EE-202/445, 5/1/09 9-1 © R. A.

DeCarlo

BIQUADRATICS AND
STATE SPACE REALIZATIONS

I. Introduction

1. The biquadratic transfer function is simply a transfer function having a

second order numerator and a second order denominator:

!z 2
2 s + s + ! z2
b s + b1s + b2 Qz
H (s) = 0 =K
s2 + a1s + a2 2
!p
s + s + ! 2p
Qp

Exercise. Determine K, ωz, Qz, ωp, and Qp in terms of b , b , b , a , a .

0 1 2 1 2
Exercise. Show that the gain of the biquadratic frequency response is given by

2 2
!z !p
2 2 2 2 2 2
G(!) = 20 log 10(K) + 10 log 10 ! z – ! + ! 2 – 10 log 10 ! p – ! + !2
2 2
Qz Qp

and that the phase is given by

2
"z" "p "
!(") = tan –1 – tan –1
2 2 2
Q z "z –" Q p "p – " 2

where π must be added if K is negative.

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2. For active filter realization, circuit transfer functions often normalize

ωp to 1 via frequency scaling: s --> ωps, i.e.,

"! %
z
$ '
# ! & ! 2 !
s2 +
p
s+ z ! !
s2 + z s + ! z2
Qz ! 2p Qz
H cir (s) = K =K
1 1
s2 + s +1 s2 + s +1
Qp Qp

Remark: It is this form that is often used in normalized active filter

realization. One then frequency and magnitude scales to achieve the
proper circuit characteristics.

Exercise. Work through the details of this normalization.

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II. Controllable Canonical 4 OP AMP State Space Realization of the

Biquadratic TF: A Block Diagram Development

1. Recall again the biquadratic structure with a1 > 0 and a2 > 0:

Vout b0s2 + b1s + b2 b0s2 + b1s + b2

H (s) = = =
Vin 2 d(s)
s + a1s + a2

where d(s) = s2 + a1s + a2 . Alternately

Vout b2 b1s b0s2

H (s) = = + +
Vin d(s) d(s) d(s)

2. Consider auxiliary equation

! 1 1
Vout (s) = Vin (s) = Vin (s)
d(s) 2
s + a1s + a2
which implies that
( !
)
s2 + a1s + a2 Vout (s) = Vin (s)
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3. Since Vout (s) = H (s)Vin (s) , it follows that

b2 b1s b0s2
Vout = H (s)Vin = Vin + Vin + Vin
d(s) d(s) d(s)
! ! 2!
= b2Vout + b1sVout + b0s Vout

!
4. OBJECTIVE: develop a flow diagram which produces Vout (s) and
then modify this flow diagram to obtain Vout (s) . There are two critical s-
domain equations here:

( 2 !
) 2! ! !
(a) s + a1s + a2 Vout (s) = s Vout (s) + a1sVout (s) + a2Vout (s) = Vin (s)
and
! ! 2!
(b) Vout = b2Vout + b1sVout + b0s Vout

5. Interpret s-domain equatins as differential equations: multiplication by

s means differentiation in the time world.
! ! !
(a) s2Vout (s) + a1sVout (s) + a2Vout (s) = Vin (s) implies that

" "
v!!ˆout (t) + a1v!out (t) + a2vout (t) = vin (t)
or equivalently
" "
v!!ˆout (t) = vin (t) ! a1v!out (t) ! a2vout (t)

! ! 2!
(b) Vout = b2Vout + b1sVout + b0s Vout
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! ! 2!
(b) Vout = b2Vout + b1sVout + b0s Vout implies that

! ! !
vout (t) = b2vout (t) + b1v"out (t) + b0v""out (t)

" "
Noting that v!!ˆout (t) = vin (t) ! a1v!out (t) ! a2vout (t) , we conclude

! !
vout = (b2 ! b0 a2 )vout + (b1 ! b0 a1 )v"out + b0 vin
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6. Block Diagram Interpretation of auxiliary equation:

Vout (s) 0.1s 2 + 0.3s + 0.7

Example 1: Realize H (s) = = 2
using the
Vin (s) s + 2s + 4
controllable canonical realization.

