TUGAS MATA KULIAH

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN LANGUAGE

TEACHING

ETHNOGRAPHY RESEARCH

Untuk Memenuhi Salah Satu Tugas Mata Kuliah Research Methodology In

Language Teaching

Di Susun Oleh :

Singgi Sahid Kurniawan

PROGRAM STUDI MAGISTER PENDIDIKAN BAHASA

INGGRIS

UNIVERSITAS NEGERI MAKASSAR

MAKASSAR

2017 – 201

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 Preface

In the the name of Allah SWT, Most Gracious, Most Merciful, I offer
praise and thanksgiving for His presence, which has bestowed His grace,
guidance, and mercy upon us, so, i can complete the scientific paper entitle
ethnography research.

This assignment is the one of research methodology in language teaching

subject task. I realized this assignment is not perfect. But I hope it can be useful
for us. Critics and suggestion is needed here to make this assignment be better.

This scientific paper has been designed to maximize and get help from
various parties so that it can facilitate the creation of this paper. For that, we
extend a great deal of thanks to all those who have contributed in the making of
this paper.

The paper with the title "Ethnography Research" has a lot of information
and lessons that we can make the direction of our thinking of something. But of
course, this paper certainly has a drawback, so we expect readers to give their
constructive responses to this paper.

Finally we hope this scientific paper entitle ethnography research can

provide benefits and aspirations to readers.

Makassar, September 2017

Author

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 Chapter 1

1. Introduction

In the world of academic, there are types of research. adapted to the

perspective and scientific basis that experts have been classifying the types of
research disclosed. Research is defined as an investigation and fact-finding
activity of a reality that aims to explore, develop, and or test and compare a
theory or knowledge to determine the most appropriate concept as a solution to
problem solving.

Research activities are the most comprehensive effort to train students to

think critically and to act systematically. Research can be done in all areas of
scientific study, both static and dynamic science. Research is basically one of the
duties and responsibilities of students to improve and develop various systems in
Indonesia, as stated in Tri Dharma Perguruan Tinggi, that is education, research,
and dedication.

It is in the midst of such a perpective gap that ethnography is present.

Ethnography seeks to provide understanding without distortion, because it departs
from the understanding of the culture of society to be understood, not from the
arbitrary assumptions of the researchers.

In Indonesia, ethnography is less well known to scientists in general. Only

those who move in the realm of anthropology are familiar with the genre of this
research method. In fact, ethnography, as confirmed by many writers, can be used
by all fields of science, whatever the genre.

With the aim of introducing ethnography to a world outside of

anthropology (with no disregard for those involved in the world of anthropology),
we feel it is important to make this paper. No other so that the development of
science in Indonesia remains relevant to human interests, not for the sake of
science itself.

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 Ethnographic research is one of the approaches of qualitative research.
Research on ethnography in education is inspired by similar research developed
in the field of sociology and anthropology. Ethnographic research has been
conducted by researcher Jonathan Kozol, in order to portray the struggles and
dreams of blacks in poor and marginalized communities in the Bronx area of New
York 1. Qualitative research with this approach is then widely applied in
researching the educational environment or school.

2. Problem Statement
The paper will be conducted to discover the answer of these following
questions:
1. What is Ethnography Research ?
2. When the use of Ethnography Research ?
3. What are the types of Ethnography Research?
4. What are the characteristic of Ethnography Research ?
5. What are the ethic problems in implementing Ethnography Research ?
6. What are the procedures of Ethnography Research ?
7. What are the data collecting instrument in Ethnography Research ?

3. Objective Of The Paper

Based on the problem statements, the objectives of this study are as
follows:
1. To Understand What is Ethnography Research.
2. To Understand When the use of Ethnography Research.
3. To Understand What are the types of Ethnography Research.
4. To Understand What are the characteristic of Ethnography Research.
5. To Understand What are the ethic problems in implementing Ethnography
Research.
6. To Understand What are the procedures of Ethnography Research.

1
Marguerite G. Lodico, Dean T. Spaulding, Katherine H. Voegtle, Methods in Educational Research From Theory to
Practice (San Fransisco: Jossey Bass, 2006), hlm. 268

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7. To Understand What are the data collecting instrument in Ethnography
Research.

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4. Significance Of The Paper
Theoritically, this paper was aimed to be additional source providing
readers some study of ethnography research. Then for the next writer having the
same focus, the paper can provide the next writer to get more additional data.
The paper was hoped also being able to be applied in works, society nad
country as a science source. Furthermore, either society or government, especially
in educational system can be more aware of the ethnography research.

