B.TECH.

EHV AC & DC TRANSMISSION

UNIT-II1 [UTU]-
(47)

UNIT-IN here load

is connected, the d.c. voltage
no
across capacitance remains conatant

oecillatea between +Vmaand during negative

half cycle the
at Vay whereas
potential of point
supply voltage hence the diode must be rated for 2max This would also be the case if the
e
Lbetomes -Vmas and B as shown in Fig. 1 (a). Such a circuit is
known as
EXTRA HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING mnsformer is grounded at A instead of the
Villard for which output voltage wouid be taken across D. This d.c.

olloge doubler due to tes between zerTO and

2Vmax and ie needed for the Cascade
circuit.
altage, however, oscilla

Q1. Why is it
necessary to
Ans. There
produce high d.c. voltages?
are various
applications of high d.c. voltages in industries, research
medical sciences 1
etc. HVDC transmission over both overhead linos and underground cables is becoming
and more popular. HVDC is used for testing HVAC cables of more
arge capacitance and would require very large values of currents long lengths these have very
as

if tested HVAC
cables is convenient and economical, these suffer fromvoltages.
Even though D.C. tests on A.C. on

the fact (a) (b)

that the stress distribution within the insulating material is different from the
normal
condition. In industry it is operating
being used for electrostatic precipitation of ashing in thermal Vmax
plants, electrostatic painting, cement industry,
communication systems etc. HVDC is alsopower
used extensively in
physics for particle acceleration and in medical being
The most effñicient method
of generating high D.C. equipments (X-rays).
Tectification empioying voltage voltages is through the process of
for generating high D.C. multiplier circuits. Electrostatic generators have also been used
voltages. Fig.1.(a) Single phase rectifier (b) Output voltage without C (o) Output voBtage with C
o
ng
arithmetic 1E Standards 4-1978, the value of direct test voltage is defined by its
mean value
a
If the circuit is loaded, the output voltage does not remain constant at Vnar Ater pontE
V, and is expressed mathematically as
CFig. 1 (c), the supply voltage becomes less than the capacitor voltage, diode stops conducting.
The capacitor cannot discharge back into the a.c. system because of one way action of the diode.
(1)nstead, the current now flows out of C to furnish the current i, through the load. While giving
where Tis the time period
of the voltage wave having a frequencyf=1/T. Test up this energy, the capacitor voltage also decreases at a rate depending on the time constant
using rectifiers are never constant in magnitude. These deviate
from the mean
voltages generated CR of the circuit and it reaches the point F corresponding to Vmn Beyond F, the supply voltage
and this deviation 18 known as ripple. The magnitude of the ripple voltage value periodically
denoted by 8V is s greater than the capacitor voltage and hence the diode D starts conducting charging the
defined as half the difference between the maximum itor C apain to V and also during this period it supplies current to
and minimum values of the load also. 1his
voltage i.e., second pulse of i, i.+i) is of shorter duration than the initial charging pulse as it serves mainly
6V- -vmin t o restore into C the energy that C meanwhile had supplied to load. Thus, while each pulse of
...2)
and ripple factor is defined as the ratio ofripple magnitude to the mean value diode current lasts much less than a half cycle, the load receives current more continuously
test voltages should not have Vj i.e., V/V The from C.
ripple factor more than 5% or as specified in a specific standard
for a particular equipment as the Assuming the charge supplied by the transformer to the load during the conduction period
requirement on. voltage shape may differ for,
applications. different which is very small to be negligible, the charge supplied by the
Q.2. Explain with diagram Half-wave rectifier ciruit to produce during conduction equals the charge supplied by the capacitor totranstormer0
the load. Note ne
thatcapa
i,> i
high d.c. voltage. During one period T= 1/fof the a.c. voltage, a charge Q is tranaferred to the load R, and is given
Ans. Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit: The
Very Important)
simplest
is the half wave rectifier shown in Fig. 1. Here
circuit for generation of
high direct voltage
to smoothen the d.c. output voltage.
R, is the load resistance and C the
capacitance
Ifthe capacitor is not connected, pulsating d.c. voltage is obtained at the output terminals where I is the mean value of the d.e output i, () and VRz () the d.c. voltage which includes a
whereas with the capacitance C, the pulsations at the ripple as shown in Fig. 1 ().
output terminal are reduced. Assuming
the ideal transformer and small internal resistance of the diode ia
C is charged to the maximum during conduction the capacitor This charge supplied by the capacitor over the period T when the voltage changes from
voltage Vnay during conduction of the diode D. Assuming that maomin ver
approximately period T neglecting the
conduction period of the diode.
Suppose at any time the voltage of the capacitor is V and it decreases by an amount of dv
over the time dt then charge delivered by the capacitor during this time is
 48]- UNIT-I- [UTUJ B.TECH.- EHV AC & DC TRANSMISSION DC TAANSMISSION
-

AC &
(49]- UNIT-I- [UTU]-B.TECH,- EHV
dQ= CdV producing high d.c. voltages
Circuits: Rectifier circuita for
Therefore, if voltage changes from Vma to Vmin the charge delivered by the capacitor Hafand Full Wave Rectifier
half wave, (b) full wave,
doubler type rectifiers. The
or (c) voltage
naGeources may be (a) device. Nowadays single electron tubes are
or a solid state
dQ Cdv --C(Vmu-Vmin) uermay be an electron tube
up to 250kV, and
semiconductor or solid state diodes up to
Or the magnitude of charge delivered by the capacitor ble fot peak inverse voltages
several units are to be used in series. When a number of units are
f o r higher voltages, distribution along each unit becomes
non-uniform and special
Q C(Vms- min gAhperies, transient voltage distribution uniform.
Using equation (2) make the
elhould be taken to
Q 28VC Aecttier
Rectifier

Therefore, 28VC IT
or
GV= 1T
2C 2fC
Equation (5) shows that the ripple in a rectifier output depends upon the load current Input Input
an a.c. a.c
the circuit parameter like fand C. The product f C is, therefore, an
important design factor fo
the rectifiers. Thehigher the frequeney of supply and larger the value of filtering capacitor th h.v. 1ransfomer Rectilier
smaller will be the ripple in the d.c. output.
h.v. transtomer
The single phase half-wave rectifier circuits have the
following disadvantages: (a) Have wava recu (b) Full wave rectiler
() The size of the circuits is very large if high and pure d.c. output voltages are Fig. 3. Full and half wave rectifiers
desired.
()
The
withht.
thetransformer
may
current ofifthe
get saturated
nominal alternating thetransformer.
amplitude of direct current is comparabltCommonly used half wave and full wave rectifiers are shown in Fig. 3. In the half wave
a.c. voltage of the secondary of
tifier (Fig. 3 a) the capacitor is charged to Vmax the maximumIn the other half cycle, the capacitor
It is to be noted that all the circuits A
high voltage transformer in the conducting half cycle. chosen Buch that the time constant
onsidered here are able to supply relatively low rscharged into the load. The value of the capacitor C is
currents and therefore are not suitable for high o- at least 10 times that of the period of the a.c. supply. The rectifier valve must have a
current applications euch as HVDC transmission. ie To limit the charging current, an additional resiatance R
C2 Loainverse rating of at least 2 Vmax
When high dc. voltages are to be generated, provided in series with the secondary of the transformer (not shown in the figure).rectifier A
yoltage doubler or cascaded voltage multiplier - wave rectifier circuit is shown in Fig. 3 (6). In the positive
half cyele, the
éireuits are used. One of the most popular doubler
FAfull in halí cycle the rectiñer B conducts
nducts and charges the capacitor C, transformer negative a centre
while the
circuit due to Greinarcher is shown in Fig. 2.
dcharges capacitor. the The source requires tapped secondary with a
Suppose B is more positive with respect to A ing of 2 V.
Fig.2. Greinarcher voltage doubler circuit valves used are of special
and the diode D, conducts thus charging the
For applications at high voltages of 50 kV and above, the rectifier
capacitor C, to Vmas with polarity as shown in Fig. 2. During the next half cycle terminal A ostruction. Apart from the filament, the cathode and the anode, they contain a protectve
the capacitor C, rises to V and hence terminal M attains a potential of 2 Vna Thus, theield or grid around the filament and the cathode. The anode will be usually a cireular plate
capacitor C, is charged to 2 Vmax through D,. Normally the voltage across the load will beless
nce the electrostatic field gradients are quite large, the heater and the cathode experence
than 2 Vmas depending upon the time constant of the circuit CR Ee electrostatic forces during the non-conduction periods. To protect the various elements
these forces, the anode is firmly fixed to the valve cover on one side. On the other side,
Q.3. Explain with diagrams, different types of rectifier circuits for producing hig om a steel mesh structure or a protective grid
here the cathode and filament are located, kept at
d.c. voltage. anode and the
surrounds them so that the mechanical forces bebween the
Ans. Generation of High Direct Current Voltage: Generation of high dc. voltages is mainly cathode potential
are reilected on the grid structure only.

required n research work in the areas of pure and applied physics. Sometimes, high directode voltage laboratories and testing installations, semiconductor rectiñer stacks
on cables and capacitors. Impulse generator charginin modern high
voltages are needed in insulation tests used for producing d.c. voltages. Semiconductor diodes are not true valves since
units als0 require high d.e. voltages of about 100 to 200 kV. Normally, for the generation of d.ce commonly
finite but very small conduction in the backward direction. The
more
commonly
voltages of up to 100 kV, electronic valve rectifiers are used and the output currents are abou ey have are silicon diodes with peak inverse voltage (P.I.v)
100 mA. The rectifier valves require special construction for cathode and filaments since a hig eterred diodes
for high voltage rectifiers is small (a few
to 2 kV. However, for laboratory applications the current requirement
electrostatic field of several kVlcm exists between the anode and the cathode in the non-kV with P.I.V.of up
and less than one ampere) and as such a selenium element stack
conduction period. The a.c. supply to the rectifier tubes may be of power frequency or may be ofamperes,
kV may be employed without the use of any voltage grading capacitors
of very small magnitude ieo0
audio frequency from an oscillator. The latter is used when a ripple d.c. less than the a.c. maximum
voltages
of costly filters to smoothen the ripple.
Both full wave and half wave rectifiers produce
required without the use
 [50]-UNIT-I-[UTU]- 8.TECH.- EHV AC &DC AC & DC TRANSMIsSION
voltage. Also, ripple or the TRANSMISSION (51] UNIT-I [UTUJ- B.TECH. -EHV
voltage
reasonable limit by means of filters.fluctuation will be present, and this has to be kept will be about 2% for R,/rs 10
and

