PROPERTY CHARACTERIZATION OF VINYL PLASTIC ROOFING USING
CHICKEN FEATHER FIBERS AND NYLON FIBERS AS PARTIAL REPLACEMENT
TO REINFORCING FIBERS
C.J. Collamat, W. Ochavez Jr., M. Ronquillo, A. Seban, A.R. Sia, D.M. Tabios
Department of Civil Engineering
Technological University of the Philippines – Manila
Abstract - Chicken Feathers are considered as a waste
product of the poultry industry. Tons of waste
feathers are generated each year by poultry
processing plants, creating a serious solid waste
problem. Research has shown that chicken feathers
are water and moisture resistant, has good thermal
and acoustic properties, has a very low density, and
lastly chicken feather, being mostly keratin, has a
very long degradation period making the product
long lasting. This study aims to characterize the
properties of a plastic roofing which has vinyl
chloride as the main polymer, along with it are the
other compositions needed especially the
incorporated fibers: chicken feather fibers, nylon
fibers and fiberglass. Figuring the best proportion on
the existing mixes, it asks: What is the best mix
design among all the mix designs developed? In this
context, having the best mix design not only means
having the best physical properties nor having the
best mechanical properties, as it should be deemed to
be the best both in physical and mechanical
properties.
Based on a review of the literature of ways
to utilize chicken feather fibers, the natural fiber
reinforced composite is reasonably strong,
lightweight and free from health hazard, and hence it
has the potential to be used as material for strong
components such as building materials, shipping,
automotive, etc. Natural fiber source is renewable
where it is considered being green and
environmentally friendly. The fact that it causes less
impact on the environment is proven since natural
fiber can be recycled thermally. Therefore, according
to good mechanical properties, the usages of the
natural fibers were retained in all sorts of
applications. Further research is needed to support
and identify other factors to consider strengthening
such claims.
INTRODUCTION
Chicken feathers are considered as a waste product of
the poultry industry. Tons of waste feathers are
generated each year by poultry processing plants,
creating a serious solid waste problem (Parkinson,
1998; Schmidt, 1998). The Philippines, on the other
hand, has well-attained self-sufficiency in poultry, an
abundant producer of poultry products generating for
about 800 million broiler chickens annually
regardless of continuous rise in population, the
supply continues to meet the consumer demands
(Bansal and Singh, 2016). With the arising large scale
of chicken feathers, it has come to a point that the
disposal of such wastes became difficult and
expensive. Usually, feathers are roasted or treated at
raised temperature and pressure. After drying, it is
ground to make powder for further use as a feed
supplement for livestock. This process is quite
expensive and contains protein with low nutritional
value (Ekta and Rani, 2012). Disposal methods such
as burning, or burying are also occasionally used but
they are not environment friendly (Valtcho and
Zheljazkov, 2005). Meanwhile, in today's scenario,
reinforcing fibers is commonly used as reinforcement
in commercial plastic roofing. Since plastic roofing is
exposed to weather, the material greatly needs a type
of glass that has high melting point capable enough to
withstand ultraviolet rays through the test of time.
Apparently, for this matter, glass with higher melting
point induces higher cost (E. Jarquio, 2007).
The innovative way of using plastic as a
roofing material has a wide selection of material
based on plastic; all of which differ in mechanical
property and global abundance. One of the most
common plastic materials is the vinyl chloride also
known as vinyl. Vinyl is a very versatile plastic
among thermoplastics in use today. It is produced by
the fusion or polymerization of vinyl chloride
monomer. The properties of vinyl material compared
to other polymer of plastics are exceptional at some
points making it more applicable for roof
construction setting (Whelan et al., 1990).
However, considering plastic alone isn't
sufficient. Excellent coupling of fiber reinforcement
to the vinyl matrix is required for good retention of
tensile strength. Addition of glass fibers results in a
significant decrease in coefficient of linear thermal
expansion. When properly formulated and managed
for weather resistivity, the vinyl and glass fiber excel
in good color retention, impact retention, and
outstanding dimensional stability (Summers et al.,
1999). Overall, utilizing glass fiber yields great
stabilization and a perfect balance in performance
and aesthetic. Conversely, reinforcing fibers needs to
be regel-coated about every five years that can result
to airborne particles which may be an issue to
persons who have asthma (Amer et al., 2018).