Step 1. Time domain auxiliary equation is:

" "
v!!ˆout (t) = vin (t) ! 2v!out (t) ! 4vout (t)

Integrating both sides and changing signs yields

t
!
! v"out (t) = ! $ v""ˆout (" )d"
!#
t t t
! !
=! $ vin (" )d" ! 2 $ %& ! v"out (" ) '( d" ! 4 $ %& ! vout (" ) '( d"
!# !# !#

Step 2. Realizing this equation leads to

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! ! !
Step 3. Recall vout (t) = 0.7 vout (t) + 0.3v"out (t) + 0.1v""out (t) and
" "
v!!ˆ (t) = v (t) ! 2v! (t) ! 4v (t) in which case
out in out out

! !
!vout (t) = !0.1vin (t) ! 0.3vout (t) ! 0.1v"out (t)
! !
= !0.1vin (t) ! 0.3vout (t) ! 0.1v"out (t)

! !
!vout (t) = !0.1vin (t) ! 0.3vout (t) ! 0.1v"out (t)
EE-202/445, 5/1/09 9-8 © R. A. DeCarlo

Vout (s) 0.1s 2 + 0.3s + 0.7

Example 2: Realize H (s) = = 2
using the
Vin (s) s + 2s + 4
observable canonical realization.

Step 1. Generate differential equation in terms of input and output.

Vout (s) 0.1s 2 + 0.3s + 0.7

H (s) = =
Vin (s) s 2 + 2s + 4

implies
(s 2
) ( )
+ 2s + 4 Vout (s) = 0.1s 2 + 0.3s + 0.7 Vin (s)
implies
v!!out (t) + 2 v!out (t) + 4vout (t) = 0.7vin (t) + 0.3!vin (t) + 0.1!!
vin (t)

k dk
Step 2. Replace derivative by the D-operator in which D = k
and
dt
D !k is the k-fold integral.

D 2 vout (t) + 2Dvout (t) + 4vout (t) = 0.7vin (t) + 0.3Dvin (t) + 0.1Dvin (t)

Equivalently

D 2 vout (t) = 0.1D 2 vin (t) + D [ 0.3vin (t) ! 2vout (t)] + [ 0.7vin (t) ! 4vout (t)]

Multiplying both sides by D !2 yields

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vout (t) = 0.1vin (t) + D !1 [ 0.3vin (t) ! 2vout (t)] + D !2 [ 0.7vin (t) ! 4vout (t)]

Step 3. Define an intermediate variable x1 and realize resulting equation

as an op amp circuit assuming x1 is available—it will be but in step 4.

Define
x1 = D !1 [ 0.3vin (t) ! 2vout (t)] + D !2 [ 0.7vin (t) ! 4vout (t)]
Then
vout (t) = 0.1vin (t) + x1 or !vout (t) = !0.1vin (t) ! x1

This can be realized by

Step 4. Construct a differential equation in x1 after defining a second

intermediate variable x2 as follows:

x2 = D !1 [ 0.7vin (t) ! 4vout (t)]

Thus

x!1 = Dx1 = 0.3vin (t) ! 2vout (t) + D !1 [ 0.7vin (t) ! 4vout (t)]
!!!!!= 0.3vin (t) ! 2vout (t) + x2 = 0.3vin (t) ! 2 ( 0.1vin (t) + x1 ) + x2
!!!!!= 0.1vin (t) ! 2x1 + x2
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The differential equation x!1 = 0.1vin (t) ! 2x1 + x2 is equivalent to the

integral equation

t t t t
!x1 (t) = ! $ x!1 (" )d" = !0.1 $ vin (" )d" ! 2 $ [ !x1(" )] d" ! $ x2 (" )d"
!# !# !# !#

This integral equation can be realized by the op amp integrator circuit

below:

Notice that an additional op amp is used to drive the stage step 3 which
requires x1 .

Step 5. Build an op amp circuit to generate x2 . Consider that

x2 = D !1 [ 0.7vin (t) ! 4vout (t)] implies that

x!2 (t) = Dx2 (t) = 0.7vin (t) ! 4vout (t) = 0.3vin (t) ! 4 x1 (t)

This is equivalent to the integral equation

EE-202/445, 5/1/09 9-11 © R. A. DeCarlo

t t t
!x2 (t) = ! $ x!2 (" )d" = !0.3 $ vin (" )d" ! 4 $ [ !x1(" )] d"
!# !# !#

This equation can be realized using the op amp circuit below.

Overall the realization requires 5 op amps. This can be reduced to 4.

Redo the above development so as to reduce the total number of op amps
to 4.