Ripple Voltage with HalfWave and

withit Nging time constanta. The ripple voltage of these circuits of the input transformer. The rectifiers
and resiatance
Full Wave Rectifiers: When a full wave 0.25, where X and
are
the reactance
r
capacitors, C and C2 m u s t also have the
wave rectiier is used along with the or a hf inverse voltage of 2 Vma and the
smoothing capacitor C, the voltage on no load will be ated to a peak
maximum a.c.
and discharges voltage. the co
But when on load, the the
capacitor gets charged from the aupply voltabe ng If the load current is
needed without changing
into load resistance d d doublera are use larger output voltages are in
Rwhenever the supply voltage hscaded voltage doublers used when
l oltage doubler Fig. d5 (6) and its input
value to zero value.
These waveforms are shown in waveform varieg Irom pe
Fig. 4. When loaded, a fluctuation put transformer voltage level. A typical voltage
doubler is shown
shown
in Fig.
n and R2 with transformer 7, and
oupat a.c voltage oV appears, and is called ripple. The ripple voltage 8V is larger for ina h autgut waveforms are shown in Fig. 5 (c). The of
rectifiers R,
a n output voltage 2
wave
rectlner than that for a full wave rectifier, since the discharge period in the case of ha aators 8 2andconnected
Vin the same voltage doubling to 4
wave rectifier is in series obtain a further
cascade to obtain
series or cascade further
The ripple õVlarger vOltage a T, is at a
in
depends shown in Fig. connected
as
on (a) the 4. voltage frequencyf. (6) the time constant CR., a Tsan
supply uit is duplicated
isolating transformer to give an insulation for 2 V,as 8ince the transformer

ntial of 2 Vmay above the ground. The voltage distribution along the rectifier string R, R2
equal to the en PPy uranstormer Xz. For half wave rectifiers, the rinnle freue is unitorm by having capacitors C. C2 C3 and C, of equal
values. The
wave rectifiers, it is twice that value. The ripn and R made and by repeating further stages with suitable
W as
vOlcage 1s to be kept as low mgement maymera: be extended to give 6V, 8V, so on
possible with the
the proper choice
proper choice of the
of the filter capacitor and
filter capacitor and ti
e W
transformer reactance for a given load E h In al1 the voltage doubler circuits, if valves are used, the nlanet
Rz. designed and insulated, as all the cathodes will not be at the
Q4. When voltage Double circuit is used? nsformers have to be suitably becomes cumbersome if more than 4 Vis needed
Ans. Voltage Doubter Circuits: Both full wave and Umportan epotential from ground. The arrangement
half wave rectifier circuits produce a d
voltage less than the a.c. maximum voltage. When higher d.c voltages are needed, a
cascaded steps.
doubler or cascaded rectifier doubler circuits are used. The volta
schematic diagram of Voltage double T2
are given in Figs 4a and b.
In voltage doubler circuit shown in
Fig. 4 a the capacitor C is charged through rectifier RaS
O voltage of+Vm With polarity as shownin the figure during the negative half cycle. As t
voltage of the transformer rises to positive Vmax during the next half cycle, the potential of
other terminal of C, rises to a voltage of
+2Vmax
th
nput R C L 2V
max
R 008T
(a) Input sine wave3
a.c. suppy

Fig.5. (a) Simple voltage doubler Fig.5.(b) Cascaded voltage doubler

(b) Output with haM wave

TT-hv.transformers; R. A RR-rectifiers; C, C. CgCcapactors;
A-Load resistance: T-isolating transformer
'ectifier and capacitor fiter

Describe, with
factors that a neat
limit sketch, thevoltage
the maximum working ofa Van de Graaff generator.What
obtained?
are

V (Very Impatant UK Tech 2011-12)

(c) Ouput with full wave rectifler
Electrostatic Machines: Basic Principle: In electromagnetic machines, current carrying
ductors are moved in a magnetic field, so that the mechanical energy is converted into
and capacitor fiter

max
V mean
(d)mas Vmean and ripple voltage and dv
with capacitor fiter of a full wave rectiier.
Fig. 4. Input and output waveforms of half and full wave rectiiers
Thus the capacitor C, in turn is charged through
R, to 2 Vmax Normally the d.c.
voltage on load will be less than 2 Vma depending on the time constant
C,R, and the forwar
ctrical energy. In electrostatic machines charged bodies are moved in a n electric field against
electrostatic field in order that mechanical energy is converted into electrical
energy. Thus,
ninsulated belt with a charge density &moves in an electric field "E(" between two electrodes
h separation 's' then
t h e charge on the strip of belt at a distance dr is dq = 8b.dr where b is the width of the
belt, andA
) the force on the belt, Fis
outpu
F= E() da - js-b ECeds
 52]- uNIT-III- (UTU]- B.TECH. EHV AC & DC EHV AC & DCTRANSMISSIOON
-
TRANSMISSION (53]-UNIT-1I- (UTUJ .
B.TECH-
If the belt moves with is connected to the
a velocity, u, then the mechanical power P, the upper pulley
required to self-charging system,
To obtain maintained at a potential higher than that of the highterminal
a voltage
minal is employed. ia therefore voltage
and of the high
move the belt is P=F =5
v bv [E(x)dx Hctor needlea points connected to
the inside

inal. Thus second row corona its point of entry into the terminal gives a c o r o n a discharge
of
the pulley above polarity to
The current, I, in the system is given as directed towards on the belt and
leaves a n e x c e s s of opposite
This neutralizes any charge Thu8, for a given belt
the.belt. to the bottom charging point.
I= dq/dt = öb-dx/dt =8b-v
3oterminal to travel down with the belt
and the potential difference, V, between the electrodes is rate of charging
is doubled.
bu ô, where b is the
pded the belt is given by I
=

for unit surface area of the

charging current and õ is the surface charge
he belt
velocity of the x 10-5in m/sec,
V= E(xd* in
the belt
cadth of coulomb v is the
metres, C/m* to have a safe electric
field
It found that ß ia s 1.4
nsity in s/m. is
ns, n an electrostatic machine, the mechanical power required to move the belt a normal to the surface. With b =3 m and u = 3 m/sec, the charging curren wi be
velocity u, 1Le.PEF.Uis converted into the electrical power, P= V.I, assuming that there are imately 125 uA. The generatoris normally worked in a niga presu
1osses in the system. The Van de Graaff generator is one such electrostatic machine wh gereranging from 5 to 15 atm. The gas may be nitrogen, air, air-ireon (l2F2) mxUre
pr
generates very high voltages, with small output current (Plate 1). Blphur hexatluoride (SF).

Vande Graalk Generators: The schematicdiagram ofa Van de Graaffgeneratoris sho ande Graaff generators are useful for very high voltage and low curTentappiucaos or
t voltage is easily controlled by controlling the corona source voltage and the rae
n Fig.5. The generator is usually enclosed in an earthed metalliccylindrical vessel and is opera The voltage can be stabilized to 0.01%.
These are extremely flexible and precise
under pressure or in vacuum. Charge 1s arging. control.
sprayed onto an insulating moving belt from High voltage temindchines for voltage but low
de Graaff generators are essentially high voltage
corona points at a potential of 10 to 100 kV
Electrostatic Generators: Van seldom exceeds few tens of kilowatts. As such electrostatic
above earth and is removed and collected from and their power rating
Upper spray polnt ower devices, convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
using variable
the belt connected to the inside of an insulated collector. which effectively
Upper pulley insiula echines These, essentially duals of electromagnetic machines
pacitor principle were developed.
metal electrode through which the belt moves. are
from the terminal consists of
The belt is driven by an electric motor at a adsare constant voltage variable capacitance machines. An electrostatic generator
forming variable capacitor and operates i n vaccum.
speed of 1000 to 2000 metres per minute. The Earthed
enclosure tator with interleaved rotor vanes a

potential of the high voltage electrode above

the earth at any instant is V=Q/C, where
the
Insulaled bet The current through a variable capacitor is given by I= C+vwhere Cis
dt dt
a capacitor
is the charge stored and Cis capacitance
of the high voltage electrode to earth. The potential V.
arged to a
potential of the high voltage electrode rises input into the circuit at any instant is
he power
at a rate.
P= VI=cv v2 dC
H.V Motor driven pully dt
D.C source Lower spray point
du
where Iis the net charging Ifis negative, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.
current
A steady potential will be attained by the Fig. 6. Van de Graalf generator
high voltage electrode when the leakage 0 and the power output will be
currents and the load current are equal to the charging current. The shape of the high volta With the capacitor charged with a d.c. voltage V,C
electrode is so made with re-entrant
edges avoid high surface field
as to is a
gradients, corona dC
other local discharges. The shape of the
electrode epherica.
nearly
The charging of the belt is done by the lower spray points which are sharp needles a A echematic diagram ofa synchronous electrostatic generator with interleaved stator and
connected to a d.c. source of about 10 to 100 kV, so that the corona is maintained betweentor plates is ehown in Fig. 7. The rotor is insulated from the ground, and is maintained at a
moving belt and the needles. The charge from the corona points is collected by the collecti otential of+ V. The rotor to stator capacitance varies from Cto Cm and the stator is connected
needles from the belt and is transferred on to the high voltage electrode as the belt enters i fcommon point between two rectifiers across the d.c. output which is -E volts. When the
the high voltage electrode. The belt returns with the charge dropped, and fresh charge ia spray apacitance of the rotor is maximum (C), tdhe rectifier B does not conduct and the stator is at
onto it as it passes through the lower corona point. Usually in order to make the charging m o t i n d potential. The potential E is applied across the rectifier A and Vis applied across C,, As
effective and to utilize the return path of the belt for charging purposes, a gelf-induci he rotor rotates, the capacitance C decreases and the voltage across Cincreases.
arrangement or a second corona point system excited by a rectifier inside the high volta
 [54- UNIT4II- [UTU]-
B.TECH.- EHV AC & DC
TRANSMISION EHVAC &DC TRANSMIsSION
(55]- UNIT-I-[UTU]- B.TECH.