Chicken feather, on the other hand, can be a
more durable and substantial material than
reinforcing fibers. Chicken feather fibers are
affordable and economical due to chicken feathers
being a waste product in the poultry industry. Using it
will make a sufficient and easily attainable product in
the market. It is mostly made up of keratin, usually
seen in claws and nails, making it very sturdy. It is
water and moisture resistant, so it has minimal
swelling due to water content. The fiber has good
thermal and acoustic properties that make it tough
and resilient to weathering. It has a very low density
making it lightweight. Lastly, it has a very long
degradation period making the product long lasting
(Ramos et al., 2007). Despite the advantages, it also
has downsides compared to reinforcing fibers. It has
significantly lower mechanical properties, namely,
the tensile and flexural properties compared to
reinforcing fibers (M. Zhan, R. P. Wool, 2016).
With that, another variable was added to the
design to compensate for the mechanical properties
of the chicken feather fiber. Nylon has also one of the
highest flexural and tensile strength of the plastic
kinds. It is also very durable and can withstand
weathering as much as chicken feathers. Its surface
area is almost the same as polyvinyl chloride making
the binding process much easier. It is inflammable
but has a low resistance to heat with a lower melting
point just like plastic. This is where the heat and
water absorption of the chicken feather plays a
significant role making the combination efficient and
reliable. Nylon is a useful plastic for applications that
require both a plastic material as well as a high
melting temperature. Nylon can be adapted to a wide
variety of uses because of the different variants in
production and the adjustable material properties of
these variants resulting from the different materials
nylon can be combined with (Song et al., 2005).
The study was designed to produce vinyl
plastic roof using chicken feather fibers and nylon
fiber as partial replacement to reinforcing fibers that
has the positive characteristics such as flexibility,
lightweight and thermal resistance. Chicken feather
fibers have the property to enhance the thermal
resistance and reduce the density of the material due
to its light weight. Moreover, to enhance its flexural
property, incorporation of nylon was considered.
Nylon has been known to have high flexural and
tensile property, hence its application as
reinforcement to various composite studies is
common.
METHODOLOGY
1. Preparation and Sourcing of Materials
1.1. Vinyl Resin
The vinyl resin was bought from Unilox
Industrial Corporation. Located at 194 M.
Concepcion Ave, Pasig, 1601 Metro Manila. Vinyl
resins are always cured with heat-activated benzoyl
peroxide catalysts, which generate sufficient ‘free
radicals’ to cause the double bonds in the resin and
monomers to crosslink.
1.2. Fiberglass
The fiberglass was obtained from Polymer
Products (PHIL), Inc. Located at 438 EDSA Cor. B.
Serrano Street, Caloocan. The E-glass was cut to a
length of 7 mm to 8 mm as suggested by DOST
management.
The material was then conditioned through
immersion in distilled water for 24 ± ½ h with a
temperature of 20 ± 1ºC at 69 ± 2% relative humidity
conforming to ASTM D618 (Standard Practice for
Conditioning Plastics for Testing).
The tensile property of fiberglass was tested by
breaking single-fiber specimens on a constant-rate-
of-extension (CRE) type tensile testing machine from
ASTM D3822 (Standard Test Methods for Tensile
Properties of Single Textile Fibers).
1.3. Chicken Feathers
Feathers were obtained from poultries raising
broiler chicken, commonly known as the 45-days old
chicken (a specific type of chicken for meat
production). The feathers were drawn from the
chicken of a slaughterhouse located in 726 Bagong
Silang Sala, Cabuyao, Laguna.
To overcome the issue of feather wettability,
ethanol with a known density was used instead of
water to reduce the hydrophobic nature of feathers.
After the thorough preparations, the feathers were cut
with the length ranging from 10 mm to 15 mm.
The chicken feather fibers were then placed in a
conditioning rack for 8 h and to be exposed at a
conditioned temperature of 20 ± 1ºC at 69 ± 2%
relative humidity as stated in ASTM D1776
(Standard Practice for Conditioning and Testing
Textiles).
