FUNDAMENTALS – CATEGORY OF FILMS

As per subject/theme

Mythological Social, Folk, Fantasy, Mythological fantasy, Socio fantasy, Science fiction, Historical, Historical fantasy,
Children, Animal, Animation

As per Technique/Time/Purpose

Feature films will be having story and includes all the commercial elements like Drama, emotions, fights, songs for
entertainment.

Add films are mainly for Publicity of different companies, Products, Organisations etc.

Tele films are the films mainly shot for Television. Generally Video Cameras with magnetic tapes will be used for shot of
these films.

Documentary films are for description about Places, Persons, Festivals and Occasions etc.

Short films are also the feature films but only difference is, duration of the film will be short.

Educational film is meant for educating the different people in various subjects.

Online program is the program which telecasts online

Teleplay is the Stage Play which is shot while running by using single camera or multi cameras. There is no need of any
editing for these Teleplays.

Tele episode is also a tele film but only difference is time duration. These are two types. First one is the Single episode
shows the total subject/story in one episode. Second one is the Serial shows the story/Subject in number of parts/episode
for long duration like number of days.

News story is the story of real incidents occurred and will be shot with Artists not at all related to the news. Some times,
Interviews o0f the real characters related to the news will be included in the News story.

Docu drama includes the real incidents occurred in the past and will be shot in original locations where those incidents
occurred.

Children films will be having the concepts related to Children for entertainment or encouraging or for conveying messages.

Animation Films will be made by using different drawings/Cartoons and motion will be created by arranging number of
drawings in sequence. Cartoon Films are also animated films

Departments in Film Making

Direction Department, Cinematography, Set, Production, Acting, Make-Up, Costumes, Sound, Stunts/fights/Choreography

Direction Department
In ascending order

1. Apprentice
2. Assistant Directors
3. Associate Directors
4. Co-Director
5. Director

Apprentice is only for learning with special interest, with no salary and no portfolio only for observation.

Duties of Assistant Directors

1. script assistant
 2. Clap Board operation
3. Make-up & Artist co-ordination
4. Make-up & costumes continuity
5. Hand and set Properties continuity

Duties of Associate Directors

1. Dialogues assistant
2. Editing report
3. Action & emotions continuity
4. Set properties continuity

Co-Director is for co-operation to the Director in Co-ordination of all the departments and shooting

Director is the whole and sole responsible person, captain of the film and directs film making

CAMERA DEPARTMENT

1. Camera assistant
2. Assistant cameraman
3. Operative cameraman
4. Cameraman

PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT

1) Production Manager
a) Purchases & properties
b) Production

Observations to be done by each and every Film Director are two kinds.

1. Casual or random observation

2. Keen observation

Basic Observations:
Animals, Age groups, Professions, Characters (Parent nature, Youth mentality/Matured, Children nature/dependent nature)

Sequence of Orders by Film Director during Shooting:

1. “Lights on” - “Burning sir” response by Gaffer

2. “Sound” – “Running sir” response after 5 seconds because of pre-roll
3. “Start camera” – “Rolling sir”
4. “Clap in” – example : 2/3 take 1, ‘2’ is scene number, ‘3’ is shot number
5. “Clap out”
6. “Action”
7. “Cut”
8. “OK’ or “Retake”

Sustaining cut will be used in between scenes. After ordering “Cut” by Director, Artist will be in the same position up to
some time then camera will be cut.

Movement cut will be used generally at ending of the scene. This is the cut takes place while artist or object is moving.

Stage Business is the activity/work is being done by Actor/Actress while performing action. Then action seems natural.
Ex: cleaning vehicle, washing clothes, cooking etc.

Basic Technical terms related to film making

Frame is 1/24th second. For films, 24 frames per second and for Video, 25 to 29 frames per second
Shot is the duration from Camera switch on to the Camera Switch off. It is the combination of frames.

Scene is combination of number of shots related to same location or time

Sequence is the combination of scenes.

Plot is the arrangement of scenes in an order

Treatment is the arrangement of Sequences in an order

Cut combines two shots

Film Director is a person, who directs Film making. Total film will be in the control of Film Director from stage of Script to
release of the film. At the time of Production, film director controls all the film crew like actors, technical crew etc .Film
Director is also one of the film makers. Film Producer and Film Director are only two film makers. Some times, in some
countries, Film Producer also controls the entire unit but direction of the film will depend on film director only.

Director of Photography/Cameraman looks after only camera work. He will not look the Lighting. In this case, Gaffer will
looks after Lighting.

Cinematographer looks after camera work and Lighting. In this case, there is no need of Gaffer. Only different number of
Assistants will be there to Cinematographer for different works like Lighting, camera operation etc.

Choreographer will compose fights and songs by sitting along with the Director.

Set may be natural or artificial and it may be at the place of Shooting/Shooting Spot/Location.

Location is the Shooting place, where the shooting is going on.

Call sheet is a statement containing the details of dates and working hours of the respective artist.

Queue is the last word of dialogue of front artist to another artist

Editing report is the report contains all the details of every shot taken during shooting

TCR is the Tape counter reading will be taken for video shooting. It is the ending time of the shot in Tape.