scheme for cascading three transformers. The primary of the first

Figure 8 shows a basic toa low across the eecondary
voltage supply. A voltage is available
E-Line voltage output age transformer is connected
The tertiary winding
ofthis transformer. of first stage has the
VRotor plate votage excitation winding)
of turns as the primary
1. Stator with vanes same number
and feeds the primary of the
-
E 2. Rolor shat nding,
transformer. The potential
3. Rotor vanes econd stage
fixed to the potential V
A, 8-Reclliers
Drthe tertiary is
secondary winding as shown in Fig.
B ofthe
The secondary winding of the second
transformer is connected in seriesa
Stage the first
Fig.7. Electrostatic generator wththe secondary winding of of 2V 3V
a voltage
transtormer, that
so
Thus, the stator becomes more negative with respect
the line potential -E the rectifier A ground. When the stator readage
to
vailable between the ground and tne
conducts, and further movement of the rotor causes
current to fow from the generator. Rectifier B will aowhaveE acros it andthe chargelerminalofsecondaryottheecond sta 2
the stage-III
thegenera tor ill be =C,(V+ E) + E(C, + C), where C, is the stator capacitance to earthansiormer. Similarly,
w

is the capacitance of rectifier B to earth, and

to rotor capacitance).
C, is the minimum capacitance value of C(st cond stage transformer. With this the
A generator of this type with an butput voltage ground and the
between
output voltage of one MV and a field gradient of 1 M Hird stage transformer, secondary is 3 V.
in high vacuum and having 16 rotor poles, 50 rotor
plates of 4 feet maxim um and 2 feet minimis to be noted that the individual stages
diameter, and at a epeed of 4000 rpm would develop 7 MW of power except the upper most must have three
Q.6. Why is it neccessary to produce High A.C. Voltages? (Very Importawinding transformers. The upper most, Flg.8. Basic 3 stage cascaded transfarmer
Ans. Generation of High A.C. Voltages:Most of the present day tranamission and distribut wever, will be a two winding
networkaare operating on a.c. voltages and hencemostof the testing equipments relate to anaformer
a.c. voltages. Even though most of the Figure 8 shows metal tank construction of transformers and the secondary windingis not
equipments on the aystem are 3-phase aystems, a si
phase transformer operating at power frequency is the most common form of HVAC e st divided. Here the low voltage terminal of the secondary winding is connected to the tank. The
equipment. tank of stage-I transformer is earthed. The tanks of stage-II and stage-III transformers have
Test transtormers normally used for the purpose have low power rating but high volt potentials of V and 2V, respectively above earth and, therefore, these must be insulated from
ratings. These transformers are mainly used for short time tests on high voltage equipmer the earth with suitable solid insulation. Through h.t. bushings, the lesads from the tertiary
The currents required for these tests on various equipments are given below: winding and the h.v. winding are brought out to be
Insulators, C.B., bushings, Instrument connected to the next stage transformer.
transformers 0.1-0.5 A However, if the high voltage windinga are of mid
Power transformers, h.v. capacitors. 0.5 1A
Cables 1 A and above
point potential type, the tanks are held at 0.5 V, 1.5 V
The design of a test transformer is similar to a potential transformer used for and 2.5 V, respectively. This connection results in a
cheaper construction and the high voltage insulation now
measurement of voltage and power in transmisasion lines. The fux density choeen is low eo nepds to be designed for V/2 from its tank potential
itdoes not draw large magnetising current which would otherwise saturate the core andprod main disadvantage of cascading the transformers
higher harmonics. The
Q.7. Describe the cascaded transformer for producing high AC voltage.
ia that the lowerloaded
stages of the primaries of the
ransformers are as compared
more with the
Ans.
Cascaded Transformers: voltages
Por higher than 400 kV, it is desired to caseade p e stage.
The loading of various windingsis indicated by Pin
or more transformere depending upon
the
voltage requirements. With this, the weight of
whole unit is subdivided into single units and, therefore, transport and erection becomes easiI8.8. Por the three-stage transsormer, the total output
o-
Flg. 8. Equivalent circuit of one stag
Also, with this, the transformer cost for a given voltage may be reduced, aince cascaded un A w be 3 Vi= 3P and, therefore, each of the secondary
need not individually possess the expensive and heavy insulation required in single stsnding of the transformer would carry a current of I= P/V. The primary winding of stage-III
transformers for high voltages exceeding 345 kV. It is found that the cost of insulation for suranstormer is loaded with P and so alao the tertiary winding of second stage transformer
voltages for a single unit becomes proportional to square of operating voltage. Theretore, the primary of the second stage transformer would be loaded with 2P, Extending the
 56) UNIT-II- [UTU]- B.TECH.- EHV AC &
DC TRANSMISSION 157]-UNIT4I-(UTU]-
B.TECH.- EHV AC & DC TRANSMISSION
same logic, it is found that the first
stage primary would be loaded with 3P. Therefore, Also let N, N,
for all etages, the equivalent circuit
designing the primaries and tertiaries of these transformers, this factor muet be takenw
=

transtormer would be given as in Fig.

10. Kres
consideration. for á 3-stage simplified v;
Figure 10 can befurther reduced to very
=
a
The total short circuit impedance of a cascaded transformer The re8ulting short circuit
can be obtained. The
from data for individual sta
circuit as shown in Fig. 11.from the condition that the
equivalent circuit of an individual stage ia shown in Fig. 9. reactance e is obtained
Here 2, 2, and Zp are the impedances associated of the two circuits be the s a m e . Here
with each winding. The
shown in series with an ideal 3-winding transformer with corresponding impedances power rating
Fig. 11. A simplified equivalent circuit
have been shown corresponding to high voltage
number of turns currents
N and A The impedances are obtained either from calculated or experimentally-derived ress S1de.
X, + (21)*X, + PX, +PX, PX, +PX, 2)2 X, PX
of the three short-circuit tests between any two + + +
windings taken at a time. PX= (3)*
Let leakage impedance measured on primary side with secondary shortcircui Xres 14X, + 3X, + 5X,
and tertiary open. for a n n-stage transformer
nstead of 3(X,+X, +X) as might be expected Eq. () can be generalised
Z=
leakage impedance measured on
and secondary open.
primary side with tertiary short circui a s follows:

leakage impedance on secondary side with tertiary short circuited a

primary open.
x ln-i+1°X,;
i=1
+
X, +(6-1?X,)
If these measured impedances are referred to primary side then where Xi and A are the short-cireuit reactances of the primary, secondary and tertiary
ith transformer.
of
Zpp , 2Z,.Z and 2,-Z,+Z windings
Solving these equations, we have It has been observed that the impedance of a two-stage transformer is about 34times the
impedance of one unit and a three-stage impedance is 8-9 times the impedance of one unit
fransformer. Hence, in order to have a low impedance of a cascaded transformer, it is desirable
z,- Z-Za).Z, -a+Z -Z) hat the impedance of individual units should be as small as possible.

and Q.8. Write short Note on "Resonant transformers".

a (Very Important)
Ans. Resonant Transformers: The equivalent circuit of a high voltage testing transformer
A i n g egligible magnetisting current, the aun of the ampere turna of ail the windionsista ofthe lenkage reactance of the windinge, the winding rosistance, the magnetizing
must be zero.
reactance, and the shunt capacitance across the output terminal due to the bushing of the high
N,-N, I,-NJ=0
ASSuming lossless transformer, we have,
voltage terminal and alao that. of the test object. This is shown in Fig. 12 with its equivalent
Circuit in Fig. 12 (6). Itmay be seen that it is poseible to have series resonance at power frequency
2 , i Z, =iX, and z=jX
o if + = L) 1/oC. With thiscondition current in the object is very large and is
the test
limited only by the resistance of the circuit. The waveform of the voltage acro8s the test object
will be purely sinuspidal. The magnitude of the voltage across the capacitance C of the test
object will be

where R is the total series resistance

of the circuit.
00owm0000
L

a.c n.v.

supply
1

(a)Translormer (6) Equivalent circuit

T-Testing transformer Leakage inductances of the transformer
Fig. 10. Equivalent circuit of 3-stage transformer L-Choke
C-Capacitance of h.v. terminal and test object 2-Resistances ofthe windings
L Magnetizing inductance -Resistance due to core losS
 59)- UNIT-II- [UTUJ-
B.TECH.- EHV AC &DC TRANSMIsSION
58- UNIT-IW- [UTU]- B.TECH.-EHV AC &DC TRANSMISSION
test arrangement, and
(e) simple and compact failures of the test object and
insulation
ilashovers occur in case of partial
( no repeated number of cycies at least to
recovery. It can be
shown that the supply source takes Q of
Reactor The disadvantages are the requirements
charge the test specimen to the full voltage. and the full
the full test voltage
additional variable chokes capable of withstanding
current rating.
in Fig. 12 and that of the
C the series resonance test system is given
A simplified diagram of the auto-transformer type or
Load capacitance in 12. A voltage regulator of either
parallel resonant test syetemis connected to the supply mains and the secondary
winding of the
induction regulator type
the
across the H.V. reactor, L
and the capacitive load C. The
exiciter transformer is connected
,

Lis varied by varying its air gap and operating range

is set in the ratio
inductance of the reactor the measuring
10:1. Capacitance C comprises of
the capacitance of the test object, capacitance of
etc. The 4-factor obtained in these
Excitaton voltage divider, capacitance of the high voltage bushing
Regulator In the parallel resonant mode the high voltage
Iransormer circuits will be typically of the order of 50. resonant
Series resonant a.c. test system auto-transformer and the circuit is connected parallel
as a
Fig. (c) reactor is connected as an
be
more stable output voltage
can
parallel circuit is that
circuit. The advantage of the
resonant
of tuning and
obtained along with a high rate of rise of test voltage, independent the degree
of
to 500 kV, while
voltages up
Reaclor theQ-factor. Single unit resonant test systems are bulk fix-output
cascaded units for outputs up to 3000 kV, 50/60 Hz are available.
Generators-Marx eircuit.
Q.9. Describe a multistage impulse
Load capacitance
is to be
Ans. Multistage Impulse Generators-Marx Circuit: The generator capacitance C,
first charged and then di harged into the wave shaping cireuits. A single capacitor C, may be
used for voltages up to 200 kV. Beyond this voltage, a single capacitor and its charging unit may
be too costly, and the size becomes very large. The cost and size of the impulse generator increasesS
Regulalor Exctation
at a rate of the square or cube of the voltage rating. Hence, for producing very high voltages,
a
bank of capacitors are charged in parallel and then discharged in eeriee. The arrangement for
ranslormer
charging the capacitors in parallel and then connecting them in series for discharging was
(d) Parallel resonant a.c. test system
Ratings: Regulator. J0 100 WA
originally proposed by Marx. Nowadays modiied Marx circuits are used for the multistage
Excitation transformer:10-100 kVA with an output voltage of about 10H impulse generators.
Reactor votage each unit up to 300 kV. The schematic diagram of Marx circuit and its modification are ahown in Fig. 13 (o) and 13
circuit
Fig. 12. Resonant transformer and equivalent (b), respectively. Usually the charging resistance R, is chosen to limit the charging current to
The factor xJR= 1/oCR is the Q factor ofthe circuit and givea the magnitude ot tne voaabout 50 to 100 mA, and the generator capacitance C is chosen such that the product CR, is
muliplication across the test object under resonance conditions. Theretore, the inputvo about 10s to 1 min. The gap spacing is chosen such that the breakdown voltage of the gap Gis
recuired for excitation is reduoed by a factor 1 / , and the output kVA required 19 also r e d u e ereater than the charging voltage V. Thus, all the capacitances are charged to the voltage Vin