The chicken feather fiber’s linear density was
supposed to be taken by using ASTM D1577
(Standard Test Methods for Linear Density of Textile
Fibers). Average linear density of single fibers in a
bundle was calculated from mass and length
measurements on the bundle and the number of single
fibers in the bundle. A bundle of fibers with the same
length was assumed to be weighed using a template,
die or cutting device. The bundle was scheduled to be
weighed on a balance with a sensitivity of 0.005 mg,
then the number of fibers was expected to be counted.
The tensile property of the chicken feather fibers
was tested by breaking single-fiber specimens on a
constant-rate-of-extension (CRE) type tensile testing
machine from ASTM D3822 (Standard Test Methods
for Tensile Properties of Single Textile Fibers).
1.4. Nylon Fibers
The nylon fibers were bought from Polymer
Products (PHIL), Inc. Located at 11 Joe Borris St.,
Bagong Ilog 1600, Pasig, Metro Manila.
The material was conditioned through immersion
in distilled water for 24 ± ½ h with a temperature of
20 ± 1ºC at 69 ± 2% relative humidity conforming to
ASTM D618 (Standard Practice for Conditioning
Plastics for Testing).
The tensile property of nylon was tested by
breaking single-fiber specimens on a constant-rate-
of-extension (CRE) type tensile testing machine from
ASTM D3822 (Standard Test Methods for Tensile
Properties of Single Textile Fibers).
1.5. Pigments
The green pigments that were expected to be
used in this study was acquired from ROHA
Specialties Philippines, Inc., located at 1416 -1418
Mayhaligue cor., Masangkay Street Manila, Manila,
1008 Metro Manila.
2. Mix Design
The sheet shall consist of polyvinyl chloride
resin in amounts greater than 50 % of the total
polymer content suitably compounded with
plasticizers, stabilizers, fillers, pigments, and other
ingredients to satisfy the physical property and
mechanical property requirements as maintained in
ASTM D4434 (Standard Specification for Polyvinyl
Chloride Sheet Roofing).
Table 1 Mix Design
3. Fabrication of Plain Sheet Specimens
The methods by which sample materials were
apparent to be prepared and molded influence the
mechanical properties of the specimen. Unlike
injection molding, the objective of compression
molding is to produce test specimens or sheets that
were both homogeneous and isotropic. The powder,
pellets, particles, preform, or sheet were supposed to
be melted and molded in a mold designed to produce
a finished specimen of a given geometry, size, and
thickness, or melted and molded in the form of a
smooth plaque or sheet of uniform thickness from
which desired specimens will be cut, punched, or
machined. Working a compound on a two-roll mill
prior to molding would disperse and distribute the
compound additives in a manner that would affect the
physical properties of the compound.
3.1. Preparation of Molding Material
3.1.1. Drying of Granular Material and Preparation
of Preforms
Dry the granular material for 24 ± 1 h at 70
± 2°C in an oven. The molded specimen, plaque, or
sheet should be free from surface irregularities and
internal imperfections to obtain a sufficient
homogeneous sheet. For that, polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) compounds would generally require milling to
obtain a preform for the final molding procedure.
3.2. Milling
Direct molding from powder or granules may
sometimes require melt homogenization using a hot
melt milling or mixing procedure to achieve a
satisfactory final sheet. Where such is required, a
two-roll mill will usually perform satisfactorily. Take
the milled material from the mill and cut or shape it
to become a preform for the compression mold in
which it ultimately will be molded. Milling condition
should not exceed a temperature of 30°C to avoid
degradation of the main polymer. The preform
prepared by milling should normally be thicker than
the specimen, plaque, or sheet to be molded to enable
the molding to be done properly.
3.3. Molding
Adjust the mold temperature to within 65°C of
the molding temperature indicated in the relevant
material specification. With picture-frame molds or
large, heavy molds it may not be necessary or
desirable to preheat the mold itself. This will then
require slight increases in the preheat time of the
cycle; the temperature stability of the material shall
be considered.
Place a weighed quantity of the material in the
preheated mold. Make sure that it is evenly spread
over the mold surface. The mass of the material shall
be sufficient to fill the cavity volume when it is
melted and allow about a 10 % loss for a flash mold.
