Aerodynamics Simulation of Vehicle Body Using CFD

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/269575421
Aerodynamics Simulation of vehicle Body by using CFD Technology
Thesis · April 2014

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.1274.7844
CITATION READS
1 8,414
1 author:
Saud Hassan
Teesside University
2 PUBLICATIONS 1 CITATION
SEE PROFILE
All content following this page was uploaded by Saud Hassan on 15 December 2014.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Teesside University
School of Science and Engineering
BEng (hons) Mechanical Engineering
Aerodynamics Investigation of
Rear Vehicle (Backlight angle)
By: SAUD HASSAN
Supervisor: SAJID ABDULLAH
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the award of Bachelor with honours Degree in
Mechanical Engineering
April 2014
-0-
Abstract
Road vehicle aerodynamics has been treated by Barnard (1996), who gives a very
readable account, and also by Hucho (1998a), who gives a particularly comprehensive
treatment. The main developments with vehicle aerodynamics probably occurred during
the early 198Os, and the use of low-drag vehicles has now become common. The
development of low-drag vehicle shapes is now more rapid because of greater past
experience and better computational techniques.” (R Stone 2004).
The primary aim is to research and investigate an aerodynamic study of a vehicle body
design focusing rear back light angle. Computational Fluid Dynamic simulation studies
investigated the effect of geometric form design, with a focus on rear vehicle backlight
angle, to determine upon drag and lift values. A real-life automobile is very complex
shape to model or to study experimentally. However, the simplified vehicle shape
employed by Ahmed et al. (1984). “The Ahmed body is a “bluff body” simplified car
used in automotive industry to investigate the influence of the flow structure on the
drag.” (Emmanuel Guilmineau, 2007).
In this project flow around the Ahmed body is investigated. For this flow over the bluff
body were considered which with different slant angles. A case study is presented in
this report to determine optimum design of the back light angle of a vehicle body (rear),
which the author concludes around 30 degrees. Observation findings on air flow around
the body are highlighted here with particular emphasis on the results from CFD
simulation. This was determined utilising the Ahmed model with different backlight
angles such as 0o, 5o, 12.5o, 20o, 30o, and 40o were utilsed in the case study presented.
The behavior of these backlight angles was studied, and compared to the results with the
different literature research papers.Finally the modification and the future advancement
have been proposed on the basis of the outcome results.
-i-
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my supervisor Sajid Abdullah who helped me with all my
concerns regarding my project, and also allowed me to attend the MEng degree lectures
relating to car aerodynamics and vehicle design.
I also would like to thank all of my friends who supported me in meeting deadline and
proofing the final report. I would like to thank the technician staff in particular Guy
Morgan who provided all the technical support during all the project even though I
couldn’t able to conduct the wind tunnel testing but still thank for his all the support.
Finally I would like to thank to my family and everyone who supported me during my
BEng degree.
- ii -
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................. I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................................... II
LIST OF FIGURES: ..................................................................................................................................V
ACRONYMS TERMS ........................................................................................................................... VII
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 8
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 9
1.1 BACKGROUND................................................................................................................................... 10
1.2 AERODYNAMICS DESIGN .................................................................................................................. 12
1.2.1 Explaining the equations ........................................................................................................... 12
1.3 DISSERTATION STRUCTURE .............................................................................................................. 12
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT ............................................................................................................ 13
1.5 LIMITATIONS AND DEPENDENCIES: ................................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................... 14
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................... 15
2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 15
2.2 AERODYNAMICS FORCES .................................................................................................................. 16
2.2.1 Drag Force ................................................................................................................................ 16
2.2.2 Pressure drag ............................................................................................................................. 16
2.2.3 Surface Drag ............................................................................................................................. 17
2.2.4 LIFT ............................................................................................................................................... 17
2.2.5 Turbulent and the laminar boundary layers .............................................................................. 18
2.2.6 Difference between the turbulent body flow and the separated flow ........................................ 18
2.3.1 Streamline flows ....................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.2 Stagnation regions ..................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.3 Separation bubbles .................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.4 Reynolds Number ..................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.5 Turbulence ................................................................................................................................ 20
2.3.6 Three dimensional flow ............................................................................................................ 20
2.3.7 Vortices ..................................................................................................................................... 20
2.3.8 Karman Vortices ....................................................................................................................... 21
2.4 AHMED MODEL ................................................................................................................................ 21
2.5 BODY OF VEHICLE AND ITS CONCEPTS .............................................................................................. 22
2.5.1 Height from the ground level .................................................................................................... 22
2.6 FLUID (AIR) FLOW STRUCTURE AROUND THE VEHICLE WITH DIFFERENT BACKLIGHT ANGLE: .......... 23
2.7 AERODYNAMICS PRINCIPLES ............................................................................................................ 26
2.7.1 Navier-stroke equations ............................................................................................................ 26
2.7.2 Bernoulli equation:.................................................................................................................... 27
2.8 CFD SIMULATION ............................................................................................................................. 28
2.8.1 Working of CFD ....................................................................................................................... 29
............................................................................................................................................................... 30
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH .................................................................................................................... 32
3 RESEARCH DATA AND METHODS ............................................................................................... 33
3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 33
3.2 DATA USED ...................................................................................................................................... 33
3.3 INITIAL METHOD .............................................................................................................................. 34
3.4 CFD (COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS) SIMULATION SETUP ........................................................ 35
3.3.1: A SPECIFIC METHOD ...................................................................................................................... 37
- iii -
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ........................................................................................................................ 38
4. RESULTS .......................................................................................................................................... 39
4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 39
4.2 AHMED MODEL TESTING ................................................................................................................... 39
4.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 39
4.2.2 Flow simulation on the Square back or 0 degrees back light angle .......................................... 40
4.2.3 Flow simulation on the on 5 degrees back light angle: ............................................................. 41
4.2.4 Flow simulation on the on 12.5 degrees back light angle: ........................................................ 42
4.2.5 Flow simulation on the on 20 degrees back light angle: ........................................................... 42
4.3 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS ................................................................................................................... 44
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION .................................................................................................................. 45
5. DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................................................... 46
5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 46
5.2 DISCUSSION ON THE DRAG COEFFICIENT CD FOR DIFFERENT AHEAD MODEL..................................... 46
........................................................................................................................................................... 47
5.3 DISCUSSION ON THE LIFT COEFFICIENT CL FOR DIFFERENT AHEAD MODEL: ..................................... 58
5.4 DISCUSSION ON PRESSURE AREAS ON DIFFERENT BACKLIGHT ANGLE:.............................................. 60
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................. 61
6.1 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................... 62
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS / FUTURE WORK............................................................................................... 63
BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCE .......................................................................................................... 64
APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................................... 66
APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................................... 67
0 DEGREE ................................................................................................................................................ 68
5 DEGREES .............................................................................................................................................. 72
12.5 DEGREES ......................................................................................................................................... 76
20 DEGREES ............................................................................................................................................ 80
30 DEGREES ............................................................................................................................................ 84
40 DEGREES ............................................................................................................................................ 88
- iv -
List of Figures:
FIGURE 1: AHMED MODEL (BLUFF BODY) ..................................................................................................... 9
FIGURE 2: JELLY MOULD SHAPE (CENTURION MAGAZINE ONLINE, 2011) .................................................. 10
FIGURE 3: WIND TUNNEL ........................................................................................................................... 11
FIGURE 4: CFD SIMULATION (RINGIS, 2013).............................................................................................. 11
FIGURE 5: WIND TUNNEL TESTING (AUDIAG, 1999) .................................................................................. 11
FIGURE 6: FORCES AND MOMENTS ACTING ON THE VEHICLE. (GENTA, 2008) ............................................. 15
FIGURE 7: PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION OVER A CAR BODY. ............................................................................. 17
FIGURE 8: FORCE ACTING ON ONE SURFACE ELEMENT. ............................................................................... 17
FIGURE 9: FLOW LAYERS ON THE TOP OF THE BUS. ..................................................................................... 18
FIGURE 11: SEPARATED FLOW BODY VS STREAMLINE BODY ..................................................................... 18
FIGURE 10: SMALL ZONE OF TURBULENCE ................................................................................................. 18
FIGURE 12: SEPARATION AND REATTACHMENT OF THE FLOW. ................................................................... 19
FIGURE 13: KARMAN VORTICES ................................................................................................................. 21
FIGURE 14: AHMED MODEL DIMENSIONS IN MM ......................................................................................... 21
FIGURE 15: VELOCITY AGAINST THE RATIO HEIGHT OVER LENGTH ............................................................ 22
FIGURE 16: FASTBACK WITH THE FLOW PATTERNS (BARNARD, 1996) ........................................................ 23
FIGURE 17: RESULTS FROM W.E LAY’S STUDY WITH DIFFERENT TAIL LENGTHS. (BARNARD, 1996) .......... 24
FIGURE 18: MERCEDES-BENZES CLS-CLASS (FASTBACK) .......................................................................... 24
FIGURE 19: SQUARE BACK WITH RE-CIRCULATORY VORTICES (HAPPIAN-SMITH, 2004) ........................ 25
FIGURE 20: BACKLIGHT ANGLE AGAINST DRAG COEFFICIENT (HAPPIAN-SMITH, 2004)......................... 25
FIGURE 21: EQUATIONS AGAINST THE COMPLEX GEOMETRY (JOSEPH, 1995, P. 94) .................................... 28
FIGURE 22: FLOW OVER THE TWO DIMENSIONAL MODEL OF MAZDA RX-7 CAR. (JOSEPH, 1995, P. 95) ...... 29
FIGURE 23: COMPUTATIONAL DOMAIN ....................................................................................................... 30
FIGURE 24: HIGHLIGHTED IS A MID-SURFACE SHEET METAL (LEFT), NODES SHOWN AND THE SHELL
ELEMENT CREATED AT MID SURFACE (RIGHT) ............................................................................................. 30
FIGURE 25: AHMED MODEL MADE IN SOLIDWORKS ................................................................................... 33
FIGURE 26: SIDE DIMENSIONS IN (MM) ....................................................................................................... 34
FIGURE 27: FRONT DIMENSION IN (MM) ...................................................................................................... 34
FIGURE 28: COMPUTATIONAL DOMAIN IN SOLIDWORKS ............................................................................ 36
FIGURE 29: AHMED MODEL WITH 12.5O ...................................................................................................... 39
FIGURE 30: AHMED MODEL WITH 5O ........................................................................................................... 39
FIGURE 31: AHMED MODEL WITH 0O ........................................................................................................... 39
FIGURE 32: AHMED MODEL WITH 40O ......................................................................................................... 40
FIGURE 35: PRESSURE TRAJECTORIES (SIDE BACK VIEW) SQUARE BACK..................................................... 41
FIGURE 36 : PRESSURE TRAJECTORIES (SIDE BACK VIEW) 5 DEGREES ......................................................... 41
-v-
FIGURE 37: PRESSURE TRAJECTORIES (SIDE BACK VIEW) 12.5 DEGREES ..................................................... 42
FIGURE 38 : PRESSURE TRAJECTORIES (SIDE BACK VIEW) 20 DEGREES ....................................................... 43
FIGURE 39: PRESSURE TRAJECTORIES (SIDE BACK VIEW) 30 DEGREES ........................................................ 43
FIGURE 40: PRESSURE TRAJECTORIES (SIDE BACK VIEW) 40 DEGREES ........................................................ 44
FIGURE 41: MAX AND MIN DRAG AREAS .................................................................................................... 48
FIGURE 42: PRESSURE TRAJECTORIES (SIDE VIEW) ..................................................................................... 48
FIGURE 43: PRESSURE TRAJECTORIES (BACK VIEW).................................................................................... 49
FIGURE 44: PRESSURE TRAJECTORIES (LEFT BACK SIDE VIEW) ................................................................... 49
FIGURE 45: PRESSURE TRAJECTORIES (SIDE BACK VIEW) ........................................................................... 49
FIGURE 46 : PRESSURE TRAJECTORIES (BACK VIEW) ................................................................................... 50
FIGURE 47: PRESSURE TRAJECTORIES (BACK SIDE VIEW) ............................................................................ 50
FIGURE 48: PRESSURE TRAJECTORIES (SIDE BACK VIEW) ............................................................................ 50
FIGURE 55: PRESSURE TRAJECTORIES (BACK SIDE VIEW)..................................................................... 53
FIGURE 56: PRESSURE TRAJECTORIES (COMPLETE VIEW FROM LEFT BACK) ................................................ 53
FIGURE 58: PRESSURE TRAJECTORIES (BACK SIDE VIEW) ......................................................................... 54
FIGURE 62 : PRESSURE TRAJECTORIES (BACK VIEW) ................................................................................... 55
FIGURE 63: PRESSURE TRAJECTORIES (COMPLETE VIEW FROM LEFT BACK) ................................................ 56
FIGURE 65: MAXIMUM DRAG AREAS ON DIFFERENT BACKLIGHT ANGLES ................................................... 57
FIGURE 66: LIFT PRODUCING AREAS ........................................................................................................... 59
FIGURE 67: PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION OVER DIFFERENT BACKLIGHT ANGLES OF THE AHMAD MODEL ........ 60
- vi -
Acronyms Terms
ASM = CAD Assembly file
= Viscosity
= Velocity
= Body force (Mostly gravity)
P = Pressure (Pa)
V = Velocity of the fluid
h = Height (m)
g = Gravitational acceleration
= Fluid density
CFD = Computational fluid dynamics
CL = Coefficient of Lift
CD = Coefficient of Drag
- vii -
CHAPTER 1: Introduction
-8-
1. INTRODUCTION
Motor vehicle aerodynamics is a complex subject because of the interaction between the
air flow and the ground, and the complicated geometrical shapes that are involved. (R
Stone 2004). Dr Dominey of Durham University points out that the stability of
regulations has led to a convergence of design which means that competitive circuit
performance now depends on fine tuning of aerodynamic design (Fenton J 1999).
This project investigates the basic knowledge about the aerodynamics of the of the rear
backlight angle of the car. To study the behaviour of the aerodynamics the Solid work
flow simulation were chosen and design of the bluff body (Ahmed model) (G.Franck,
N.Nigro, & D'elia, 2009) were considered. This is investigated using the CFD
simulation.
The chosen model for this investigation looks at the bluff body (Ahmed model) which is
shown in the figure below. The Ahmed’s model is a popular bluff body with different
backlight angle used by the different researchers and in different literature to explain the
theory of coefficient of drag and the coefficient of lift. For example Simon and
Gioacchion explained that vehicle aerodynamics researches most commonly use the
reference models to do the better understanding of the flow structures that may that
might one vehicle can exhibit when it on the road. So on the basis of this they used
Ahmad model for this study. (Watkins & Vino, 2008). Emmanuel investigated the flow
over the simplified car body by using the Ahmed model with other several turbulence
bodies. (Guilmineau, 2008). R H Barnard describe in (Barnard, 1996). The Ahmed
model has the quite sensitive flow turbulence, road simulation and floor Clarence,
method of mounting.
Figure 1: Ahmed model (Bluff body)
-9-
Fundamental aerodynamics over the bluff body (Ahmed Model) has been done with the
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) technology by using the Solid works 2013 flow
simulation. It was focused on the backlight angle. To achieve this Ahmed model with
the different angles were employed. So on the basis of results obtained the future
advancement on the research and the modifications.
1.1 Background
The vehicle shape and design until the recent years were just only the symbol of fashion
which normally doesn’t have any concern with the aerodynamics of the car. In early
70’s the 1st step was taken for the aerodynamics in the production for the cars because
of the price increase in the fuel prices. Since then the only factors which used to
consider were the vehicle mass and the engine efficiency apart from the road vehicle
aerodynamics properties. In the starting the research on aerodynamics mostly focussed
on the drag reduction while on the other hand the lift coefficients were only practiced
for the race cars. So with the advancement of engines in the automotive industry the
speed of the car goes on increasing. The researchers also staring to analysing the drag
and the lift reduction, and how they can minimise these forces which effect the
efficiency and the stability of the on the road while it’s running with the speed.
Low drag model was built in early 1980’s which is also known as the ‘jelly-mould’
shape. These type model cars usually have the less drag acting on the car. However, it
has the low stability in the crosswinds conditions. The following figure shows the shape
of the car. Those cars have the slop base so in these kinds of slopes the flow doesn’t
have the large-separations.
Figure 2: Jelly Mould shape (Centurion Magazine online, 2011)
- 10 -
So as the time passing the speed of the car goes on increasing so the driver safety and
the car performance, it is now very important to that all the aerodynamics and the
moments acting on the surfaces of the car are considered.
The wind tunnel testing and the CDF flow simulation were carried out to study the
aerodynamics of the car all the other moment forces. Wind tunnel is actually the large
tunnel like apparatus which is able to produce the airstream with the known velocity of
running car, airplanes etc. This is normally used to investigate the air flow over the cars,
airplane etc. the following figure shows the structure of the wind tunnel.
Figure 3: Wind Tunnel (Allpar, 2014)
The standard way to study the flow over the car and the airplane surfaces are the CFD
flow simulation over the car 3d models. This way is way cheaper than the wind tunnel
because this involves the designing part and then CFD flow simulation which saves lots
of times and the effort. (cfdanalysisservices, 2014)
The two figures are describing the wind tunnel and the figure 4 describes the CFD flow
simulation over the cars.
Figure 5: Wind tunnel testing Figure 4: CFD Simulation (Ringis, 2013)