of the circuit is unity. about 1 minute. When the impulse generator is to be discharged, the gaps G are made to spark
by a factor 1/Q. The secondary power factor
This principle is utilized in testing at very high voltages and on ocasiona requiring lars over simultaneouslyby some external means. Thus, all the capacitors C get connected ineeries
current outputssuch as cable testing, dielectric loes measuremente, partialdischarand discharge into the load capacitance or the test object. The discharge time constant CR,/n
measurements, etc.A transformer with 50 to 100kV voltage rating and arelatvelylargec u r e o r n etages) will be very very small (microseconde), compared to the charging time constant
ratine is connectedtogether with an additional choke, if neoessary. The testeonditon 18sCR, which will be few seconds. Hence, no discharge takes place through the charging resistors
echthatwl, +L=1ioCwhere L, is the total equivalent leakage inductance of the tranatormR, In the Marx circuit ia of Fig. 13 () the impulse wave shaping cireuit is connected externally
chief advantages of this principle are: to the capacitor unit. In Fig. 136, the modified Marx circuit is shown, wherein the resistances
including its regulating transformer. The
R, and R, are incorporated inside the unit. R, is divided into n parts equal to Rln and put in
(a)it gives an output of pure sine wave,
10% of total kVA required) 8eries with the gap G//R, is aleo divided inton parts and arranged across each capacitor unit
(6) power requirements are less (5 to
(c) high-power arcing and heavy current surges
occur
ifthe test object tails, as
res0nan ue gap G. This arrangement saves space, and aleo the cost is reduced. But, in case the
no
waveshape is to be varied widely, the variation becomes dificult. The additional advantages
ceases at the failure of the test object,
gained by distributing R, and R, inside the unit are that the control resistors are smallerin size
(d) cascading is also possible for very high voltages, and the efficiency (V/nV) is high.
 61]- UNIT-1II [UTU]- B.TECH.- EHV AC & DCTRANSMISSION
60)-UNIT-A1 [UTU]- B.TECH.- ENV Ac a DC TRANSMISSION
between 50 and
kilo-ohma. Each resistor will be designed to have a maximum voltage
s 100 kV.
ww- www- www
ww are arranged vertically one over the other
(iii) Generator Capacitors and Spark Gaps: These and
with all the spark gaps aligned. The capacitors are designed for several charging
dead short circuit, the capacitors will be capable of giving 10
C
discharging
kA operations. On
of current. The spark gaps will be usually spheres or hemispheres of 10 to 25 cm
D.C.
PG PG diameter. Sometimes spherical ended cylinders with a central support may also be used.
non-inductive wound type
R
(iv) Wave-shaping Resistors and Capacitors: Resistors will be
of discharging impulse currents of 1000 A or more. Each resistor
ww- ww www- www- and should capable
be
will be designed for a maximum voltage of 50 to 100 kV. The resistances are bifñlar
wound on non-inductive thin flat insulating sheets. In some cases, they are wound on
Fig. 13. (a) Schematic diagram of Marx circuit arrangement for multistage impulse generator
thin cylindrical formers and are completely load capacitor may be of
C-Capacitance of the generator encloeed. The
R-Charging resistors compressed gas or oil filled with a capacitance of 1 to 10 nF.
G-Spark gap
R. R2Wave shaping resistors
Modern impulse generators have their wave-shaping included internaly with
resistors
a flexibility to add additional resistors outside, when the generator capacitance is changed
-Test object (with series parallel connection to get the desired energy rating at a given test voltage).
Such generators optimize the set of resistors. A commercial impulse voltage
generator
T° °T uses six sets of resistors ranging from 1.0 ohm to about 160 ohms with different
TnC, combinations (with a maximum of two resistors at a time) such that a resistance value
varying to ohms
R./n from0.7 ohm 235 per stage is obtained,
cover1ng a very large
range
energy and test voltages. The resistors used are usually resin cast with voltage and
of
G
Rn energy ratings of 200 to 250 kV and 2.0 to 5.0 kWsec. The entire range of lightning and
AnnC1
Foow.
n voltages can be covered using these resistors either in series or in
R/ G CaVo switching impulse
parallel combination.
R | nC n
() Triggering System: This consists of trigger spark gaps to cause spark breakdown of the
O0w
gaps

nC (u oscilloscope
Voltage Dividers: Voltage dividers of either damped capacitor resistor type and
or
with recorading arrangement are provided for measurement of the voltages
an

across the test object. Sometimes a

sphere gap is also provided for calibration purposes.
Fig. 13. (b) Multistage impulse generator incorporating the series (oi) Gas insulated impulse generators: Impulse generators rated for 4 MV or above will be
and wave tail resistances within the generator
very tall and require large space. As such they are usually located in open space and are
nominally rated by the total voltage (nominal), the number of stage8
Impulse generators are
and the gross energy stored. The nominal output voltage is the number of stages multiplied by housed in an insulated enclosure.
make the nit compact, compressed gas, such
may be around 30
The height of a4.8 MV unit be To m.
a as
N, or SP
may used the insulation.
as

charging voltage.
the charging voltage. The nominal energy stored is given by C,V°where C,
by; C,V2where =

0.1/1.0 torsare
U(the
C/n n dischargo/
t needed to generate very fast transients having time duration of
0.5/5
us waves for testing Gas Insulated Systems (GIS) that are coming up nowadays.
or

capacitance) and Vis the nominal maximum voltage (n times charging voltage). A 16-stasn energy needed for testing ofthis type of equipment is small less than 30 kJ) and the load
less than 500 pF.
impulse generator having a stage capacitance of 0.280 ul and a maximum charging voltage oapacitance usually
is

300 kV will have anenergEy rating of 192 kW sec.The heightofthe generator w be anout 10,Why measurement of High Direct Current Voltages is necessary ?
and will occupy floor area of about 3.25 x 3.00 m. The wavetorm
a
ot ertner po2ry
Ans. Mesurement of High Direct Current Voltages: Measurement of high d.c. voltages as
obtained by suitably changing the charging unit polarity (Plate 3). n low voltage measurements is generally accomplished by extension of meter range with a
Components of a Multistage Impulse Generator:
A mutietageimpuneranorge seriee resistance. The net current in the meteris usuallylimitedtoone to ten microanmperes
requires several componente parts for nexibility and for the production the reguiredwaveshaporfull cale delection. For very high voltages (1000kV or more) problemsarie due tolarge
These may be grouped as follows: power dissipation, leakage currents and limitation of voltage stress per unit length change in
d . c . Charging Set: The charging unit should be capable ofgiving a variable d.c. voltagitance due to temperature variations, etc. Hence, a resistance potential divider with an
of either polarity to charge the generator capacitors to the required value. electrostatic
voltmeter is sometimes better when high precision is needed.
But potential
i ) Charging Resistors: These will be non-inductive high value, resistors ot about 10 to 1 o ulter trom the disavantages stated above. Both series resistance meters and potential
dividers
 [62] UNIT-II- [UTU]- 8.TECH.- EHV AC &
DC TRANSMISSION (63)-UNITl-[UTU -8.TECH.- EHV AC& DC TRANSMISSION
dividers current drain from the source.
cause
Generating voltmeters are high impedance devices measuredis applied between the two epheres and the distance or apacing S between them gives
and do not load the source. They provide complete isolation from the source
as they are not directly connected to the
voltage (high voltage) a measure of the sperkovor voltage. Aseries resistance ia usually connected between the source
high voltage terminal and hence are safer. Spark gaps
such as sphere gaps are gas discharge devices and give an acCurate measure of the peak
voltages.
and the sphere gapto (i) limit breakdown current, and (i) to suppress unwanted oecillations in
the source voltage when breakdownoccura incase of impulse voltages). The value of the eeries
These are quite simple and do not require any specialized construction. But the resistance may vary from 100 to 1000 kilo ohma for a.c. or d.c. voltages and not more than
measurement
is affected by the atmospheric conditions liké
temperature, humidity, etc. and by the vicinity of 600 Q in the case of impulse voltages.
earthed objects, as the electric field in the gap is affected by the
presence of objecte. But
sphere gap measurement of voltages is independent of the waveform and earthed frequency.
Table 1. High voltage Measurement Techniques h.v.
-
s 0.5 D
Type ofvoltage Method or technique
(a) d.c. voltages ) Series resistance microammeter
(ii) Resistance potential divider
(iii) Generating voltmeters.
iv) Sphere and other spark gaps
(6) a.c. voltages () Series impedance ammeters S
1. Insuator support
2. Sphere shank
(power frequency) ii) Potential dividers (resistance or capacitance type) J.Operatng gear and motor
ii) Potential transformers (electromagnetic or CVT) 1.5 D for changing gap distance
iv) Electrostatic voltmeters 4. H.V. connection
P Spardng point
S 0.2D
(v) Sphere gaps D Diameter of the
sphere
(c)a.c. high frequency voltages, ) Potential dividers with a cathode ray oscillograph S Spacing
A Height of P above
impulse voltages, and other earth
(resistive or capacitive dividers) B Radius
of the clearance from
rapidly changing voltages (i) Peak voltmeters etemal structure
X High voltage lead should
(ii) Sphere gaps not
pass through this plane wihin
Table 2. a distance B tromP
High Current Measurement Techniques
Typeofcurrent Device or technique
21.50
(a) Direct currents )Resistive shunts with milliammeter
(i) Hall effect generators Fig.14.(a) Sphere gap
for voltage measurerment
In the
of a.c. peak value and d.c.
case
Cii) Magnetic links voltage measurements, the applied
(6) Alternating currents Resistive shunts (Power frequency) increased
until sparkover occurs in the gap. Generally, a mean of voltage is uniformly
is taken when they agree to within t3%. about five breakdown values
(i) Electromagnetic current transformers In the case of
(c) High frequency a.c., impulse
)Resistive shunts impulse voltage, to obtain 50% fla_hover voltage, two
by not more than 2% are set such that on
and rapidly changing
currents| () Magnetie potentiometers or Rogowski coils take place and on application of upper limit application of lower limit valuevoltage
either 2
limits, differing
or 4 flashovers
(ii) Magnetic links mean of these two limits is taken as 50% value 8 or 6 lashovers take place
iv) Hall effect generators flashover
voltage measurement is to be made before actual voltage. In any case, a preliminary respectively. The
Q1. Describe the sphere
gap measurements of High d.c., a.C. and The flashover voltage for various measurements are made. sparkover
(Peak values). innu gap distances and standard
Ans. Sphere Gap Measurements: ven in Tables
(UTU 2011-12) 558, IEC Publication I and
2 respectively. The values of diameters of the spheres used
Sphere gaps can be arranged e1ther ) 62 of 1960 and IS:
1876 of
sparkover voltages are specified in Bs:
lower sphere grounded, or (1)
horizntally with both spheres connected to verucauy u 5 and 14b
1or
1962. The clearances
one sphere In the source
grounded. horizontal configurations, it is generally aranged such that voltage orbove figures are given in Table 3. measurements
to be within
+3%. The necessary
value of A and B
are shown in

