Basic principle II Second class Dr.

Arkan Jasim Hadi

Gases, vapors, liquids and solids

At any temperature and pressure, a pure compound can exist as a gas, liquid, or solid,
and at certain specific values of T and p, mixtures of phases exist, such as when water
boils or freezes, as indicated in Figure Part 3B. Thus, a compound (or a mixture of
compounds) may consist of one or more phases, A phase is defined as a completely
homogeneous and uniform state of matter. Liquid water would be a phase and ice
would be another phase. Two immiscible liquids in the same container, such as
mercury and water, would represent two different phases because the liquids,
although each are homogeneous, have different properties.

IDEAL GAS
1. Ideal gas is a theoretical gas composed of a set of randomly moving, non-interacting
point particles. The ideal gas concept is useful because it obeys the ideal gas law, a
simplified equation of state, and is amenable to analysis under statistical mechanics.

Certainly the most famous and widely used equation that relates p, V, and T for a gas
is the ideal gas law
pV = nRT (13.1)
where p = absolute pressure of the gas
V = total volume occupied by the gas
n = number of moles of the gas
R = ideal (universal) gas constant in appropriate units
T = absolute temperature of the gas
You can find values of R in various units inside the front cover of this book.
Some-times the ideal gas law is written as
Basic principle II Second class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

where in the equation is the specific molar volume (volume per mole) of
the gas.
Equation (13.1) can be applied to a pure component or to a mixture.

What are the conditions for a gas to behave as predicted by the ideal gas law? The
major ones are

1. The molecules of an ideal gas do not occupy any space; they are infinitesimally
small.

2. No attractive forces exist between the molecules so that the molecules move
completely independently of each other.

3. The gas molecules move in random, straight-line motion, and the collisions
between the molecules, and between the molecules and the walls of the container,
are perfectly elastic.

Gases at low pressure and/or high temperature meet these conditions.

Several arbitrarily specified standard states (usually known as standard conditions, or

S.C. or S.T.P. for standard temperature and pressure) of temperature and pressure
have been specified for gases by custom. Refer to Table 13.1 for the most common
ones

The fact that a substance cannot exist as a gas at 0°C and 1 atm is immaterial. Thus,
as we see later, water vapour at 0°C cannot exist at a pressure greater than its vapour
pressure of 0.61 kPa (0.18 in. Hg) without condensation occurring. However, you can
calculate the imaginary volume at standard conditions, and it is just as useful a
quantity in the calculation of volume - mole relationships as though it could exist. In
what follows, the symbol V will stand for total volume and the symbol V for volume
per mole.
Basic principle II Second class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

EXAMPLE 13.1 Use of Standard Conditions to Calculate Volume from Mass

Calculate the volume, in cubic meters, occupied by 40 kg of CO2 at standard

conditions assuming CO2 acts as an ideal gas.

Solution

Basis: 40 kg of CO2

Notice in this problem how the information that 22.42 m3 at S.C. = 1 kg mol is
applied to transform a known number of moles, into an equivalent number of cubic
meters. An alternate way to calculate the volume at standard conditions is to use
Equation (13.1).

EXAMPLE 13.2 Calculation of R Using the Standard Conditions

Find the value for the universal gas constant R to match the following combination of
units: For 1 g mol of ideal gas when the pressure is in atm, the volume is in cm3, and
the temperature is in K.

Solution

The following values are the ones to use (along with their units).

At standard conditions:

P = 1 atm

= 22,415 cm3/g mol

T = 273. 15 K
Basic principle II Second class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

In many processes going from an initial state to a final state, you will find it
convenient to use the ratio of the ideal gas laws in the respective states, and thus
eliminate R as follows (the subscript 1 designates the initial state, and the subscript 2
designates the final state)

or

Note that Equation (13.2) involves ratios of the same variable. This result has the
convenient feature that the pressures may be expressed in any system of units you
choose, such as kPa, in. Hg, mm Hg, atm, and so on, as long as the same units are
used for both conditions of pressure (do not forget that the pressure must be absolute
pressure in both cases). Similarly, the ratio of the absolute temperatures and ratio of
the volumes results in ratios that are dimensionless. Note how the ideal gas constant R
is eliminated in taking the ratios.

Let's see how you can apply the ideal gas law both in the form of Equation (13.2) and
Equation (13.1) to problems

EXAMPLE 13.3 Application of the Ideal Gas Law to Calculate a Volume

Calculate the volume occupied by 88 lb of CO2 at 15°C and a pressure of 32.2 ft of

water.

Solution

Examine Figure E13.3. To use Equation (13.2) the initial volume has to be calculated
as

shown in Example 13.1. Then the final volume can be calculated via Equation
(13.2) in which both R and (n1/n2 ) cancel out:
Basic principle II Second class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

You can mentally check your calculations by saying to yourself: The temperature
goes up from 0°C at S.C. to 15°C at the final state, hence the volume must increase
from S.C., hence the temperature ratio must be greater than unity. Similarly, you can
say: The pressure goes down from S.C. to the final state, so that the volume must
increase from S.C., hence the pressure ratio must be greater than unity.