With flash molds, cover the mold with the top
ferrotype plate and then place the mold in the
preheated press.
Close the press and preheat the material charge
by applying a contact pressure for 7 minutes. Then
apply full pressure for a minimum of 2 minutes and
then cool down.
3.4. Cooling
With some thermoplastics, the cooling rate
affects the ultimate physical properties. The method
of cooling shall always be stated together with the
final physical properties. The molded material will be
cooled with an average cooling rate of 15 ± 5 °C/min
The demolding temperature shall be less than
40°C.
3.5. Inspection of the Molded Specimens
After cooling, check the molded specimens,
plaques, or sheets for appearance (such as sink marks,
shrink holes, discolorations) and for conformance to
specified dimensions. Discard any test specimens or
sheets having molding defects. Make sure there is no
degradation or unwanted crosslinking.
4. Testing
4.1. Water Absorption Test
This test was based on ASTM D570 (Standard
Test Method for Water Absorption of Plastics). The
test is scheduled be conducted in the CMT laboratory
of TUP Manila. The aim of this test is to determine
the rate of water absorption of a specific plastic
sample by acquiring the accumulated weight of the
water absorbed after 24 hours of submerging the
sample. The specimen size is 76.2 mm x 25.4 mm
and 3.2 mm thick.
For this test, the specimens were supposed to be
dried in an oven for a specific amount of time and
temperature. The oven-dried specimens are to be
weighed immediately the moment it cools. The
specimens are then submerged in water considering
the conditions required are met, often 23oC for 24
hours or until equilibrium.
4.2. Flammability Test
This test was based on UL 94 (Standard for Tests
for Flammability of Plastic Materials for Parts in
Devices and Appliances). The test was scheduled to
be conducted in the Chemistry Laboratory of TUP
Manila. The test aims to identify the rate of burning
of materials in terms of length per unit time
(mm/min). The size of the specimen is 127 mm x
12.7 mm and 3.2 mm thick.
In this test, the specimen must be supported
horizontally and is tilted at a 45o angle. The
specimen is to be subjected to a flame at the lower
end for 30 seconds or until the burning reaches the 1-
inch mark. If the specimen continues to burn after
removing the flame, the time it takes the specimen to
burn from the 1-inch mark towards the 4-inch mark is
to be recorded. If the specimen prevents the spread of
burning from reaching the 4-inch mark, the time of
combustion and the burned length between the two
marks are to be recorded instead.
4.3. Linear Dimensional Change
This test method was based on ASTM D1204
(Standard Test Method for Linear Dimensional
Changes of Nonrigid Thermoplastic Sheeting or Film
at Elevated Temperature). The method covers the
measurement of changes in linear dimensions of
nonrigid thermoplastic sheeting or film that result
from exposure of the material to specified conditions
of elevated temperature and time.
The test specimens are assumed to consist of two
pieces of the sheeting or film 25 by 25 cm (10 by 10
in.), cut with the aid of the template, one from either
of the two transverse edges and one from the center
of the sheet. Each specimen was supposed to be
marked to show the direction of extrusion. The
midpoint of each edge was purported to be marked
for use as a reference point when final measurements
are made.
4.4. Tensile Strength Test
This test was based on ASTM D638 – 14
(Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of
Plastics). This test was expected to be done in CMT
Laboratory of TUP Manila. The aim of this test is the
determination of the tensile properties of specific
samples. The size of the specimen is 165 mm x 13
mm and 3.2 mm thick.
In this test, the specimen was supposed to be
held at place using the grips of a UTM (Universal
Testing Machine) and is pulled until failure. For
ASTM D638, the test speed varies from the material
classification where it is categorized as Type I: Rigid
or Semi-rigid plastics whose width is below 7 mm.
The default test speed is 5mm/min ± 25 % but
modulus determinations may be made at 2mm/min.
An extensometer or strain gauge was supposed to be
used to determine the elongation and tensile modulus
of the specimen. The properties should be considered
in this test are the specimen’s overall thickness,
breaking strength, elongation at break, and tensile
strength.