are both spheres

symmetrically at high voltage above the ground. The two spheres used are identical indicated in the
and shape. The in size
schematic arrangement is shown in Figs. 14 (a) and 14 (6). The voltage
to be!
 B.TECH.- EHV AC & DC TRANSMISSION (65]- UNIT-Il- [UTU]- B.TECH.- EHV AC & DCTRANSMISsiON
[64]- UNIT-II- [UTU)-

in kV for a.c., d.c. voltages of either

n.v. Table 1. Peak value of sparkover voltage
full negative standard impulse voltages (one sphere earthed) (A)
4 olarity, and for and impulse voltages with long tails (B) at
positive polarity impulse voltagos
temperature: 25°C and pressure: 760 torr
0.5 D Gap
Sphere diameter (cm)
10 100 150 200
Spacing 16
2D/2D
(em) A B
A B A B A B A B A B
0.5 17.4 17.4 16.9 16.8 16.9 16.9
32.0 32.0 31.7 31.7 31.7 31.4 31.2 31.4
1.0
1.5 44.7 45.5 44.7 45.1 44.7 45.1 44.7 44.7

2.0 57.5 68.0 58.0 58.0 58.0 58.0 58.0 58.0

71.5 71.5 71.5 71.5. 71.5 71.5 71.5 71.5
2.6
85.0 85.0 85.0 85.0 85.0 85.0 85.0 85.0
3.0
95.5 96.0 97.0 97.0 97.0 97.0 97.0 97.0
3.5
106.0 108.0 108.0 110.0 110.0 110.0 110.0 110.0
4.0
arrangement of sphere gap
(Legend as in Fig. 14 a) (123.0(127.0)127.0132.0135.0 136.0 136.0 136.0
Fig. 14. (b) Horizontal with two metal spheres 5.0
Construction and Assembly:
Sphere gaps are made 14a or) 7.5 (181.0)(187.0) 195.0196.0199.0 199.0
Sphere Gap and insulator supports (Fig.
gear,
D with their shanks, operating latter is used due to low cost. 10.0 257 268 259 259 262 262 262 262 262 262
ofidentical diameters made of copper, brass, or aluminium; the 200
b).Spheres are generally
are 2, 5, 6.25, 10, 12.5, 15, 25, 50, 75,
100,150, and 12.5 277 294 315 317
diameters for the spheres the eparking point P. 384 384 384 384 384
The standard chosen such that
ilashover o c c u r s n e a r 15.0 (309) (331) 367 374 383
cm. The spacing is so designed
and
fabricated so that their surfaoes are smooth and the (336) (362) 413 425
designed and at various points 17,5
The spheres are carefully measured with a spherometer 452 472 500 500 500 500 500 500
radius of curvature not differ by more 20.0
is uniform. The should
curvature the sparking point
over an a r e a enclosed by
a circleof 0.3D around free firom dust, grease,or 25.0 520 645 605 610
value. The surface of thesphere should be
than+2% or the nominal
maintained clean but need not be polished. Ifexcessivej 30.0 (675) (610) 700 715 730 735 735 740
The surface should be The dimensions of the
any other coating. they should be smoothened. (725) (755) 785 800
sparkovers,
pittingoccurs due to repeated
with spheres, the ground clearances, etc.0.0 862 885 940 950 960 965
shanks used, the grading ring used (f necessary) and 14 (b) and Table 3. The high voltage 40.0
indicated in Figs. 14 (a) 45.0 925 965
should follow the values the field configuration.
Series resistance
such that it does not affect sphere or 1000 1020 1110 1130. 1160 1170
conductor should be arranged D away from the high voltage 50.0
the shanks at a distance 2
connected should be outside (1210(1260)1420 1460 1510 1590
75.0
the sparking point P. m e a s u r e m e n t s of voltages
less than 50 kV are10a 1870 1900
Irradiation of sphere gap
is needed when be obtained from a
less. The irradiation may
made with sphere gaps
of 10 c m diameter or be at a distance B
or more as
should
vapour lamp of 40 W rating. The lamp
quartz tube mercury
indicated in Table 3.
 [67] UNIT-I1 (UTU]- B.TECH.- EHV AC & DC TRANSMISsION
UNIT-IW- [UTU]- B.TECH.- EHV AC &DC TRANSMISSION
[66 Table 3. Clearances for Sphere Gaps
and impul
in air for a.c., d.c.,
sparkover voltages in kV (peak) 20°C and Va lue of
Table 2. Sphere gap
sphere gaps at temperature: Valu e ofA
of either polarity for symmetrical B (m in)
voltage pressure: 760 torr D (Cm ) in ax

up to 6.26 7D 9D 14 S
Sphere diameter (cn1) Remarks
Gap 10 to 16 6D 8D 12 S
Spacing 150 200
5 25 50 100 For spacings less tha 25 5D 7D 10 S
(cn) 10
17.5 16.9 16.5 4D 6D 8S
0.5 0.5 D, the accuracy i 60

1.0 32.2 31.6 31.3 31.0

3% and for spacing 100 3.5 D 5D 7S
46.1 45.8 45.5 45.0 20.5 D, the accuracy 4D 6S
1.5 150 3D
59.2 59.0
2.0 58.3 59.3
+5%. 200 3 D 4D 6S
72.4 72.9 73.0
2.5 69.4
A and B are clearances as shown in Figs 14 (o) and 14 (6).
(79.3) 84.9 85.8 86.0
3.0 D= diameter of the sphere; S = epacing of the gap; and S/D s 0.5.
111.0 113.0 112.0
107.0
4.0 137.0 137.0
128.0 134.0 138.0 138.0 137.0 Q.12. What are the factors influencing the sparkover voltage of sphere Gaps?
5.0
(177) 194.0 207.0 214.00
Ans. Pactors Influencing the Sparkover Voltage of Sphere Gaps: Various factors that
8.0 267.0 267.0
10.0
248.0 263.0 266.0
affect the sparkover voltage of a sphere gap are:
nearby earthed objects,
286.0 309.0
12.0 () atmospheric conditions and humidity,
320.0 353.0
14.0 (i) irradiation, and
352.0 394.0
16.0 (iu) polarity and rise time of voltage waveforms.
452.0
18.0
495.0 504.0 511.0 511.0 Detailed investigations of the above factors have been made and analysed by Craggs and
20.0 632.0 Meek, K and Abdullah, Kuffel, Davis and Bowlder, and several other investigators. Only a
558.0 613.0 628.0
25.0 few important factors are presented here.
744.0 741.0 746.0
) Effect of nearby-earthed objects: The effect of nearby earthed objects was investigated by
30.0 812.0 848.0 860.0
Kuffel by enclosing the earthed sphere inside an earthed cylinder. It was observed that the
35.0 902.0 950.0 972.0
40.0
sparkovervoltage is reduced. The reduction was observed to be
1070.0 1140.0 1180.0 AV m log (B/D) + C
50.0 (1210) 1320.0 1380.0 Where, AV= percentage reduction,
60.0 1490.0 1560.0 B= diameter of earthed enclosing cylinder,
70.0 (1640) 1730.0 D= diameter of the spheres,
80.0 1900.0 S=spacing, and m and C are cnstants.
90.0 2050.0 The reduction was less than 2% for SID S0.5 and B/D 2 0.8. Even for S/D = 1.0 and BID> 1.0

100.0 the reduction was only 3%. Hence, if the specifications regarding the clearances are dlosely
observed the erroris within the tolerances and accuracy specified. The variation of breakdown
is
voltage with A/D ratio given in Figsif15
within
(a)isand (6)less
for a 50 cm sphere gap. The reduction in
voltage is the aceuracy limits, S/D kept than 0.6 A in the above ratio, A is the
distance from sparking point horizontal ground plane (also shown in Fig. 15).
to

i) Effectof atmospheric econditions: The sparkover voltages of a spark gap depends the
air density which varies with the changes in both temperature and pressure. If the sparkover
on

voltages ia V under test conditions of temperature T'and pressure p torr and if the sparkover
voltage is V under standard conditions of temperature T= 20°C and pressure p = 760 torr, then
V= kV%
 [69]- UNIT-11 - [UTU]- B.TECH.- EHV AC & DC TRANSMISSION

(68]- UNITAII- UTU]- B.TECH, EHV AC & DC TRANSMISSION

31.8

where k is a function of the air density factor d, given by 31.6

P293 31.4
d 760273+77 -d.c.voltage
31.2
in Table 4. a.c. voltage
The relationship between d and k is given
X

31.0
h.v.