The same result can be obtained by using Equation (13.1). First obtain the value of R
in the same units as the variables p, V, and T. Look it up or calculate the value from p,
V, and T at S.C.

Now, using Equation (13.1), insert the given values, and perform the necessary
calculations
Basic principle II Second class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

If you will inspect both solutions closely, you will observe that in both cases the
same numbers appear, and that the results are identical.

To calculate the volumetric flow rate of a gas through a pipe, you divide the volume
of the gas passing through the pipe in a time interval such as 1 second by the value of
the time interval to get m3/s or ft3/s. To get the velocity, v, of the flow, you divide the
volumetric flow rate by the area, A, of the pipe

The density of a gas is defined as the mass per unit volume and can be expressed in
kilograms per cubic meter, pounds per cubic foot, grams per liter, or other units.
Inasmuch as the mass contained in a unit volume varies with the temperature and
pressure, as we have previously mentioned, you should always be careful to specify
these two conditions in calculating density. If not otherwise specified, the densities
are presumed to be at S.C.
𝑚 𝑚
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 → 𝑝𝑣 = 𝑀 𝑅𝑇 → 𝑝𝑀 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑉

𝒑𝑴
Then 𝝆=
𝑹𝑻

EXAMPLE 13.4 Calculation of Gas Density

What is the density of N2 at 27°C and 100 kPa in SI units?

Solution
Basic principle II Second class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

The specific gravity of a gas is usually defined as the ratio of the density of the gas at
a desired temperature and pressure to that of air (or any specified reference gas) at a
certain temperature and pressure.

𝜌 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑇,𝑃
𝑠𝑝. 𝑔𝑟 =
𝜌 𝑎𝑖𝑟(𝑟𝑒𝑓.)𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓.,𝑃 𝑟𝑒𝑓.

EXAMPLE 13.5 Calculation of the Specific Gravity of a Gas

What is the specific gravity of N2 at 80°F and 745 mm Hg compared to air at 80°F
and 745 mm Hg?

Solution

One way to solve the problem is to calculate the densities of N2 and air at their
respective conditions of temperature and pressure, and then calculate the specific
gravity by taking a ratio of their densities. Example 13.4 covers the calculation of the
density of a gas, and therefore, to save space, no units will appear in the intermediate
calculation here:

Basis: 1 ft3 of air at 80°F and 745 mm Hg

𝒑𝑴
𝝆𝑵𝟐 =
𝑹𝑻

745 14.7 28.8

760 10.73 (40+460)
3
= 0.0697 Ib/ft
𝒑𝑴
a. 𝝆𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝑹𝑻

745 14.7 29
760 10.73 (40+460)

= 0.0721 Ib/ft3

𝐼𝑏 𝑁2 /𝑓𝑡 3 𝑎𝑡 80 𝐹,745 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔
Sp.gr of N2 0.0697 / 0.0721 = 0.965
𝐼𝑏 𝑎𝑖𝑟 /𝑓𝑡 3 𝑎𝑡 80 𝐹,745 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔

2. Ideal gas mixture and partial pressure

Engineers use a fictitious but useful quantit y called the partial

pressure in m a n y o f t h e i r c a l c u l a t i o n s i n v ol v i n g ga s e s . T h e
Basic principle II Second class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e o f D a l t o n , pi , namely the pressure that would be exerted

by a single component in a gaseous mixture if it existed alone in the same volume
as that occupied by the mixture and at the same temperature of the mixture, is
defined by

where pi is the partial pressure of component i in the mixture. If you divide Equation
(13.4) by Equation (13.1), you find that

Or

where yi, is the mole fraction of component i. In air the percent of oxygen is 20.95,
hence at the standard conditions of one atmosphere, the partial pressure of oxygen is =
0.2095(1) = 0.2095 atm. Can you show that Dalton's law of the summation of partial
pressures is true using Equation (13.5)?

Although you cannot measure the partial pressure of a gaseous component directly
with an instrument, you can calculate the value from Equations (13.5) and/or (13.6).
To illustrate the significance of Equation (13.5) and the meaning of partial pressure,
suppose that you carried out the following experiment with two non-reacting ideal
gases. Examine Figure 13.2. Two tanks each of 1.50 m3 volume, one containing gas A
at 300 kPa and the other gas B at 400 kPa (both gases being at the same temperature
of 20°C), are connected to an empty third tank of similar volume. All the gas in tanks
A and B is forced into tank C isothermally. Now you have a 1.50-m3 tank of A + B at
700 kPa and 20°C for this mixture. You could say that gas A exerts a partial pressure
of 300 kPa and gas B exerts a partial pressure of 400 kPa in tank C. Of course you
Basic principle II Second class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

cannot put a pressure gauge on the tank and check this conclusion because the
pressure gauge will read only the total pressure. These partial pressures are
hypothetical pressures that the individual gases would exert if they were each put into
separate but identical volumes at the same temperature. In tank C the partial pressures
of A and B are according to Equation (13.5)

PA = 700(300/700) = 300 kPa

PA = 700(400/700) = 400 kPa

Example : In one process the off-flue gas analyzes 14.0% CO2, 6.0% O2, and 80.0%
N2. It is at 400°F and 765.0 mm Hg pressure. Calculate the partial pressure of each
component.