(AudiAG, 1999)
- 11 -
There are lots of research were taken on the aerodynamics of the vehicle body, to
analysis the drag and the lift coefficient acting on the car body.
1.2 Aerodynamics Design

It is the design of the car which has the low drag and the low coefficient of lift. Cars are
like the bluff bodies which has the drag coefficient of raging from 0.3-0.4. (Watkins &
Vino, 2008). The researches have trying to design which has the low number of drag
coefficient and the coefficient of lift and other side moments of the cars. This increases
the stability of the car while it’s moving and also gives the driver the confidence in
handling properly. The back shape has more effect on reducing the drag and the lift.
1.2.1 Explaining the equations

To find the coefficient of lift and the coefficient of drag there are mainly two equation
used even when to find it numerically or by using the CFD flow simulation. These
equations are Navier-stroke equations Bernoulli’s equation.
With this equation the coefficient of lift and the drag and pressure coefficient can be
explained more. The CFD flow simulation software mostly uses the same equation to
calculate the coefficient of drag and the lift to calculation these two coefficients over the
cars, airplanes and the air foils surfaces. Studies and research has been done on this
CFD technology and its importance in the design of the car body especially at the rear
end (back light angle). Following are the two equations used. The more details of these
equations can be found in the chapter 2 literature reviews.
Equation 1
Equation 2)
1.3 Dissertation Structure

The dissertation includes the introduction and the background of the aerodynamics of
the cars. Then in the second chapter which is literature review which better explains all
the theories and the equation on which all the dissertation is based. This also gives the
inside of the aerodynamics forces and the different back types of the car such as the
notchback, hatchback and the square back. It also explains the flow separation on the
entire different back angle of the car. Then after this there is the section of research
which includes the data used for the experiments and all the methods and techniques.
- 12 -
The section of research comes after that which includes all the CFD simulation results
described. In this section the Ahmed model were tested on different backlight angles
and then the results were obtained. Discussion of the results comes after that. Then at
the end the Conclusion comes into place.
1.4 Objectives of the Project

The main object of the project is to study the aerodynamics simulation by using CFD
technology. The primary aim is to research and conduct an aerodynamics study of the
vehicle back light angle.
To achieve this aim, there are following objectives were considered during the project:
 Formation of the Ahmed model (bluff body) in the SolidWorks 2013.
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) technology (SolidWorks 2013
simulation) is used to study the effect on the rear vehicle body back light
angle.
 Flow over the bluff bodies were considered which with different slant
angles the area of the concentration was the back light angle which has
different angles and all the bodies with different angles were tested one
by one.
 Analysis of the effect which causes on all the different backlight angle
angles. That where is the air flow showing the large separation and
where it showing the vertices and low separation areas.
 Based on the results then the design with the low drag and the low lifts is
proposed and also the future advancement is proposed.
1.5 Limitations and dependencies:

The main limitation of the project was that there was no access to the big wind tunnels
so that the actually test were done on the different cars with different car angles and
then the results were compared with the CFD flow simulation results.
- 13 -
CHAPTER 2: Literature Review
- 14 -
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
In early years there were no such considerations when drawing designs of the car. It was
in 1970s the increase in fuel consumption and the fuel prices put stress on the
engineering to actually think about the body design. The aerodynamics researchers
initially focused on the reduction of the drag force; on the other hand there was the lift
problem which causes the low vehicle stability. So there was great need of considering
all the forces while designing the vehicle body. In the regards Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) played its vital role in determining the vehicle body shaping.
To understand and for the clear explanation of the theory and the subject area of the
topic the literature review has been split into different sections. The topics these
sections cover include the basis aerodynamics of the car body, drag, lift and other
different parameters for example height and the pitch which causes on the moving
vehicle body. Then, the main area will be covered which is CFD simulation. The main
model for the research is the Ahmed model to have the better understanding of the
aerodynamics forces at the back light angle of the car.
A moving object which is exposed to air always experience three main forces and
movements respectively as shown in the figure. (Genta, 2008)
Figure 6: Forces and moments acting on the vehicle. (Genta, 2008)
These moments and forces which are acting on a car in the above figure are as follows:
 Earth fixed axis system XYZ: It can be described as the right angled frame fixed
on the road. In which X and Y coordinates are in the horizontal plane however
the Z is in the vertical direction pointing upwards. All these coordinates can be
divided as there is 90 degrees angle between them.
- 15 -
 Vehicle axis frame xyz. Again this is the right angled frame but this time it is
assumed to be fixed with the vehicle and also it moves along with it. The z force
called the lift force which is acting on upwards and x is the horizontal force
which is moving opposite to the vehicle body called drag. At the last force on
the side horizontally called the side force which causes the momentum force.
2.2 Aerodynamics Forces

2.2.1 Drag Force
As discussed earlier, the body shape when it exposed to air experience the different
pressure on the surface. By breaking this into five constituent elements will gives a
better understanding of drag force acting on the vehicle body. As it says in (Happian
Smith, 2004:p112-113).
2.2.2 Pressure drag
This is the component which is identified on the external surface of the car. As when the
vehicle moves with the forward direction of the air then the surface of the car
experience the pressure which is vary over the different points of the car as shown in the
following figure. To have a look it very closely the small area of the flat surface is
considered then the force which is acting on the axis of the car the drag force depends
on the magnitude of the pressure. (Happian Smith, 2004:p112-113).
Drag Force is calculated as:

…………… (Equation 3)
Where;
FD = Aerodynamic Drag Force, N
ρ = air density, Kg/m3
V = velocity, m/sec
A = Frontal Area, m2
Cd = Drag Coefficient
- 16 -
Figure 7: Pressure distribution over a Figure 8: Force acting on one surface
car body. element.
2.2.3 Surface Drag

This type of drag is due to the stress and drag values which is from the friction between
air and the body surface for a small element. This type of drag only happens due to the
effect of viscosity at the surface of the car.
2.2.4 Lift
In the simple words lift in the vehicle is the pressure difference between the upper and
the down side of the car. Nowadays higher top speed modern cars are manufactured
which high stability need while on the road. Upper surface area near the hood, wind
shield and underbody such as suspension, exhaust system are the main dependents of
lift force. Studies shows that it is not the common problem at the low speed but when
the vehicle goes to the high speed and then the pressure difference is a lot then lift force
is the problem.
Lift Force is calculated as:

(Equation 4)
Where;
FL = Aerodynamic Lift Force, N
ρ = air density, Kg/m3
V = velocity, m/sec
A = Frontal Area, m2
CL = Lift Coefficient
- 17 -
2.2.5 Turbulent and the laminar boundary layers
Boundary layer flow has two distinctive types when the flow layer passes over the
surface of the vehicle. The following figure 9 shows the flow layers on the top of the
bus. Smooth air flow can be seen in the front edge. In this as it is clear that the moment
of the outer layer is faster than the inner layers because the friction is effecting on the
inside layer which has the direct contact to the surface. This type of flow is known as
the Laminar flow. Mostly the turbulent body flow is streamlined.
Figure 9: Flow layers on the top of the bus. (Barnard, 1996)
2.2.6 Difference between the turbulent body flow and the separated flow
The stream line flow is mostly knows as the turbulent body flow. Which always follows
with the outlines of the body on the other hand the separated flow doesn’t follow the
outline of the body. (Scott, 2005)
Figure 11: Small zone of turbulence

Figure 10: Separated flow body VS Streamline body
(Scott, 2005) (Scott, 2005)
- 18 -
2.3 Different types of fluid over the vehicle body
2.3.1 Streamline flows

Streamline flow is a kind of flow which at any point over the car surface remains
constant with the same pattern. On the other hand if the flow follows the outline of the
vehicle body which is streamlined. In this case the flow can be say that it is attached. It
is shown in the figure 8. (Barnard, 1996, pp. 6-7)
2.3.2 Stagnation regions

This is the nature of the air which is strikes a vehicle body it divides into the different
flow lines over the body. The divided flow goes over and under the body. The point
where the air strikes and then stays stationary the position or the part where this occurs
is known as the stagnation region. (Barnard, 1996, p. 8).
2.3.3 Separation bubbles

When the air touches the surface of the car at some points the air doesn’t perform the
streamline flows it detaches. So the separation bubbles are formed in the area between
the air flows separates and then reattaches. (Barnard, 1996, pp. 12-13) The figure 12
shows the separation and the reattachment of the flow.
Figure 12: Separation and reattachment of the flow. (Barnard, 1996)
2.3.4 Reynolds Number

Boundary layer and the thickness of the layer affect the friction on the surface, flow
separations etc. The flow patterns depends on the length of the body, viscosity, speed
and the density which can also be name as the one quantity as knows as the Reynolds
Number. It can be expressed as follows: (Barnard, 1996, pp. 13-14)
- 19 -
This is has the same value in any system of units. If the value of density and the
viscosity is constant this number is totally depends on the speed and the size of the
vehicle body. So as it is studied that if the speed of the car increase the Reynolds
number goes on increasing which gives the thinner boundary layers. So it is clear that
this number is very important in determining the type of flow over the surface of the
car.
2.3.5 Turbulence
It can be defined as the unsteady or the unusual manner of the flow over the car body is
known as the turbulence flow. This can be termed as the swirling or the eddies turbulent
motions which varies of sizes. (Barnard, 1996, p. 14)
2.3.6 Three dimensional flow

The road vehicle mostly has the three dimensional flow patterns over them. Which
mostly includes the circular patches, eddies and the swirling which form the three
dimensional flow patterns.
2.3.7 Vortices
In the flow regions there are some parts which often knows as the vortices which is
mostly formed by the swirling flow structures, which mostly occurs with the
whirlwinds. This project is given based on the backlight angle of the car so the vortices
which formed at the back of the car are knows as the trailing vortices. These vortices
also decide the lift situation of the car which either is positive or the negative.
These vortices do not exist on the very long length in space. It merges in the surface or
formed the closed loop shape for example like a smoking ring. (Barnard, 1996, pp. 15-
16)
- 20 -
2.3.8 Karman Vortices
These types of vortices are formed mostly in the flow over the bluff bodies like buses,
trucks or the simple car body shapes like Ahmed model to study the basic aerodynamics
Figure 13: Karman Vortices

of the vehicle body. These types of vortices have the alternative patterns at a regular
frequency. The frequency of these vortices is known as the Strouhal frequency.
(Barnard, 1996, pp. 16-17)
2.4 Ahmed Model
To study the aerodynamics over the car body at the back angle by using the CFD
technology for this report it is proposed to study the air flow by using the Ahmed
model. For the designing of this model solid works was used. The dimensions of the
Ahmed model are as follows. (G.Franck, N.Nigro, & D'elia, 2009)
Figure 14: Ahmed model dimensions in mm
- 21 -
2.5 Body of Vehicle and its concepts
The saloon cars are described in different books in different theory books. Cars are the
bluff bodies with the drag coefficient of 0.3-0.4. (Watkins & Vino, 2008) There are
multiple theories behind the vehicle body and its concepts. When the solid body start to
experience any fluid either it is gas or the liquid, the fluid resists the motion of the
object in the opposite direction. The large effect on the aerodynamics of the body is
dependent on the geometry of the object. Drag and lift depends mainly on the size of the
object which experience under the fluid. Form drag is determined by the cross-sectional
shape of the object. (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2012)
2.5.1 Height from the ground level

This include in the increase of down force acting on the car which helps it to stick it to
the ground. If the space between the cross-sectional area of the vehicle body and the
ground is reduced then the flow of the air under the body of the vehicle will increase
which result in lower the pressure underneath the car and it means it will give the more
down force which help to main the stability while the vehicle body is in motion under
the fluid. This down force is also known as ground effect.
Jim Hall in 1961 builds the Chaparral to study the aerodynamics problem within the
car. Joseph Katz in race car aerodynamics explains the down force. That it can be
increased with the smaller ground clearance. In addition the down force values can be
increased by adding the skirts alongside of the vehicle body. (Hall, 2013) Following
graph shows that lift and the drag verses ground clearance for a model with the generic
underbody tunnel.
Figure 15: Velocity against the ratio height over length
- 22 -
2.6 Fluid (Air) Flow structure around the vehicle with different backlight angle:
This project basically focused on the rear backlight angle of a car. The area of this
research will be based on the three common backlight angles which can be classified as
follows:
 Fast back
 Square back
 Backlight angle
Fast back
A vehicle with the fast back is with the roof which has steady slant from the front of the
vehicle body to the back. On the other hand it is the roof which proceeds to the rear and
near the base of the car it gets closer. These fast back mostly have the curved shapes
vehicles from the back. The fast back is rarely found in the today’s vehicle design.
(Brennan, 2011)
Figure 16: Fastback with the flow patterns (Barnard, 1996)
It is clearly seen in the above figure. In these types of cars the upper surface has
relatively pressure which draws the air along sides of the car upwards and it will leads
to the creation of intense, conical vortices. (HAPPIAN-SMITH, 2004, pp. 114-115) On
the other hand in olden days teardrop-based cars with the extend tail these kind of cars
were the old shape of fast back cars. It was considered as the very useful shape because
the size of this shape was huge and it produces the long vehicles. This type of vehicle
has increase in the chamber which used to increase the lift. In the figure.17 Lay from
the university of Michigan in 1930s explain the results of the rear-end
- 23 -
. (Barnard, 1996, p. 75)
Figure 17: Results from W.E Lay’s study with different tail lengths. (Barnard, 1996)
Configuration Number Value of Drag coefficient

(Cd )
1 0.30
2 0.23
3 0.21
4 0.12
Table 1: different values of drag with different tail lengths (Barnard, 1996)
As it is clearly seen from the above figure and the values of the drag as tail length is
increase the drag coefficient goes in increasing.
Figure 18: Mercedes-Benzes CLS-class (fastback)

- 24 -
Square back
These types of vehicle bodies mostly have the square back. Happian explains the flow
structure of this vehicle as it is characterized by large, low pressure wake. In this case
the airflow unable to follow the body surface around the sharp edges, it is clearly shown
in the figure.19. (HAPPIAN-SMITH, 2004) The square back air flow shows the large
turbulent wake. This will lead to the large number of drag because the air flow is unable
to attach the surface of the vehicle body.
Figure 19: square back with re-circulatory

vortices (HAPPIAN-SMITH, 2004)
Relationship between the fastback and the square back:
Figure 20: Backlight angle against drag coefficient (HAPPIAN-SMITH, 2004)
It is clearly seen from the above graph that the fastback cars mostly fall in the category
of cars with the backlight angle ranging from 0 to 30. The graph shows that the in fast
- 25 -
back vehicles at around 15o the minimum drag can be achieved. On the other hand as
the angle goes on increasing it will give the high number of drag, this is in the case of
square back vehicles. (HAPPIAN-SMITH, 2004, p. 116)
2.7 Aerodynamics Principles

2.7.1 Navier-stroke equations
The relationship between the pressure, viscous and momentum forces in a fluid flow
can be explained by the Navier-stroke equations. Air is known as a Newtnian fluid and
its motion is directed by the Navier-Strokes equations are as follows: (E.L, A.P, H, & T,
2013, pp. 113-115)
Equation 5 )
From the above equation number (5)
= density
= viscosity
= Velocity
P = Pressure
= Body force (Mostly gravity)
In the low speed aerodynamics applications (less than 300 mph – 133m/s) the density is
effectively constant, to which will give rise to the incompressibility conditions. This can
be expressed by the following equation:
(Equation 6)
So on the basis of that the equation number (1) can be written as:
Equation 7)
- 26 -
2.7.2 Bernoulli equation:
The most important equation in the aerodynamics analysis is the Bernoulli equation.
This equation is used to compare the values of velocities and the pressure difference
between the two points in the flow.
Figure 22a: The venture meter
Equation 8)
So
P = pressure (Pa)
V = velocity of the fluid
h = height (m)
g = gravitational acceleration
= fluid density
So on the usual car speed the air density is constant which is at the usual car speed for
example below than (300mph- 133 ). The equation number (8) can be written as
follows:
(Equation 9)
So as a result
(Equation 10)
The equation number (10) explains the pressure difference on the two points of the
fluid.
- 27 -
2.8 CFD Simulation
The term CFD stands for computational fluid dynamics. The equation of continuity and
the momentum can be solved with the help of computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
technology. In 70’s there was 1st time that the 2D simulation were used to solve the
basic equations which is only apply to airplanes. (Nasira, et al., 2012) The
aerodynamics force which is acting on the vehicle is determined by calculating the
pressure and flow velocities around the surface of the body, which can only be done by
solving the equation of, motion of fluids for example the Navier-stroke equations and
the Bernoulli equation.
Fluids like (Gas and liquid) their flows are calculated by partial differential equations,
represents the law of conservation for the mass, momentum and the energy.
‘(CFD) computational fluid dynamics is the art of replacing such PDE system by the set
of algebraic equations which can be solved using digital computers.’ (Huerta, 2003)
 Qualitative and quantities fluid flow provided by the (CFD) computational fluid
dynamics can predict from the flowing means:
 CFD software’s like Solid works, NX idea, solver, post processing utilities.
 Numerical methods
 Mathematical modelling
The following figure shows the variation of (CFD) computational fluid dynamics over
the years and complexity of the geometry of the model.
Figure 21: Equations against the complex geometry (Joseph, 1995, p. 94)
- 28 -
One of the main advantages of using the CFD technology is that the architects get a
chance to design structures in the safe environment. After designing they can analyse
the stress, pressure on the particular part which can save lots of their time and efforts.
This even saves lots of money, otherwise in olden days which were not possible.
Automotive engineers can improve the vehicle aerodynamics which can solve lots of
complex equations like Navier-stroke equations and the Bernoulli equation. CFD
technology is very economically effect it saves the lot of effort to perform the actual
wind tunnel testing which is very time consuming and costly. For example the flow of
the air fluid over the Mazda Rx-7 which is the very complex 3d simulation. Following
is the figure of air flow (Navier-Strokes) simulation of the 2 dimensional model of
Mazda RX-7 car. (Joseph, 1995)
Figure 22: Flow over the two dimensional model of Mazda Rx-7 car. (Joseph, 1995, p. 95)
On the other hand many designs of the different models of the car can be analysed. This
can be done to come up with the final model so which will be ready for the wind tunnel
testing. This is cheaper way to finalising the design and do some post analysis.
2.8.1 Working of CFD

CFD simulations create cells which is the division of fluid volume in a finite number of
blocks. To divide the fluid into number of blocks or to create the finite number of cells a
finite volume around the selected model is created which is known as the
Computational domain. For the accuracy it all depends on the structure and the size of
the cells. Following is the figure showing the computational domain.
- 29 -
Figure 23: Computational domain (SolidWorks, 2014)
For this project the Solid works has been chosen to study the aerodynamics acting on
the different car models. SolidWorks element techniques were considered. After the
solid model is formed then meshing is applied then the software automatically generates
the mixture of contact, shells, solid and spring elements which are totally based on the
geometry of the model. The following meshes will be automatically be created by the
SolidWorks CFD software. (SolidWorks, 2014)
Shell mesh
These types of meshes are for the sheet metals. The program automatically creates these
types of meshes for the sheet metals which has the uniform thickness. For these kind of
models the mesh is generated from the mid-surface. Following are the two examples of
the Shell mesh.
Figure 24: Highlighted is a mid-surface sheet metal (left), nodes

shown and the shell element created at mid surface (right)
(SolidWorks, 2014)
- 30 -
Mixed mesh:
This type of mesh is for the complex geometries model.
Solid mesh:
This type of mesh is created for the tetrahedral 3d mesh solid elements for all solid
components for all the solid components in the parts. For the bulky objects tetrahedral
elements are suitable.
So the process includes the formation of the model with all the parameters and
geometry configuration. Then the next step will be making the Conceptual domain
around the model. This will define the area where the tests have to perform. The end
step is to perform the flow simulation. This will give the aerodynamics flow over the
desire body or shape of the model.
- 31 -
CHAPTER 3: Research
- 32 -
3 RESEARCH DATA AND METHODS
3.1 Introduction
This project consists of the CFD simulation of Ahmed model in solid works 2013 and
also consists of some tests on the wind tunnel. So 1st of all Ahmed model was designed
with the original dimensions and with different slant backlight angels. And also
performed tests and results are gathered from different car models.
3.2 Data Used

The road vehicles are mostly defined as the bluff-bodies. The aerodynamics researches
mostly use the reference models to study the basis of aerodynamics acting on the road
vehicle. It also let the researchers to understand the flow structures which are unveiled
in the road vehicle wakes. Car shapes can be represents by these bluff-bodies models as
they are capable of generating the same flow features with keeping the same geometry
with very less shape changes. In 2004 Le Good and Garry observed that Ahmed model
is the most common which is very good to study the air flow over the vehicle body.
(Watkins & Vino, 2008) The Ahmed model was made in 1984. This model is using with
the different slant angles are used to studying the flow of air over the different backlight
angles there are 0 , 5, 12.5 ,20 , 30, 40.
Figure 25: Ahmed model made in SolidWorks
- 33 -
The following figure shows the dimension for the Ahmed model.
Figure 26: Side dimensions in (mm)
Figure 27: Front dimension in (mm)
3.3 Initial Method

In the initial stage the Ahmed model was completed in the CAD software Solid works
2013 as the body and the dimensions were discussed earlier. The second and the most
important step is to start the solid works flow simulation 2013. It can be done by going
to add in and by marking the solid works flow simulation 2013. The test simulation
results for each test can be seen in the appendix A.
The chosen CAD program to complete the model and the CFD flow simulation is was
the Solid works 2013. The main purpose for choosing this program was it has the inside
flow simulation to perform the CFD technique and find the fundamentals of the basic
flow other the Ahmed model. On the other hand this software was faster to perform the
- 34 -
CFD flow simulation tests on the Ahmed model and even better for the designing. This
software is very user friendly and gives lots options like flow trajectories and the
pressure surfaces and the play the flow animation which was done.
3.4 CFD (computational fluid dynamics) simulation setup

There are some process which involved in the CFD (computational fluid dynamics).
The CFD (computational fluid dynamics) simulation analysis is explained below.
(W.Slater, 2008)
a) Define the Problems :

The 1st and the most starting of the step is to define the problem and then start to
analysis that how this can be solved by using the CDF flow simulation software. The
objective of the analysis is defined. So for this project the objective is to study the flow
of the air fluid over the different vehicle with the different back light angle. To analyse
this bluff-body is designed called the Ahmed model to analysis the flow over the
different angles of this bluff-model. For this project the model to analyse is 3d Ahmed
model so because of this the dimensions will be 3d. The next step is to create the flow
domain or the computational domain. This defines the flow around the 3d model and
which area the flow is restricted to. The nature of the viscous flow is determined. Inlet
air flow is determined and the outlet.
b) 3d modelling.
For this project the Ahmed model is designed with the same parameters as used in the
conducting in the actually tests. Figure 25 showing the Ahmed model.
c) Flow domain or the computational domain:

The area around the 3d model, which defines the flow simulation the restricted area, is
known as the computational domain. This defines the boundary under which the flow
simulation will take place. The general figure 23 shows the basis of the computational
domain. The following figure 28 shows that actual computational domain for the
experiment.
- 35 -
Figure 28: Computational domain in SolidWorks
Computational Domain Size used in the project

X min -1.000 m
X max 1.000 m
Y min -0.200 m
Y max 1.000 m
Z min -6.000 m
Z max 0.800 m
Table 2: Computational domain size used in the project
d) Creating mesh
The basic mesh is used in this project. It can be say that the system auto generated
meshing were used.
Number of cells in X 40
Number of cells in Y 27
Number of cells in Z 94
Table 3: Basic mesh dimensions
Total cells 101520

Fluid cells 98392
Solid cells 1912
Partial cells 1216
Irregular cells 0
Trimmed cells 0
Table 4 : Number of cells
- 36 -
e) Initial and the boundary conditions
As the Flow domain or the computational domain was established then physical
conditions are needed for the boundary of the computational domain. The software
package needs to start solution and use series of methods to reach the final point.
f) Establishing the Goals:

After completing all the steps the goals like lift and drag are introduced which will
defined the nature of the flow simulation over the body. All the results will be based on
the goals provided. By solving the goals then the parameters like cut plot, surface plot
and the flow trajectories can be examined for any pressure plot or the velocity. For this
project the velocities like lift and drag are considered.
g) Performing the Simulation

After completing the entire step then the software is ready to perform the tests. It is to
make sure that the hard disk must have the enough places to store the results.
Sometimes the software gives some error which ones need to check for the error and
resolve the issue to perform the simulation again.
h) Results of the simulation

After completing the simulation the results are ready to view. There lots of ways to
check and note down the results. The results can be obtained in the form of the word
documents and the plots graph between the coefficient of lifts and the coefficient of
drag of each sample.
3.3.1: A specific method

So as descried earlier that the CDF flow simulation method are used to perform
the flow simulation tests on the designed Ahmed model with the different backlight
angle. This can be down by following all the steps and procedures explained earlier
under the CFD (computational fluid dynamics) simulation setup. To perform this
Simulation the CAD software Solid Works 2013 was used. The main advantage of this
software is that it is the user friendly and give the details of all the analysis which is
carried about to analyse the aerodynamics of the car.
- 37 -
CHAPTER 4: Results
- 38 -
4. RESULTS
4.1 Introduction
This section covers all the results from the simulations undertaken with the CAD
software solid works 2013. And then the results will be presents in the form of tables
and charts, pictures taken directly from the solid works while analysing the results. This
result section contained Ahmed model (bluff body) with the different back light angle.
The different backlight angles there are 0o, 5o, 12.5o, 20o, 30o, and 40o. Then the results
of coefficient of lift and the coefficient of drag are compared with the different
backlight angle. This is shown in the graph and with the combination of the pictures.
4.2 Ahmed model testing

4.2.1 Introduction
To analyses the flow over the vehicle back light angle. It was important to analyse any
3d bluff body model. As it is known as the car are like the bluff bodies which runs over
the road. As it is can be seen from the literature review that as many researchers
conducted in the as on the aerodynamics over the car body. Every time the researcher
used the simplified bluff-body to perform the tests on and then compared the results
with the original shape of the car. There are different parameters which are compared
between different backlight angles of the Ahmed model. Following are the figure of
Ahmed model with different backlight angles.
Figure 31: Ahmed model Figure 30: Ahmed model Figure 29: Ahmed model
with 0o with 5o with 12.5o
- 39 -
Figure 34: Ahmed model with Figure 33: Ahmed model
Figure 32: Ahmed model with
20o with 30o
40o
There are 5 Ahmed model back light angle’s variations are investigated by using the
Solid Works flow simulation. These different angles are as following:
 0 degree
 5 degrees
 12.5 degrees
 20 degrees
 30 degrees
 40 degrees
According to the (G.Franck, N.Nigro, & D'elia, 2009) the slant angle is equal to the ,
where and the
Slant angle Nature of Flow

Nearly 2D attached
Hugely separated 3d
Nearly 2d attached
Table 5: Slant angle and the nature of flow
4.2.2 Flow simulation on the Square back or 0 degrees back light angle
First of all the 0 degree or the square back was analysed under the flow simulation
software. Which is . It can be clearly from the diagram that the two
wakes appearing is almost the 2 dimensional. These are attached with the top and the
near bottom of the back of the model. The wake which is near has the two circulatory
flows pattern are created.
- 40 -
Figure 35: Pressure trajectories (side back view) square back
4.2.3 Flow simulation on the on 5 degrees back light angle:
On the other hand the slant angle when it is 5 degrees which is nearly equal to the 0
degree or the square back of the Ahmed model. It is . The
flow near the wake according to the table.5 is 2 dimensional which is attached on the
top and the bottom back surfaces as it is cleared from the figures. There are two wakes
Figure 36 : Pressure trajectories (side back view) 5 degrees

which is near to the surfaces which are one above the other. This can be clearly seen in
the figure.36.
- 41 -
4.2.4 Flow simulation on the on 12.5 degrees back light angle:
This test was performed on the Ahmed model which the 12.5 degrees back light angle.
As the angle is . According to the table.5 the results are almost 2d attached.
Again in this case it can be clearly observe that there are two wakes appearing at almost
in the same position like in the last case. These were above one above another. This can
be clearly seen in the figure.37. Similarly on the other side if the streamline over these
two wakes is seen it has slightly aligned unlike in the last case.
Figure 37: Pressure trajectories (side back view) 12.5 degrees
When the slant angle is between the both and . It mean the angle when the
slant angle is greater then and less than the .
So in this case three dimensional behaviour can be seen. Due to this the flow of the fluid
in the near-wake is quick. Helical motion is produced because of streamline are fed by a
centred rotation motion. (G.Franck, N.Nigro, & D'elia, 2009)
- 42 -
Figure 38 : Pressure trajectories (side back view) 20 degrees

When the slant angle is 30 degrees which is . It almost gives the same wakes
and the structures just like in the last case. But if the wakes positions are observed that it
was 2 wakes structure very near to the back surface and near to the bottom, one above
the other.
Figure 39: Pressure trajectories (side back view) 30 degrees
- 43 -
And at the last when the slant angle is . The flow in this case is again the
two-dimensional. Again the two wakes are formed but this time as compared to other
last two cases the wakes are bigger the upper wake are more on the slope. It was the
more pressure area of drag on the slope.
Figure 40: Pressure trajectories (side back view) 40 degrees
4.3 Discussion of results

All the results of the different slant angle of the Ahmed model are described earlier in
the results section.
The main part of the discussion is how the different slant angle of the Ahmed model
shows which effects they put on the coefficient of drag and the coefficient of lift. The
comparison of the coefficient of lift and the coefficient of drag with the different slant
angles are also included in the discussion.
- 44 -
CHAPTER 5: Discussion
- 45 -
5. DISCUSSION
5.1 Introduction
This section consists of the all discussion on the aerodynamics of the Ahmed model
with different slant angles. The main discussion is circulating around the Lift and the
drag coefficient of the Ahmed model with different slant angles. Then on the basis of
the results found the Ahmed model of minimum Coefficient of drag and the lift is
proposed. On the other hand the explanation is provided as well to support the fact.
“Drag reduction is not the only aerodynamic consideration. The air flow also will affect
the aerodynamic lift forces and the position of the center of pressure, both of which can
have a profound effect on vehicle handling and stability”. (R.Stone 2004).
5.2 Discussion on the drag coefficient Cd for different Ahmed model

It is discussed earlier in the literature review that when the car is moving forward in the
direction the air. Then air exerts pressure on the surface of the car. This is different for
different points on the surface.
In order to study the behaviour of this Drag force acting on the surface on the backlight
angle the bluff body (Ahmed model) with different back angles were tested with the
help of Solid works simulation. The arrangement of these tests and all the parameters
were discussed before in the previous chapter. The air speed was 55 (mile/h). It can be
seen in the table and the graph that the maximum drag was at the 0 degrees angle and
the minimum drag can get on 30 degrees angle. After the 40 degrees the drag and the
drag coefficient start to gain the high value. Drag force and the drag coefficients after
performing the simulation tests are as follows:
Backlight angle (degrees) 0 5 12.5 20 30 40

Drag (mile/h) 20.323 16.454 13.844 14.519 8.263 9.776
Coefficient of Drag (no units) 0.093 0.063 0.075 0.066 0.0377 0.044
Table 6: Drag values and Coefficient of Drag
- 46 -
Backlight angle Vs Drag
25
20
Drag(mile/h)
15
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Backlight angle(degrees)
Graph 1: Drag against the backlight angle
Backlight angle Vs Coefficient of drag (Cd)

0.1
0.08
Coefficient of drag
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Backlight angle (degrees)
Graph 2: Backlight angle against Coefficient of drag Cd
It can be clearly seen that the drag at the 1st point with the back light angle of 0o the
drag force and the Coefficient of drag Cd has the values of 20.323 mile/h and 0.093
respectively. It has the highest number of drag among all the other models. The high
value is because the body is not completely streamlined. Mostly the stream line bodies
have the less drag due to the formation of the streamline flow. This high number of
drag is due to the plane complete square back which is responsible of creating the two
circulatory streamlines at the near wake. The air from the top surfaces has to cover the
long way till the back of the model which makes the air flow.
- 47 -
Figure 41: Max and Min drag areas
From the above picture as it is clear that the maximum drag is exerting at the end of the
pic. The air flow took the same time to reach the end of the model so it makes the same
wake structures from the top and the bottom.
Figure 42: Pressure trajectories (side view)
From the above figure it can be seen that the flow over the body is the stream line flow
as it described earlier that and as soon as the air flow reached at the end point where the
sharp edge is then the flow suddenly separates and forms the large numbers of
circulatory sub-flows.
- 48 -
Figure 44: Pressure trajectories (left back Figure 43: Pressure trajectories (back
side view) view)
As it is clearly seen from the above figures that the complete square back have the large
number of re-circulatory time-averaged flow which is forming like a set of circles
moving in a arc in between the up and down of the flow lines and it also as the small
number of re-circulatory flow new the bottom wake. It makes the formation of coil
elastic ring which is all over the top wake of this square model.
Figure 45: Pressure trajectories (side back