Cinematographer looks after Photography and Lighting

Director of Photography looks after only photography

Gaffer is a chief electrician or Unit electrician who handles the total lighting during shooting

Cinematography Department handles Camera, Lighting and Unit

Types of Video Cameras: VHS Camera, SVHS Camera, High Band Camera, Beeta Camera, Digi Beeta Camera, Digi
Camera

Types of Movie Cameras: Michel camera, AERY 1, AERY 2, AERY 3, AERY 4, Steady cam

Different types of Lenses : Convex lens, concave lens, wide angle lens, Telephoto lens, Zoom Lens, 35mm Lens, 70mm
Lens, 120mm Lens

Types of Scenes

1. Major Scenes
2. Lead Scenes (to any situations, fights or songs etc.)
3. Link Scenes
4. Enlargement scenes
5. Introduction Scenes
6. Establishment Scenes

Note:
 1. It is better to write screen play after finalizing all the locations. Then only better screen-play will produce according
to the convenience of locations.
2. Script will be consist of Action part left side and Dialogue part on the right side.
3. Screen-play includes shot division, camera angles, camera movement, action part and Dialogue part.
4. There is a difference between Director of Photography and Cinematographer.
5. Camera eye is the Director’s eye and spectator’s (viewer’s) eye also.
6. Film can called as Maxine
7. Should not kept same shot immediately, long, mid, close this sequence is better
8. In Video Cameras/Digital Cameras, when record button pressed, recording will not start immediately. There will be
Pre Roll of time about 5 seconds. For film, there is no Pre Roll, recording starts quickly
9. Created Characters must have the purpose
10. OBV – Outside Broadcasting voice
11. OSV – Off Screen Voice

********************************************************************************************************************

Pre-Production
Pre-Production is one of the stages of the film making. It is the stage before shooting part/production.

Sequence of different stages in Pre-Production

Idea/Concept should be decided on which, film has to be made. It is the main content or message which has to be
conveyed to viewers.

• Theme is the basic outline prepared by using already confirmed idea or concept
• Synopsis is the description of theme. It is also called as Story.
• Background should be decided on which story has to run.
• Single line order preparation which is the order/sequence of different incidents takes place in the story
• Writing of Screen-Play consists of different number of Scenes. The single line order of the story will be developed
as Scenes for convenience of presenting on the screen. Finally Screen Play is the conversion of Story for
convenience of playing on screen. Each and every scene must have the purpose.
• Script is the Screen-Play with Dialogues. It is better to maintain economy while writing Dialogues. Short dialogues
are better than lengthy Dialogues.
• Preparing estimation of Rough Budget inline with Script
• Convincing and Confirming Producer
• Casting, that is process of selection of artists for the different characters in all scenes.
• Selection of suitable Cameraman/Cinematographer/Director of Photography
• Selection of Action Director/Fight Master, Choreographer, Art Director, Costumer, Make-up man, Lyrics Writer,
Music Director Production Manager
• Writing of Lyrics by Lyrics writer
• Music composition to Lyrics by Music Director
• Songs recording
• Preparation of Scene wise Characters list and character wise scenes list
• Preparation of Costumes List of every character in every scene
• Details of Make-Up for each and every character in every scene
• Hand and set Properties List as per every scene
• Arranging of hand and set Properties
• Selection of Locations and designing of sets according to script
• Lighting Schemes to be decided/designed by Cinematographer/Director of Photography with co-ordination of
Director and Gaffer/Chief Electrician
• Designing of Fighting Schemes
• Deciding of Song Schemes
• Costumer or Costumes Chief sits along with the Director, Camera man, art director, Producer, Costumes
Designer and will decide or design the costumes as per the Costumes chart already prepared.
 • Make-Up Chief sits along with Director and will do Make-Up designs according to the Make-Up chart already
prepared.
• Completing FDC formalities
• Taking of call sheets from Artists
• Schedule planning as per the available dates of Locations, Artists and all technicians

Screen Writing Fundamentals

• Screen Writing Idea Concept
• Story Screenplay Shooting Script

Screen Writing
Screen Writing is an art and craft of writing of movie screenplay/script to entertain the audience

Idea
Idea is a thought or single point on which a movie is going to workout

Concept
The first thought i.e. is an idea will be developed as concept/theme in the form of two or three lines. It is the

out line of the story.

Story
Story is a sequence of events, told with some characters and incidents to entertain audience which

contains“start”,“middle” and “end”.

Screen Play
Screenplay is a written form which contains total play of frame to frame which is going to play on the movie screen. It
is also called as script

Shooting Script
Shooting Script is the final script which is perfectly ready for going to shoot which contains total technical details
related to taking of every shot of the movie.

Duties of the Direction Department

1. Script fairing
2. Duty of Clap Board
3. Editing Report preparation
4. Preparation of the different following charts in the stage of Pre-Production
Locations chart: Location wise all scenes list to be prepared as following. This chart will be useful for finalizing of locations
and schedule planning.
S.No. Location Description Scene Numbers Total number of Scenes
2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 17, 19, 22, 25, 26,
1 Main character’s House 13
28, 33, 37
2 School 3, 5, 7, 10, 11 5
3 Club 1, 9, 13, 20 4
4 ----- ------ ------

Scene wise Characters chart/Artists chart : Useful for finalizing the Artists

Scene
S.No. Gist of Scene Character name Artist name
Number
1. Kishore 1. Raja
2. Ramalinga raju 2. Subbarao
1 1 Main character attended for Interview
3. babu 3. Venkat
1. Tulasi 1. Sangeetha
2. Sivaiah 2. Ramarao
2 2 Discussion in between two families 3. Ramani 3. Pushpa

4. Yasin 4. Suresh
3 --------- ------------ -------- ----------

Character wise Casting chart: Useful for finalization of Artists, their call sheets and Schedule Planning
S.No. Character name Scene Numbers Total number of Scenes
1 Raghu 2,3,5,6,9,11,12, 13, 17, 19 10
2 Sri Jagan 1,2,4,7,8,9 6

Characters Combination Chart: Useful for finalizing the Artists call sheets and Schedule Planning
S.No. Character Combinations Scene Numbers Total number of Scenes
1 Main character and old man 4, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13 6
2 Old man, young lady and police 2, 3, 9, 11, 14, 15, 16 7

Properties Charts: Useful for arranging all properties before the shooting/Production only.
Scene wise set properties chart
S.No. Scene No. Gist Set or Location Set properties Remarks
Changes in set or
se properties
Files, pens, table should be noted
Main character attending Interviewing officer
1 1 clath, pen stand, down. Ex : Breaking
Interview table
paper weight etc. of articles and place
changes of different
articles

Character and scene wise Hand properties chart

S.No. Character Artist Scene Number Properties Remarks
3 C/F
Hand bag, Umbrella
1 Amani Sindhu
Pen, News paper
5 F

Character wise and scene wise Costumes chart: Useful for arranging Costumes before the shooting/production only.
* C-Continuity, F-Fresh
S.No. Character Artist Scene no. Costumes Remarks C/F
 Blue plain sarry,
1 Tulasi Sangeetha 2 C-1*
Blue Jacket
Yellow Shirt, Red
2 Sivaiah Rama rao 6 F*
pant

Make-Up chart: Useful for designing special Make-Ups and arranging all the Make-up material before the
shooting/production only.
S.No. Character Artist Scene number Make-up Effects/Remarks
(Changes in Make-
Up or Effects)
Burning effect on
1 Tulasi Sangeetha 4 C
hands due to fire
2 Sivaiah Rama rao 3 A ------------
3 Amani Sindhu 7 B ----------

Preparation of the following continuity charts while on shooting

1. Details of Costumes in every scene and shot for maintaining continuity of costumes from Scene to Scene and shot
to shot perfectly.
2. Details of Make-Up in every scene and shot for maintaining continuity of Make-Up from Scene to Scene and shot
to shot perfectly.
3. Details of Emotions, Expressions and Behavior of all the artists in every shot and scene for maintaining continuity
from Scene to Scene and shot to shot perfectly.
4. Position and Body movements of all the artists in every shot to be noted for maintaining shot to shot Action
continuity.
5. Details of Set to be noted in every Scene and shot for maintaining continuity of Set from Scene to Scene and shot
to shot perfectly.
6. List of Hand and Set Properties/Props to be prepared used in every scene and shot for maintaining continuity of
properties from Scene to Scene and shot to shot perfectly.
7. Details like direction of light and time to be noted in every scene and shot for maintaining continuity of Light from
Scene to Scene and shot to shot perfectly.
8. In Camera perception, looks, positions, entries, exits of Artists to be noted for maintaining continuity.

5 w s’ to be remembered or considered during scenes development

 1. Who Scene with whom
2. What will be the subject or topic or content has to be discussed in the scene
3. Where that is location or place, the scene will be occurred
4. When the scene is going to be occur that is time Ex : Morning, afternoon, night etc.
5. Why Purpose or Reason of the scene

Types Characters

1. Major Characters – main/lead role in the story

2. Minor Characters – these are also roles includes in the story but are minor roles
3. Supporting Characters – characters supports the main characters for running of story
4. Atmosphere characters are for crating atmosphere in particular scene
5. Characters for specific purpose

FDC Formalities

1. Banner registration
2. Title registration
3. Director membership
4. Producer membership
5. Story copy right from writers association

Schedule Planning is the planning for shooting according to the available dates of Artists and locations. This Schedule
planning depends upon the preparation of Scene wise Characters chart/Artists chart, Character wise Casting chart,
Characters Combination Chart and Locations chart. After deciding number of Scenes to be shot for every day, number of
days to be taken for ever Artist and Location has to be calculated. According to the available dates of Artists and Locations,
different number of Schedules with Artists and Locations has to be planned.

• Booking of Unit/Cine Services and confirmation of availability of all the equipment needed as per the script

• Production
•
Production is one of the stages of Film Making. It is the stage of shooting part.

Blocking Shot Composition Rules

180 degree rule Aesthetics
Continuities The rule of thirds
Clap Board Editing Report and Call Sheet
Cinematography

Production
Picturisation/Blocking
Blocking is the fixation of movement and positioning of actors/objects in the frame. In the
Blocking, position of Actors, properties, background material and movement of the actors will be
decided for the proper dramatic effect and to ensure sight lines for the audience. Direction
department should note the actors' positions, movement of actors for maintaining shot to shot
continuity perfectly. The camera movement also needs to consider as part of the blocking
process.

Points to remember while Blocking:

1. Should not enter Dry area

 2. Don’t change Background suddenly

Production
Shot Composition Rules
1. There is no any rule for shot composition. But with a good reason, we can break any rule.
2. Entire screen should be filled with important subject matter. Empty space is wasted space
3. Avoid tilted horizontal and vertical lines.
4. Movement or bright lights in the background are distracting.
5. Avoid the background by moving the camera or the object, if there is any problem like burning. If not, it will be
worse for audience.
6. Place the eyes of subject one-third down from the top of the frame (In any type of shot).
7. Avoid big spaces between people or objects. Shoot people in full or three-quarter profile to let viewers see both
eyes
8. By placing objects in foreground, middle ground and background, illusion of depth will be created

9. To adjust focus, zoom in to full telephoto.

Production
Crossing the Line / Reverse Cut / 180 Degree Rule:
When ever taking of first shot completed, line of action will be established in view of the viewer.
Line of action is the 1800 imaginary line in front of the camera where the action is going on.
Once the line of action is established, camera should not be placed on the other side of the line
of action. In the same scene, remaining shots should be taken from the sane side of Line of
Action from which side first shot was taken. Crossing the line changes the viewer's perspective
and there will be confusion like changing positions and reversing of actions. Crossing the line is
also called as reverse cut. If it is essential to show the action from other side after establishing
of 1800 line, camera should travel to other side while taking shot only. Then view point of the
viewer also changes. From this shot onwards, remaining shots should be taken from that side
only.

Ex: According to the following image, view is like that the object is moving from right to left. If
shoots next shot from other side of the line of action, view of the object movement will be from
left to right. Due to this, object movement is suddenly reversed in the second shot which has
been done immediately after first shot.
Production
Aesthetics
Fundamentals to be known by Director:
1) Composition 2) Picturisation 3) Movement 4) Rhythm 5) Style

Composition is the composing of actors, articles and Background material in an order/

respective position in the frame.

Internal elements of Composition

Line: Joining two points called as line. Joining two points in shortest distance is straight line.
Line creates an illusion. Different ways of positioning of the Artists and their resulting effects like
creation of illusions are as follows.