Solution

By using Eq. 13.5

𝒑𝒊 = 𝒑𝑻 𝒚𝒊

Basis: 1 kg mol or 1 Ibmol.

𝒑𝑪𝒐𝟐 = 𝒑𝑻 𝒚𝑪𝒐𝟐 = 𝟕𝟔𝟓 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕. 𝟏 (𝒎𝒎 𝑯𝒈)

𝒑𝑶𝟐 = 𝒑𝑻 𝒚𝑶𝟐 = 𝟕𝟔𝟓 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟗 (𝒎𝒎 𝑯𝒈)

𝒑𝑵𝟐 = 𝒑𝑻 𝒚𝑵𝟐 = 𝟕𝟔𝟓 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟖 = 𝟔𝟏𝟐 (𝒎𝒎 𝑯𝒈)

𝒑𝑻 = 𝒑𝑪𝒐𝟐 + 𝒑𝑶𝟐 + 𝒑𝑵𝟐 = 𝟕𝟔𝟓 (𝒎𝒎 𝑯𝒈)

Basic principle II Second class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

Material Balances Involving Ideal Gases

EXAMPLE 13.7 Material Balances for a Process Involving Combustion

To evaluate the use of renewable resources, an experiment was carried out to

pyrolysis rice hulls. The product gas analyzed 6.4% CO2, 0.1% O2, 39% CO, 51.8%
H2, 0.6% CH4, and 2.1% N2. It entered the combustion chamber at 90°F and a
pressure of 35.0 in. Hg, and was burned with 40% excess air (dry), which was at 70°F
and an atmospheric pressure of 29.4 in. Hg; 10% of the CO remained unburned.

How many cubic feet of air were supplied per cubic foot of entering gas? How many
cubic feet of product gas were produced per cubic foot of entering gas if the exit gas
was at 29.4 in. Hg and 400°F?

Solution

This is an open, steady-state system with reaction. The system is the combustion
chamber.

Steps 1, 2, 3, and 4

Figure E13.7 illustrates the process and notation. With 40% excess air, certainly all of
the CO, H2, and CH4 should burn to CO2 and H2O; apparently, for some unknown
reason, not the entire CO burns to CO2. The components of the product gas are shown
in the figure.

Basis: 100 lb mol pyrolysis gas

Basic principle II Second class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

Step 4 (continued) The entering air can be calculated from the specified 40% excess
air; the reactions for complete combustion are

Basis: 100 Ibmol

O2 in =(O2 required (1+ % excess/100)

O2 req. = (0.39 (100)(1/2)+0.518(100)(1/2) +0.006(100)(2) - 0.1 = 46.5 Ibmol

It is enter the chamber then it is subtracted from the required

O2 exess.=4/100 *46.5= 18.6

O2 in =( O2 exess + O2 req. )= (18.6+46.5) = 46.5 (1 + 0.4) =65.1 Ibmole

N2 in = 65.1(79/21) = 244.9 Ibmol

The total mole air in = 65.1 + 244.9 =310 Ibmol

Element MB

N2 MB: in=out

N2 in F+ N2 in in excess = out

2.1+ 244.9 = nN2 (1)

C MB:

6.4 + 39 + 0.6 = nCO2 + nCO

6.4 + 39 + 0.6 = n CO2 + 3.9 (2) 10% from CO are not burned

O2 MB:

6.4 + 0.1 + 39(1/2) +65.1 = nCO2 + nO2 + ½ (nCO + nH2O) (3)

Solve these equations

Basic principle II Second class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

nN2 = 247, nCO2 = 42.1, nCO = 3.9, nO2 = 20.55, nH2O = 53

The total mole product= 20.55 + 3.9+42.1+53+274= 366.55 Ibmol

𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝒏𝑭 𝑹𝑻
𝑽𝑭 =
𝑷

100 Ibmol 10.73 (ft 3 . psi) (90+460) R 29.9 in.Hg

35 in. Hg ( R. Ibmol) 14.7 psai

= 343*102 ft3

𝒏𝑷 𝑹𝑻
𝑽𝑷 =
𝑷

366.55 Ibmol 10.73 (ft 3 . psi) (400+460) R 29.9 in.Hg

29.4 in. Hg ( R. Ibmol) 14.7 psai

= 2431.6*102 ft3

𝒏𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑹𝑻
𝑽𝒂𝒊𝒓 =
𝑷

310 Ibmol 10.73 (ft 3 . psi) (70+460) R 29.9 in.Hg

29.4 in. Hg ( R. Ibmol) 14.7 psai

= 1220*102 ft3

𝑽𝒂𝒊𝒓 1220∗102 𝑽𝒂𝒊𝒓 1431.6∗102

= = 3.55, = = 6.822
𝑽𝑭 343∗102 𝑽𝑭 343∗102
Basic principle II Second class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi