12th International Congress on Mathematical Education

Topic Study Group 19

8 July – 15 July, 2012, COEX, Seoul, Korea

HOW CABRI-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION INFLUENCED HIGH

SCHOOL STUDENTS’ MISCONCEPTIONS AND ACHIEVEMENT
ON THE QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS
Oguz Koklu
Marmara University
oguz.koklu@marmara.edu.tr
Abdullah Topcu
Bogazici University
abdullah.topcu@boun.edu.tr

There is an ongoing focus on detecting students’ misconceptions and attempts to replace by correct
forms. For the purpose, the dynamic geometry software is used in various contexts at different grade
levels. In this quasi-experimental study, tenth graders’ misconceptions and achievement on quadratic
functions were investigated. Results indicated a statistically significant effect of Cabri assisted
instruction on the misconception scores, and the mean scores of the experimental group were better
than the control group. Secondly, experimental group’s achievement scores on the quadratic
functions were significantly higher.
Key words: graph of quadratic functions, dynamic geometry, Cabri software, misconceptions,
achievement.

INTRODUCTION
Misconceptions have been regarded as one of the obstacles against effective learning (Duit &
Treagust, 2003; Vosniadou, 1994). Besides, they impede the development of more complex
comprehension of fundamental concepts in mathematics (Bezuidenhout, 1998). Teaching
attempts developed to overcome misconceptions often use interactive teaching and learning
methods (Muller, Bewes, Sharma & Reimann, 2008). One of these interactive ways in
replacing ambiguous and incorrect statements of mathematical concepts by correct forms is
using educational technology effectively during teaching. Technology is powerful in its
capability of providing greater and easier access to multiple representations of concepts (Fey,
1989; Habre, & Abboud, 2006; Porzio, 1999).
TECHNOLOGY AND THE LEARNING OF QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS
The dynamic geometry software such as Cabri, The Geometers Sketchpad and Graphic
Calculator, are effective educational tools for teaching algebra, geometry, and geometric
properties of algebraic entities for almost all grades (Hannafin, Burruss & Little, 2001). The
software are reported as effective media in the development of qualitative reasoning and
exploration (exploration of mathematical relationships) thanks to their dynamic nature and

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accurate constructions (Abramovich & Norton, 2006; Baki & Guven, 2009; Burns, 1996;
Hannafin & Scott, 1998; Yerushalmy, 1999). However, students may benefit from the
environment provided by the dynamic geometry software in varying ways and dimensions.
According to Hannafin and Scott (1998) this is dependent on students’ achievement level,
working memory capacity, spatial ability and the instruction taken.
Many of the concepts in mathematics appear in multiple ways. While concepts are generally
described in a unique way, they may appear in different labels, notations and representations.
In addition, comprehension of a concept in one representation does not necessarily lead an
understanding it by another representation (Even, 1990). Hence, this indicates that the
learning of the concept function should include a synthesis of a number of different
mathematical ideas and representations and flexible switch between each other (Even, 1990;
NCTM, 2000; Rasslan & Vinner, 1995; Sherin, 2002; Stein, Baxter, & Leinhardt, 1990).
Functions are mainly represented as algebraically, graphically, numerically in tables (tabular),
or by verbal descriptions in primary and high school curricula. However, among those
representations, the connection between the graphical and the algebraic representation of a
function is central (Leinhardt et al, 1990; Stein, Baxter, & Leinhardt, 1990) while the
dynamic geometry software serve as an effective mean of combining these two different
representations simultaneously.
A substantial amount of studies (Edwards & Ozgun-Koca, 2010; László, 2003; Santos-Trigo,
2004; Santos-Trigo, Espinoza-Perez & Reyes-Rodriguez, 2005) on teaching geometry have
indicated that the use of dynamic geometry software provides a number of advantages. Some
of them are: (a) representing mathematical objects/concepts from multiple perspectives, (b)
examining and/or exploring the mathematical relationships more in depth, (c) promoting
conjecturing, and (d) increasing questioning and critical thinking. Specifically, the learning
outcomes at high school level (Mariotti, 2001; Yilmaz, Ertem & Guven, 2010), problem
solving in geometry at high school level (Straesser, 2001) and visualizations in cubic
equations at undergraduate level (Baki & Guven, 2009) in the Cabri environment were
previously investigated. However, the misconceptions and achievement on the graph of
quadratic function at the high school level in the Cabri environment have not been
investigated until now.
Ellis and Grinstead (2008) claimed that the quadratic has taken not enough attention in the
mathematics education studies compared to work on linear functions. Studies (Ellis &
Grinstead, 2008; Eraslan, 2007; Moschkovich, Schoenfeld & Arcavi, 1993; Zazkis, Liljedahl
& Gadowsky, 2003) focusing on quadratic functions have provided that students may face
with various difficulties while learning quadratic functions. Some of the crucial ones are: (a)
making connections between different forms of representations such as graphical, algebraic
or tabular, (b) understanding the effect of coefficients on the functions graph, (c) recognizing
the distinction between linear and quadratic functions, (d) shifting and translating graphs
appropriately. By considering these findings, the common misconceptions in the quadratic
function and its graph may be summarized as the followings:
1. The constant coefficient c in the general form ax2+bx+c does not affect the vertex of
the graph (Ellis & Grinstead, 2008, Eraslan, 2007, Zaslavsky, 1997).