1. Horizontal line indicates strength or stability and it also establishes distance

2. Vertical line establishes height
3. Diagonal line indicates direction
4. Curved line indicates or creates movement
5. Zigzag line creates or indicates confusion
6. Spiral line indicates continuity

Mass: Area covered by one object or number of objects

Colour: Colours of the actors that is costumes colours, Background colours in a frame and
properties

Texture: Outer surface of the object is called texture or feeling of touch shall be created by
visualization

External elements of Composition

1. Emphasis 2) Stability 3) Balance 4) Sequence

 Emphasis: Highlighting of particular object/Artist or arrangement of artists or objects positions
and places in a frame. Emphasis will be created indirectly in different ways

1. By place or position or superior and subordinate emphasis or triangular emphasis

2. By height or level
3. By contrast
4. By attention
5. By elimination
6. Off Screen emphasis

Technical emphasis:

1. Zoom creates emphasis (Either Zoom in or Zoom out)

2. Close shots creates emphasis

3. Lighting creates emphasis

Internal Elements of Emphasis
• Triangular emphasis

• Emphasis by Position

• By variation

Stability: Creating extra strength to the main character in a particular frame and continuing emphasis for stable on any
character.

Ex: if main character is lying on the ground in the frame and all other characters are sitting and looking after the main
character, then automatically strength will increase to main character. Continuing importance to particular person even
though after came out side from group of people.

Balance: Every frame should have visual balance

• Symmetrical Balance – physically balancing the left and right side of the frame

• Asymmetrical Balance – creating an illusion that both left & right side of the frame are balanced

Sequence: Making an order to create

1. Visual Beauty
2. Visual illusion
3. Visual effect
4. Visual composition

Purpose: with few people, creating number of people

Optical Illusion: creating illusion using line

Looks like 3 dimensional picture

Counter line: Line which creates 3 dimensions illusion

Mass: Creating illusion of mass by placing same size material in the same area even though not having same mass.
 Rhythm means order, pace and timing of situation or scene or plot

Style: way of presentation should be stylish

• Real or Realistic
• Non realistic

• Mixed

Continuities
Direction department should take care for maintaining the following mentioned continuities while shooting.

• Set : All articles should be in the same position in any shot

• Light : Angle of Light, Direction of Light should be same in every shot or scene
• Make-Up : Scene to Scene, within the scene (Shot to shot)
• Costume: Scene to scene and shot to shot
• Action : Physical or Body Continuity (will be in only shot to shot) like leg, hand or any body parts movement
continuity should be maintained
• Emotion: Scene to scene and shot to shot should maintained.
• Camera : even though camera position and shot changed, objects position should not vary
• Matching the looks: Left look, right look or any look of actors should have continuity in every shot
• Properties : Hand and set properties like spectacles, pens etc. continuity
• The Rule of Thirds is a one of the compositional rules of photography, in which, image in the frame can be
divided into nine equal imaginary sections/parts by two equal spaced horizontal lines and two equally spaced
vertical lines as shown in the following examples. Then, four reference points will be created which are useful for
composing the image in the frame. If shot composes as per this rule, more tension, energy and interest will be
created better than when shot composes simply by centering the feature/subject. Points or lines of interest of
Viewers should occur at 1/3 or 2/3 of the way up (or across) the frame than centre.

Example (1): The main line of interest is the line going through the eyes in any shot related to people. In the
following example, the eyes are placed approximately 1/3 of the way down the frame for best view instead of
centering the eyes.

Example 1
Example (2): The intersection line of earth and sky is matched to the horizontal line dividing upper third part from middle and
lower third parts. And main object to be shown was positioned in the right side of the upper third part due to maximum
interest of the viewer will be concentrated top and right side of the frame
Example 2

Another two examples of the Rule of Thirds

Example 3 Example 4

Clap Board will be used at the beginning of the pasteurization of each and every shot.

After clapping the board, the following sequence of dialogues has to tell with loud voice by Clap Board assistant for
recording.
Scene no: 6, Shot No: 7, take no: 3 (6/7 take 3, if insert shot 6/insert shot take 2)

Clap Board operation is most useful for editing

TLK–Talkie Shot, SIL–Silent Shot, PLB–Play Back Shot/Song

INS–Insert Shot

End clap is the clap after shooting of shot and will be used in the following situations

1. At the time of emergency where the roll or can or film in the camera is about to complete or is about to exhausted
2. At the end of Extreme long shot

End clap should be clapped reversely. If End clap used in the shot, should be mentioned in the script

Editing Report is the clap after shooting of shot and will be used in the following situations

1. At the time of emergency where the roll or can or film in the camera is about to complete or is about to exhausted
2. At the end of Extreme long shot
End clap should be clapped reversely. If End clap used in the shot, should be mentioned in the script

Editing Report: To be written for each and every shot during production. In the case of end clap, below the production,
banner, title, end clap should be written in red mark. For TV, Tape count recorder (TCR) shot ending time. The following
table is the format of Editing report.

Editing Report
Banner/Production :
Title :
Scene Number: Shot Number: Gist: Location
Day/Night Int/Ext TLK/SIL/PLB* Date of Exposition
Can Number: Audio Number: OK Take: If End Clap :
* TLK – Talky, SIL – Silent, PLB – Play Back
Remarks if any :

Call sheet chart during production/shooting

Date:

Call sheet
S.No Scene no. Location Gist Character Artist
In time Out time

Cinematography
Types of shots | Camera angles | Camera Movements | Lighting

Types of Shots

Extreme close up/Big Close up (ECU) is for showing extreme details of the object. There must be a specific reason to use
this close. It is too close to show general reactions or emotion except in very dramatic scenes. The following images are the
examples of this close up.
 Example 1 Example 2

Medium Close up shows the face or main part of the object more clearly, without getting uncomfortably close. The following
image is the example of this medium close up.

