QUANTUM MECHANICS-01

Engineering Physics (18PHY12/22)-VTU

A R Venugopal,
Dept. of Physics,
Brindavan College of Engineering
INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
 In Quantum mechanics the fundamental concepts
were not too different from those of our everyday
experience, such as particle, position, speed, mass,
force, energy, and even field. We often refer to those

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

concepts as classical. The world of atoms cannot be
described and understood with those concepts. For
atoms and molecules, the ideas and concepts formed in
dealing with the objects in our immediate environment
no longer suffice. One needs a new concept to
understand the properties of atoms. The quantum
mechanics changed our old concepts of reality in many
respects.
INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
 According to Max Planck the energy could be taken
only certain discrete values as follows
i. A System can absorb and emit the radiations in
discrete packets called quanta.

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

ii. If 'ν' is the frequency of an electromagnetic
oscillator. Then its energy is proportional to ν.
i.e., E=hν,2hν,3hν,…..
Where h is Planck‟s constant 6.625x10-34 JS.
 By using quantum theory Max Planck explained the
distribution of energy in Black Body Radiation Spectra
and the relation is
8𝜋𝑕𝜈 3 𝑑𝜆
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = ℎ𝑐
𝑐3
𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 − 1
WAVE NATURE OF PARTICLES:
 Louis de-Broglie extended the wave particle
duality of light to all the fundamental entities of
physics such as electrons, protons neutrons etc.
de-Broglie put a bold suggestion that, if

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

radiation can behave as particle under certain
circumstances then, one can even expect that
entities which ordinarily behaves as particles to
exhibit wave properties under appropriate
circumstances.
WAVE NATURE OF PARTICLES:
 Further de-Broglie say, if radiation exhibits dual
nature that is wave as well as particle nature. Then
even material particles exhibits dual nature.
The wave associated such a material particles is
called matter waves or de-Broglie waves and the

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

hypothesis is called de-Broglie hypothesis.
 The mass „m‟ and velocity „v‟ for a particle in motion.
Then, momentum of a particle is 𝐩 = 𝐦𝐯 and its de-
Broglie wavelength is given by.
𝐡
𝛌 =
𝐦𝐯
𝒉
 If „E‟ is the kinetic energy of the particle, 𝝀 =
𝟐𝒎𝑬
 For an accelerated charged particle at a potential
difference of „V‟, the de-Broglie‟s wavelength is
𝒉
𝝀=
𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽
HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
 According to Heisenberg‟s uncertainty principle: It is
impossible to know both the exact position and
momentum of a particle at the same time, It states
that
 “The product of inherent uncertainties involved in the

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

measurements position and momentum
simultaneously is greater than or equal to h⁄4π”.
𝑕
Δ𝑥. Δ𝑝 ≥
4𝜋
 Another forms of the uncertainty principle concerns
energy and time is given by
𝑕
∆𝐸. ∆𝑡 ≥
4𝜋
 The Uncertainty principle between angular
displacement and angular momentum is given by
ℎ
∆𝐽. ∆∅ ≥
4𝜋
HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
 Significance of Uncertainty principle: The
Physical Significance of this principle is that one
should not think of exact position or an accurate
value of momentum of the particle. Instead one

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

should think of probability of finding the particle
in a certain region or the probability of finding
the momentum of the particle. The estimation of
such probabilities is made by means of certain
mathematical function called wave function in
quantum mechanics.
NON-EXISTENCE OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMIC NUCLEUS:
We know that, the diameter of nucleus cannot
exceed 1 × 10;14 𝑚 . Let us assume that, if an
electron exists inside the nucleus. This means,
Uncertainty in position cannot exceed the diameter

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

of the nucleus. Hence∆𝑥 ≤ 1 × 10;14 𝑚.
We know from Heisenberg uncertainty principle
h
Δx. Δp ≥
4π
6.626 × 10;34
∆p ≥
4 × 3.14 × 1 × 10;14
∆p ≥ 5.2754 × 10;21 kgms ;1
NON-EXISTENCE OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMIC NUCLEUS:
p ≥ 5.2754 × 10;21 kgms ;1
Then the relativistic energy of the electron in the
nucleus is given by
p2

