full ensemble.
3:52 Head melody—2nd chorus (12 measures, 12-bar blues): In this cho-
rus, one layer is subtracted, leaving a slightly less dense texture.
4:04 Head melody—3rd chorus (12 measures, 12-bar blues): The horns
play the main melody in unison one final time.
4:16 Ending: Time seems to stop, as the rhythm section ceases its driving
rhythms, and a long suspended chord is held, during which time the
instruments improvise freely. A final saxophone chord at 4:31 brings
the composition to a close.

More on Charles Mingus
Further Listening
Mingus, Charles. Blues and Roots. Rhino/Atlantic, 75205.

———. Mingus Ah Um. Columbia/Legacy, CK 65512.
———. Mingus at Antibes. Rhino/Atlantic, 90532.
Further Reading
King, Nel, ed. Beneath the Underdog: His World as Composed by Mingus.
New York: Vintage Books, 1991.
Priestley, Brian. Mingus: A Critical Biography. New York: Da Capo, 1984.
Santoro, Gene. Myself When I Am Real: The Life and Music of Charles
Mingus. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
67
he tune “So What,” along with the album on which it resides, Kind of
Blue, belongs on the shelf of every jazz fan. This album signaled a
shift—not the only shift to occur at this time, but a significant one—in the
way jazz composition and improvisation was conceived. Rather than a collec-
tion of tunes whose structures featured fast, regular progression of chords
(sometimes called the “harmonic rhythm,” the rate at which chords change),
the tunes on Kind of Blue exhibit slow harmonic rhythm, allowing musicians to
really stretch out on a single chord during their improvisations. This approach
became known as “modal jazz.” As Davis himself famously explained, “When
you go this way, you can go on forever. You don’t have to worry about [chord]
changes and you can do more with the [melody] line. It becomes a challenge
to see how melodically inventive you can be. When you’re based on chords,
you know at the end of thirty-two bars that the chords have run out and there’s
nothing to do but repeat what you’ve just done—with variations.”
“So What” is a thirty-two-bar, AABA tune, yet it consists of just two chords: D
minor and E-flat minor. The D minor chord occupies all of the A sections, and
the E-flat minor chord occupies the B section. Thus, rather than having to
navigate a stream of different chords every measure, Davis and his musi-
cians improvise melodies over a single chord for long stretches of time, allow-
ing them freedom that is not possible in other so-called standard tunes.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “So What” (excerpt)

Miles Davis Sextet: Davis (trumpet); Cannonball Adderley (alto saxophone);
John Coltrane (tenor saxophone); Bill Evans (piano); Paul Chambers
(bass); Jimmy Cobb (drums)
0:00 Introduction (free, unmetered): Bill Evans’s and Paul Chambers’s

duet introduction is played freely, with little or no reference to a pulse
or beat. It creates a dreamlike atmosphere and sets the mood for the
music to come. Chambers signals the end of the introductory materi-
al with a final, more active melodic fragment, and then launches into
the melody.
0:33 Head (32 measures, AABA): During the first A section, Chambers’s
bass carries the melody as Evans plays a two-chord response every
two measures. Drummer Jimmy Cobb enters as well, playing a
basic, understated swing rhythm on his ride cymbal.
0:48 In the second A section, the horns are added to the piano’s
two-chord response. Cobb likewise adds his closing hi-hat on
beats 2 and 4.
LECTURE ELEVEN
1:02 The B section begins. This is the first time the chord has
changed.
1:17 The final A section begins, and the harmony and melody return
to that of the opening phrase.
68
1:31 Miles Davis trumpet improvisation (64 measures, two choruses of
AABA): Following one of the most celebrated solo breaks in recorded
jazz, Davis begins his solo improvisation. Notice his simplicity, his
economy of notes and use of rests between his melodic ideas (“less
is more”), and the relatively narrow range in which he plays (mostly
the middle of the trumpet’s range). Davis frequently develops ideas
through repetition and adaptation. Observe the laid-back, relaxed
approach taken by the members of the rhythm section. Evans’s
piano chords are very sparse, and Chambers and Cobb play very
simply throughout.
1:59 1st chorus, B section begins.
2:14 1st chorus, final A section begins.
2:27 2nd chorus begins. Notice how Chambers plays a figure that
continually bounces off of the fundamental note of the chord
(the “tonic note”) rather than simply walking a bass line as he
had been previously. This “pedal point” (defined as a sustained
or repeated bass note that continues while the rest of the musi-
cal texture moves and changes above it) builds tension
because the bass sounds as though it is temporarily static or
stationary. Notice the release of this tension when Chambers
begins walking a line again at the beginning of the second A
section of this chorus (beginning at 2:42).
2:56 2nd chorus, B section begins.
3:10 2nd chorus, final A section begins.
3:25 John Coltrane tenor saxophone improvisation (64 measures, two
choruses of AABA): Coltrane takes a different approach in his impro-
visation. Generally speaking, he explores a wider range on his instru-
ment while also incorporating faster and more frequent melodic runs.
Like Davis, there are several places in which Coltrane develops his
melodic ideas by repeating and modifying earlier ideas.
3:52 1st chorus, B section begins.
4:06 1st chorus, final A section begins.
4:20 2nd chorus begins.
4:48 2nd chorus, B section begins.
5:01 2nd chorus, final A section begins.
5:15 Cannonball Adderley alto saxophone improvisation begins. Excerpt
fades out here.
On the full recording, the song continues for another 3:33 minutes as out-
lined below:
6:58 Bill Evans piano solo with harmonized horn licks in background
(32 measures, AABA).
7:53 Head begins (32 measures, AABA).
8:48 Fade out begins on A section, played by rhythm section.
69

More on Miles Davis
Further Listening
Davis, Miles. Kind of Blue. Columbia/Legacy, CK 64935 or CN 90887.
Further Reading
Kahn, Ashley. Kind of Blue: The Making of the Miles Davis Masterpiece. New
York: Da Capo Press, 2000.
Nisenson, Eric. The Making of Kind of Blue: Miles Davis and His Masterpiece.
New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000.
Schuster, 2002.
LECTURE ELEVEN
70
Lecture 12: Jazz in the 1960s