Example 1

Full Close up will be from top of the head to end of the neck. The following images are the examples of this full close up

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3

Wide Close up shows up to the shoulders. The following images are the examples of this wide close up

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3

Close shot is for showing certain feature or part of the subject in most of the frame. A close of a person usually means a
close up of their face. Close-ups are obviously useful for showing detail and can also be used as a cut in. A close-up of a
person emphasizes their emotional state. The following images are the examples of this close shot
 Example 1 Example 2 Example 3

Medium Close shot shows the face and body more clearly. The following images are the examples of this medium close
shot

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3

Medium shot shows some part of the subject in more detail, whilst still showing enough for the audience to feel as if they
were looking at the whole subject. In this shot, object will be having more importance than environment. The following
images are the examples of this medium shot.

Example 2 Example 3
Example 1

Categories of medium shot

One Shot
 Example 1

Two Shot

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3

Three Shot

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3

Medium full shot/Mid Long Shot will be up to knees. The following images are the examples of this medium full shot.

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3

Full Shot/Long Shot shows the whole height of the person. It doesn't show as much background as the VLS but it does
show enough to know the subject's location. This shot gives equal importance to environment and object. The following
images are the examples of this long shot.

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4

Extreme long shot shows "geography" to the viewer. It will be clear that the place where the people are. This shot gives
main importance to the environment only. The following images are the examples of this extreme long shot.

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4

Aerial Shot usually will be done with a crane or from helicopter to view large landscapes or any large areas. This type of
shot would be restricted to exterior locations only. The following images are the examples of this aerial shot.

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4

Cut-away is a shot which shows something other than the current action. It could be a different subject. The cutaway is
used as a "buffer" between shots or to add interest/information. Cut-In Like a cutaway, but specifically refers to showing
some part of the subject in detail.

Suggestion Shot/Over the Shoulder Shot (OSS) is the view from behind a person at the subject, cutting off the frame just
behind the ear. The person facing the subject should occupy about 1/3 of the frame. This shot helps to establish the
positions of each person, and get the feel of looking at one person from the other's point of view. A variation of this shot can
be a bit wider and include the shoulder of the person facing the subject. The following images are the examples of this
suggestion shot.
 Example 1 Example 2 Example 3

Point-of-View Shot (POV) is a view from the subject's perspective. The following images are the examples of this POV.

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3

Insert Shot with different facial expressions of the artists and with various camera angles will be taken sometimes if
necessary for inserting in between any two shots.

Opening the window of the camera: Shot opens at back side of the object and object moves front

Closing Window of Camera: camera moves close to the object & closes lens at chest

.Counter action shot: It is the shot which takes reaction of actors for action of another actor
Camera Angles / Camera View Point / Camera Perception

Eye level: object shown as it is as the camera lense parallel to object eye. Following are the examples of Eye level

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4

Top angle/ Bird’s Eye (900): It is also called as aerial view or American Bird’s eye view (ABEV). The scene is shown from
directly above. It shows the object and it’s surrounding details also. This is a completely different and somewhat unnatural
point of view which can be used for dramatic effect or for showing a different spatial perspective. In drama it can be used to
show the positions and motions of different characters and objects, enabling the viewer to see things the characters can't.
This view is very useful in sports, documentaries etc. Following are the four examples of Top angle.
 Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4

Low angle (1800 +1 to 2700 -1 or 2700 +1 to 3600 -1) shows the subject from below, giving them the impression of being
more powerful or dominant. With this angle, shows object as superior.

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4

Bottom angle (270 Degrees): View of the object/subject from bottom side.

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4

High angle (+1 degree to 90 degrees -1 or 90 degrees +1 to 180 degrees -1) shows the object from above, i.e. the camera
is angled down towards the subject. This results the effect of diminishing the object, making them appear less powerful, less
significant or even submissive. In this angle, object shows as inferior.

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4

Dutch Tilt is also a camera angle, in which camera slanted to one side. This angle uses for dramatic effect and helps
portray unease, disorientation, frantic or desperate action, intoxication, madness, etc. The Dutch tilt is also known as a
Dutch angle, Dutch tilt, Slanted, German angle, oblique angle or canted angle.

Example 1 Example 2
Pickup Shots are the special shots without actors i.e. close ups of properties, not recognizable shots of actors in different
angles. These shots will be useful for compensating editing/continuity problems. Pickup shots will be taken after taking of
main shots in the scene.

Depth of Field is the field which is in focus. It is the distance in focus which is in front of the object and beyond the object. In
case of the close, Object is the starting point of the Depth of the field

Connective shot: Shot for connection of Back ground and other ground by using trolley

Camera Movements

Camera movement when fixed on Tripod

Trucking Shot/Trucking is basically the same as tracking or dollying. Although it means slightly different things to different
people, it generally refers to side-to-side camera movement with respect to the action.

PAN: Left or right Horizontal movement of the camera is called as PAN. PAN right regarding camera and PAN left regarding
camera are the two kinds in PAN. This PAN is for establishing distance between two objects, relationship and for showing
number of people and particular object movement.

Viz Pan: Sudden panning between two objects is the Viz Pan

Object pan left or right i.e. PAN of the Camera when object moves left or right.

Follow pan – Camera follows the object by PAN when the object is moving
Cross pan is the panning of camera to follow the object movement when movement of both camera and object is reverse.

Tilt: Vertical movement (Up or Down) of the camera is called as Tilt. Tilt up regarding camera and Tilt down regarding
camera are the two kinds in Tilt. This tilt will be used for showing height, climbing up & down of the object.

Diagonal movement: It is the combination of PAN and Tilt. Camera moving horizontally and vertically at the same time
results the diagonal movement. It will be used for showing height and distance of the object.

Zoom: Creating illusion of moving closer or further away from the action by varying/changing the focal length. Zoom In and
Zoom out are the two types in Zoom. These two are for showing relationship between the object and the area. Zooming is
an easy-to-use but hard-to-get-right feature of most cameras.

Zoom out is to establish the place of the object

Zoom in feels like object moves close to camera and is to establish the place of object in between so many objects.

Camera Movements - Without Tripod

Movement of Camera when Object is fixed

Pedestal shot: If camera fixed on pedestal and whole camera moves vertically i.e. up down with regards to object, then that
shot is called as pedestal shot.
Follow Shot: the camera follows the subject or action. The movement of camera can be achieved by tracking or dollying.
Steadicam also used for movement of the camera in case of follow shot.

Steadycam is the camera which can be fixed to the body of the cameraman. Steadycam shall be used to follow any
movement of the object. Following are the steadycams.

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4

Tracking Shot is a shot in which the camera is mounted on a cart which travels along tracks. In this tracking camera
movement will be parallel to the action or at least at a constant distance

Trolley in or Track in : Camera moves towards the object

O
C
Camera Object

Trolley out or Track out : Camera moves far from the object

C O
Camera Object

Trolley right or Trolley left: It is also called as Parallel trolley. Camera moves parallel to the object when object moves left
or right
Crabbing Shot: Crabe Trolley will be used for this shot. Crabe Trolley will be like wheel chair for any movement. Tracking or
trucking and dollying all are the Crabbing shots. Whenever camera moves “in and out” or “side to side at constant distance”
regarding the subject, it is the crabbing shot.

Dolly shot or Round trolley shot: Whenever camera travels along the track, then that is the dolly shot. . A dolly shot is also
called as tracking shot or trucking shot. Somebody defines, dolly as “in and out movement of the camera (closer/further
away from the object),” and tracking as “side-to-side movement of the camera”. Generally Dollies are operated by a dolly
grip. Whenever crane is mounted on dolly and camera is tracking and moving vertically, then that is a compound shot.

Dolly Zoom: Whenever camera moves closer or further from the object while simultaneously adjusting the zoom angle to
keep the subject the same size in the frame, it is Dolly Zoom. Dolly Zoom is a cinematic technique in which results effect is
that the subject appears stationary and the size of the background will be changed. This is called as perspective
distortion. The effect results from Dolly zoom is an unnatural effect. While tracking, if the camera moves closer to the
subject, the background will grow and dominates. If the camera is moving further away from the subject, the foreground of
the subject will be dominated. This effect is emotional and it will be used to convey sudden realization and for reaction to a
dramatic event.

Arc Shot: An arc shot is a camera movement in arc shape around the subject. It is like Tracking shot. An arc is a segment
of the circumference of a circle. An arc shot will be taken by using arc shape track or arc shot results when camera tracking
and dollying at the same time.

Crane shot is for any movement like pan, tilt, trolley. By using the crane, camera can move up and down that is the variation
of the height of the camera. Total camera will move. The following image is the crane along with the trolley and weights fixed
one side. Weights for easy “up and down” movement of the camera manually. Weights will be fixed as per the weight of the
camera man and camera fixed on crane. Trolley fixed to the crane is for front and back movement of the crane.
Crossing the object (in)
Crossing or passing through the object (out)
Combination of movements track out and parallel trolley results as curved or semicircle trolley

Object movement When Camera fixed:

Object moves towards the camera

O C
Object Camera

Object far from the camera

O C
Object Camera

Object parallel to the camera

 C Camera

Object O

Object rounds the camera

Object crossing the camera (to back side of the camera)

Object passing through camera (from behind the camera)
Combination of movements far from camera and parallel to camera

Combination Movement - Both camera and object will move

Both in

O C
Object Camera

Both out

O C
Object Camera

Both parallel in

O
Object

C
Camera

Both parallel out

 O
Object

C
Camera

Both in round direction : Dolly in – camera in and object out, Dolly out – camera out and object in

Follow movement – Camera follows the object

Back movement : Object follows the camera

Crossing each other

Camera C
O Object
Lighting
Fundamentals of Lighting

Purpose of Lighting : To get a proper exposure in order to improve picture quality

 1. Illumination
2. Mood creation – according to scene, romantic etc, colour lighting schemes
3. Atmosphere creation
4. Illusion
5. Time & place establishment
6. Emotions
7. Effects

Lighting Scheme will be changed according to the following

1. Camera
2. Set
3. Costume
4. Location
5. Make-up
6. Natural lighting: Sun light

Artificial lighting: Lighting with the help of lamps

Direct light/Incident Light is the light directly from light sources like lamps, sun etc

Bounce light/Reflected Light is the Light after reflected/bounced off from a surface. It is effective than direct light.

Ambient Light is the light already available in the atmosphere before additional lighting is added in a shot.

Hard Light directly from a source such as the sun, traveling undisturbed onto the subject being lit.

Soft Light appears to "wrap around" the subject to some degree. It produces less shadows or softer shadows.

Spot is a narrowly focused beam of light which can be controlled

7. Flood is a less directional broad beam of light,. Its intensity is more than a spot.

Contrast Ratio is the brightness ratio between the brightest white and the darkest black within an image. A ratio of
300:1 means the brightest point in the image is 300 times as bright as the darkest point. If there is larger difference
in brightness, contrast ratio will be higher.

Tungsten Light is also called as incandescent light. This is the light from an ordinary bulb having a thin coiled
tungsten wire that emits light (becomes incandescent) when an electric current passed throw it. Colour
temperature of Tungsten is around 2800K to 3400K.
8. Halogen is one type of lamp in which a tungsten filament is sealed in a clear capsule filled with a halogen gas.
9. Fresnel is a light having a lens with raised circular ridges on its outer surface. The fresnel lens is used to focus the
light beam.
10. Incandescent lamps will produce heat until it glows as tungsten filament will be heated due to passing of current
through it. The glow is caused by the filament's resistance to the current and is called incandescence.
11. Colour Temperature is a standard measurement of the characteristics of the light. It can be measured in kelvins.
It describes the colours for use in a range of situations and with different equipment. Colour Temperature for
Video, range from around 2,000K to 8,000K. For example, a camera operator will select a "5600K filter" to use
outside in the middle of a sunny day.
 12.

Lighting Equipment
Reflector is a specially designed reflective board/surface. It will be used as a secondary light source. Main source of light
will reach the reflector board and reflects on to the subject to illuminate. This reflected light is also called as bounced light.
The board is lightweight, flexible and can be folded up for transport. Nicotine or white coating will be used on Board for
enhancing source of light.