4.5. Flexural Strength Test
This test was based on ASTM D790 (Standard
Test Methods for Flexural Properties of Unreinforced
and Reinforced Plastics and Electrical Insulating
Materials). This test was assumed to be conducted in
CMT Laboratory of TUP Manila. The aim of this test
is to identify the flexural capacity of a specific
sample. The specimen size is 127 mm x 12.7 mm and
3.2 mm thick.
In this test, the specimen commonly rests on a
support span then the loading is applied towards the
center by the loading nose producing three-point
bending at a specified rate. The parameters
considered for this test are the support span, the
loading speed, and the maximum deflection for the
test. These are based on the specimen thickness. The
test was supposed to be stopped when the specimen
reaches 5% deflection or if the specimen breaks
before reaching the 5% deflection.
5. Fabrication of the Prototype
5.1. Preparation of Mold
The mold to be used as expected to be machined
cavity under flash-type mold, where the mold
consists of a cavity machined in a metal plate with a
single metal ferrotype plate as a top cover. The cavity
was to be constructed to mold the prototype into
corrugated sheet.
5.2. The Expected Output
After the thorough process of the production, the
expected total output of this study was presupposed
to be in the form of corrugated sheet as shown in
figure 3.6. The method to be used in this phase was
supposedly the same method to be used in the
fabrication of specimens conforming to ASTM
D4703 (Standard Practice for Compression Molding
Thermoplastic Materials into Test Specimens,
Plaques, or Sheets) as detailed in the section of
Fabrication of Specimens.
Figure 1 Prototype of Corrugated Sheet
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
6. Mechanical Properties of Fiber Reinforcements
The three fibers, namely fiberglass, nylon, and
chicken feather, was tested on the Philippine Textile
Research Institute on February 27, 2020. The institute
used ASTM D3822 (Standard Test Method for
Tensile Properties of Single Textile Fibers) in
characterization of the fibers’ mechanical properties.
Two properties were determined: Breaking Strength
in Newton and Average Elongation at Break by
percentage. Thirty specimens were required, and
every sample was tested conforming to ASTM
D3822.
The breaking strength of the fibers was
determined using the Zwick/Roell Tensile Strength
Tester Z005 (CRE) which is a Constant-Rate of
Elongation Machine. A full-scale load of 5N was
applied into each fiber having 30 specimens with a
25mm gage length.
Along with the determination of the fibers’
breaking strength using the Zwick/Roell Tensile
Strength Tester Z005 (CRE), the percentage
elongation of the three fibers were also acquired,
having the same testing parameters.
6.1. Mechanical Properties of Fiberglass
Fiberglass ranks second to nylon in terms of
strength. It bears an average load of 1.05 kgf.
However, the fiberglass with 2.6% elongation marks
lowest among the three specimens which means it has
an average strength and lowest elongation due to
force applied. This proves that fiberglass is a reliable
fiber for the composite roofing conforming to
Vaughn, 2018. In which in his study about the
properties of fiberglass shows that it is indeed a very
efficient reinforcement in most composite or concrete
products. Fiberglass has an exceptionally high tensile
strength compared with other textile fibers.
Table 2 ASTM D3822 Result for Fiberglass
6.2. Mechanical Properties of Nylon
Nylon showed the highest load capacity
compared to that of fiberglass and chicken feather,
having an average of 3 kgf. This shows that nylon is a
very strong type of fiber that can handle ample
amounts of load for the roofing. However due to its
plastic property, nylon showed the highest value of %
elongation (17.0%). This means that even if it has a
high strength capacity, its plastic properties will be
noticeable when the force applied is greater than the
magnitude it can handle. Spadea et al. (2015) also
shows that the outcomes of the experimental study
indicated that nylon fibers can be safely used as
reinforcement in cement and composite materials;
present adequate alkali resistance of recycled nylon
fibers according to currently recognized standards;
may significantly improve the tensile strength (up to
+35%) and fracture properties of cement mortars;
systematically cause the transformation of a brittle
failure mode (unreinforced mortar) to a more ductile
failure mode (fiber reinforced mortar).
Table 3 ASTM D3822 Result for Nylon
6.3. Mechanical Properties of Chicken Feather
Chicken feather fiber is one of the experimental
fibers of the study. Among the three types of
specimen given, it shows the lowest amount of
bearing strength which amounts only to 0.05 kgf.