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 Chapter 2

Discussion

Ethnographic studies are usually holistic, founded on the idea that humans
are best understood in the fullest possible context, including: the place where they
live, the improvements they've made to that place, how they are making a living
and providing food, housing, energy and water for themselves, what their
marriage customs are, what language they speak and so on.

A. DEFINITION

Ethnographic research methods are included in qualitative research

methods. The word ethnography comes from the Greek words ethos which means
ethnicity and graphos meaning something written. Ethnography is the science of
writing about ethnicity, using a more contemporary language, Ethnography can be
interpreted as writing about cultural groups.2 According to Oxford Online
Dictionary the definition of Ethnography is The scientific description of peoples
and cultures with their customs, habits, and mutual differences. 3 In another
famous dictionary, Cambridge defines the ethnography is a scientific description
of the culture of a society by someone who has lived in it, or a book containing
this.4

Ethnography is a research strategy that allows researchers to explore and

examine the cultures and societies that are a fundamental part of the human
experience. Unlike many other scientific research strategies, the ethnographer as
researcher is not typically a detached or uninvolved observer . The ethnographer
collects data and gains insight through firsthand involvement with research
subjects or informants . With few exceptions, the ethnographer conducts research
by interacting with other human beings that are part of the study; this interaction
takes many forms, from conversations and interviews to shared ritual and

2
Emzir. (2012). Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif : Analisis Data. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers.page 18
3
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/ethnography
4
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ethnography

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emotional experiences. Ethnography originally developed as a research strategy in
academic circles, mainly within the discipline of anthropology. Therefore,
anthropology provides many of the most famous early ethnographers and many “
classic ” ethnographies. Names like Bronislaw Malinowski, E. E. Evans -
Pritchard, Margaret Mead, and Ruth Benedict, along with ethnographic subjects
like the Trobriand Islanders, the Nuer, the island of Samoa, and the nation of
Japan are important markers of ethnography ’ s early history. These ethnographers
and their works have given us a number of important texts and some fi lms that
are important resources for students of ethnography.5
Based on some understanding above can be concluded that ethnography is
not just collecting data about people or culture, but dig deeper. Ethnography, both
as a research report and as a method of research, can be considered as the basis
and origin of anthropology.
Thus, ethnography is an effort to describe culture. Culture either implicitly
or explicitly revealed through language. Language is the main tool for spreading
the culture from one generation to the next which is written in linguistic form.
Thus, in ethnographic studies, Ethnolinguistics serves to explore culture.

B. THE USE OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

A person conducts ethnographic research when the group's research is able

to provide an understanding of a wide range of issues. Someone does ethnography
when having groups to learn to share culture and have been together for some
time and develop shared values, beliefs, and languages. The person will capture
the rules of conduct as when the teacher performs an informal relationship
gathered in a favorite place to socialize.6

Ethnography is a culture that studies other cultures. Ethnography is a

building of knowledge that includes research techniques, ethnographic theories
and various descriptions of culture. Ethnography is meaningful for building a

5
Julian m. Murchison., Ethnography essentials : designing, conducting, and presenting your research (U.S.A ) page 4
6
Cresswell, Jhon W., (2012). Eduactional Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative
Research. Ney Jersey: Person Education, Inc.page 462

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systematic understanding of all human cultures from the perspective of those who
have studied the culture (Spradley, 1997: 12).

Ethnography is based on the following assumption: Knowledge of all

cultures is highly valuable. This assumption requires careful testing. For what
purpose does the ethnographer collect information? For what reason does
someone try to find out what people need to know to cross the polar snow with
dog-sled sleds, live in remote Melanesian villages, or work in various skyscrapers
in New York? Who should do ethnography?

There are several main points when the ethnography is use.

1. Understanding Human Clumps.

The purpose of social anthropology, namely to describe and explain the

regularity and variety of social behavior. Perhaps the most prominent feature of
humanity is its diversity. Why does one clump show such variations, create
different patterns of marriage, hold different values, eat different foods, nurture
children differently, trust different gods, and pursue different goals? If the
ethnographer understands this diversity, then he must begin by carefully
describing it. Most diversity in the human family emerges, because of the
diversity created by each culture and passed from one generation to the next.