Cutter : Black sheet for stopping or cutting any light

Filter: For decreasing intensity of the light or for getting soft light. The following are the different type of filters.

1. colour papers or gelatin sheets

2. Mesh
3. Glass
4. Better paper
5. Skimmer

Skimmer – synthetic cloth, as filter also used

Thermo coal : very small, as reflector for soft light max for close up shots

Dimmer : can be connected to light, for variation of intensity of light

Ballast is a device used to control the electrical current in a light.

Light meter is a tool used to measure light and indicate the ideal exposure setting. It is also known as an exposure meter.

Gels are the materials which are placed in front of a light source to change its characteristics.

Spectrometer is an instrument which measures the spectrum of light. Spectrometer analyses the electromagnetic spectrum
and measures the intensity of radiation as a function of wavelength.

Stands and Clamps are the systems used to support lights and hold them in the correct position.

Bulb: Tungsten, Mercury, Halogens (Flood lights), Par light (for long distance lighting) are the different type of Bulbs.
Voltage range of Bulbs is 500V to 10000V (0.5KV to 10KV).

Iron protector : Surrounding part of the reflector

Adjusting Lever : Adjusts the distance between light & lens

Brandoor for varying the quantity of light by opening or closing the doors

Lens is an optical device which transmits and refracts the light which may be concentrating or diverging beam. Three types
of lenses
Convex lens or PC lens (plaino convex lens) – This lens gives sharp edged, hard & bright light and light will concentrate on
object

Concave lens also gives sharp edged, hard and bright light but light diverges/spills to wide area.

Fresnal lens gives soft edged light and spreads light like zigzag

Lighting Procedure
Lights may be arranged according to the Shot, location and time. Location & Time shall be segregated as follows

1. Day/Exterior: Maximum only reflected sunlight shall be used as it can be controlled and it avoids shadows.
Reflectors for reflecting sunlight and skimmers for decreasing the intensity of the light will be used.
2. Day/Interior: External lighting (Sun light throw windows) effect shall be used for natural effect.
3. Night/Exterior : Blue filters for lights shall be used for getting Night effect
4. Night/Interior: For external light effect (Moon light effect), Blue filters shall be used, for internal lighting effect,
basic lighting technique shall be used.

Lighting should be done according to the following

1. Distance between object and light

2. Background
3. Capacity and intensity of the light
4. Type of light
5. Type of lens/filter
6. Angle of light
7. Basic Lighting Technique / The Standard 3-Point Lighting Technique

8. :
9. In the Three Point Lighting Technique, three lights shall be used the key light, fill light and back light. If fourth
light is available, then that can be used to light the background of the entire shot.

Key Light is the main light, which is strongest and provides most of the illumination and contrast on the subject. It
is placed to one side of the camera/subject so that one side is well lit and the other side shall have some shadow.

Fill light is the secondary light balances the key light, lifts the light level and reduces the effects of shadows
created by Key light. Fill light is softer and less bright than key light. Too strong fill light creates double shadows.
Fill light shall be placed on the opposite side of the key light.

Back Light adds a rim of light to the hair and shoulders and creates depth (provide three-dimensional look) by
separating or isolating the subject from the background. Light may be soft or hard depending on the effect
 intended. This light shall be placed at the back side of the subject/object and may be above the subject to light
from rear.
10. The Background light is to illuminate the area behind the subject but a lower level than the foreground
11. Counter light: If possible/available more lights, counter lights shall be placed behind the object reverse to the
Background light. These counter lights shall vary the distance between the background and the object.

12.
13. Lighting Effects / Effects with Artificial Lighting
Cold/Warm: The feeling of coldness or warmth by using additional filters or doubling up on gels shall be created.
Very blue means very cold, very red/orange means very hot.

Moon Light/Night time Light: By lowering the exposure slightly and adding a blue filter to the camera, Daytime
seems like night. But, strictly need to avoid birds flying in the sky, any other lighting which should appear in shot,
such as house or street lights.

Fire Light: To light a person's face who is looking at a fire, point a redhead with orange gel away from the subject
at a large reflector which reflects the light back at the subject. Shake the reflector to simulate firelight.
14. Watching TV : To light a person's who is watching TV, shine a blue light at the subject and wave a piece of cloth
or paper in front of the light to simulate flickering.

Rain effect: By using fan and light, rain effect out of window shall be created

Silhouette effect/shadow outline effect: Back light to the subject shall be crated Silhouette effect

Also Lighting shall create the Water effect, Fire effect, Smoke, Strobe effect, disco light effect, thunder effect and
Stars-moon/mirror ball effect.

Post-Production
Post-Production is one of the stages of Film Making. It is the stage after shooting part/production.
 Sequence of different stages in Post-Production:

• Developing the film

• Rushes – screening of unedited version
• Patch work if need
• Rough editing
• Final editing
• Dubbing
• Music posting/Re recording
• Mixing (Mixing of all tracks)
• First copy
• Censor Formalities
• Distribution
• Publicity
• Screening

Editing | Dubbing | Music | Songs | Sound | Censor Copy

Editing
Essentiality editing is selecting and coordinating one shot with the next to
construct a sequence of shots which form a logical and impressive
narrative. Through editing, the material you have shot will be blended
together to form a convincing and good presentation

Editing begins with sorting through the available material

1. selecting the required shots

2. Deciding on the order and duration of each shot
3. Deciding on the cutting point (when one shot is to end and the
next to begin)

4. Deciding the type of transition between shots

Editing Techniques
Cutting from one shot to another or from one point in time to another is a perfectly acceptable transition. There are some
important transition effects which are useful in joining of different shots resulting in to a good and effective out put. 90%
shots combination, will be with “cut”

Cut to: Cut is the most direct and frequently used method of getting from one shot to another. A cut happens
instantaneously. It simply means one picture ends and another begins.