• John Coltrane, “Acknowledgement,” Martin/Waters, CD 2, track 6
• Ornette Coleman, “Street Woman,” Martin/Waters, CD 2, track 5
• Bill Evans Trio, “Autumn Leaves” (excerpt), Martin/Waters, CD 2, track 8
aving burst into prominence during the mid-1950s when he was hired
by Miles Davis, by the early 1960s John Coltrane had become a famil-
iar name in jazz. He was a sideman on several significant recordings,
including not only the 1959 Kind of Blue discussed earlier, but also on two
recordings with Thelonious Monk in 1957. In that same year, he recorded his
first significant album as a leader, Blue Train. He would go on to record other
influential albums in the coming years: Giant Steps (1959), My Favorite
Things (1960), and Africa/Brass (1961) to name just a few. By 1964 his quar-
tet—sometimes referred to as his “classic quartet”—had been basically
unchanged and working together for nearly four years. His recording A Love
Supreme, from which this selection is taken, was arguably the group’s crown-
ing achievement, and certainly its most successful: it was and remains
Coltrane’s best-selling album. Coltrane conceived the four tracks on this
album as a whole, a programmatic work that depicted a “pilgrim’s progress”
toward spiritual understanding that reflected his own search for an under-
standing of God.
Coltrane’s style was in constant flux as he continually searched for ways to
improve, and he drew inspiration from scale and method books, world
musics, and, eventually, free jazz. During the mid- to late-1950s he took a
vertical approach, whereby his knowledge of scales and chords allowed his
improvisations to run through notes of the chords so quickly that the effect
was referred to as “sheets of sound.” This approach culminated in his impro-
visations on Giant Steps in which he plays with such abandon it is as though
he exhausted all possibilities for that way of playing. Coltrane’s work on Kind
of Blue is representative of his approach to modal music, an approach that
was developed in the early 1960s and on A Love Supreme. In the later
1960s, he adopted a freer conception, and experimented with group size and
personnel, collective improvisation, new approaches to harmony, and timbre.
71
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Acknowledgement”
John Coltrane Quartet: Coltrane (tenor saxophone); McCoy Tyner (piano);
Jimmy Garrison (bass); Elvin Jones (drums)
0:00 Introduction: The quartet sets the stage for this piece by creating an
atmosphere: as bassist Jimmy Garrison provides a pedal point on a
low E, pianist McCoy Tyner provides supporting chords, and drummer
Elvin Jones plays shimmering cymbal rolls, Coltrane improvises freely
over this coloristic texture. Notice that there is no pulse or meter here;
it is more cadenza-like.
0:32 Theme: Garrison’s four-note motive begins. The basic motivic cell
of the piece, a low bass ostinato (a repeated figure) begins. This
figure is based on F and is the motive upon which the rest of the
piece is based:
Gradually, the piano and drums are added and establish a rhythmic
groove. Once this new mood is set, Coltrane’s improvisation begins.
1:05 Coltrane’s tenor saxophone improvisation: As the F ostinato and
accompanying groove continues, Coltrane’s improvised solo explores
the amount of musical material that can be derived from the four-note
ostinato. Coltrane’s first six notes are derivative of this motive, and
the rest of his improvisation is a coherent “working out” of this initial
idea. The rhythm section is extremely active here and throughout, as
each member is an equal contributor to the overall musical product.
2:06 Coltrane’s solo begins to build in intensity, as he gradually
begins to include more notes outside F minor, more dissonance,
faster flurries of notes, and extreme highs and lows on his
instrument.
3:53 The solo reaches its peak as Coltrane plays with the most ener-
gy and highest range here and through 4:24, where he begins
to decrease the intensity and bring his solo to a close.
4:56 Coltrane plays the “Love Supreme” motive through all twelve keys
over the prevailing F tonality. Notice, however, that Garrison and
LECTURE TWELVE
Tyner do not restrict themselves to only F minor chords. They play

freely, in response to Coltrane, but the overall tonality continues to
reference F.
6:08 Coltrane chants “A Love Supreme” in unison with the bass ostinato. It
had long been held that the two voices heard belong to Coltrane and
Garrison, but it is more recently believed that the second voice is
actually Coltrane overdubbed on himself.
72
6:37 Notice the mode shift to E-flat. The chant falls away, leaving the
rhythm section to continue the E-flat vamp.
7:08 Tyner drops out.
7:23 Jones drops out, leaving only Garrison to play a remnant of the origi-
nal four-note ostinato.

More on John Coltrane
Further Listening
Coltrane, John. Ascension. Impulse, 314 543 413-2.

———. Giant Steps. Atlantic, 1311-2.
John Coltrane Quartet. A Love Supreme. Impulse/MCA, MCAD-5660.
———. My Favorite Things. Atlantic, 1361-2.
Albert Ayler Trio. “Ghosts: First Variation,” (excerpt). CD 2, track 7.
Further Reading
Kahn, Ashley. A Love Supreme: The Story of John Coltrane’s Signature

Album. New York: Viking Press, 2002.
Porter, Lewis. John Coltrane: His Life and Music. Ann Arbor, MI: University of
Michigan Press, 1998.
Woideck, Carl, ed. The John Coltrane Companion: Five Decades of
“ oleman’s music cannot be understood solely in terms of the concept

that has generally prevailed since the late 1920s—that jazz is pri-
marily a form of expression for a virtuoso soloist. It is conceived
essentially as an ensemble music; founded on traditional roots, it makes
consistent use of spontaneous collective interplay at the most intimate and
intricate levels. This accounts for its extraordinary unpredictability, freedom,
and flexibility.” Thus begins Gunther Schuller’s and Barry Kernfeld’s
description of Ornette Coleman’s musical style in the authoritative New
Grove Dictionary of Jazz. It is important to note that Coleman did not set
out to create music that was intentionally new and different, he simply
desired to play what was in his head. Yet with the release of two 1959
albums, The Shape of Jazz to Come and Change of the Century, and Free
Jazz in 1960, Coleman served notice to a new generation of jazz musicians
73
that there was another way to approach jazz, one not beholden to fixed
chord progressions, tonal melodies, and 4/4 swing rhythms. Coleman freed
himself from these fixtures, creating music that, though not necessarily
pleasing to everyone who heard it, was an honest artistic expression and
represented the most dramatic shift in jazz since bebop, and sparked the
movement that became known as free jazz, or avant-garde jazz, or even
“the new thing.”
“Street Woman” is from Coleman’s 1971 album titled Science Fiction and
is a reunion of sorts for these four musicians who had not recorded togeth-
er since the 1959 albums. Though recorded twelve years later, “Street
Woman” exhibits many of the same characteristics of those earlier albums.
The ensemble sound is unapologetically raw, edgy, and chaotic. The music
does not swing in a traditional sense, even though the rhythm section
(minus a piano or guitar, since the music is void of harmonic progression)
does maintain a beat. Nothing that is played is atonal, but one expecting to
hear music conforming to traditional harmonic syntax is likely to find plenty
of dissonance throughout. And yet on the largest scale, we can still discern
the outline of traditional jazz practice: there is a head melody, there are
improvised solos in the middle (solos that represent deeply personal
expression), and there is a return to the head melody at the end.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Street Woman”

Ornette Coleman Quartet: Coleman (alto saxophone); Don Cherry (pocket
trumpet); Charlie Haden (bass); Billy Higgins (drums)
Recorded in New York, September 9, 1971
0:00 Head melody (2x): The head is presented twice by Coleman and
Cherry. At times they play in unison, other times in harmony. But
because the melody is not fixed metrically, notice that Coleman and
Cherry are not always together when they are supposedly in “uni-
son.” The melody is loosely based around G as the tonic or funda-
mental note. As the melody is being played, the bass and drums pro-
vide a driving pulse, but without the typical walking bass line and
swing rhythms. Bassist Charlie Haden plucks a single pitch (or its
octave equivalent) numerous times before moving on to a new pitch
and repeating the process. Drummer Billy Higgins provides a pulse
through his high-energy ride cymbal while also playing cross-rhythms
and other assorted accents on his toms and snare.
0:15 Head melody is played for the second time.
0:31 Ornette Coleman’s alto saxophone improvisation: It is futile to
LECTURE TWELVE
attempt to describe how many choruses Coleman plays simply