30.8

D i a oí sphere
30.6
30.5
68 10 12 14 16

SlD-1.0 Humidity (mm mercury)

cm spacing)
d.c. and a.c. breakdown voltages (25 cm dia sphere gap. 1
850 Fig. 16. Influence of humidity on
800 (i) Effect of Irradiation: Illumination of sphere gaps with ultra-violet or x-rays aids easy
AlEE Value
ionization in gaps. The effect irradiation is pronounced of
for
small gap spacings. Areduction
about 20% in sparkover voltage was observed for spacings of 0.1 D to O.3 D for a 1.3 cm sphere
.6 S/D = 1.0
gap with d.c. voltages. The reduction in sparkover is
600
A/D=4.2 voltage lessthan 5% for gap spacings
more
than 1 cm, and for gap spacings of 2 cm or more it is about 1.5%. Hence, irradiation is necessary
AEE Value
SID = 0 . 4 for smaller sphere gaps of gap spacing less than 1 em for obtaining consistent values.
500 S/D = 0.6
MD = 4.2 (iv) Effect of polarity and waveform: It has been observed that the sparkover voltages for
AEE Value
positive and negative polarity impulses are different. Experimental investigation showed that
4007 for sphere gaps of 6.25 to 25 cm diameter, the difference between positive and negative de.
0 24 6 8 10 12 14 16
6 8 12 voltages is not more than 1%: For smaller sphere gaps (2 cm diameter and less) the difference
R/D Ratio P/D Ralio
was about 8% between negative and positive impulses of 1/50/us waveform. Similarly, the wave
(6)
a front and wave tail durations also influence the breakdown voltage. For wave fronts of less than
sparkover voltage
Fig. 15. Influence of ground planes
on

Factor k and Air Density Factor d

0.5 us and wave tails less than 5 us the breakdown voltages are not consistent and hence the
use of sphere gap is not recommended for voltage measurement in such cases.
Table 4. Relation between Correction

0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.0 1.05 1.10 1.15 Q.13. Deseribe the Resistance potential divider for very low impulse voltage & fast
d 0. 70 Rising pulses. (UTU 2012-13)
0.82 0.86 0.91 0.95 1.0 1.05 1.09 1.12 Ans. Resistauce Potential Divider for Very Low Impulse Voltages and Fast Rising
0.72 0.77
Pulses: A simple reaistance potential divider consists of two resistances R, and R, in series (R,
increase is about 2 to 3% over no*ma
The sparkover voltage increases with humidity. The R ) (sce Fig. 17). The attemuation factor of the divider or the voltage ratio is given by
of humidity on sparkover voltage of a 25 c
humidity range of 8 g/m* to 15 g/m*. T'he influence
a VO-1+
be that the increase in sparkove
is presented in Fig. 16. It can seen
sphere gap for 1 cm spacing the
is less than 3% and variation between a.c. and d.c. breakdown voltages is negligibl V.t) R
voltage
(<0.5%). The divider element R, in practice, is connected through the coaxial cable to the osilloscope.
effect increases with the size of sphere The cable will generally have a surge impedance Zg and this will come in parallel with the
Hence, it may be concluded that (i) the humidity oseilloscope input impedance (R . R, will generally be greater than one mega ohm and C
and is maximum for uniform field gaps, and (i) the sparkover
voltage increases with the partia
condition, the change in sparkove may be 10 to 50 picofarads.For high frequency and, impulse voltages (since they also contain
in air, and for a given humidity
pressure of water vapour As the change in sparkover voltage with humidity high frequency fundamental and harmonics), the ratio in the frequency domain will be given by
gap length.
voltage increases with the
R,/1+R jaRC
within 3%, correction is normally given for humidity.
no
a
Hence, the ratio is a function of the frequency. To avoid the frequeney, dependence of the
voltage ratio a, the divider is compensated by adding an additional capacitance C across
The value of C. to make the divider independent of the frequency, may be obtained fromne
relation,
 (71]- UNITHII- [UTUJ-
B.TECH.- EHV AC & Dc TRANSMIsSoN
[70-UNIT-II- [UTU)- B.TECH. EHV AC & DCTRANSMISsION
the important requirements ofair-insulation
& porcelain insulators?..
Q.14. What a r e
important requirements of air-insulation
and porcelain insulatora in EHV-AG
Ans. The most
lines are
and HVDC substations'and transmission
distances along the surface of insulators
R,C R,C be the same. This compensation is used
-
Creepage
meaning that the time constant of both the arms should
Clearances in air.
with oscilloscopes. Usually, probes based on level of atmospheric pollution and
used 1. The creepage distance requirements
are
for the construction of high voltage dividers and probes
value of can include any etray capacitance
C continuous voltage (AC rma or DC).
are made with adjustable values of soC that the
a four nanosecond rise time
with on most severe transient overvoltage.
including that of a cable, etc. A, typical high voltage probe 2. The clearances are based
rated for 40 kV (peak) has an input impedance of 100 MQ in parallel with 2.7 pF. The output Flashover characteristics of various types of air-gaps for switching
and lightning surges are
18 with over and under compensation
waveforms of a compensated divider are shown in_Fig. different.
the wavform of an R-C divider when C, is too studies and field experience.
The design parameters are derived on the basis of experimetal
In Fig. 18 () is shown
for a square wave input. while in Fig. 18 c (üi) is shown the waveform
when C is small o
and DC are similar but different.
large or ovrcompensated, of the wave, the time The basic principles for AC
undercompensated. For the exponential slope
or for the rising portion listed in Tables 6.
will be too large when the value of C, is greate The insulation is provided between the phases/poles/earth as

constant t= [R,RJR, + R,)] (C, +C).This

and hence an overshoot with an
than that required for correct compensation, i.e. R, C =R, Cm Table 6. Insulation Requirements of EHV-AC
For under compensation, the charging timee and HVDC Substation and Transmission Lines
exponential decay occurs as shown in Fig. 18 () ().
rise occurs as shown in Fig. 18 (c) (üi).
is too high and as such an exponential EHV-AC. HVDC
Insulation between
System System
h.v. Between each phase to
Ground (Fig. 13 a)
C
Between two phases
V,(0) Between each pole to ground
V,01 P1-G, P2-G (Fig. 13 b)
Vf
m Between two poles
P1-P2 (Fig. 13 b)
Between points at diferent
(a) Resistance potential divider with (b) Compensated resistance Voltage along the conducting
surge cable and osciloscope terminations
potentlal dvider path (e.g. valves, turns of windings etc.)
Fig.3.17. a and b: Resistance potential dividers Creepage (Fig. 1)
Clearances (Fig. 2)

(0) Overcompensaled
1. Classification: Self-restoring and Non-self restoring insulation
1. Self-restoring insulation. This includes air gaps, SF, gas gaps; external glazed surfaces
of porcelain or glass ceramic insulators of transmission lines and equipment.
2. Non-self restoring insulation. This includes dielectric oil used in transformers and
(i) Correctly compensated reactors, synthetic liquids used in capacitors, oellulose dielectric material used for
CB C2Rm windings, epoxy resin bonded parts.
3. Hybrid of self-restoring and non-self restoring insulation. Such combination is used in
valves.

(ii) Undercompensated
(B) Classiication: Internal and External Insulation and between Diferent Points in
the Current Path: An equipment and transmission lines need following insulations.

(c)
1. Internal inaulation phase to ground/pole to ground. Phase to phase/pole pole; between
to
diflerent points along with current path e.g. betwoen two ends of a winding or between two
divider lor diferent degrees of compensation
Fig. 3.18. Output of compensated resistance votage terminals of a valve.
 72]- UNIT-Al- [UTUJ- B.TECH,- EHV AC& DC TRANSMISSION [73]-UNIT-I- [UTU]- B.TECH.- EHV AC &DC TRANSMIssION

External Insulation. This is characterised by air gaps,

2.
string distances, creepage paths
etc. External insulation is exposed to atmospheric contamination.
Q15. Describe the Insulation Design Aspects.
Ans.Insulation Design Aspects: The following aspects should be coneidered:
Voltage to which the equipment is subject during service conditions and
voltage tests. during high
The voltage gradient at conductor surfaces and
along solid insulator 8urfaces at the
voltages mentioned above.
Technical data about electrical properties of the solid/
employed in the equipment. liquid/gaseous dielectric materiale
attice
-Environmental conditions and service conditions. Lattice Vertical
sell-supported
Temperature rise of insulation sell-supported
horizontal structure
configuralion ldelta structure
Requirements of Creepage distances.
Requirements of Clearances.
The stresses are calculated by calculation and Electric
used. The designs are based on intensive Field Plots. Digital computation is.
development tests, field tests.
The design and development of EHV-AC and HVDC insulators/
insulation has taken
place over several decades based on theoretical research, experimental data andsystem
field
The stresses and behauiour of insulators/insulation experience.
system has several variables of unpredictable
nature.

Q.16. What are the structure configuration and Material for ovehead Transmission Lattice Lattice Laltice
Lines? H-frameHorizontal Guyed-VCCHorizontal Single-column
Ans. Structure Configuration and Material: Structure coat
(Very Important) strucutre Structure delta structure
of the total cost of a transmission line. Therefore, usually accounts for 30 to 40%
selecting an optimum structure becomes an
integral part of a cost-effective transmission line design. A structure study
to determine the most suitable structure usually is performed
configuration and material based on cost, contraction,
and mairntenance considerations and
electric and magnetic field effects. Some key factors to
consider when evaluating the structure configuration are:
1. A horizontal phase
configuration usually results in the lowest structure cost
2. If right-of-way costs are
high, or Ac width of the right-of-way is restricted or the line
closely parallels other lines, a vertical configuration may be lower in total cost.
3. In addition to a wider
right-of-way,
tree clearing than vertical
horizontal configurations generally require more
4.
configurations. Tubular steel Single pole
Although vertical configurations are narrower than horizontal Tubular steel
also taller, which may be configurations, they are H-frame vertical single-shaft
5.
objectionable from an aesthetic point of view. Horizontal structure modilied delta
Where electric and magnetic field Structure
strength is a
considered as a means of reducing these fields. In concern,
the phase configuration is structure
Fig. 19. Transmission line structures
have lower field general, vertical configurations will
strengths at the edge of the right-of-way than horizontal Q.17. Describe the potential divides for Impulse voltage Measurements.
and
delta configurations will have the lowest configurations,
circuit with reverse or low-reactance single-circuít
field strengths anda double- Ans. Potential Dividers for Impulse Voltage Measurements: Potential or
voltage dividers
phasing will have the lowest possible field strength. for high voltage impulse measurements, high
Selection of the structure type and material frequency a.c. measurements, or for fast rising
230-kV line, costs were estimated for depends on the design loads. For a single event transient voltage measurements are
usually either resistive or capacitive or mixed element
concrete over a range of
single-pole and H-frame structures in wood,
steel, and type. The low voltage arm of the divider is usually connected to a fast recording oscillograph or
have the lowest installed
design span lengths. For this example, wood H-frames were found to a peak reading instrument through a delay cable. A schematic, diagram of a potential divider
cost, and a design span of 1000 ft resulted in the lowest with its terminating equipment is
As design loads and other cost per mile. given in Pig. 20. Z, is usually a resistor or a series of resistors
and materials change.
parameters change, the relative costs of the various structure in case of a resistance potential
divider,
types or a single of a number of capacitors in case of a
capacitance divider. It can also be a combination of both resistors and capacitors. Z will be a
 (74]- UNITAII- [uTU]- 8.TECH.- EHV AC & DC
TRANSMISSION
capacitor or an R-C impedance depending upon the type of divider. Each element
o. a
resIstorror
the divider, in case of high voltage dividers, has a self-resistance the
or
capacitance.
In addition,
theresistive elements have residual
terminal to terminal capacitances.
inductances, a terminal etray capacitance to ground, and UNIT-IV
hv.
mono
EHV DC TRANSMISSION-I
AR