view)
The side view is showing that the coil elastic rings are creating in between the two up
and the down streamline flows. The flow was attached on the top and the bottom
surfaces of the bluff body.
- 49 -
Secondly, the Ahmed model with the slant angle 50 were tested with the SolidWorks
simulation all the conditions were same. The air flow speed was 55 miles/h with the
same domain size and the parameters. The values of drag and the coefficient of drag are
16.454 (miles/h) and 0.063 respectively. This value of drag has a sudden decrease of
Figure 47: Pressure trajectories (back side Figure 46 : Pressure trajectories (back
view) view)
Figure 48: Pressure trajectories (side back view)
- 50 -
Around 4 points as the angle is create at the back
The flow is almost 2-d attached. The flow nature is changed. As there are still some re-
circulatory times averaged sub flows near the wake. The two set of trailing vortices are
formed in this case as it is shown in the figure.49. Although it is not very obvious in 5o
angle case.
From the above diagram it is showing that in the where the two re-circulatory flow
regions are it has the maximum value of drag on the other hand the green region above
and below the re-circulatory flows showing the less drag.
Onwards the value of drag and the drag coefficients are decreasing in the case of 12.5o
the values of drag and the drag coefficients are 13.844 miles/h and 0.075
respectively.
Figure 51: Pressure trajectories (back Figure 50: Pressure trajectories (side back
view) view)
- 51 -
Figure 52: Pressure trajectories (side back view)
The physical feature of this angle was discussed in the article (G.Franck, N.Nigro, &
D'elia, 2009). The vortices are organized in such a manner which leads the flow to
become the two dimensional. The some of the vertical base and the
Slant angle have the edges which is responsible for the formation of vortices. On the
side the longitudinal vortices are formed. On the bottom and the top of the longitudinal
vortices there are two re-circulatory vortices which is formed and situated one over the
other.
- 52 -
It is clear from the above figure that the high number of drag area is reduced now with
the result of increased slant angle. Still there are two re-circulatory regions are formed
as it is clear from the above stream line with the drag figure.53.
When the angle reaches to the 20o . The value of Drag and the coefficient of drag are
14.519 miles/h and 0.066 respectively. In this the time averaged flow shows the strong
and massive three-dimensional behaviour.
Figure 55: Pressure trajectories (back Figure 54: Pressure trajectories
view) (back side view)
Figure 56: Pressure trajectories (complete view from left back)
- 53 -
In this case the bubble boundary is increased because the angle is larger. The side
longitudinal vortices are stronger and obvious than any other previous cases. As it can
be seen in the middle the separation point was created between the two longitudinal
vortices.
As it is clear that the high point area is becoming lower as the slant angle goes on
increasing. The flowing pattern is showing more streamlines than any other previous.
The Lowest drag force and the drag coefficient on the 30o slant angle. The respective
values are 8.263 miles/h and 0.0377. The flow trajectories are as follows:
Figure 59: Pressure trajectories (back side Figure 58: Pressure trajectories (back
view) view)
- 54 -
In this case the longitudinal vortices are stronger at the back from the sides of the body
and going to the surface of the road. It is clear that this model has the least number of
drag acting on the back of the body.
The last angle which was test is 40 degrees. As the graph and the table are showing that
the both the drag force and the coefficient of drag are increasing after the 30 degrees.
Figure 62 : Pressure trajectories (back Figure 61: Pressure trajectories (side
view) back view)
- 55 -
Figure 63: Pressure trajectories (complete view from left back)
In this case flow is again going to the two dimensional phase. Like the other flow less
than 20o. In this case the re-circulatory regions starting to generate over the surface of
the slant and it also has the same flow pattern near the bottom wake. So as soon as the
angled goes on increasing the body will be become more square shape which means the
drag will go on increasing.
- 56 -
Figure 65: Maximum drag areas on different backlight angles
Ahmed model with the 30o. This was due to that the time-averaged flow in this case was
massively separated 3d. Another factor which contributes to this because the upper
surface flow is no longer attached which is mostly around the sharp top surface , rear
corners and the flow returns to a structure more like to that of the initial square back.
(HAPPIAN-SMITH, 2004). So from the recent years the rear shape of the car are
advised to be more hatch back than the square which can be responsible of reducing the
drag. From all the results it is clear that now a days in the new car design it is almost
necessary for all the medium or large saloon car design to raise the boot lid. In the
saloon cars the trailing vortices are formed which are responsible for the low pressure
drag. Which makes the saloon and the hatch back design good aerodynamics shape of
now days.
- 57 -
5.3 Discussion on the Lift coefficient CL for different Ahmed model:
In simple words the pressure difference between the up and down of the car, foil or any
streamline object is known as the lift force or the lift coefficient of the object. In this the
most important factor which effect the lift of any object is the angle of attack and the
camber of the curvature of the body. (Barnard, 1996)
Increasing any of the components will result in increasing the lift of the object. Mostly
the lift is depending on the air flow underneath the car and the pressure distribution.
Following are the resutls gatthed from the Solidworks simulation:
Backlight angle (degrees) 0 5 12.5 20 30 40

Drag (mile/h) 38.058 38.177 38.049 38.186 38.182 38.177
Coefficient of lift (no units) 0.1738 0.17444 0.17383 0.1744 0.1743 0.1743
Table 7: Lift force and the Coefficient of lift
Backlight angle Vs Lift force

38.22
38.2
Lift force miles/h
38.18
38.16
38.14
38.12
38.1
38.08
38.06
38.04
0 10 20 30 40 50
Backlight angle
Graph 3: Backlight angle against lift force
- 58 -
Backlight angle Vs Coefficent of lift CL
0.1745
0.1744
Coeffiecient of lift
0.1743
0.1742
0.1741
0.174
0.1739
0.1738
0.1737
0 10 20 30 40 50
Backlight angle
Graph 4: Backlight angle against Lift coefficient
It is clear from the above graph and tables that in this case of Ahmed model with
different backlight angle the lift coefficient or the lift force does not affect much on it.
All the values are the same with some minor effect or slightly changes.
Figure 66: Lift distribution over different backlight angle of the Ahmed model
The lift force shown over the different Ahmed models. The square back or 0 degree
back all have the blue line almost similar which indicates the values for the all models
are almost the same with slightly change due to the back angle. This could be because
the bottom of the body is the same throughout the tests and the flow domain size is the
same as well throughout the tests. This could only be changed when almost there is no
gap between the bottom of the model and the flow domain, or there is any deal at the
- 59 -
bottom front or the back of the model. This could leads to the big change in the lift of
the body.
5.4 Discussion on Pressure areas on different backlight angle:
Figure 67: Pressure distribution over different backlight angles of the Ahmad model
Above picture shows the pressure distribution over the different backlight angle. As it is
clear that when the angle was 0 degrees which is almost the square back the pressure is
distributed over the all the back of the where the 2 re-circulatory vortices are made. This
shows that the square back have minimum pressure along all the back from top to
bottom.
As the backlight angle is increasing the minimum pressure area is going over to the top
of the slant angle and as it can be clearly seen that the pressure area on the 30 degrees
has the very larger area as compared to the others.
- 60 -
CHAPTER 6: Conclusions
- 61 -
CONCLUSIONS
6.1 Conclusions
As summarized by R Stone, “The aerodynamic drag of a vehicle will depend on both

the overall shape of the vehicle (e.g., whether it is a notchback or a hatchback), and
body details such as the gutters at the edge of the windshield or the wheel trim. In
hatchback cars, the angle of inclination of the rear window determines whether
separation occurs at the top or bottom of the rear window.” (R Stone, 2004).
“When considering vehicle drag results, care should be taken in making comparisons
among different tests. The drag coefficient will depend on how the area is defined, the
nature of any turbulence, the Reynolds number, the velocity distribution of the incident
flow, the accuracy of anybody details (especially on a reduced-scale model), the internal
flows, and the presence of the ground. Remember also that vehicles usually are subject
to a cross wind and that drag coefficients rise markedly for non-zero yaw angles.” (R
Stone,2004)
From the results of the simulation which was conducted on the Ahmed body (bluff
body). This is concluded that the rear angle for the car is very important and all the
aerodynamics forces such as lift and the drag or coefficient of drag and the coefficient
of lift all depends on these changes in shape. The findings could suggest ways in which
air flow controls the water and dirt deposition patterns on the glass surfaces to aid in
vehicle design process.
From the results and discussion it is clear that the back light angle of the model is below
than 20o or above 30o the time-averaged flow is almost two dimensional attached. On
the other hand if the angle is from 20o to 30o the time-averaged flow is massively three
dimensional separated. All the aerodynamics is explained.
The first analysis of this project was on the drag force and the drag coefficient of the
bluff body. It explains all the detail which is responsible for the high drag or the low
drag. On the basis of results the best up to date design were proposed.
- 62 -
The second analysis of this project is on the lift coefficient or the lift force on the
Ahmed model. It was clear from all the results almost all the lift coefficients are the
same with some slightly change in the values. This was due to no change in the
underneath of the model was taken. It is discussed that the how the lift can be changed
the proposed model was discussed.
6.2 Recommendations / Future work
The three-dimensional flow around a vehicle is highly complex, and complete

numerical solutions have yet to be achieved. Consequently, the wind tunnel testing of
models and full-size vehicles remains a vital part of their aerodynamic development. (R
Stone,2004)
At first there was wind tunnel testing were also including in the project. This couldn’t
be done because of some limitation of the available wind tunnel at Teesside University.
The main problem was with the smoke machine and also there was nothing to calculate
the pressure, drag or lift forces. So for the future work it is recommended that the wind
tunnel tests must be conducted and the results can be compared with the CFD
simulation results and then the better discussion can be made, on the other hand the
comparison can be done on both the values.
For this project as the CFD simulation SolidWorks were used to study the nature of
aerodynamics over the bluff body. The results which were obtained were good to some
extent as the flow trajectories don’t have many details on them, that’s why there is some
point where results cannot be explained properly.
For this ANSYS software can be used to study the flow over the bluff body, because it
gives the better results in determining the separation points as indicated by literature
findings, and supported by the authors study.
For this project Ahmed model were used. In the future work some modification can be
done to study the lift force and then on the basis of that also can see the variation on the
drag force. Then comparison can be done with the original results.
- 63 -
Reference
Ahmed, S.R., Ramm, G., Faltin, G., 1984. Some salient features of the time-averaged
ground vehicle wake, SAE Technical Paper 840300
AudiAG. (1999, December 14). New Audi Wind Tunnel Centre in Ingolstadt. Retrieved
February 05, 2014, from Audi World:
http://www.audiworld.com/news/99/wind/content.shtml
Barnard, R. H. (1996). Road vehicle aerodynamic design: An introduction. In R. H.