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2. The coefficients a, b or even c in the general form ax2+bx+c as the “slope” of the
parabola (Ellis & Grinstead, 2008; Zazkis et al, 2003).
3. A tangent line on an arbitrary point of the graph of a quadratic function has a constant
slope (Ellis & Grinstead, 2008; Zaslavsky, 1997).
The previous studies provided that the above misconceptions are commonly recognized
among students for several results such as focusing phenomena (Lobato, Ellis, & Munoz,
2003; Ellis & Grinstead, 2008) or prototype ideas (Schwarz, &Hershkowitz, 1999). However,
to what extent Cabri assisted instruction influence tenth grade students` misunderstandings
and achievement of the quadratic functions and their graph is an important question and needs
further investigation. The purpose of the study, hence, was to investigate whether Cabri
assisted instruction positively influence students’ difficulties in misconceptions on quadratic
functions and achievement at high school level. A quasi experimental research was designed.
The questions explored here were limited to first misconception. Hence the research
questions were:
1. How is Cabri assisted instruction influential in 10th grade high school students’
misconceptions of vertex of quadratic function and its graphical representation?
2. How is Cabri assisted instruction influential in 10th grade high school students’
achievements on understanding vertex of quadratic function and its graphical representation?
METHOD
Participants
The sample consisted of 44 tenth graders of two classrooms from a public high school in a
city of Turkey. The experimental group received Cabri assisted instruction; the control group
received traditional instruction. The size of experimental and control groups was 20 and 24,
respectively. The number of females in the experimental group was ten whereas four in the
control group. Both groups had the same teacher before and during the study. The teacher, Mr.
K has been teaching mathematics to several grades for 9 years.
Instruments
The attitudes towards computer were measured by a 40-item Likert questionnaire developed
by Loyd and Gressard (1984). Computer Attitude Scale (CAS) was designed to assess anxiety
or fear of computers; liking of computers or enjoying working with computers; confidence in
ability to use or learn about computers and usefulness/importance of computers in life.
Possible minimum and maximum scores are 40 and 160 respectively and higher scores
indicate higher positive attitude towards computer. The Turkish version of CAS was prepared
by Berberoglu and Calikoglu (1993). Factor and subfactors loading was also statistically
acceptable for this version of the CAS. Its reliability was reported as 0.90.
The methods widely used to assess students’ alternative conceptions are multiple choice tests,
interviews, and/or open-ended questionnaires (Tsai, Chen, Chou & Lain, 2007). Besides,
two-tier diagnostic instruments were advocated by Treagust (1988) and Tamir (1989) and
have been used in several research to diagnose students’ alternative conceptions. The

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instrument produced reliable results (Tan, Goh, Chia &Treagust, 2002; Tamir, 1989;
Treagust, 1988; Tsai et al, 2007). Besides, another reason for choosing the two-tier diagnostic
instrument is not only to reveal misconceptions but also to provide the underlying reasons for
the conceptions that were held by the students. Furthermore, two-tier tests are able to reduce
students’ guessing. The two-tier test for this study included 11 items and 5 of them were for
the misconception mentioned in earlier pages. Items were generated by the researchers and
the teacher by considering misconceptions mentioned above. By this way, the construct
validity of the instrument was ensured. The Cronbach alpha value for the internal consistency
reliability of this instrument was as α = 0.63. The test was administered in Turkish. Two of the
items are as following:
Read the question carefully. First choose a number below the stem then provide a reason for
your choice. (For example: 3-B) Remember that when a≠0 and a, b, c є , f(x) = ax2+bx+c is
–
given, the point on coordinate plane is called as the vertex of the parabola.

Question: Let . What is correct about the

vertices of the functions f and g?
(1) The same points. (2) Not same. (3) No vertex exists.
Reason:
A) values for both functions are equal.
B) x-intercepts for f and g are equal but y-intercepts are different.
C) the constant coefficients do not affect the vertex.
D) c only affects the y-intercept of the graph.
Question: What is correct about the vertices
of the functions?
(1)The same points. (2)Not same.
Reason:
A) Since , vertex is not affected.
B) values for both functions are equal.
C) the constant coefficients in the functions do not change the vertex.
D) x-intercepts are equal but y-intercepts are different.
PROCEDURE
Before the instruction on vertex of a parabola, existence of real roots and number of roots (no
real root, one and two different roots), writing equation by using roots, and quadratic
inequalities were visited by the teacher. The instruction on the graph of quadratic functions
was covered in eight lesson hours during two weeks. In the control group, the teacher used
traditional instruction. It included lecturing, practicing of rules and theorems on well-chosen
questions/problems, discussing the formulae and deducing results. In the experimental group,