V,) delay cable

Cm CRO Q.1. Explain the different types of DC Links. (UTU 2011-12)

Ans. TYPES OF DC LINKS
HVDC converter bridges and lines or cables can be arranged intoa number ofconfigurations
Fig. 20. Schematic diagram of for effective utilization. HVDC links may be broadly classified as:
potential divider with a delay cable and oscilloscope
a
(a) Monopolar linke
Acapacitance potential divider also has the same equivalent circuit where will be the
capacitance of each elemental capacitor, C, will be the terminal capacitance to C, (6) Bipolar links
will be the equivalent leakage resistance and resistance due to ground, and R (c) Homopolar links
dielectric loss in the element.
When a step or fast rising voltage is (a) MonopolarLinks: It uses one conductor, usually of ve polarity. The return path is
applied at the high voltage terminal, the voltage developed
across the element provided by ground or water. Cost considerations often lead to the use of such system8,
Z, will not have the true waveform as that of the applied voltage. The cable
can also introduce distortion in the configuration may also befirst stage in the
diferent errors in the measurements:
waveshape. The following elements mainly conetitute the particularly for cable transmission.
development of a bipolar system.
This type of
() residual inductance in the elements; Inetead of ground return, a metallic return may be used in situations where earth resistivity
) stray capacitance occurring is
high possible with underground/underwater
too or metallic structures are objectionable. The
(a) between the elements, conductor forming metallic return is at low voltage.
(6) from sections and terminals of the elements to ground, and
(c) frojn the high voltage lead to the elements or sections;
(iii) The impedance errors due to
(a) connecting leads between the divider and the test objects, and
(b) ground return leads and extraneous current in ground leads; Metalllc return
(v) parasitic oscillations due to lead and cable inductances and
and (optional)
terminal to ground. capacitance of high voltage Fig.1. Monopolar HVDC Link
The effect to residual and lead inductances becomes (b) Bipolar Links: It has two conductors one +ve and other -ve. Each terminal has two
of less than one pronounced when fast rising impulses convenors of equal rated voltage, connected in series on DC side. Junction between converters
microsecond
down the fast rising
are to be measured. The residual
inductances damp and slow 1s grounded.

the ground leads also

pulses. Secondly, the layout of the test objects, the impulse generator, and
require special attention to minimize recordingerrors. AC
system system

O00

Bipolar HVDC link

Fig. 2. Bipolar HVDC link
 761-UNITV-[UTU]- 8.TECH.-EHV AC & DC TRANSMISSION I77] UNITHV- [UTU]- B.TECH.-
EHV AC &DCTRANSMISSION
Normally, the currents in the two poles are equal, and there is no ground current. The two
transform provide undergrounded 3-d voltage
poles can operate independently. If one pole is isolated due to a fault on ita conductor, other pole pulse or 12-pulse arrangement. The converter
the
can operate with eround and thus carry half the rated load or more by using the overload bridge
vatve with the vaBve side of transform undergrounded,
source ofappropríate levelto tve or -ve end of
DC system will be able to esttablish its own reference to ground, by grounding
capabilities of its converters and line.
From the a bipolar HVDC line is considered to be effective
view point oflighting performance, valveconverter. reactorshaving inductance as high as
1.0 H
equivalent to a double-circuit AC transmission line. Under normal operation, it will cause 2. Smoothing Reactors: These are large
considerably loss harmonic interference on nearby facilities than monopolar system. Reversal pole of each
cbnnectéd in series with each converter station. They serve the following purposes8
of power flow direction is achieved by changing the polarities of two poles through controls. (o) Decrease harmonic voltagesand currentsin DCline
In situations where ground currents are not tolerable or when a ground electrode is not (6) Prevent commutation failure in inverters
feasible for reasons such aa high earth resistivity, a third conductor is used as a metallic neutral. c) Prevent current from being
discontinuous at light load.
It serves as a return path when one pole is out of service. The third conductor requires low short circuit on DC line.
Limit the creast currentin rectifier during DC side.
insulation and may also serve as a shield wire for overhead lines. If it is fully insulated it can
3.) Harmonic Filters: Harmonic filters are required on AC side and usualy on

serve as a spare.
The characteristics of AC side current harmonic generated by pulse 6 are 6 n *-1
converters

(c) Homopolar Link: Homopolar link, has two or more conductors, all having same polanity converter. Where all +ve integers. AC filters are typicaly tuned
and 12 n +-1 for 12-pulse n -
converters. Tuning
Usually, a -ve polarity is preferred because it causes less RI due to corona. Return path through to
Eleventh, Thirteen, Twenty-third and Twenty-fifth harmonics for 12-pulse
the ground, when there is a fault on one conductor, entire converter ia available for feeding to Fifth and Seventh harmonics is required if connectors can be configured
into 16-pulse operation.
and interference
remaining conductor (s) which, having some overload copability, can carry more than normal These harmonics may cause overheating of capacitors and nearby generators
power, where continuous ground current is acceptable, homopolar links are preferred. with-eommunication system:
4. Reactive Power Supplies: DC converters inherently absorb reactive power
under steady
AC AC transferred. Under
state conditions, reactive power consumed is about 60% of active power
system system sources are therefore
transient conditions, consumption may be much higher. Reactive power
of shunt
provided near the converters. For etrong AC systems, these are usually in the form
capacitors. Depending on demand placed on DC ink and on AC system, part of reactive power
source may be in the form of uynchronous condeneers or etatic var compe nsators. Capacitors
associated with AC filters aleo provide part of reactive power required.
5. Electrodos: Moet DC linka are designed to use earth as a
neutral conductor for at least
brief periods of time. The connection the earth requires large-surface-area conductor to
to a
minimize current densities and surface voltage gradients. Torestrict current low through earth,
Homopolar HVDC link metallic return conductor may be provided as part of DC line.
6. DC Lines: They may be overhead lines or cablee. Expect for the number of conductors
Fig. 4.3: Homopolar HvDC link
and spacing required, DC lines very eimilar to AC line8.
The ground current can have side effects on gasor oil pipe lines that lie within few miles of
7. AC Circuit Breakers: For clearing faults in transform and for taking DC link out of
lines the ground current which can cause corrosion
thesystem electrode. Pipe
of
act as conductors for service, circuit breakers are used on AC side. They are not used for clearing DC faults, since
metal. Therefore configurations using ground return may not always be acceptable. these faults can be cleared more rapidly by converter control.
of
Each above HVDC systemlinks usually has cascaded groups of
several
converters, each
having transform bank and a group of valves. The converters are connected in parallel on AC Q3. Give the classification of converter (Very Important)
side and in series on DC side (valve) to give desired level of voltage from pole to Ans. Converter Classification:
(transform)
gound. The step-down converter in Fig. 3 (a) onl
allows power to flow from the supply to the load,
and is referred to as first quadrantconverter. Depending on the directions of current and voltage
Q.2. Write a short Note on
flows, de converters can be claseified into five types:
(a) Convertors (b) Smoothing Reactors 1. First quadrant converter
(c) Eloctrodes (d) AC circuit Breakers
2. Second quadrant converter
(e) Harmonic filters Reactive power suppliers 3. First and second quadrant converter
() DC lines
4. Third and fourth quadrant converter
Ans. 1. Convertors: They perform AC/DC and DC/AC conversion, and consist of valve bridges 5. Four-quadrant converter
and uransform with tap
changers. Valve bridge consists of high-voltage valves connected in a
First quadrant converter: The load current flowa into the load. Both the load voitage and
the load current are positive, as shown in Pig. 3 (a). Thia is a
said to be
single-quadrant converter and is
operated as a rectifier.
 [78]- UNIT-IV- [UTU]- B.TECH.- EHV AC & DC
TRANSMISSiON [79]- UNIT-JV- [UTU] - B.TECH.- EHV AC & DC TRANSMISSION

Second quadrant converter: The load current flows out of the load. The load voltage is which, with initial condition i,(t= 0) =, givea
nOsitive, but the load current is negative, as shown in Fig. 3 (6). This is also

L L
i = Ie-ta/LE_1-e-MRILY for 0 StskT .(1
At
izt, =kT) =12 (2)
of the stored in inductor L is returned to
When switch S, is turned off, magnitude
a energy
the tune origin t = 0, the load
the supply V, via diode D. The load current i, falls. Redefining
current i is described by
(a) First quadrant (b) Second quadrant (c) First and Second quadrant
converter converter Converter
dt
whicb, with initial condition i(t = t,) = I2 gives

for 0 Stst ..(3)

R
where t=(1 -k)T. Att = t2,
current 4)
|L i t 4 )=10 for steady-state continuous
for steady-state discontinuous current

L Using the boundary conditions in Ege. (2) and (4),

we can solve for I, and , as

...(6)
(d) Third and Fourth quadrant (o)Four-quadrant
converter corverter

Flg.3. DC converterclassification
.6)

current is either positive or negative,

First and second quadrant Converter: The load
4 The load voltage is always positive. This is known as a two-quadrant
-
as shown in Fig. (c).
be combined to form this converter, as
converter. The first and second quadrant converters can

first quadrant converter. S, and D, D, operate as a

shown in Fig. 5. S, and D, operate as a
(b) Load current that the two switches are not fired
second quadrant converter. Care must be taken to
ensure

becomes short-circuited. This type of converter can operate

together; otherwise, the supply V,
either as a rectifier or as an inverter.