because this tune does not possess that kind of traditional structure.
Yet even though the piece lacks a harmonic progression and a form,
it remains essentially tonal, and Coleman’s improvisation is centered
around the pitch G. On numerous occasions his melodic lines start
or end on this important pitch. But they also contain plenty of plain-
74
tive wailing as well as some squeaks, as Coleman strives for a per-
sonal sound, one that imitates vocal inflections. Meanwhile, notice
that the rhythm section is playing in a more “traditional” manner, with
swing rhythms on the ride cymbal and, at times, a walking bass line
from the bass. Yet throughout, all three musicians are equal contrib-
utors to the performance, and they are interacting with each other as
their improvisations unfold.
2:06 Charlie Haden’s bass improvisation: The idea of a “pedal” note (see
description in the earlier listening guide for “So What”) is a theme in
Haden’s improvisation. He centers the first part of his solo around the
note Bb, and continually returns to Bb for emphasis. Later in the solo
his point of reference is the note G, the same note Coleman empha-
sized in his improvisation. As he plays, notice how Higgins has
changed the timbre in the drums, playing exclusively on the closed hi-
hat rather than on the ride cymbal, and without drums altogether.
3:11 Don Cherry’s trumpet improvisation: Cherry’s solo begins on a tear,
and remains there for much of the improvisation. He explores the
high register and his fast, fragmented runs contain many notes that
are dissonant against the bass and the G tonal center that has
emerged during the performance. Notice his raspy tone, as well as
Higgins’s increased activity behind the solo. Yet gradually Cherry’s
improvisation gravitates toward an emphasis on G, and he even
ends the solo prominently on that note.
4:07 Head (2x): The head melody returns, played twice, as in the opening.
4:40 Ending: The tag ending is short, and consists of the opening melodic
phrase—the first six notes—repeated a total of three times. The
ensemble stops together after the third repetition of this idea.

More on Ornette Coleman and Free Jazz
Further Listening
Coleman, Ornette. Change of the Century. Atlantic, 7 81341-2.

———. Free Jazz. Atlantic, 1364-2.
———. The Shape of Jazz to Come. Atlantic, 1317-2.
Dolphy, Eric. Out to Lunch. Blue Note. 46524.
Taylor, Cecil. Conquistador. Blue Note, 90840.
———. Unit Structures. Blue Note, 84237.
Further Reading
Jost, Ekkehard. Free Jazz. New York: Da Capo Press, 1994.

Litweiler, John. Ornette Coleman: A Harmolodic Life. New York: Da Capo
Press, 1994.
75
he piano has always been an important instrument in jazz. From the
earliest days of ragtime, the piano has held appeal because of its ability
to simultaneously project chordal structure and melody, as well as to
provide rhythmic energy and bass notes. In its earliest usage, the piano was
either a solo instrument or an accompanying member of a larger ensemble.
But as early as the 1930s a new format came into practice: the piano trio,
featuring piano, bass, and drums (occasionally swapping drums for a guitar).
Art Tatum performed with this instrumentation, as did many other swing musi-
cians. In the 1940s, bop pianists like Bud Powell, Thelonious Monk, and Mary
Lou Williams continued the format. Pianists in the 1950s did as well, including
Oscar Peterson, Wynton Kelly, and Nat Cole. But where all of these groups
featured the pianist, the trio of Bill Evans, Scott LaFaro, and Paul Motian took
the piano trio in a new direction and emphasized equal partnership among all
members of the trio.
Evans was classically trained from his childhood, and furthered his training
in college while playing dance-band gigs on the side. After his graduation in
1950, he began playing and touring more regularly. By 1956, he led a group
that recorded under his name. In 1957, he played and recorded with Charles
Mingus, and one year later he joined Miles Davis’s group. His tenure with
Davis was short-lived, though he did return long enough to be a part of the
important Kind of Blue sessions in 1959 (see “So What” listening guide).
Ultimately, Evans’s major contributions to jazz were to follow. He formed a
piano trio in 1959, eventually settling on bassist Scott LaFaro and drummer
Paul Motian. Together, these three musicians revolutionized the genre.
Drawing primarily from a mixture of standard tunes and originals, Evans’s trio
interacted and communicated like none before. LaFaro was just as likely to
play melodically and depart from the four-to-the-bar walking bass line as he
was to assume this more traditional role. Motian played in a more interactive
manner than previous drummers; he was more likely to match his playing to
what Evans and LaFaro happened to be doing than he was to strictly adhere
to basic swing rhythms. For Evans’s part, his improvisations are clearly bop-
influenced, but he had a penchant for reharmonization and a lyricism to his
melodies that was unique. Though this particular trio stayed together only a
few years (until LaFaro’s sudden death in 1961), they influenced the way
future piano trios approached the format, including those led by Chick Corea,
Keith Jarrett, Paul Bley, and many others.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Autumn Leaves” (excerpt)

Bill Evans Trio: Evans (piano); Scott LaFaro (bass); Paul Motian (drums)
LECTURE TWELVE
0:00 Introduction: In this highly syncopated introduction, LaFaro and

Motian play hits together in the background that work against the
bouncy meter established by Evans’s chordal playing in the fore-
ground. This is obviously prearranged; it is instructive to compare this
version to the one found on the second take, which is included on the
Portraits in Jazz CD, for both its similarities and its differences.
76
0:08 Head (32 measures, AABC): Evans leads with his free interpretation
of the melody while Motian provides light swing accompaniment with
brushes. Notice, however, where we might expect the bass to pro-
vide a walking bass line, here LaFaro is playing a different figure
altogether, groupings of three notes that work to create syncopation
against the prevailing beat.
0:28 As the B section begins, LaFaro moves to a standard walking
bass line.
0:38 In the C section, LaFaro returns to his three-note groupings.
This, along with Evans’s syncopated chordal style at this point,
really tugs the listener, making it difficult to stay with the beat
despite Motian’s steady efforts with the brushes. Near the end
of the head (beginning at 0:42), Evans and LaFaro are in sync,
playing a prearranged figure in preparation for LaFaro’s subse-
quent solo break at 0:44.
0:47 Group solo (64 measures, two choruses of AABC): It is tempting to
label this section a bass solo, given that LaFaro plays the solo break
and improvises alone for the first A section. However, a longer view of
these two choruses reveals a better understanding. LaFaro is joined
by Evans once the second A section begins (at 0:56). Notice the con-
versational flavor that ensues: Evans plays short melodic ideas (in
octaves) sometimes in response to LaFaro, but sometimes these roles
are reversed. These ideas sometimes overlap, sometimes not.
1:07 Motian joins the conversation as the B section begins, playing
assorted drum and cymbal fills in interaction with Evans and
LaFaro.
1:25 2nd chorus begins: The conversation between the three musi-
cians continues in the same manner for this entire chorus.
Near the end of the chorus (beginning around 1:54), the collec-
tive energy of the group seems to converge and they land
together at the beginning of Evans’s piano solo.
2:02 Evans’s piano solo (5 choruses of AABC, the first two of which
appear in this excerpt): At this point, Evans assumes the lead role,
and LaFaro and Motian provide accompaniment in the form of a
walking bass line and swing rhythms (with plenty of chatter on
Motian’s snare, tom, and bass drums). Notice that Motian has
switched from brushes to sticks, providing more energy. Evans’s
lines are not filled with fast, double-time runs but are clearly infused
with the language of bebop, as is his left-hand accompanying style.
2:21 B section begins: Notice the bluesy lick Evans repeats and
develops during this portion of his solo.
2:40 2nd chorus begins: As Evans’s improvisation continues into his
second chorus, notice how he moves in a different direction.
LaFaro abandons his four-to-the-bar walking line in favor of a
staggered line in short two-note units. Motian walks some-
where in the middle; he maintains the basic swing pulse yet
77
manages to occasionally accent LaFaro’s rhythms on his ride
cymbal while providing snare and tom hits as well.
2:48 As the second A section begins, LaFaro returns to a walking
bass line.
2:58 In the B section, LaFaro switches back and forth between a
walking line and the more staggered line he used earlier. He
also explores the extreme high range of the bass, playing it
more melodically than a simple bass line is typically conceived.
(As this chorus comes to a close, the excerpt fades.)
On the full recording, the song continues for another 2:36 minutes as out-
lined below:
3:17 3rd chorus begins.
3:54 4th chorus begins.
4:31 5th chorus begins: During this chorus, Motian drops out completely,
and the remainder of the chorus is a musical conversation between
Evans and Motian in much the same manner as described above.
5:08 Head (32 measures, AABC).
5:43 Tag: A short figure extends the final head and brings the recording to
a close.