This means that the two other fibers that will be
applied will be a benefit to chicken feather fiber
considering that It has low strength. It also showed an
average of 5% elongation which translates to it being
the second of the three fibers.
Table 4 ASTM D3822 Result for Chicken Feather
CONCLUSION
Based on the analysis of the results of the tensile
property test made for the reinforcing fibers, the
chicken feather fibers do not have high tensile
strength making it weak against the bearing stress.
For this instance, it is safe to assume that, for the
roofing material to sustain against external stresses, a
fiber strong enough should be incorporated as well in
the roofing material for the improvement of
mechanical properties. In line with that, based on the
data analysis driven the nylon fibers was proven to
have strong mechanical properties that can render
support to the chicken feather fibers and the vinyl
plastic roofing for sustaining tensile property. Lastly,
the inorganic material which is the fiberglass shows
high tensile property validating the claims made by
Vaughn (2018) about its good mechanical properties.
As a conclusion, it is not safe to have the chicken
feather fiber alone as reinforcing fibers of the vinyl
plastic roofing, it must have other high-strength fibers
such as nylon and/or fiberglass along with it in each
mix for it to resist external stresses.
 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the observation and analysis of the results
accomplished in this study, the following
recommendations are suggested for the continuation
of the study:
1. To plan for the acquisition of materials
ahead of time as certain materials needed requires
treatment prior to fabrication and some are not
available in the Philippines.
2. To use hot compression molding method in
the fabrication of specimens as it has been claimed to
have a good mechanical strength results good for the
composites with long fibers compared to that of the
plastic injection molding.
3. To utilize only the CFF found in the wing-
part for the maturity and aspect ratio considerations
for better strength results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, the authors would like to express
their gratitude and praise to the Almighty and
Sovereign God for the strength, guidance, and
blessings He has bestowed upon them.
The Authors wish to extend their deepest gratitude to
the people behind the accomplishment of this
research who gave their full support and assistance
especially to:
Engr. Rommel G. Arapo, their research adviser, who
has been of help to the technicalities of writing a
research paper, for the imparted knowledge and
valuable time to direct them in every area of this
research.
Engr. Edgardo S. Legaspi, their class research
adviser, for sharing his experience and helping them
all throughout all for the sake of the improvement of
the thesis. Also, for his words of encouragement in
times of hardships and failures.
To Civil Engineering faculty members and defense
panelist namely Engr. Arnolfo G. Arcibal, Engr.
Kevin M. Desales, Engr. Jasinne C. Garna and Engr.
Juan Paulo I. Bersamina, for their intelligent
suggestions and recommendations for the
improvement of the manuscript.
To Ms. Patricia Manalaysay and Mr. German
Trinidad, their found mentors and silent heroes, from
Unilox Industrial Corporation, for guiding them like
their own, whose words of appreciation and
suggestion gave them drive and motivation; for the
assurance of help, for sharing them tips based on their
experience and expertise on the topic; for their
inspiring attitude and undying support all throughout
the accomplishment of this study.
To Laguna people namely Alice, Jessalyn, and
Theresa of Alipala family and Abner Dumpit, who
has been very accommodating, for the proactive offer
of help and guidance in gathering chicken feathers
from the poultries.
To their beloved families and friends who have been
the constant source of financial support, wisdom, and
strength in every step of this research.
Lastly, to themselves, many times, they were
confronted of not being good enough, life have has
been hard, still they strived hard to surpass their
limits; for the cooperation and extra mile each of
them made to meet the accomplishment of this study.
REFERENCES
1. Aboura, Z., Talbi, N., Allaoui, S., & Benzeggagh,
M. L. (2004). Elastic Behavior of Corrugated
Cardboard: Experiments and Modeling.
2. Amer, A., Abdullah, M., Ming, L., & Tahir, M.
(2018). Performance and properties of glass fiber and
its utilization in concrete - A review.
3. American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fifth Edition. (2011). mix design. (n.d.).
Retrieved from
https://www.thefreedictionary.com/mix+design
4. Aqua-Calc. Linear Density. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.aqua-calc.com/what-is/linear-density
5. Bansal, & Singh. (2016). Application and
Properties of Chicken Feather Fiber (CFF) a
Livestock Waste in Composite Material
Development.