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the same lesson was given with the help of Cabri software; Cabri assisted instruction. Cabri
assisted instruction can be defined as an expository teaching with the help of Cabri
environment. In other words, the teacher used the software for lecturing, practicing and
discussing. The problems and questions for practicing were the same of the control group.
Before the treatment, the Turkish version of the CAS was conducted by the teacher to both
groups. At the end of the instruction, the two-tier diagnostics test was administered to both
groups.
RESULTS
Each student had a misconception score (MS). A low MS for a student meant less
misconception by that student. Achievement scores (AS) were obtained by scoring the whole
two-tier diagnostic test like an achievement test. The analysis was conducted in two stages:
Firstly, students’ attitudes towards computers (ATC), previous exam scores (PES), MS and
AS were descriptively compared between two groups. Since a combination of variables
usually results in a more accurate prediction than the work done by a single variable and
because of its versatility and precision (Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2006), a regression analysis
was conducted using the Enter method for the MS and the AS.
The descriptive statistics and correlations among variables are presented respectively in Table
1 and Table 2. The means of the ATC and the PES for the two groups were very similar. MS
for experimental group were less than those of the control group. On the other hand, the AS of
the experimental group was higher than that of the control group.

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics

Experimental Group Control Group

Measures M SD M SD

ATC 125.850 20.317 123.040 15.261

PES 50.075 19.080 51.979 19.967

MS 2.750 2.552 3.854 3.610

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AS 64.571 14.238 52.405 21.776

Table 2. Correlations
Treat. Gender ATC PES MS AS

Treat. -.356(*) -.080 .050 .174 -.314(*)

Gender .117 -.133 -.146 .160

ATC -.019 .034 .167

PES -.370(*) .508(*)

MS -.592(*)

AS
* Correlation is significant at the .05 level (two-tailed).
The multiple regression analysis for the MS showed that the value of R2 for this model is
0.196 indicating that the model accounted for 20% or less of variation in the MS. The model
was not significant at predicting the MS, F(4,43)=2.379, p>0.05. The significant predictor of
the MS was the PES since the standardized β coefficient -.396 (p<0.05, confidence intervals
-0.113, -0.017). This implies a strong negative relationship, indicating that as the PES
increases the MS become less meaning that better performers of previous exam do not fall
very much in the misconception. Gender, attitude towards computer and treatment were not
significant predictors of the MS.
Lastly, the multiple regression analysis was conducted for the AS. The multiple regression
analysis of the AS showed that the value of R2 for this model is 0.345 indicating the model
accounted for 35% or less of variation in the AS. Therefore, the model explained a large
amount of variation in the AS. The adjusted R2 for the model indicated a large effect size. The
observed value of effect size was calculated at 0.53 for the AS. Hence, it was of practical
significance. The model was significant at predicting the AS than chance alone:
F(4,43)=6.668, p<0.05. The significant predictors of the AS were the PES and the treatment.
The standardized β coefficients of previous exam and treatment were 0.540 (p<0.05,
confidence intervals 0.290, 0.797) and -0.290 (p<0.05, confidence intervals -21.576, -0.860),
respectively. Gender and attitude towards computers were not significant predictors.
CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION
The findings indicated that the Cabri assisted instruction did not have a statistically positive
significant effect on the misconception, but the MS means of the experimental group were
less than the control group. Secondly, there was a significant difference in the AS on the
graph of quadratic functions between two groups in favor of experimental group.

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Experimental group performed better and had considerably less MS than the control group.
The PES was negatively correlated and significantly predictive of MS which give evidences
that high achieving students were better at handling the MS. In brief, both treatment and
higher scores on previous test has a positive influence on students’ comprehension of the role
of constant c in finding vertex. This provides partial evidence to the findings of the literature
since Hannafin and Scott (1998) claimed that students’ benefit from dynamic software in
terms of their achievement level.
The model for the AS was statistically significant. The PES and the treatment were the
significant predictors of the AS. Cabri assisted instruction increased the AS. High level of
support for visualization may be one of the Cabri’s leading advantages which supports
students to understand the concepts (Jackiw, 2003; Oldknow & Tetlow, 2008). Besides,
thanks to the dragging shapes property, student might discover how the entire construction
changes dynamically. In this way, Cabri might model meaningful relationships that are not
specified by symbols or represented by graphs (Hazzan & Goldenberg, 1997). Visualization
in geometry is an inevitable necessity for enhanced learning outcomes (Hazzan, &
Goldenberg, 1997). Hence, the finding is consistent with that using Cabri strengthens students’
mathematical conjectures by changing geometrical forms and increases students’
achievement (Abramovich & Norton, 2006; Dunham & Dick, 1994; Yilmaz, et al, 2010).
Consisting only of 44 high school students might be an important limitation. Therefore,
further researches in the Cabri environment should be conducted with a larger sample to have
a better understanding about misconceptions. Furthermore, the future research might
investigate effects of using Cabri as open learning environment on the misconceptions
(Jonassen, 2000).
Last note: For a more comprehensive report of the findings:
Koklu, O. & Topcu, A. (in press). Effect of Cabri-assisted instruction on secondary school
students’ misconceptions about graphs of quadratic functions. International Journal of
Mathematical Education in Science and Technology.
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