More on the Bill Evans Trio
Further Listening
Bill Evans Trio. Conversations with Myself. Verve, 521 409.

———. Portrait in Jazz. Riverside, RCD-1162-2.
———. Sunday at the Village Vanguard. Original Jazz Classics, OJC 140.
Further Reading
Pettinger, Peter. Bill Evans: How My Heart Sings. New Haven, CT: Yale
LECTURE TWELVE
78
Lecture 13: Jazz Fusion

• Miles Davis, “It’s About That Time/In a Silent Way” (excerpt), Martin/Waters,
CD 2, track 9
• The Herbie Hancock Group, “Chameleon” (excerpt), Martin/Waters, CD 2,
track 10
• Chick Corea and Return to Forever, “Hymn of the Seventh Galaxy,”
or an approximately five-year period between 1963 and 1968, Miles

Davis performed and recorded with perhaps his most influential group,
a quintet consisting of Wayne Shorter on saxophones, Herbie Hancock
on piano, Ron Carter on bass, and Tony Williams on drums. They, like
Coltrane’s classic quartet, Evans’s trio, and various free jazz groups, pushed
to a new extent the amount of interaction and collective interplay that could
be extracted in a jazz context. But Davis, ever the innovator, grew interested
in new sounds, and turned to rock grooves, electronic instruments, and studio
production techniques for his new experimentations. This process occurred
gradually in 1968 and 1969. His album In a Silent Way, recorded in February
of 1969, served as a harbinger of a new fusion between jazz and rock, set-
ting the stage for his even more successful Bitches Brew recorded later that
year. It is also a significant album from a personnel standpoint: not only does
it retain four of the five members of Davis’s 1960s quintet (only Carter had
left the group at this point), but Davis adds several musicians who would later
establish themselves as leaders in jazz fusion: keyboardists Chick Corea
(see listening guide for “Hymn of the Seventh Galaxy”) and Josef Zawinul
and electric guitarist John McLaughlin. Zawinul would later team up with
Wayne Shorter and others to form the fusion group Weather Report, and
McLaughlin would form a group called the Mahavishnu Orchestra.
Side B of the original album was conceived as a twenty-minute, continuous,
extended listening experience that began with Zawinul’s tranquil “In a Silent
Way” (about four minutes), spliced to Davis’s groove-based “It’s About That
Time,” and spliced again to a reprise of “In a Silent Way.” This excerpt begins
after the first splice, a few minutes into “It’s About That Time,” and fades after
the return of “In a Silent Way.”
0:00 As the excerpt opens, the rhythm section begins establishing the first
of two important grooves in this section (“Groove 1”). As bassist Dave
Holland plays a repeated, fast three-note figure, an electric keyboard
plays and repeats a series of six chords spanning three measures,
and drummer Tony Williams introduces a rock groove. Soon guitarist
John McLaughlin joins, doubling the keyboard’s melody.
79
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “It’s About That Time/In a Silent Way” (excerpt)
Miles Davis (trumpet); Wayne Shorter (soprano saxophone); Herbie
Hancock (electric piano); Chick Corea (electric piano); Josef Zawinul
(organ); John McLaughlin (electric guitar); Dave Holland (bass); Tony
Williams (drums)
0:22 Against this rhythmic and harmonic texture, soprano saxophonist

Wayne Shorter begins his improvisation. Notice how he builds his
idea from the initial simple alternation of two notes, uses space
between ideas, and interacts with the rest of the band (and
vice versa).
1:18 Zawinul’s organ enters at this point, and the rhythm section
moves to the second groove idea (Groove 2), a two-measure
repeating bass line doubled by bass, organ, and guitar.
Shorter continues his improvisation, building its intensity
over this new vamp.
2:28 Zawinul signals a change in the texture once again, introducing
a quick three-note figure that is quickly picked up by the bass,
guitar, and the keyboard. Shorter quickly brings his solo to a
close, ending with this three-note gesture.
2:42 As the rhythm section continues their three-note vamp, Davis begins
his improvisation, quoting the original melody first played by the key-
board. As he develops his ideas, the rhythm section begins to
deconstruct the motive they have been playing and the overall tex-
ture gets more dense. Notice Davis’s characteristic use of the middle
register, use of space between ideas, and more slow than fast
melodic ideas.
3:32 The rhythm section moves to Groove 2 as Davis’s solo continues.
4:01 The performance reaches a climax as Tony Williams plays
more aggressively and moves the groove to his cymbals.
Davis responds with some of the fastest and highest playing in
his entire solo, and the rest of the band increases its intensity
as well.
4:34 Zawinul reintroduces the same three-note figure he used earli-
er, and as before, it is quickly picked up by the rest of the
rhythm section and the intensity decreases dramatically. Over
time, the band deconstructs the motive even further, tossing it
LECTURE THIRTEEN
back and forth and breaking it into smaller pieces. Davis con-
tinues his solo over this complex interplay.
5:32 As Davis brings his improvisation to a close, the rhythm section
returns to Groove 2.
80
6:12 In the aftermath of Davis’s solo, the rhythm section con-
tinues a few repetitions of the groove, weakening in volume
and intensity.
6:29 An abrupt change of mood occurs, as the splice returning to “In a
Silent Way” takes place. In contrast to the heavy emphasis on
groove of the previous section, “In a Silent Way” is very serene and
atmospheric, featuring John McLaughlin playing the melody with
electric keyboard fills and Holland’s bowed bass rounding out the
bottom of the texture. This excerpt fades as McLaughlin begins his
second time through the melody of the composition.

More on Miles Davis and Fusion
Further Listening
Davis, Miles. Bitches Brew. Columbia/Legacy, 65774.

———. In a Silent Way. Columbia/Legacy, 40580.
Weather Report. I Sing the Body Electric. Columbia, 46107.
Further Reading
Freeman, Phil. Running the Voodoo Down: The Electric Music of Miles Davis.
San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 2005.
Nicholson, Stuart. Jazz-Rock: A History. New York: Schirmer Books, 1998.
Schuster, 2002.
81
iles Davis’s In a Silent Way and his subsequent Bitches Brew paved
the way for several artists to continue the integration of jazz and rock,
R&B, soul, and funk. The resulting style became known as “jazz
fusion,” or more simply, “fusion,” and was the subject of much debate among
jazz fans and critics alike. While some argued for its artistic credibility, others
criticized the music, calling it a “sell-out,” primarily because of the commercial
success some of the music received.
Head Hunters, the album from which this song excerpt is taken, was among
the most successful albums in this genre, boasting 500,000 sales in just six
months after its release. Further, “Chameleon” enjoyed crossover success on
Billboard’s R&B chart and its Top 100 chart during 1974. Hancock was not
new to leading his own groups; during his tenure with Miles Davis’s quintet in
the 1960s, he also found the time to perform and record several sessions as
a leader (his 1965 album Maiden Voyage probably serves as the best-known
example of his output from this period), and he led various experimental,
fusion-oriented groups in the early 1970s. But none had been so clearly influ-
enced by funk and soul as the Headhunters group he assembled for this pro-
ject. Hancock himself pointed to the influence of funk artist Sly Stone (and a
musical tribute to Stone appears on the album, a composition titled “Sly”). As
he described: “The original goal was [that] I wanted to make a funk album
that had nothing to do with jazz. But, you see, in the development, it kind of
took on its own character, which was unique. Fortunately, I decided to pay
attention to the way things were flowing and not just stick to what I originally
had in mind.”1
In this music, the groove becomes the point of interest, rather than a tradi-
tional melody and its accompanying chord progression. Indeed, “Chameleon”
essentially consists of two chords, yet it is the multiple, complex layers of
rhythm and riff melodies along with interesting electronic timbres that hold a
listener’s attention and provide the undergirding for improvisation. This track
starts at the beginning of the tune, allowing us to hear the gradual build-up of
the groove. It then fades out and cuts to Hancock’s keyboard improvisation,
which is heard in its entirety before fading out again.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Chameleon” (excerpts)