6. Beer, H. R., Delgado, A. H., Paroli, R. M., &
Graveline, S. P. (2010). Durability of PVC Roofing
Membranes - Proof by Testing After Long Term
Field Exposure.
7. Biologydictionary.net Editors. (2016, December
15). Hydrophobic. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://biologydictionary.net/hydrophobic/
8. Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary.
Ethylene. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english
/ethylene
9. Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary. Fiber.
(n.d.). Retrieved from
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english
/fiber
10. Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary.
Fibreglass. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english
/fibreglass
11. Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary &
Thesaurus. Durability. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english
/durability
12. Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary &
Thesaurus. Flexibility. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english
/flexibility
13. Chiang, K.-T., & Chang, F.-P. (2006).
Optimization of the WEDM process of particle-
reinforced material with multiple performance
characteristics using grey relational analysis.
14. Civil Engineering. Swelling. (n.d.). Retrieved
from
https://www.civilengineeringx.com/dccc/shrinkage-
and-swelling-dimensional-stability/
15. Collins English Dictionary. vinyl. . (n.d.).
Retrieved from
https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english
/vinyl
16. Corrosionpedia. Shear Strength. (n.d.). Retrieved
from
https://www.corrosionpedia.com/definition/1026/shea
r-strength
17. Corrosionpedia. Tensile Strength. . (n.d.).
Retrieved from
https://www.corrosionpedia.com/definition/1072/tens
ile-strength
18. Designation: D 1577. (2001). Standard Test
Methods for Linear Density of Textile Fibers. ASTM
International.
19. Designation: D 1776. (2004). Standard Practice
for Conditioning and Testing Textiles. ASTM
International.
20. Designation: D 3822. (2001). Standard Test
Method for Tensile Properties of Single Textile
Fibers. ASTM International.
21. Designation: D 4434. (2004). Standard
Specification for Poly(Vinyl Chloride) Sheet
Roofing. ASTM International.
22. Designation: D 4703. (2003). Standard Practice
for Compression Molding Thermoplastic Materials
into Test Specimens, Plaques, or Sheets. ASTM
International.
23. Designation: D 570. (1998). Standard Test
Method for Water Absorption of Plastics. ASTM
International.
24. Designation: D618. (2013). Standard Practice for
Conditioning Plastics for Testing. ASTM
International.
25. Designation: D638. (2014). Standard Test
Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics. ASTM
International.
26. Designation: D790. (2015). Standard Test
Methods for Flexural Properties of Unreinforced and
Reinforced Plastics and Electrical Insulating
Materials. ASTM International.
27. Evans, E. (1974). Plastic cushioning reinforced
material.
28. Forest Products Laboratory and Teel-Global
Resource Techologies. (2005). Attractive, Durable
Roofing made from Recycled Plastic and Wood
Fiber. Baraboo, Wisconsin.
29. Ghani, M. A., Salleh, Z., Hyie, K. M., Berhan, M.
N., Taib, Y. D., & Bakri, M. I. (2012). Mechanical
Properties of Kenaf/Fiberglass Polyester Hybrid
Composite.
30. Hashin, Z. (1972). Theory of fiber reinforced
material.
31. Kulatanga, A. (2014). Devolopment of
Sustainable Roofing Material from Waste.
32. Liu, Y., Yang, W., & Hao, M. (2010). Research
on Mechanical Performance of Roof Tiles made of
Tire Powder and Waste Plastic.
33. Melnikov, B. E., Nekliudova, E. A., Semenov, A.
S., & Semenov, S. G. (2014). Experimental Research
and Finite Element Analysis of Elastic and Strength
Properties of FIberglass Composite Material.
34. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Absorption. In
Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved
from https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/absorption
35. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Anisotropic. In
Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved
from https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/anisotropic
36. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Flammable. In
Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved
from https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/flammable
37. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Keratin. In Merriam-
Webster.com dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/keratin
38. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Mechanical property. In
Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved
from https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/mechanical%20property
39. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Mesh. In Merriam-
Webster.com dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mesh
40. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Moisture. In Merriam-
Webster.com dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/moisture
41. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Nylon. In Merriam-
Webster.com dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nylon
42. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Plastic. In Merriam-
Webster.com dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/plastic
43. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Reinforcement. In
Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved
from https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/reinforcement
44. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Weathering. In
Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved
from https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/weathering
45. P. Mitschang, K. H. (2012). Advanced Materials
in Automotive Engineering. Elsevier.