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

E=
2m
Where m is the rest mass of the electron and p is
the momentum
5.2754 × 10;21 2
E=
2 × 9.1 × 10;31
E = 1.5291 × 10;11 J or
E = 95.572 MeV
NON-EXISTENCE OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMIC NUCLEUS:
 Physical Significance:
The value indicates that an electron requires
energy of 95.572 MeV to exist inside the nucleus.
But the measurements made in the beta decay

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

shows that the kinetic energy of the order of 3 – 4
MeV. The actual energy of the electrons exists in
various orbits outside the nucleus is less than the
value 95.572 MeV, if it exists inside the nucleus.
Therefore, it is clear the no electron can exists
inside the nucleus.
WAVE FUNCTION

To describe the matter waves associated with the

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE


particle in motion, one requires a quantity which
varies with space and time, this variable quantity
is called as wave function ψ(r, t).
 It is a function of space variables r(x, y, z) and
time „t‟
 Therefore a particle moving along x-axis with
well-defined momentum is described by an
infinite plane wave ψ x, t and is given by
ψ x, t = A e i(kx;ωt)
WAVE FUNCTION
 Physical significance of wave function:
 The wave function ψ x, t signifies the probability
of finding the particle described by the wave
function at the point r = (x, y, z) and at time „t‟

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

 Properties of wave function:

i. The wave function 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 is single-

valued everywhere.
ii. Wave function is finite everywhere.
iii. Wave function and its derivatives are
continues everywhere.
iv. The wave function describes the behavior
of a single particle not the statistical
distribution of a number of such quanta.
WAVE FUNCTION
 Probability density: it is a statistical function
gives the likelihood of presence of some discrete
(particle) random variable.
 Let 𝜓 be the wave function associated with the

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

particle, present in a volume „V‟. The likelihood of
finding the particle in volume element „dv‟ in the
volume „V‟ is given by the function 𝜓 2 is the
probability density per volume element 𝑑𝑉
𝑃 𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝜓 2 𝑑𝑉
 If the wave function is complex,

𝑃 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜓 𝜓 ∗
𝜓 ∗ complex conjugate of 𝜓
WAVE FUNCTION
 Normalization: If the particle exists somewhere at
all the time. Let 𝜓 be the wave function associated
with the particle, then the probability density of
particle in a volume element is 𝜓 2 𝑑𝑉.
 As per the statistical rule the normalization is given

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

by.
𝑣
𝜓 2 𝑑𝑉 = 1
0
 if we are not at all certain about locating the particle
in a finite volume anywhere in the space, then the
expectation will become limited to the extent that it
exists somewhere in space. Then the limits in
equation extend to −∞ to +∞ and the probability
becomes.
:∞
𝜓 2 𝑑𝑉 = 1
;∞
SCHRODINGER’S ONE DIMENSIONAL TIME
INDEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION:

 If a particle of mass „m‟ is moving with a speed „v‟

ℎ
has the de-Broglie‟s wavelength 𝜆 =
𝑚𝑐

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

 wave function of this matter wave in one
dimensional case is given by
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥;𝜔𝑡) (1)
Differentiating the equation (1) twice with
respect to „x‟ we get
𝑑2 𝜓
= −𝑘 2 𝜓 (2)
𝑑𝑥 2
SCHRODINGER’S ONE DIMENSIONAL TIME
INDEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION:

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

SCHRODINGER’S ONE DIMENSIONAL TIME
INDEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION:
 Differentiating the equation (1) twice with respect
to „t‟ we get
𝑑2 𝜓
= −𝜔2 𝜓 (3)
𝑑𝑡 2

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

𝜔 𝜔
Phase velocity 𝑣𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = or 𝑘 = (4)
𝑘 𝑣𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒

Substituting equation (4) in (2), we get

𝑑2 𝜓 𝜔2
= − 2 𝜓 (5)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑣𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒

Using (3) in (5),

𝑑2 𝜓 1 𝑑2 𝜓
= 2
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑣𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑡 2

This is the equation for the travelling wave

SCHRODINGER’S ONE DIMENSIONAL TIME
INDEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION:
2𝜋
Now, we have 𝑘= (6)
𝜆
Substituting equation (6) in (2), we get
𝑑2 𝜓 4𝜋2
= − 2 𝜓 (7)

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

𝑑𝑥 2 𝜆
The total energy of the particle is
𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 or
𝑃2
𝐸= + 𝑉𝑥 (8)
2𝑚
 Where, 𝑉𝑥 is the potential energy, it depends only
on position and is independent of time.
ℎ
 The De-Broglie‟s wave length is 𝜆 = or
𝑃
ℎ
𝑃= (9)
𝜆
SCHRODINGER’S ONE DIMENSIONAL TIME
INDEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION:
 Substituting equation (9) in (8), we get
ℎ2
𝐸 − 𝑉𝑥 =
2𝑚𝜆2
2𝑚 (𝐸;𝑉𝑥 ) 1
Or (10)

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

= 2
ℎ2 𝜆
Substituting equation (10) in (7), we get
𝑑2𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚 (𝐸 − 𝑉𝑥 )
2
= − 2
𝜓
𝑑𝑥 𝑕
𝑑 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚 (𝐸 − 𝑉𝑥 )
2
+ 2
𝜓=0
𝑑𝑥 𝑕
This is the Expression for Schrodinger‟s time-
independent equation.
 PARTICLE IN ONE DIMENSIONAL POTENTIAL
WELL OF INFINITE HEIGHT

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

•The particle move along x – axis between x =0 and x = L exhibits
elastic collisions
•The particle inside the potential well is not influenced by any external
force. Therefore potential energy is minimum and taken to be zero.
𝑉𝑥 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿
PARTICLE IN ONE DIMENSIONAL POTENTIAL
WELL OF INFINITE HEIGHT
Consider Schrödinger time independent equation
𝑑2 𝜓 8𝜋2 𝑚 (𝐸;𝑽𝒙 )
2 + 2 𝜓=0 (1)
𝑑𝑥 ℎ
For the particle inside the potential well potential
energy i.e. 𝑉𝑥 = 0

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

𝑑2 𝜓 𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒎 𝑬
+ 𝜓 =0 (2)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝒉𝟐
𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒎 𝑬
Let = 𝒌𝟐 (3)
𝒉𝟐
𝑑2 𝜓
+ 𝒌𝟐 𝜓 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2
The solution of the above equation is given by
𝝍 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒌𝒙 + 𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒙 (4)
A and B are constants depends on boundary
conditions
PARTICLE IN ONE DIMENSIONAL POTENTIAL
WELL OF INFINITE HEIGHT

i) At 𝑥 = 0 ; 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0
equation (4) becomes 0 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 + 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0
𝑨= 𝟎

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

Substituting 𝑨 = 𝟎 in equation (4)
𝝍 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒙 (5)
ii) At 𝑥 = 𝐿 ; 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0
Equation (5) becomes 0 = 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝐿
On solving 𝐵 ≠ 0 or 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝐿 = 0
𝑘𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋
𝒏𝝅
∴ 𝒌= (6)
𝑳
PARTICLE IN ONE DIMENSIONAL POTENTIAL
WELL OF INFINITE HEIGHT
Substituting equation (6) in (3), we get
𝑛2 𝜋 2 8𝜋 2 𝑚 𝐸
2
=
𝐿 𝑕2
𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