The Herbie Hancock Group: Hancock (keyboards); Benny Maupin (tenor
and soprano saxophones, saxello, bass clarinet, alto flute); Paul Jackson
(electric bass and marimbula); Harvey Mason (drums); Bill Summers
(percussion)
Recorded in 1973 (dates unknown); released in San Francisco,
LECTURE THIRTEEN
October 13, 1973
0:00 A bass-like synthesizer establishes a two-measure ostinato that pro-

vides grounding and support for most of the recording.
1 Herbie Hancock, interview with Steven Pond, June 4, 1999. Appears in Pond, Steven. Head Hunters: The Making of
Jazz’s First Platinum Album. Page 29. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005.
82
0:11 A layer is added to the bass ostinato: Drummer Harvey Mason joins
the bass, playing a syncopated funk groove.
0:31 A second layer is added: Jackson’s bass plays a repeated riff high in
the bass’s range.
0:51 A third layer is added: The unique sound of Hancock’s clavinet
enters, as he plays a repeated chordal accompaniment pattern.
1:11 As the excerpt fades, we briefly hear a fourth layer: Another key-
board timbre, this one with a wah-wah effect applied to it.
[FADE]
1:14 The track fades in on a drum break, which gives way to another
gradual layering and intensification of the groove.
1:53 The groove has been reestablished and Hancock’s keyboard impro-
visation begins.2 He starts with several bluesy licks and, for the most
part, little electronic manipulation of his sound.
2:32 As he develops a two-note motive, Hancock applies an elec-
tronic effect known as modulation, severely distorting his sound
and creating a new timbre. He soon moves on to a new idea
and applies a wah-wah effect in addition to modulation.
3:05 With modulation and wah-wah turned off, Hancock’s lines are now
connected via his use of portamento, or sliding between notes.
3:26 Hancock again introduces modulation as he improvises with
the timbre on a single note.
3:44 Hancock introduces a new figure that he develops over the
next several measures. It becomes quite complex as he juxta-
poses a variant of this figure that feels as though it is in 3/4
time against the prevailing 4/4 meter.
4:19 Continuing his rhythmic explorations, Hancock moves to a new
idea, one whose length does not conform to 4/4 meter but
rather is slightly longer. The asymmetry of his figure against
the 4/4 meter again tugs at the listener.
4:43 As Hancock plays and repeats a bluesy lick, he applies pitch
shifting, causing the lick to sound slightly out of tune against
the rest of the band before gradually bringing it back in tune.
4:54 The band (joined by tenor saxophonist Benny Maupin) comes
together on cue and plays a snippet from the head. This sig-
nals the approaching end of Hancock’s solo, and the band and
Hancock climax with some call-and-response activity.
5:26 The excerpt fades on a drum and bass duet.
2 See Martin, Henry, and Keith Waters. Jazz: The First 100 Years. 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson Schirmer, 2006.
Pages 340–343 feature a wonderful transcription and analysis of Hancock’s solo. A few key points are highlighted in
the listening guide above.
83

More on the Herbie Hancock Group
Further Listening
Headhunters (aka Herbie Hancock Group). Head Hunters. Columbia/Legacy,

CK 65123.
Herbie Hancock Sextet. Mwandishi: The Complete Warner Brothers
Recordings. 2-CD set. Warner Archives, 45732.
Further Reading

Pond, Steven F. Head Hunters: The Making of Jazz’s First Platinum Album.
Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2005.
eturn to Forever was a fusion group led by keyboardist Chick Corea

during the 1970s. Corea had appeared on Miles Davis’s In a Silent
Way, Bitches Brew, and other early fusion recordings, but he was (and
is) also an important performer of acoustic jazz piano in the manner of—but
more aggressive than—Bill Evans.
Corea first assembled Return to Forever in late 1971; they recorded their
first album in early 1972. A second album was recorded before the band was
reorganized. Hymn of the Seventh Galaxy, the band’s third album, featured
this new lineup and a new approach to playing that combined jazz and rock
influences in the context of highly arranged, intricate compositions. Notable
about this group’s approach was its mostly electric sound, consciously rock-
based rhythms, and the fiery playing of not only Corea but also guitarist Bill
Connors and especially bassist Stanley Clarke.
“Hymn of the Seventh Galaxy,” the title track from this album, is also the first
cut on the album. It has been called a “space rock anthem,” and features the
virtuosity of every member of the group.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Hymn of the Seventh Galaxy”

Chick Corea and Return to Forever: Chick Corea (electric piano, acoustic
piano, organ, harpsichord, gongs); Bill Connors (electric guitar, acoustic
LECTURE THIRTEEN
guitar); Stanley Clarke (electric bass); Lenny White (percussion)

Recorded in New York, August 1973
0:00 Introduction: The performance begins with a fade in of airy synthe-

sized sounds. Eventually, an organ and the drums introduce the rest
of the band as they play an angular figure culminating in a sus-
tained note.
84
0:14 Head melody (2x): The “head” (if one can call it that) is played in uni-
son by keyboards, guitar, and bass, as the drums provide rock
rhythms and very active, virtuosic fills. Occasional chords and hits
interrupt this unison melody that is marked by fast notes, angular
lines, unexpected accents, and changing meters.
0:42 At the end of the first time through the head, a second idea is
introduced. Here, the organ plays the melody and guitar and
bass play lines in harmony with the organ. Though only briefly
treated here, this idea will be developed further later on.
0:51 Head, 2nd time.
1:18 The second idea is introduced again, but this time it is juxta-
posed with fragments of the head, comprising an extended
ending to the opening section of the piece.
1:45 Bill Connors’s electric guitar solo: Connors’s solo begins quietly over
a rather tranquil rhythm section playing prearranged hits together.
2:06 The energy increases as the rhythm section swells into a full-throttle
rock groove, and Connors responds with a wailing guitar improvisation.
2:21 Connors begins playing in concert with Corea’s keyboard as
the solo draws to a close.
2:35 Transition: The ensemble comes to a sustained chord and quick
turnaround that moves the piece into a return of the head.
2:40 Return of the head: Notice that this is not a complete return. Rather,
recognizable fragments are reprised from the end of the head, again
played in unison by Corea, Connors, and Clarke. This time, these
fragments are sometimes played at normal speed, and sometimes
stretched out (or augmented) at half speed. They are repeated sev-
eral times and built to a climax before the full ensemble ends togeth-
er with a frenetic, three-chord flourish.
3:19 The performance fades out with a reprise of the synthesized
airy sounds.

More on Chick Corea and Jazz Fusion
Further Listening
John McLaughlin and the Mahavishnu Orchestra. Birds of Fire.

Columbia/Legacy, 66081.
Return to Forever. Hymn of the Seventh Galaxy. Polydor, 825 336.
Weather Report. Heavy Weather. Columbia/Legacy, 65108.
Further Reading
85
Lecture 14: The Contemporary Jazz Scene

• Wynton Marsalis Ensemble, “Express Crossing,” Martin/Waters, CD 2,
track 12
• George Benson, “Softly, As in a Morning Sunrise,” Martin/Waters, CD 2,
track 13
• Eliane Elias, “One Note Samba,” Martin/Waters, CD 2, track 14
• Tim Hagans, “Far West,” Martin/Waters, CD 2, track 16
• Steve Coleman and Five Elements, “Salt Peanuts,” Martin/Waters, CD 2,
track 15
s a performer, Wynton Marsalis has been the subject of both heavy crit-
icism and great praise. Some have criticized, especially early in his
career, that he sounded too much like Miles Davis. He came up under
Art Blakey’s tutelage for a time as a member of the Jazz Messengers before
leading his own groups playing in a post-hard bop manner. However, as his
style has evolved, he has combined his virtuosic technique with a more intro-
spective, personal aesthetic that avoids mimicry and is quite unique. He has
won Grammy Awards for both his jazz and his classical trumpet recordings.
He has always preferred traditional jazz idioms to more contemporary devel-
opments and has been an outspoken critic of avant-garde and fusion jazz.
Within the last fifteen years he has taken a more active interest in composition
as well as performance. In addition to this work and the larger suite from
which it derives, he has composed numerous other large-scale jazz pieces,
including “Sacred: In This House, On This Morning” (1992), “Blood on the
Fields” (1994), “At the Octoroon Balls” (1995), and “All Rise” (1999).
“Express Crossing” was composed by Marsalis as a part of his six-move-
ment Jazz/Six Syncopated Movements suite for the New York Ballet. This
sophisticated work underscores his emphasis on composition, but also high-
lights the traditional elements of jazz that he values. The piece is clearly pro-
grammatic, from its title to the numerous musical elements that all suggest
the imagery of a train. The many colors and timbres he derives from the
ensemble is reminiscent of some of Duke Ellington’s writing. Notice, too, the
frequent changes of mood and meter in the piece. Because of the highly sec-
LECTURE FOURTEEN
tional organization of the piece, the listening guide below identifies only a few
guideposts to orient your listening.
86
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Express Crossing”
Wynton Marsalis Ensemble: Marsalis (composer and trumpet); Marcus
Printup (trumpet); Wycliffe Gordon, Ronald Westray (trombones); Todd
Williams (tenor saxophone); Wes Anderson (alto saxophone); Kent Jordan
(piccolo and flute); Victor Goines (baritone saxophone); Eric Reed (piano);
Reginald Veal (bass); Herlin Riley (drums); Robert Sadin (conductor)
Premiered in New York, January 14, 1993
0:00 Introduction: The sounds of a train pulling out of a station are clearly
heard. Changing meters, the sounds of pistons chugging and whis-
tles blowing can all be identified.
0:48 Section 1 (3 choruses, 64 measures each, of ABAC form): The train
is now moving at full speed, as the primary thematic material of the
piece is presented here. The piccolo and two saxophones double the
fast and furious melody and the rest of the horns provide hits and
occasional sustained chords in the background.
1:32 The 2nd chorus of this section begins with Marsalis playing an
improvised trumpet solo over the same chord progression just
heard. Notice his effective use of the plunger mute along with
his accuracy even at such high speeds.
2:17 The 3rd chorus of this section begins. As the same chord pro-
gression unfolds for a third time, the horns engage in an eclectic
musical conversation: sometimes rapid flurries of melody, some-
times harsh train whistles, sometimes punctuated chordal hits.
3:04 Section 2: After a brief piano interlude and a change of key, the flute
and muted trumpet participate in a softer, more reflective dialogue.
3:35 Section 3: As a muted trumpet plays a long, sustained train whistle
sound, Marsalis creates an interesting effect with the rest of the band
playing shifting and syncopated rhythms through this short transition-
al passage that resembles most closely the introductory section.
3:46 Section 4: The band suddenly shifts into a slower, almost half-time
groove, and the melody—often harmonized—is tossed around
among numerous instruments. Marsalis exploits many interesting
instrumental combinations and colors in his writing in this section.
4:45 Section 5: The fast introductory material is reprised briefly before the
piece ends abruptly with the train still steaming toward its destination.
87

More on Wynton Marsalis and the Lincoln Center Jazz Orchestra
Further Listening
Lincoln Center Jazz Orchestra. Jazz at Lincoln Center: They Came to Swing.
Columbia/Legacy, CK 66379.
———. Live in Swing City—Swingin’ with Duke. Columbia/Legacy, CK 69898.
Marsalis, Wynton. Jump Start and Jazz. Sony, SK 62998.
———. Standard Time. Vol. 1. Columbia/Legacy, CK 40461.
he legacy of jazz fusion has manifested itself in various ways in the

ensuing decades. By the mid-1980s, a form of easy listening instrumen-
tal music had sprung up that emphasized soothing melody, limited
improvisation, and inoffensive rhythmic grooves. This music, performed by
musicians like Herb Alpert, Chuck Mangione, or Spyro Gyra, may have drawn
from successful fusion influences such as Return to Forever or Weather
Report, yet it took far fewer risks and was far less adventurous. The result
has become known as “smooth” or “light jazz.” It is the subject of harsh criti-
cism by jazz purists, some of whom have dubbed it “fuzak” because of the
highly processed, uninspired, background-esque nature of much of the music
in this genre (much like the elevator music known as Muzak). Despite the crit-
icism, smooth jazz is relatively successful in the marketplace, and numerous
radio stations around the United States have adopted its format.
Soprano saxophonist Kenny G is probably the most widely recognized per-
former of smooth jazz today, and his music has a decidedly pop-jazz feel. His
music has come under heavy scrutiny from critics as well as other musicians,
including guitarist Pat Metheny. Metheny’s music is sometimes categorized
as “smooth,” but it consistently takes more interesting musical risks and
includes more improvisation. Other musicians and groups, such as Bob
James (piano/keyboard), Dave Koz (saxophone), Anita Baker (vocals),
George Benson (guitar), and The Rippingtons perform and record music that
combines elements of jazz, pop, R&B, and Latin music in the context of styl-
ized, processed, musical arrangements. Benson is a formidable talent; his
LECTURE FOURTEEN
formative years as a musician were spent playing bebop-like guitar in jazz

trios, but from the 1970s on he began making more commercially oriented
recordings and achieved fame with hits such as “Breezin’” and “This
Masquerade” from his 1976 release, Breezin’, and his cover of the Drifters’
“On Broadway” from 1978. “Softly, As in a Morning Sunrise,” a well-estab-
lished jazz standard, is from his 2004 album Irreplaceable, and features
Benson’s sultry guitar sounds over a smooth-jazz rhythmic groove.
88
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Softly, As in a Morning Sunrise”
George Benson (guitar); Herman Jackson (keyboards);
Roberto Vally (bass); Paulinho Da Costa (percussion); Paul Brown (drum
programming)
Released June 8, 2004
0:00 Introduction: Layers of synthesizers, percussion, and drum loops

establish the background groove over which Benson’s guitar will play.
0:07 Head melody (32 measures, AABA): Benson interprets the melody
on his guitar over the continuously layered rhythmic background.
1:07 Benson’s guitar improvisation (26 measures, AAB [extended]):
Benson’s improvised solo proceeds over the unwavering groove. His
playing is melodic yet restrained, as he stays well within the smooth
genre of this recording. The improvisation does not last a full chorus;
rather, he ends his improvisation by extending the B section by two
measures before reprising the main melody.
1:56 Head melody (20 measures, AA [extended]): Benson reprises the
first half of the melody, then extends the second A section by repeat-
ing its last two measures a total of three times.
2:31 Ending (extended improvisation): The arrangement ends with a long
vamp over the A section chords, with Benson providing an extended
guitar improvisation to the end.