46. Parkinson, & Schmidt. (1998). Waste chicken
feather as reinforcement in cement-bonded
composites.
47. Reddy, N., & Yang, Y. (2007). Structure and
Properties of Chicken Feather Barbs as Natural
Protein Fibers.
48. Rostam, S., Ali, A., & Abdal Muhammad, F.
(2016). Experimental Investigation of Mechanical
Properties of PVC Polymer under Different Heating
and Cooling Conditions.
49. Salehi-Khojin, A., Bashirzadeh, R., Mahinfalah,
M., & Nakhaei-Jazar, R. (2006). The Role of
Temperature on Impact Properties of
Kevlar/Fiberglass Composite Laminates.
50. Schotz, D., & Gerharz, J. J. (1977). Fatigue
strength of a fibre-reinforced Material.
51. Song, P., Hwang, S., & Sheu, B. (2005). Strength
properties of nylon- and polypropylene-fiber-
reinforced concretes.
52. Spadea, S., Farina, I., Carrafiello, A., &
Fraternali, F. (2015). Recycled Nylon Fibers as
Cement Mortar Reinforcement.
53. Summers, J. W., Faber, E., Kinson, P. L., &
Rabinovitch, E. B. (1990). Vinyl composites -
fiberglass reinforced PVC.
54. Teoh, L. S., & Huang, C. C. (1976). The vibration
of beams of fibre reinforced material.
55. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Density. Encyclopædia Britannica. (n.d.). Retrieved
from https://www.britannica.com/science/density
56. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Melting
point. Encyclopædia Britannica. (n.d.). Retrieved
from https://www.britannica.com/science/melting-
point
57. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Polymerization. Encyclopædia Britannica. . (n.d.).
Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/science/polymerization
58. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Specific
gravity. Encyclopædia Britannica. (n.d.). Retrieved
from https://www.britannica.com/science/specific-
gravity
59. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Thermal expansion. Encyclopædia Britannica. (n.d.).
Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/science/thermal-
expansion
60. The Wood Database. Modulus of Rupture. .
(n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.wood-
database.com/wood-articles/modulus-of-rupture/
61. Tiwary, E., & Gupta, R. (2012). Rapid
Conversion of Chicken Feather to Feather Meal using
Dimeric Keratinase from Bacillus licheniformis ER-
15.
65. Vaughan, D. J. (1998). Fiberglass Reinforcement.
66. Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry.
Molecular Structure. . (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/Virt
TxtJml/intro3.htm
67. Vocabulary.com Dictionary. pigment. (n.d.).
Retrieved from
https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/pigment
68. Whelan, B. J., Graveline, S. P., Delgado, A. H.,
Liu, K. K., & Paroli, R. M. (2004). Field
Investigation and Laboratory Testing of Exposed
Poly(Vinyl Chloride) Roof Systems.
69. Wikipedia contributors. (2020, August 16). Water
content. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. .
(n.d.). Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Water_content&oldid=973360967
70. Wrinkler, M., & Kress, G. (2012). Influence of
Corrugation Geometry on the Substitute Stiffness
Matrix of Corrugated Laminates.
71. Yokozeki, T., Takeda, S.-i., Ogasawara, T., &
Ishikawa, T. (2005). Mechanical properties of
corrugated composites for candidate materials of
flexible wing structures.
72. Zhan, M., & Wool, R. P. (2016). Mechanical
Properties of Composites with Chicken Feather and
Glass Fibers.

62. Trenchlesspedia. Flexural Strength. (n.d.).

Retrieved from
https://www.trenchlesspedia.com/definition/2742/flex
ural-strength

63. UL 94. (2001). Test for Flammability of Plastic

Materials for Parts in Devices and Appliances.
Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL).

64. Valtcho, & Zheljaskov. (2005). Assessment of

wool waste and hair waste as soil amendment and
nutrient source.