Barnard, Road vehicle aerodynamic design: An introduction (pp. 264-265). St Albans:
MechAero.
Brennan, J. (2011, 06 10). Hooniverse Fastback Friday. Retrieved 03 17, 2014, from
Hooniverse: http://hooniverse.com/2011/06/10/hooniverse-fastback-friday-what-is-your-
definition-of-a-fastback/
Centurion Magazine online. (2011, September 12). Classic Cars. Retrieved April 03, 2014,
from Centurion Magazine online.
cfdanalysisservices. (2014). SIGNIFICANCE OF CFD ANALYSIS IN MODERN
INDUSTRY. Retrieved 03 26, 2014, from CFD Analysis Services:

http://cfdanalysisservices.net/cfd-analysis-services-significance-of-cfd-analysis-in-modern-
industry/
Emmanuel Guilmineau, 2007, Computational study of flow around a simplified

car body, Available online 6 August 2007, date accessed November 2013
E.L, H., A.P, C., H, C. S., & T, V. D. (2013). Navier-Stokes Equations. In H. E.L, C. A.P,
C. S. H, & V. D. T, Aerodyanamics for Engineering students (pp. 113-115). Kidlington :
Elsevier.
FENTON J 1999, Advances in Vehicle Design, ISBN-10: 1860581811
G.Franck, N.Nigro, M., & D'elia, J. (2009). Numertical Simulation of the flow around the
ahemd vehicle model. Latin American Applied Research 39, 295-306.
Genta, G. (2008). Road Vehicle Derodynamics. In G. Genta, Motor Vehicle Dynamics

Modeling and Simulation (pp. 89-90). Toh Tuck, Singapore : World Scientific Publishing
Co .Pte. Ltd.
Guilmineau, E. (2008). Computational Study of flow around a simplified car body. Journal
of wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 96, 1207-1217.
Hall, J. (2013, 02 14). 'Ground Effect'. Its history and Theory explained. Retrieved 03 15,
2014, from The Judge 13.
HAPPIAN-SMITH, J. (2004). An introduction to Moden Vehicle Design. Warrendale: SAE

International .
Huerta, J. D. (2003). Finite Element Methods for Flow Problems. Sussex: John and Wiley
& Sons.
- 64 -
Institution of Mecanical Engineering. (2013, 10 10). C1385 - 2014 International Vehicle
Aerodynamics Conference. Retrieved 03 01, 2014, from Institution of Mecanical
Engineering.
Joseph, K. (1995). In K. Joseph, Race Car Aerodynamics: Designing for speed (pp. 94-95).
Cambridge: Bentley Pubishers.
Nasira, R. E., Mohamada, F., Kasirana, R., Adenana, M. S., Mohamed, M. F., Mata, M. H.,
& Ghania, A. R. (2012). Aerodynamics of ARTeC’s PEC 2011 EMo-C Car. Procedia
Engineering 41, 1775-1780.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2012). Factors That Affect Aerodynamics.
Retrieved 03 15, 2014, from Exploration NASA:
http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/education/rocket/factord.html
R Stone and J K Ball, "Automotive Engineering Fundamentals", SAE 2004
Ringis, V. (2013, February 16). Mercedes-Benz Aerodynamics. Retrieved March 10, 2014,
from Mecdes-Benz Digest News.
Scott, J. (2005, 02 13). Golf Ball Dimples & Drag. Retrieved 03 26, 2014, from Aero space
web: http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/aerodynamics/q0215.shtml
SolidWorks. (2014). Element Types. Retrieved 03 10, 2014, from Help. Solidworks:
http://help.solidworks.com/2012/English/SolidWorks/cworks/Mesh_Types.htm?id=5600bd
43ae334ceb9f0521de4f3b09e5
W.Slater, J. (2008, 06 17). CFD Analysis Process. Retrieved 03 18, 2014, from NASA:
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/wind/valid/tutorial/process.html
Watkins, S., & Vino, G. (2008). The effect of vehcile spacing on the aerodynamics of a
representative car shape. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industirial Aerodynamics 96,
1232-1239.
- 65 -
APPENDICES
- 66 -
APPENDIX A
- 67 -
Solid works report:
0 degree
FULL REPORT
System Info
Product Flow Simulation 2013 SP4.0. Build: 2401
Computer name SSE-172-78821
User name j9112108
Processors Intel(R) Core(TM) i7-3770 CPU @ 3.40GHz
Memory 16334 MB / 8388607 MB
Operating system Windows 7 Service Pack 1 (Build 7601)
CAD version SolidWorks 2013 SP4.0
CPU speed 3401 MHz
General Info
Model U:\3rd year\project\tests\0\AHMED MODEL
0.SLDPRT
Project name Ahmed model
Project path U:\3rd year\project\tests\0\3
Units system SI (m-kg-s)
Analysis type External (exclude internal spaces)
Exclude cavities without flow conditions On
Coordinate system Global coordinate system
Reference axis X
INPUT DATA
Initial Mesh Settings
Automatic initial mesh: On
Result resolution level: 4
Advanced narrow channel refinement: Off
Refinement in solid region: Off
Geometry Resolution
Evaluation of minimum gap size: Automatic
Evaluation of minimum wall thickness: Automatic
Computational Domain
Size
X min -1.000 m
X max 1.000 m
Y min -0.200 m
Y max 1.000 m
Z min -6.000 m
Z max 0.800 m
Boundary Conditions
2D plane flow None
- 68 -
At X min Default
At X max Default
At Y min Default
At Y max Default
At Z min Default
At Z max Default
Physical Features
Heat conduction in solids: Off
Time dependent: Off
Gravitational effects: Off
Flow type: Laminar and turbulent
High Mach number flow: Off
Humidity: Off
Default roughness: 0 micrometer
Default wall conditions: Adiabatic wall
Ambient Conditions
Thermodynamic parameters Static Pressure: 101325.00 Pa
Temperature: 293.20 K
Velocity parameters Velocity vector
Velocity in X direction: 0 mile/h
Velocity in Y direction: 0 mile/h
Velocity in Z direction: -55.000 mile/h
Turbulence parameters Turbulence intensity and length
Intensity: 0.10 %
Length: 0.003 m
Material Settings
Fluids
Air
Goals
Global Goals
Drag
Type Global Goal
Goal type Velocity (Z)
Calculate Maximum value
Use in convergence On
Lift
Type Global Goal
Goal type Velocity (Y)
Equation Goals
Drag Coefficient
Type Equation Goal
Formula Drag/(0.5*1.2922*55^2*0.112032)
- 69 -
Dimensionality No units
Lift Cofficient
Type Equation Goal
Formula Lift/(0.5*1.2922*55^2*0.112032)
Calculation Control Options

Finish Conditions
Finish conditions If one is satisfied
Maximum travels 4
Goals convergence Analysis interval: 5e-001
Solver Refinement
Refinement: Disabled
Results Saving
Save before refinement On
Advanced Control Options

Flow Freezing
Flow freezing strategy Disabled
RESULTS
General Info
Iterations: 123
CPU time: 487 s
Log
Preparing data for calculation 17:55:00 , Apr 19
Calculation started 0 17:55:25 , Apr 19
Calculation has converged since the following 18:03:16 , Apr 19
criteria are satisfied: 122
Goals are converged 122
Calculation finished 123 18:04:51 , Apr 19
Calculation Mesh
Basic Mesh Dimensions
Number Of Cells
Total cells 101520
Fluid cells 98392
Solid cells 1912
- 70 -
Partial cells 1216
Irregular cells 0
Trimmed cells 0
Maximum refinement level: 0
Goals
Name Unit Value Progress Use in Delta Criteria
convergence
Drag mile/h 20.323 100 On 0.908273201 0.931433449
Lift mile/h 38.058 100 On 0.0137368797 0.0546892793
Lift 0.1738132 100 On 6.27365866e- 0.000249766962
Coefficient 005
Drag 0.0928156 100 On 0.00414810071 0.00425387399
Coefficient
Min/Max Table
Name Minimum Maximum
Pressure [Pa] 100932.09 101694.72
Temperature [K] 292.95 293.50
Density (Fluid) [kg/m^3] 1.20 1.21
Velocity [mile/h] 0 71.213
Velocity (X) [mile/h] -36.777 36.928
Velocity (Y) [mile/h] -39.157 36.896
Velocity (Z) [mile/h] -67.277 20.356
Temperature (Fluid) [K] 292.95 293.50
Mach Number [ ] 0 0.09
Vorticity [1/s] 0.038 339.339
Shear Stress [Pa] 0 1.85
Relative Pressure [Pa] -392.91 369.72
Heat Transfer Coefficient 0 0
[W/m^2/K]
Surface Heat Flux [W/m^2] 0 0
- 71 -
5 degrees
FULL REPORT
System Info
User name j9112108
Memory 16334 MB / 8388607 MB
CPU speed 3401 MHz
General Info
5.SLDPRT
Project name Ahmed model (2)
Reference axis X
INPUT DATA
Geometry Resolution
Size
X min -1.000 m
X max 1.000 m
Y min -0.200 m
Y max 1.000 m
Z min -6.000 m
Z max 0.800 m
Boundary Conditions
2D plane flow None
At X min Default
At X max Default
- 72 -
At Y min Default
At Y max Default
At Z min Default
At Z max Default
Physical Features
Time dependent: Off
Humidity: Off
Ambient Conditions
Intensity: 0.10 %
Length: 0.003 m
Material Settings
Fluids
Air
Goals
Global Goals
Drag
Type Global Goal
Lift
Type Global Goal
Equation Goals
Drag Cofficient
Type Equation Goal
Formula Drag/(0.5*1.2922*55^2*0.112032)
- 73 -
lift Cofficient
Type Equation Goal
Formula Lift/(0.5*1.2922*55^2*0.112032)

Finish Conditions
Maximum travels 4
Solver Refinement
Results Saving

Flow Freezing
RESULTS
General Info
Iterations: 110
CPU time: 421 s
Log
Calculation Mesh
Number Of Cells
Total cells 101520
Fluid cells 98440
Solid cells 1872
Partial cells 1208
Irregular cells 0
- 74 -
Trimmed cells 0
Goals
convergence
Drag mile/h 16.454 100 On 0.518039245 0.711705581
Lift mile/h 38.050 100 On 0.0517874752 0.0572636863
lift 0.1737749 100 On 0.000236514368 0.000261524327
Coefficient
Drag 0.0751448 100 On 0.00236589493 0.0032503727
Coefficient
Min/Max Table
Pressure [Pa] 100931.56 101694.69
Velocity (X) [mile/h] -36.834 36.901
Velocity (Y) [mile/h] -39.064 36.889
Velocity (Z) [mile/h] -67.450 16.615
Vorticity [1/s] 0.033 340.112
[W/m^2/K]
- 75 -
12.5 degrees
FULL REPORT
System Info
User name j9112108
Memory 16334 MB / 8388607 MB
CPU speed 3401 MHz
General Info
Model U:\3rd year\project\tests\12.5\New folder\AHMED
MODEL 12.5.SLDPRT
Project name Project (1)
Project path U:\3rd year\project\tests\12.5\New folder\2
Analysis type External (not exclude internal spaces)
Exclude cavities without flow conditions Off
Reference axis Z
INPUT DATA

Geometry Resolution
Size
X min -1.000 m
X max 1.000 m
Y min -0.200 m
Y max 1.000 m
Z min -6.000 m
Z max 0.800 m
Boundary Conditions
2D plane flow None
At X min Default
At X max Default
At Y min Default
At Y max Default
- 76 -
At Z min Default
At Z max Default
Physical Features
Time dependent: Off
Humidity: Off
Ambient Conditions
Intensity: 0.10 %
Length: 0.003 m
Material Settings
Fluids
Air
Goals
Global Goals
lift
Type Global Goal
drag
Type Global Goal
Equation Goals
Cofficient of lift
Type Equation Goal
Formula lift/(0.5*1.2922*55^2*0.112032)
Coficient of drag
- 77 -
Type Equation Goal
Formula drag/(0.5*1.2922*55^2*0.112032)

Finish Conditions
Maximum travels 4
Solver Refinement
Results Saving

Flow Freezing
RESULTS
General Info
Iterations: 131
CPU time: 487 s
Log
Calculation Mesh
Number Of Cells
Total cells 101520
Fluid cells 98452
Solid cells 1862
Partial cells 1206
Irregular cells 0
Trimmed cells 0
- 78 -
Goals
convergence
lift mile/h 38.177 100 On 0.0177759906 0.0573083696
drag mile/h 13.844 100 On 0.482626477 0.50676727
Coficient 0.0632248 100 On 0.00220416415 0.0023144156
of drag
Cofficient 0.1743537 100 On 8.11832818e- 0.000261728396
of lift 005
Min/Max Table
Pressure [Pa] 100929.47 101694.65
Velocity (X) [mile/h] -36.847 36.881
Velocity (Y) [mile/h] -39.110 37.012
Velocity (Z) [mile/h] -67.493 13.952
Vorticity [1/s] 0.033 348.583
[W/m^2/K]
- 79 -
20 degrees
FULL REPORT
System Info
User name j9112108
Memory 16334 MB / 8388607 MB
CPU speed 3401 MHz
General Info
20.SLDPRT
Reference axis X
INPUT DATA
Geometry Resolution
Size
X min -1.000 m
X max 1.000 m
Y min -0.200 m
Y max 1.000 m
Z min -6.000 m
Z max 0.800 m
Boundary Conditions
2D plane flow None
At X min Default
- 80 -
At X max Default
At Y min Default
At Y max Default
At Z min Default
At Z max Default
Physical Features
Time dependent: Off
Humidity: Off
Ambient Conditions
Intensity: 0.10 %
Length: 0.003 m
Material Settings
Fluids
Air
Goals
Global Goals
Drag
Type Global Goal
Lift
Type Global Goal
Equation Goals
Drag Coefficient
Type Equation Goal
Formula Drag/(0.5*1.2922*55^2*0.112032)
- 81 -
Lift Coefficient
Type Equation Goal
Formula Lift/(0.5*1.2922*55^2*0.112032)

Finish Conditions
Maximum travels 4
Solver Refinement
Results Saving

Flow Freezing
RESULTS
General Info
Iterations: 112
CPU time: 435 s
Log
Calculation Mesh
Number Of Cells
Total cells 101520
Fluid cells 98476
Solid cells 1842
Partial cells 1202
- 82 -
Irregular cells 0
Trimmed cells 0
Goals
convergence
Drag mile/h 14.518 100 On 0.462990754 0.494643439
Lift mile/h 38.186 100 On 0.050056881 0.058269208
Lift 0.1743960 100 On 0.000228610712 0.000266116563
Coefficient
Drag 0.0663047 100 On 0.00211448744 0.00225904584
Coefficeint
Min/Max Table
Pressure [Pa] 100930.07 101694.63
Velocity (X) [mile/h] -36.767 37.019
Velocity (Y) [mile/h] -39.108 37.018
Velocity (Z) [mile/h] -67.547 14.798
Vorticity [1/s] 0.034 353.640
[W/m^2/K]
- 83 -
30 degrees
FULL REPORT
System Info
User name j9112108
Memory 16334 MB / 8388607 MB
CPU speed 3401 (3094) MHz
General Info
Model U:\3rd year\project\tests\30\New folder\AHMED
MODEL 30.SLDPRT
Project path U:\3rd year\project\tests\30\New folder\3
Reference axis X
INPUT DATA

Geometry Resolution
Size
X min -1.000 m
X max 1.000 m
Y min -0.200 m
Y max 1.000 m
Z min -6.000 m
Z max 0.800 m
Boundary Conditions
2D plane flow None
At X min Default
At X max Default
At Y min Default
- 84 -
At Y max Default
At Z min Default
At Z max Default
Physical Features
Time dependent: Off
Humidity: Off
Ambient Conditions
Intensity: 0.10 %
Length: 0.003 m
Material Settings
Fluids
Air
Goals
Global Goals
Drag
Type Global Goal
Lift
Type Global Goal
Equation Goals
Drag Coefficient
Type Equation Goal
Formula Drag/(0.5*1.2922*55^2*0.112032)
- 85 -
Lift Coefficients
Type Equation Goal
Formula Lift/(0.5*1.2922*55^2*0.112032)

Finish Conditions
Maximum travels 4
Solver Refinement
Results Saving

Flow Freezing
RESULTS
General Info
Iterations: 140
CPU time: 533 s
Log
Calculation Mesh
Number Of Cells
Total cells 101520
Fluid cells 98476
Solid cells 1842
Partial cells 1202
Irregular cells 0
Trimmed cells 0
- 86 -
Goals
convergence
Drag mile/h 8.263 100 On 0.320967027 0.323879149
Lift mile/h 38.182 100 On 0.0115949958 0.0580110528
Lift 0.1743789 100 On 5.29545627e- 0.000264937564
Coefficients 005
Drag 0.0377366 100 On 0.00146586242 0.00147916213
Coefficient
Min/Max Table
Pressure [Pa] 100818.36 101694.59
Velocity (X) [mile/h] -36.757 37.073
Velocity (Y) [mile/h] -39.098 37.016
Velocity (Z) [mile/h] -67.440 9.167
Vorticity [1/s] 0.035 509.752
[W/m^2/K]
- 87 -
40 degrees
FULL REPORT
System Info
User name j9112108
Memory 16334 MB / 8388607 MB
CPU speed 3401 (2992) MHz
General Info
40.SLDPRT
Reference axis X
INPUT DATA

Geometry Resolution
Size
X min -1.000 m
X max 1.000 m
Y min -0.200 m
Y max 1.000 m
Z min -6.000 m
Z max 0.800 m
Boundary Conditions
2D plane flow None
At X min Default
At X max Default
At Y min Default
- 88 -
At Y max Default
At Z min Default
At Z max Default
Physical Features
Time dependent: Off
Humidity: Off
Ambient Conditions
Intensity: 0.10 %
Length: 0.003 m
Material Settings
Fluids
Air
Goals
Global Goals
Drag
Type Global Goal
Lift
Type Global Goal
Equation Goals
Drag Coefficient
Type Equation Goal
Formula Drag/(0.5*1.2922*55^2*0.112032)
- 89 -
Lift Coefficient
Type Equation Goal
Formula Lift/(0.5*1.2922*55^2*0.112032)

Finish Conditions
Maximum travels 4
Solver Refinement
Results Saving

Flow Freezing
RESULTS
General Info
Iterations: 163
CPU time: 462 s
Log
Calculation Mesh
Number Of Cells
Total cells 101520
Fluid cells 98476
Solid cells 1842
Partial cells 1202
Irregular cells 0
Trimmed cells 0
- 90 -
Goals
convergence
Drag mile/h 9.776 100 On 0.379564393 0.380563273
Lift mile/h 38.178 100 On 0.00869277748 0.0570436175
Lift 0.1743590 100 On 3.97000774e- 0.000260519268
Coefficient 005
Drag 0.0446456 100 On 0.00173347769 0.00173803959
Coefficient
Min/Max Table
Pressure [Pa] 100687.91 101694.70
Velocity (X) [mile/h] -36.844 36.872
Velocity (Y) [mile/h] -39.112 37.014
Velocity (Z) [mile/h] -67.384 9.818
Vorticity [1/s] 0.016 699.850
[W/m^2/K]
- 91 -
View publication stats

Aerodynamics Simulation of Vehicle Body Using CFD

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Aerodynamics Simulation of Vehicle Body Using CFD

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

Aerodynamics Simulation of vehicle Body by using CFD Technology

Thesis · April 2014

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

BEng (hons) Mechanical Engineering

By: SAUD HASSAN

Supervisor: SAJID ABDULLAH

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

= Body force (Mostly gravity)

V = Velocity of the fluid

CFD = Computational fluid dynamics

Figure 1: Ahmed model (Bluff body)

Figure 2: Jelly Mould shape (Centurion Magazine online, 2011)

Figure 3: Wind Tunnel (Allpar, 2014)

Figure 5: Wind tunnel testing Figure 4: CFD Simulation (Ringis, 2013)

1.2 Aerodynamics Design

1.2.1 Explaining the equations

1.3 Dissertation Structure

1.4 Objectives of the Project

1.5 Limitations and dependencies:

Figure 6: Forces and moments acting on the vehicle. (Genta, 2008)

2.2 Aerodynamics Forces

2.2.2 Pressure drag

Drag Force is calculated as:

2.2.3 Surface Drag

Lift Force is calculated as:

Figure 9: Flow layers on the top of the bus. (Barnard, 1996)

Figure 11: Small zone of turbulence

2.3.1 Streamline flows

2.3.2 Stagnation regions

2.3.3 Separation bubbles

Figure 12: Separation and reattachment of the flow. (Barnard, 1996)

2.3.4 Reynolds Number

2.3.6 Three dimensional flow

Figure 13: Karman Vortices

Figure 14: Ahmed model dimensions in mm

2.5.1 Height from the ground level

Figure 15: Velocity against the ratio height over length

Figure 16: Fastback with the flow patterns (Barnard, 1996)

Configuration Number Value of Drag coefficient

Figure 18: Mercedes-Benzes CLS-class (fastback)

Figure 19: square back with re-circulatory

Relationship between the fastback and the square back:

Figure 20: Backlight angle against drag coefficient (HAPPIAN-SMITH, 2004)

2.7 Aerodynamics Principles

From the above equation number (5)

= Body force (Mostly gravity)

Figure 22a: The venture meter

2.8.1 Working of CFD

Figure 24: Highlighted is a mid-surface sheet metal (left), nodes

3.2 Data Used

Figure 25: Ahmed model made in SolidWorks

Figure 26: Side dimensions in (mm)

Figure 27: Front dimension in (mm)

3.3 Initial Method

3.4 CFD (computational fluid dynamics) simulation setup

a) Define the Problems :

c) Flow domain or the computational domain:

Computational Domain Size used in the project

Total cells 101520

f) Establishing the Goals:

g) Performing the Simulation