Jump cut occurs when two extremely similar shots are edited together. Cutting between similar shots of the subject from
slightly different view points can create a twist on the cut. There will be no relation between two shots

Match cut will be used if there is relation between two shots. In the case of subject match cut, subject will be same in two
shots. In the case of Object match cut, subject changes and object will be the same in two shots.

Match cut will be useful in the following situations.

1. Mismatched camera height

2. Changes in head room
3. Action continuity

Cut away: one of the easiest ways around mismatched action or dialogues mistakes. There will be no relation between two
shots.
Fade :

Fade in is simply cutting from a dark screen to a full bright picture. It will be used at starting of the scene.

Fade out is a gradual reduction in the strength of the picture(Bright) to dark screen. It will be used at the ending of the
sequence or scene

Wipe is a transition from one picture to another using a pattern, such as a vertical bar that moves across the screen. The
pattern reveals the new picture as the old one is wiped away. Wipe comes in different shapes and sizes. for showing lapse
of time, other screen will come on to the present screen by cleaning

Dissolve to & Dissolve from: A dissolve is two fades; one picture is fading in while the other picture is fading out. When
this happens on screen, it causes an overlapping visual effect. It is meant to suggest a passage of time or a major change of
location.

Super imposition is an effect produced by fading out one picture while fading in another. If the mixing of those pictures is
stopped half way, the result is a super imposition. matching of two different shots ex : Horse movement in air

Adding & deleting the frames in between the shot: It is the process of eliminating of some of the frames in the shot to
increase the time duration there by giving the effective output. For fast motion or slow motion.

Blend: It is the process of conversion of one picture to another in the same frame. changing from one object to anther object
ex: man changes to animal

Crew involved in Editing:

• Editor and Assistant Editor during Rough Editing

• Director or Co-Director and Editor during final editing i.e. for finishing with transition effects

Dubbing
Loop Dubbing was used for old movies. Loop is a closed circuit. In this type of
Dubbing all the artists involved in the shot (for which they are dubbing) were to
be present at a time and continue the process of Dubbing one by one. If any
one makes mistake then the total process of Dubbing must be repeated from
the beginning. It was very hard and time consuming.

Track Dubbing or Computerized Dubbing: There will be separate Tracks for

each and every artist. After dubbing process and lip sinks are completed by all
the Artists, all the tracks will be mixed according to the script. Track dubbing is
easier than loop dubbing.

• Lip Sink and Emotional sink: The lip movement of the Dubbing Artist should be match to the lip movement of the
acted artist. The emotions shown by the acted artists should match to the emotions while dubbing.
• Precautions to be taken by the Dubbing Artist
• Air Bubble: maintaining some distance between mouth & microphone will avoid air bubbles

Lip Sound: At starting of every dialogue, lips should be keeping wet to avoid lip sound.

Microphone sound: By keeping himself aside from the micro phone, an artist can avoid micro phone sound.
Music
Because of “at points of high dramatic interests prose turns to lyric or song”.
“Music is an element of Film Composition”

Crew involved at the time of Music:

Lyric Writer, Music Director, Director, Producer & Main character artist if
popular

Music has two parts

1. Background Music
2. Songs

Six types of BG music

1. Recorded music
2. Live music
3. Recorded sound effects
4. Live sound
5. Human voice

6. Silence

BG Score used in films as

• Curtain riser music : for Particular banner or particular subject

• Character music : Music related to particular character
• Signature music : for identification purpose
• Caricature music : for establishing a particular character or character identification.
• Comment music : for establishing characteristics of character (used for comedy situations)
• Fill music : for filling up of gap between scenes
• Mood music : for creating mood to viewers
• Bridge music : for filling up of Gaps between any two scenes or situations or emotions. It will be fadeout after
particular scene.
• Transition music : It is like Bridge music but it will translate to another scene according to it.
• Theme music : very important for any film. It will be repeated frequently throughout the film for establishing the
message or story of the film.
• Objective Music : Showing one place/any object with the help of music
• Subjective music : Human emotions showing with the help of music

Songs
 Four types of songs

1. Montage songs – montage means a series of action in

small bits
2. Situational songs
3. Duet songs
4. Solo songs

Any song has its own rhythm and tune.

Choreography :
1) Solo - a) solo single b) solo with group
2) Duet
3) Situation
4) Montague
5) Item songs

Background song comes in background may be by characters or may not by characters

BGM/Bridge music: Music between two charanalu

Parts of song/sequence of song

• Lead music (optional)

• Lead saki – only voice without meaning (optional)
• Pallavi – starting lead of the song – compulsory – repeated
• BGM1(Bridge music) – Optional
• Anu pallavi – Optional
• BGM2 – compulsory – in between charanam & pallavi
• Charanam – compulsory
• BGM
• Pallavi – repetition
• Charanam 2
• Pallavi repeat
• BGM or end music
• Charanam optional

Sound
1. On screen sound
2. Off screen sound

Above two types of sound again divided

1. Human speech
2. Sound Effects/Effects sound
3. Music silence
4. Combination of human speech and effect sounds
5. Combination of human speech and music
6. Combination of effect sounds and music

7. Combination of human speech, effect sounds and music

Sound Perception

• Objective music : Showing one place with the help of music

• Subjective music : human emotions showing with the help of music
Censor Copy
After completion of the film, every film maker has to prepare a censor copy for censor certification and it is to be
submitted to the censor authorities. They verify the copy submitted and after completion of all the formalities and
satisfied censor certificate to the film will be given.

The censor copy includes each and every scene number and shot number in order from first to end and shot details,
description of the shot, time duration of the shot, footage of can used for the shot and total scenes, total time duration,
total footage of can used.

A MODEL OF THE CENSOR COPY TO BE SUBMITTED

Scene Number Shot Number Shot details Time duration Footage
1 1 Hero introduction 5 seconds ----feet

2 Close of old man 7 secnds ---feet

2
Total -----seconds -------feet

• * - Total scenes 85, total feet – 16500 feet