More on George Benson
Further Listening
Benson, George. Breezin’. Rhino/Warner Bros, 76713.

———. Irreplaceable. GRP, 000059902.
Kenny G Dave Koz

Earl Klugh Grover Washington, Jr.
89
he last three recordings to be discussed in this course offer possible
contemporary alternatives for crossovers in jazz. The first, Eliane Elias’s
recording of “One Note Samba,” continues a stylistic boundary crossing
that has been explored since the 1940s and before: the blending of jazz with
the music of Latin America. Here, Brazilian pianist Eliane Elias interprets the
composition of countryman Antonio Carlos Jobim in the context of a jazz
quartet. The basic structure of the performance is outlined below:
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “One Note Samba”

Eliane Elias (piano); Eddie Gomez (bass); Jack DeJohnette (drums); Nana
Vasconcelos (percussion)
Released December 1989
0:00 Introduction: Elias and the rest of the rhythm section set the tempo
and mood with a vamp over which Elias improvises a melody based
on a repeated three-note idea.
0:20 Head melody (40 measures, ABA [16 + 8 + 16])
1:08 Elias’s piano improvisation begins (3 choruses of ABA): Notice Elias’s
penchant for a solely melodic improvisation with no chordal accompa-
niment provided by her left hand.
1:56 2nd improvised chorus: As Elias’s improvisation builds in intensity by
incorporating her left hand (both accompanying chords and doubling
the right-hand melody) and through her use of the high range of the
piano, the rhythm section responds in kind.
2:44 3rd improvised chorus: The energy recedes for most of this chorus.
At the end, the ensemble increases its intensity as it builds to the cli-
mactic ending vamp.
3:32 Ending vamp: In this high-energy section, the rhythm section returns
to the opening vamp as Elias improvises above it. The recording
fades out on this vamp.

More on Eliane Elias
Further Listening
LECTURE FOURTEEN
Elias, Eliane. Eliane Elias Plays Jobim. Blue Note, 93089.
90
im Hagans’s “Far West” fuses elements of hip-hop, world music
(specifically Indian tabla and vocal samples), and jazz, while maintaining
an overall “free” aesthetic. Several of the tracks from the album on which
this selection appears (Animation-Imagination) combine hip-hop grooves and
other electronic instruments and studio techniques with Hagans’s trumpet
playing, which he himself explains is influenced by trumpeters Miles Davis,
Freddie Hubbard, Thad Jones, and Woody Shaw.
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Far West”

Tim Hagans, trumpet
Released January 26, 1999
0:00 Introduction: Tabla (the high-pitched percussion instrument) rhythms

are layered against a hip-hop groove, setting the tempo and mood
for this piece.
0:08 To this percussion groove, an electric bass plays a repeated two-
measure ostinato, and keyboard arpeggios are added to the texture
as well.
0:26 “Head”: If one may call it that, the main melody is provided here by
the female Indian vocal samples, which are added over the estab-
lished rhythm section groove. These samples return at various points
in the music as a unifying force in the composition.
1:05 Hagans’s trumpet improvisation: Hagans begins his improvisation
with long, sustained, and sometimes soaring notes, creating an airy,
atmospheric feel during the beginning portion of his improvisation.
Notice the heavy reverberation that is applied to Hagans’s trumpet.
2:29 A reprise of the vocal samples occurs here. Once the reprise is com-
plete, the rhythmic groove intensifies and Hagans’s improvisation
quickens and reflects this new intensity, as he develops two different
motivic ideas, both of which use shorter, faster, more punctuated
rhythmic values. All the while, he demonstrates a judicious use of
space (or silence) between his ideas, giving the complex rhythmic
groove more prominence.
3:48 Electronic keyboard improvisation: Notice the heavy electronic
processing (delay and reverberation in particular) on the key-
board sound.
4:15 Another reprise of the vocal samples enters during the keyboard solo.
4:24 Hagans reenters as the vocal samples fade, yet they soon emerge
again, this time with heavy effects applied to them. The rhythmic
groove is also electronically altered during this climactic portion of
the composition.
5:24 The vocal samples may be heard faintly in the background as
Hagans’s improvisation continues over the now-dense rhythmic
background. The recording fades out (beginning at about 5:35 or so)
as the composition comes to a close.
91

More on Tim Hagans
Further Listening
Hagans, Tim. Animation-Imagination. Blue Note, 95198.
Dave Douglas Nicolas Payton (Sonic Trance)

Brad Mehldau John Zorn
Pat Metheny
teve Coleman’s “Salt Peanuts” is both a musical tribute to Dizzy

Gillespie’s bebop classic studied earlier as well as a complex reinter-
pretation of the prevailing rhythmic conventions of bebop. Coleman and
his band, Five Elements, have a style that defies category (Coleman himself
does not refer to his music as “jazz”) but is based on the so-called “M-
BASE” concept; in general the music attempts to combine improvisation in
the context of jazz, funk, soul, or hip-hop grooves along with the aesthetics
of African music, particularly, in Coleman’s words, “in the areas of spiritual,
rhythmic, and melodic development.” One of the ramifications of all of these
crossovers is a virtual abandonment of conventional (Western) views of
meter. As a result, Five Elements’s arrangement of “Salt Peanuts” is filled
with a shifting sense of meter and tricky ensemble playing. Despite these
new approaches, this version of “Salt Peanuts” is remarkably faithful to the
original in its melodic arrangement (compare it to CD 1, track 24).
‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Salt Peanuts”

Steve Coleman and Five Elements: Coleman (alto saxophone); Andy
Milne (piano); Reggie Washington (bass); Gene Lake (drums)
Released June 14, 1994
0:00 Introduction: Coleman plays the opening salvo alone and in an

LECTURE FOURTEEN
odd meter.
0:05 Head (AABA): Coleman plays the metrically modified melody to “Salt
Peanuts” as the rhythm section provides rather free accompaniment.
0:27 Interlude 1: As in the Gillespie/Parker recording, Coleman plays the
same interlude here, though with shifting meters underneath it. A
brief drum solo brings the arrangement back for a second time
through the head.
92
0:38 Head (AABA): This time, where Gillespie sang the lyric “Salt
Peanuts,” Coleman and Five Elements leave the silence. During the
B section, Coleman, like Parker, improvises a melody instead of
playing the head.
0:58 Interlude 2: A second interlude (again, based on thematic material
from the second interlude in the Gillespie/Parker version) ushers in
the beginning of an improvised piano solo.
1:09 Piano improvisation.
1:49 Coleman’s alto saxophone improvisation.
2:29 Interlude 3: Again, Coleman’s arrangement is faithful to the
Gillespie/Parker version, as Coleman ends his solo quoting the same
bluesy riff that Gillespie and Parker played. Here, this riff is repeated
and developed numerous times in an improvisatory, free-form pas-
sage that leads to a return of the head melody.
2:51 Head (AABA): The main melody is reprised for a final time.
3:11 Ending: Coleman and the ensemble end the arrangement with a
reprise of the introductory riff.