V
4

(1 )T 1 Vs D
(a) Circult (c) Load voltage

Fig. 4. Second quadrant converter

and is said to be operated as
a single-quadrant converter, but operates in the second quadrant L D2
is shown in Fig. 4 (a), where the battery E is a part of DA
an inverter. A second quadrant converter

the load and may be the back emf of a dc motor.

current through inductor L and load
When switch S, is turned on, the voltage E drives
load voltage v, and load current i are shown in Fig. converter
voltage , becomes zero. The instantaneous converter Fig.6. Third and fourth quadrant
4 (6) and 4 (c), respectively. The current which rises, is described by
i Fig.5. First and second quadrant in The load voitage is
The circuit is shown Fig. 6.
Third and fourth quuadrant converter: and D,
- L R i , +E is either positive or negative, as shown in Pig. 4, S,
always negative. The load current
 [81]- UNTHV- (UTU] - B.TECH. - EHV AC & DCTRANSMISSION
80 UNIT-IV- [UTU]-
B.TECH.- EHV AC & DC TRANSMISSION
inverter characteristics are both measured at rectifier, inverter ehars thus includee voltage
nerate to yield both a negative voltage and a load current. When S, is closed, a negative current
drop across the line.
iows through the load. When S, is opened, the load current freewheels through diode D,. S With the rectifier maintaining constant current its V-I characteristics shown as ine AB ia
and D, operate to yield a negative voltage and a positive load current. When S, is closed, a
positive load current flows. When S, is opened, the load current freewheels through diode D, It Fig. 8 (a), is a vertical line. From Fig. 9
is important to note that the polarity of E must be reversed for this circuit to yield a negative VVa cOB y+ (R-R)I
voltage and a positive current. This is a negative two-quadrant converter. This converter can This gives invertor characteristics, with y maintained at a fixed value. If commutating
also operate as a rectifier or as an inverter. resistance Ris slightly larger than line resistance Rz, characteristics of inverter, shown as line
Four-quadrant converter: The load current is either positive or negative, as shown in CD in Fig. 8, has a small -ve slope.
Fig. 3.).The ioad voltageis also either positive or negative. One first and second quadrant o
converter and one third and fourth quadrant converter can be combined to form the four-quadrant
converter, as in 7(a). The polarities
shown Fig. ofthe
load voltage and load currents are shown
in Fig. 7 (6). The devices that are operative in different quadrants are shown in Fig. 7. For E(operating point)
D Vg measured of
operation in the fourth quadrant, the direction of the battery E must be reversed. roctifler, Inverler
Inverter(CEA) rectiner, Inverter
load
For an inductive with such a motor,
an emf (E) as de the four-quadrant converter can
control the power low and the motor speed in the forward direction (v, positive and i positive), chars includes

forward regenerative braking (u,poeitive and i, reverae), reverse direction (v, negative and i
Rectillor (CC) Rlo drop
reversing) and reverse regencrative braking (, negative and i negative).

Fig.8. Ideal steady-state VI chars

Since an operating condition has to satisfy both rectifier and inverter chars, it is defined ae
intersection of the two chars (E).
The rectifier chars can be shifted horizontally by adjusting "current command" or "current
V6 order". If measured current is loss than command regular advances the firing by decreasing a.
L Inverter chars can be raised or lowered by meana of its
transform changer. When changer
tap tap
D ia moved, CEA regular quickly reatores desired As aresult, directcurrent changes, which ia
y. a into
thenquickly restored bycurrent rectifier. Rectifer changer to bring
regulator of
tap acts
desired range between 10 and 20° to enaure high p.f. and adequate room for
control
a) Circuit
2. Actual Characteristic: The rectifier maintains constant current
is
by changing However
a.
u can not be lesa than ita
minimum value (aatmin). Once a min reached, further voltage
no
will
increaee ia possible, and rectifer operate constantignition angle (CIA). Therefore rectifier
chars has really two segmenta (AB and FA) aa shown in Fig. 9. The segment FA
Inverüng Rectitying S, (modulating) correaponds to
-V
Sa (modulating). D2
D..D2
S2 (cortinuousty on) minimum ignition angle and
represents ClA control mode. Segment AB represents the normal
constant current (CC) control mode.
VL S3 (modulating). S2 (modulating),. D -Rectifier (CIA)
+
+V S(continuously on)D. D Normal Volt
Rectifylng| nvertin9
Inverter (CEA)

(b) Polarities (c) Conductng devices

Fig.7. Four-quadrant converter

Q.4. Describe the Converter Control characteristics.

Ans. 1. Ideal Characteristics: Under normal operation, rectifier maintains constant current
H
(CC) and invertor operates with constant extinction angle (CEA), maintaining adequate
commutation margin.
The voltage V, and current 1 forming the coordinate may be measured at some common Fig.9. Actual corvertercontrol steady-state chars
point on DC line. In Fig. S, we have chosen be at the rectifier terminal. The rectiñer and
thisto
 [82] UNIT-IV- [UTU]- B.TECH.- EHV AC& DC TRANSMISSION UNIT-IV- [UTU]- B.TECH. EHV AC & DC TRANSMISSION
[83]
the above Fig. The current I is same as before, but voltage polarity
ord now represented by E, in
K cos a has changed.

Q.6. Write a short Note on:

Flg. 10. Current reguiator (a) Constant current control
Control
In practice, the
constant current chars may not be truly vertical, depending the current on (6) Constant Extinction Angle (5)
regulator. With proportional controller, it has a high-ve alope due to finite gain of the current
a
regulator as shown in above Fig. 10, with a regulator gain of K,
Ans. Constant Current Control
Constant current controller performs the following operations
Vdo cos a = KTord- l9 () Measures the system current I
= Va+Rera (ü) Compares it with a reference current ds
Therefore Va= KIord-(K+R.)I (ii) Computes ( - I ) and amplifier error signal ( - a
rectifier and ö in case of inverter in proper
In terms of perturbed values, (U Output error signal control a in case of
AV -(K + R,)al direction to reduce the error.
in case of rectiier to
f current is more .than reference, a must be increased
AV measured rectifier. The diffèrence between open circuit voltage
of
A -(K +R.,) decrease the open circuit voltage of the
rectifier and inverter is thereby decreased and current I is decreased proportionally.
with a proportional plus integral regulator, CC chars is quite vertical. At a reduced voltage, However, in case of inverter, if measured current is more than reference current, open
complete rectifier chars shifts as FA'B from FAB. as in a rectifier in order
circuit voltage of inverter must be increased instead of being decreased
The CEA chars ofthe inverter intersects the rectifier chare at Efor normal voltage. However, to decrease the difference of open circuit voltages.
inverter CBA chars (CD) does not intersect rectifier chars at a reduced voltage represented by inverter is
Constant Extinction Angle (8) Control: The current expression for an
a big reduction in rectifier voltage would
FAB. Therefore,after short time depending
the current and power to be
cause
the dc reactors. The system would thus
reduced
down.
to
zero a on run
( c o s- cos)
6x
In order to have certain value of I. for Vo and 8 value of B c a n be obtained from
above
In order to avoid above problem, inverter is aleo provided withacurrent.controller, which is
of
set at a lower value than current setting for rectifier. The complete invertor chars is given by expression.If computed and thyristors a r e fired, there is substantial risk
ß is continuously
DGH, consisting of two segments, one of CEA and one of constant current. The differenoe between commutation failure for folowing reasons.
(0) Above expression of , holds good only for 3-d symmetrical voltages. A shunt fault eay
a
rectifier current order and inverter current order is called current margin ( ) . It is usualy set
at 10 to 15% of rated current so as to ensure that the two constant current chars do not cross to line fault will not
line only
reduce Voltage but aso increases or decreases
oommutating.
each other due to errors in measurement or other causes. available commutation angle as shown in below Fig. 12.
(i) In case of a dip in voltage on AC side, rate of change current 7, may very be large
Q5. Explain the Combined Rectifior and Inverter Chars. (UTU: 2012)
despite the fact that large smoothing reactors have been incorporated in
the system.
Ans. Combined Rectifier and Inverter Chars
In most HVDC systems, each converter is required to function as a rectifier as well as
inverter. Conseque..tly each converter ia provided with a combined chars as shown in below
The chars of each converter consists of three
Ve
segments, constant ignition angle (CIA)
corresponding amin' constant current (CC) and Converter
(CEA)1E Coverter 2
constant extinction angle (CEA). (CEA)
The power transfer in from converter 1 to
converter 2, when chars as shown in above Fig
8
l1, by solid lines.The operating conditions in this
Fig.12. Asymmetrical reduction of AC system voltage
mode is represented by point E Corverter 1
(CEA)
The power flow is reversed when the chars CIA
Coverter2 9.7. Explain the principle of DC link control. (Very Important)
are as shown by dotted lines. This is achieved by Ans. Principle of DC Link Control: Consider the HVDC link as showa in Fig. 13 (a),
reversing the "margin setting" i.e., by making corresponding equivalent circuit and voltage profile are shown in Fig. 13. (6) and 13. (c
the current order setting of converter 2 exoeed
that of converter 1. The operating condition is
Fig. 11.Operation with each converter having
combined inverter and converter chars
 [84] UNIT-IV- [UTU]- B.TECH.-EHV AC & DC TRANSMISSION

flowing from the rectifier to inverter

The direct current
dor COS-Vdai CoS
R+RL
R+RL-R
Power at rectifier
terminal is

inverter terminal is
Power at
Pa: Va la-Pa«-RI
where, R, line resistance, R, and R, fictitious rectifier and inverter resistances. The
direct voltage at any point on the line and the current (or power) can be controlled by controlling
the internal voltages (Vdor COS ) and (do COs . This is accomplished by grid/gate control of
valve ignitión angle or control ot AC voltage through tap changing of converter transformer.

DC line

Rectifier Irverter

(a) Schematic diagram

-P
wW w-b

Voo COs VCos Y

b) Equvalent circut

Va COs o
Va COSY

(c) Voitage profie

Fig. 4.14
Grid/Gate control, which is rapid (1 to 10 ms), and
tap changing. which is slow (5 to 65
step) are used. Grid/Giate control is used 1nitially for rapid action, followed by tap changingper
to
restore the converter
quantities (a for rectifier and y for inverter) to their normal range.
ower reversal is obtained by reversal of polarity of direct voltages at both ends.

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