𝑬𝒏 = (7)
𝟖𝒎𝑳𝟐
This is the expression for Eigen Energy Values.
Normalization: For the particle inside the
potential well, the probability of finding a particle
is unity and is given by.
𝐿
𝜓 2 𝑑𝑥 = 1
0
𝐿
𝐵2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1
0
PARTICLE IN ONE DIMENSIONAL POTENTIAL
WELL OF INFINITE HEIGHT
𝐿
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑘𝑥
𝐵2 𝑑𝑥 = 1
0 2
𝐿 2 𝐿 2
𝐵 𝐵
𝑑𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

0 2 0 2
𝐵2 𝐵2 1 2𝑛𝜋𝐿
𝐿 − 𝑋 𝑆𝑖𝑛 −0 =1
2 2 2𝑛𝜋 𝐿
𝐵2 𝐵2 1
𝐿 − 𝑋 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒏𝝅 = 1
2 2 2𝑛𝜋
If n = 1,2,3,4…. Then, Sin 2π, Sin4π, Sin6π…= 0
𝐵2 𝐵2 1
𝐿 − 𝑋 𝟎 =1
2 2 2𝑛𝜋
𝐵2 𝟐
𝐿 =1 or 𝑩=
2 𝑳
PARTICLE IN ONE DIMENSIONAL POTENTIAL
WELL OF INFINITE HEIGHT

2 𝑛𝜋
Substituting 𝐵 = and 𝑘 = in
𝐿 𝐿
𝝍 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒙

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

𝟐 𝒏𝝅𝒙
𝝍𝒏 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝑳 𝑳
This equation is called as Eigen wave function,
where 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, 4 … … .
EIGEN ENERGY VALUES AND EIGEN FUNCTION
FOR A PARTICLE IN INFINITE POTENTIAL WELL:
 We have equation for the Energy Eigen values
𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
𝑬𝒏 =
𝟖𝒎𝑳𝟐
 Eigen wave function is

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

𝟐 𝒏𝝅𝒙
𝝍𝒏 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝑳 𝑳
Case i When 𝑛 = 1 for ground stand.
𝑕2
𝐸1 =
8𝑚𝐿2
2 𝜋𝑥
𝜓1 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝐿 𝐿
EIGEN ENERGY VALUES AND EIGEN FUNCTION
FOR A PARTICLE IN INFINITE POTENTIAL WELL:
 𝑬𝟏 is called the ground state energy or Zero-point
energy and 𝝍𝟏 is the wave function corresponds to
particle in ground state.

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

E1
EIGEN ENERGY VALUES AND EIGEN FUNCTION
FOR A PARTICLE IN INFINITE POTENTIAL WELL:
 The Probability density P(x, t) for a particle in
one dimensional potential well is
𝑃 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜓 2 𝑑𝑉
At the boundary conditions 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝐿, the

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

wave function 𝜓1 = 0. It indicates the probability of
finding the particle at both 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝐿 is zero
i.e., 𝜓1 2 = 0. However, the probability of finding
𝐿
the particle is maximum at the Centre i.e., 𝑥 = .
2
EIGEN ENERGY VALUES AND EIGEN FUNCTION
FOR A PARTICLE IN INFINITE POTENTIAL WELL:
 Case ii When 𝑛 = 2, the particle in the first
excited state.
4ℎ2
𝐸2 = = 4𝐸1
8𝑚𝐿2

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

2 2𝜋𝑥
𝜓2 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝐿 𝐿

E2
EIGEN ENERGY VALUES AND EIGEN FUNCTION
FOR A PARTICLE IN INFINITE POTENTIAL WELL:
 The probability density of wave function of the
particle in the first excited state is P2 (x, t)

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

 The probability of finding the particle in the first
𝐿
excited state at 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = and 𝑥 = 𝐿 is zero i.e.
2
𝜓2 2 = 0 . Since 𝜓2 = 0. However the probability
𝐿
of finding the particle is maximum at 𝑥 = , and
4
3𝐿
𝑥=
4
EIGEN ENERGY VALUES AND EIGEN FUNCTION
FOR A PARTICLE IN INFINITE POTENTIAL WELL:

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

 A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE
PROBLEMS
 A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE
PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS
 The position and momentum of an 1keV electron is
simultaneously determined . If the uncertainty in
position is 1Å. What is the percentage of Uncertainty
involved in measurement of momentum.