More on Steve Coleman and Five Elements
Further Listening
Steve Coleman and Five Elements. Def Trance Beat (Modalities of Rhythm).
RCA-BMG, 63181-2.
93
COURSE MATERIALS
In addition to the music and readings listed at the end of each section
in this booklet, the following resources are a valuable aid for gaining a
fuller appreciation of jazz.
Compact Disc Compilations
Ken Burns Jazz Collection. Ken Burns’s Jazz: The Story of American Music.
Sony, 2000.
Smithsonian Institution. The Smithsonian Collection of Big Band Jazz.
Smithsonian Collection of Recordings. Washington, DC: Smithsonian
Institution, 1994.
———. The Smithsonian Collection of Classic Jazz. Smithsonian Collection
of Recordings. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1987.
———. The Smithsonian Collection of Piano Jazz. Smithsonian Collection of
Recordings. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1989.
Other Books of Interest
Berliner, Paul. Thinking in Jazz: The Infinite Art of Improvisation. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1994.
Cook, Richard, and Brian Morton, eds. The Penguin Guide to Jazz on CD.
7th ed. London: Penguin, 2004.
Dahl, Linda. Stormy Weather: The Music and Lives of a Century of Jazz
Women. New York: Pantheon Books, 1984.
Gitler, Ira, ed. Swing to Bop: An Oral History of the Transition in Jazz in the
1940s. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.
Gottlieb, Robert. Reading Jazz: A Gathering of Autobiography, Reportage,
and Criticism from 1919 to Now. New York: Vintage Books, 1996.
Kernfeld, Barry, ed. The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz. 2nd ed. London:
Macmillan Publishers, 2002.
Kirchner, Bill, ed. The Oxford Companion to Jazz. New York: Oxford
Martin, Henry, and Keith Waters. Jazz: The First 100 Years. 2nd ed. Belmont,
CA: Thomson, 2006.
Porter, Lewis, Michael Ullman, and Ed Hazzell. Jazz: From Its Origins to the
COURSE MATERIALS
Present. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1993.

Schuller, Gunther. The History of Jazz: Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical
Development, vol. 1; The Swing Era: The Development of Jazz, 1930–1945,
vol. 2. New York: Oxford University Press, vol. 1: 1968; vol. 2: 1989.
Szwed, John. Jazz 101: A Complete Guide to Learning and Loving Jazz.
New York: Hyperion, 2000.
94
COURSE MATERIALS
Walser, Robert, ed. Keeping Time: Readings in Jazz History. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1999.
Websites to Visit
1. All About Jazz is a good general resource on jazz, containing artist

and album reviews, commentary, and links to a variety of other jazz
websites — www.allaboutjazz.com
2. The Big Bands Database has biographical entries for hundreds of bands
from the swing era and beyond — http://nfo.net
3. Chicago Jazz Archive from the Regenstein Library at the University of
Chicago; this site contains a wealth of information about the historical jazz
scene in Chicago — www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/su/cja
4. Downbeat is a leading print publication on jazz; their site contains search-
able archives to older articles and reviews — www.downbeat.com
5. The Institute of Jazz Studies (IJS) at the Newark, NJ, campus of Rutgers
University — www.libraries.rutgers.edu/rul/libs/jazz/jazz.shtml
6. Jazz Times is a leading print publication on jazz — www.jazztimes.com
7. Jazz Corner is a host site for well over one hundred of today’s jazz musi-
cians; the site also contains interviews, podcasts, photos, and an online
bulletin board — www.jazzcorner.com/index2.html
8. Smithsonian Jazz, the Smithsonian Museum’s website on jazz —
www.smithsonianjazz.org
95
NOTES
NOTES
96

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HOW TO

Professor Ted Buehrer

Lecture content ©2006 by Ted Buehrer

72006 by Recorded Books, LLC

How to Listen to and Appreciate Jazz

About Your Professor...................................................................................................4

Lecture 1 Listening to Jazz: Part I: Basic Parameters of Music and

Lecture 3 Listening to Jazz: Part III: Appreciating Jazz Improvisation ................10

Lecture 4 The Origins of Jazz..............................................................................11

Lecture 5 New Orleans ........................................................................................16

Lecture 6 Chicago and the Transition to Early Swing .........................................22

Lecture 7 The Swing Era .....................................................................................28

Lecture 8 Swing to Bebop ...................................................................................38

Lecture 9 Bebop: The Birth of Modern Jazz........................................................46

Lecture 10 The 1950s and a Profusion of Styles ..................................................56

Lecture 11 Into the 1960s ......................................................................................62

Lecture 12 Jazz in the 1960s.................................................................................71

Lecture 13 Jazz Fusion..........................................................................................79

Lecture 14 The Contemporary Jazz Scene ...........................................................86

Course Materials ........................................................................................................94

research has been a study of the

he first three lectures in this course seek to assist you in becoming

introduced the instruments common to jazz rhythm sections in the first

n this final introductory lecture on listening to jazz, I discuss several

Melody (“Head” or “Head chorus”)

Improvisation: Soloists take turns improvising music

Possible variety and interest created in the

2. Double Time: Soloist starts playing as if the

3. Quotation: Soloist borrows a melodic fragment

4. Riff: A short melodic idea, 1 to 2 measures long,

5. Stop Time: Punctuating a distinct beat or beats,

Melody (“Head” or “Out chorus”)

1 Chorus (or 2 if Blues)

Music recordings and the accompanying listening guides are refer-

agtime is a style of music that achieved widespread American popu-

‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Maple Leaf Rag” (excerpt)

“Maple Leaf Rag” is arguably Joplin’s best-known rag. It was composed

Joplin, Scott. Scott Joplin: Piano Works, 1899–1904. RCA-Victor, 7993-2-RG.

‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Backwater Blues”

0:00 Introduction: Johnson begins the performance with two measures of

his right hand.

Grimes, Sara. Backwaterblues: In Search of Bessie Smith. Amherst, MA:

You Might Also Consider

Son House Gertrude “Ma” Rainey

Music recordings and the accompanying listening guides are refer-

elly Roll Morton (1890–1941) was an important figure in the early

0:00 Introduction: A four-measure ensemble march-like introduction

King Oliver’s Creole Jazzband. King Oliver’s Creole Jazzband, 1923–1924.

‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “West End Blues”

0:00 Introduction: Armstrong’s solo trumpet cadenza in the first twelve

Armstrong, Louis. Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans. Reprint. New York:

You Might Also Consider

King Oliver’s Creole Jazz Band

Music recordings and the accompanying listening guides are refer-

‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Tiger Rag”

0:00 Introduction: Tatum’s slow, melancholy introduction is lovely, yet it

Johnson, James P. James P. Johnson: Harlem Stride Piano, 1921–1929.

Brown, Scott. James P. Johnson: A Case Of Mistaken Identity. Metuchen,

‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “East St. Louis Toodle-Oo”

0:00 Introduction (8 measures): One immediately senses the dark, myste-

Music recordings and the accompanying listening guides are refer-

‫ ﲵ‬Listening Guide for “Shoe Shine Boy”

0:00 Introduction (8 measures repeated, 16 measures in all): If there is a