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

Given: 1. Uncertainty in position ∆x = 1Å.
2. Kinetic Energy E = 1keV
To find: The percentage uncertainty (∆P/P) = ?
Solution: We have
𝑕
Δ𝑥. Δ𝑝 ≥
4𝜋
ℎ
Δ𝑝 ≥
4𝜋Δ𝑥
6.626 × 10;34 ;25 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 ;1
Δ𝑝 ≥ ≥ 5.2754 × 10
4 × 3.14 × 1 × 10;10
PROBLEMS
ii) The momentum of the electron in terms of KE is
𝑃2
𝐸= or
2𝑚
𝑃 = 2𝑚𝐸

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

𝑃 = (2 × 9.1 × 10;31 1 × 103 × 1.6 × 10;19
𝑃 = 1.706 × 10;23 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 ;1
The, the percentage of uncertainty is
∆𝑃 5.2754 × 10;25 × 100
× 100 =
𝑃 1.706 × 10;23
∆𝑃
× 100 = 3.0922
𝑃
PROBLEMS
 The life time of an electron during excitation in
excited state is 10-8s. If the wavelength of the
emitted spectral line is 400nm. Then, what is the
width of the spectral line.

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

 Given: The life time ∆t = 10-8s
Wavelength λ = 400nm
To find: The width of the spectral line ∆λ = ?
Solution:
The Energy of the emitted photon is
𝑕𝑐
𝐸=
𝜆
Differentiating the above equation with respect to „λ‟, we get
Δ𝐸 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
= − 2 or Δ𝐸 = − 2 Δ𝜆
Δ𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
PROBLEMS
 The Heisenberg‟s Uncertainty Principle is
ℎ ℎ
∆𝐸. ∆𝑡 ≥ or ∆𝑡 ≥
4𝜋 4𝜋∆𝑬
𝑕 𝜆2
∆𝑡 ≥

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

4𝜋 𝑕𝑐 Δ𝜆
Ignoring the negative sign
1 𝜆2
Δ𝜆 ≥
4𝜋 𝑐 ∆𝑡
1 400 × 10;9 2
Δ𝜆 ≥
4 × 3.14 3 × 108 × 10;8
Δ𝜆 ≥ 4.246 X 10-15 m
PROBLEMS
 Calculate the de-Broglie‟s wavelength of a golf ball 0f
mass 150 gm, is travelling with a velocity of 200 ms-1
and comment on the result.
 Given: The velocity v = 200 ms-1

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

 To find: The de-Broglie‟s wavelength λ = ?
 Solution:
The de-Broglie‟s wavelength is given by
𝑕
𝜆 =
𝑚𝑣
6.626 × 10;34
𝜆=
150 × 10;3 × 200
𝜆 = 2.208 × 10;35 𝑚
The wavelength is extremely very small. Hence, the
moment of the golf ball appears to be like a particle
rather than a wave like motion.
PROBLEMS
 An electron and a 150gm golf ball are moving
with the same speed of 150 ms-1 and the
measurements are accurate to 0.065%. Calculate
and compare the uncertainty in position of each

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

elements.
 Given: mass of the golf ball mg=150x10-3 kg.

 speed of electron and golf ball ve = vg = 150 ms-1

 Uncertainty in speed ∆ve= ∆vg = (0.065 x 150)/100

∆ve= ∆vg = 0.0975 ms-1

To find: Uncertainty in position of electron ∆xe= ?
Uncertainty in position of golf ball ∆xg= ?
And Ratio of uncertainty in position (∆xe/ ∆xg)=?
PROBLEMS
 Solution: The momentum of a particle is P = mv
 If velocity is uncertain (∆v). Then, ,momentum is
uncertain. Therefore. ∆P = m. ∆v

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

From Heisenberg‟s Uncertainty Principle we have
𝑕
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑝 ≥
4𝜋
𝑕
Δ𝑥 ≥
4𝜋Δ𝑝
𝑕
Δ𝑥 ≥
4𝜋 m Δ𝑣
For electron:
ℎ 6.626×10−34
Δ𝑥𝑒 ≥ ≥ ≥5.945x10-4 m
4𝜋 m Δ𝑣𝑒 4×3.14×9.1×10−31 ×0.0975
PROBLEMS
For Golf ball:
ℎ 6.626×10−34
Δ𝑥𝑔 ≥ ≥ ≥ 3.607x10-33 m
4𝜋 m Δ𝑣𝑔 4×3.14×150×0.0975
Δ𝑥𝑒 5.945x10−5 29

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

≥ ≥ 1.648 × 10
Δ𝑥𝑔 3.607x10−33
We can conclude Δ𝑥𝑒 ≥ Δ𝑥𝑔
PROBLEMS
 In the simultaneous measurement of position and
momentum the speed of electron is 800 m/s and
is accurate to 0.003%. What is uncertainty in
momentum?

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

 Given: The speed of electron v = 800 m/s

Uncertainty in speed ∆v = (0.003 x 800)/100

∆v = 0.024 m/s
To find: Uncertainty in momentum ∆P =?
Solution: The momentum is given by P = mv
If ∆v is uncertainty in speed, Then, uncertainty in
momentum is ∆P = m ∆v = 9.1x10-31x0.024
∆P = 2.184x10-32 kgm/s
 A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE
4𝜋

4𝜋Δ𝑝
𝑕

𝑕
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑝 ≥

Δ𝑥 ≥
PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS
 The measured uncertainty in time for Iridium-
191 nuclei in the excited state is 0.14 ns.
Calculate the uncertainty in the energy.
𝑕

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

∆𝐸. ∆𝑡 ≥
4𝜋
PROBLEMS
Calculate the Eigen energy values corresponds to
first three allowed energy states for an electron
confined in a potential well of infinite height and
width 2Å.

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

𝑛2 𝑕2
𝐸𝑛 =
8𝑚𝐿2
For n=1 (zero-point energy) E1 = 1.5076X10-18J
For n=2 (first excited state energy) E2 =
For n=3 (second excited state energy) E3 =?
PROBLEMS
 Calculate zero-point energy and de-Broglie‟s
wavelength of the electron in one dimensional
potential well of infinite height and width 1Å.
 Given: Width of potential well L = 1Å

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

 To find: Zero-point energy E1 = ?

Wavelength λ=?
Solution:
𝑛2 𝑕2
𝐸𝑛 =
8𝑚𝐿2
PROBLEMS
 Among two stars, one is appear yellow and other
appear blue in colour. If it emits the peak
wavelength of 589nm and 440nm respectively.
Find which one hotter.

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

 Given: wavelength λy = 589nm

wavelength λb = 440nm
To find: Surface Temperature of the stars Ty = ?
And Tb = ?
Solution:
ℎ ℎ2
𝜆 = or 𝑇 =
3𝑚𝑘𝑇 3𝑚𝑘𝜆2
PROBLEMS
 What is the probability of finding a particle at
L/4, L/2, 3L/4 and at L in a potential well of
width “L”.
 To find:

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

 The probability density P(L/4,t) = ?
 The probability density P(L/2,t) = ?
 The probability density P(3L/4,t) = ?
 The probability density P(L,t) = ?
 Solution:
 The probability density we have
𝑥<𝑙

𝑃 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜓 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥<0
PROBLEMS
i)
𝑥<𝐿/4

𝑃 𝐿/4, 𝑡 = 𝜓 2 𝑑𝑥

A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE

𝑥<0

𝑥<𝐿/4
2
𝑃 𝐿/4, 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐿
𝑥<0
A R Venugopal, Dept. of Physics, BrCE