The description of culture, as the main task of ethnography, is the first step
in understanding the human race. The description of culture on the one hand
describes the difference, and on the other hand explains it. The explanation of
cultural differences, partly depends on cross-cultural comparisons. But this task in
turn depends on appropriate ethnographic studies, most comparative studies in
anthropology have been inhibited by poor ethnography, by research applying
western concepts into non-Western cultures, resulting in deviations from the
results obtained. Comparison not only expresses the difference, but also the
similarity, the same things in all cultures in the world. Therefore, in the most
general sense, ethnography contributes directly in the description and explanation
of order and evaluation in human social behavior.

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 Many social sciences have a more limited purpose. In any behavioral
studies ethnography plays an important role. Some of his typical contributions can
be identified. (1) Informing the theory of cultural bonding. Every culture provides
a way to see the world. Culture provides categories, signs, and also defines the
world in which the person lives. Culture includes assumptions about the nature of
reality as well as specific information about that reality. Culture includes values
that specify what is good, true and trustworthy. When one studies culture, he is
imprisoned to some extent without knowing it. Anthropologists present this as a
"culture-bound," living in a certain reality which is regarded as a true "reality."

Social scientists with their various theories are no less a bond of other
human cultures. The Western education system provides all means of interpreting
the experience. Implicit assumptions about the world arise in various theories of
every academic discipline-literary, natural, historical, and all social studies.
Ethnography itself seeks to document alternative realities and to describe that
reality within the boundaries of reality itself. Thus, ethnography can function
correctively to emerging theories in Western social science.

For example, the theory of culture deprivation (culture deprivation). This

idea emerged in a concrete form in the 1960s to explain the failure of education
experienced by most children. In an attempt to explain the lack of achievement in
the child, it is argued that they are "culturally deprived". The study of badaya
retaliation was carried out by focusing on Indian cultural groups, Chicano, blacks
and other cultural groups. This theory can be confirmed by studying the child
from the culture through

the protective bulkhead of this theory. However, ethnographic research on

the culture of "children" who experience "cultural deprivation" reveals a different
story. They have elaborated a sophisticated and adaptive culture that is completely
different from the culture supported by the education system. Although still
supported in several places, this theory is a way of saying that people are deprived
of "my culture". Of course no one would argue that the boy did not speak Spanish

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or English very well, that they did not do well things that were culturally valued.
But the nature of the cultural-bonding theory of psychology and sociology is far
beyond the notion of cultural deprivation. All the theories developed in Western
behavioral science are based on the implicit premise of Western culture, which is
usually the most typical version of middle-class professionals.

2. Ethnography Can Not Be Separated From Cultural Ties.

However, ethnography provides descriptions that reveal various models of

explanations created by humans. Ethnography can act as a pointer that shows the
nature of the bonding-culture of social science theory. Ethnography tells all
human behavior researchers, "Before you apply your theory to the people you
study, discover how that person defines the world." Ethnography can describe in
detail the theory of indigenous peoples that have been tested in actual life
situations for generations. As individuals, societies, individuals and the
environment are learned from another perspective from the perspective of a
professional scientific culture, ethnographers come to an epistemological humble
attitude, they are aware of the temporary nature of the theory and this will enable
them to correct the theory to be less ethnocentric.

3. Found The Theory Grounded.

Much social science research is directed at the task of testing formal

theory. One alternative to formal theory, and a strategy for eliminating
ethnocentrism is to develop a theory based on empirical data of cultural
descriptions. Glaser and Strauss (in Spradley, 1997: 15) call this theory grounded.
Ethnography offers an excellent strategy for finding grounded theories. For
example, the ethnography of children from the cultural environment of minorities
in the United States who succeed in school can develop a grounded theory of
school governance. Such studies reveal that, the child is not experiencing cultural
deprivation, instead they experience flooding culturally overwhelmed, where their
success in school is due to the ability of two-cultures (bicultural) all at once.

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 But grounded theory can be developed in any important field of human
experience. Personality theory can be enriched by finding folk theories about the
personality developed by each culture. Medical theories of health and disease can
be enriched through a careful ethnography of the theory of folk medicine.
Decision-making theory can be enriched by first discovering the various cultural
rules for decision-making in a particular culture. This list can be very long since
almost every field of social science theory has its equivalent in world culture.

4. Understanding The Complex Community.

Until now, ethnography has generally been relegated to small, non-

Western cultures. The value of studying such a society is acceptable, however,
ethnographers do not know much about them. Researchers were not able to
conduct surveys for experiments, so ethnography in understanding their own
(complex) culture is often overlooked. Modern culture has given myths about
complex societies-myths about mixed places. Social scientists have spoken of
"American culture" as if it includes a set of values shared by everyone. It is
increasingly clear that one does not have a homogeneous culture, that people
living in modern, complex societies actually live with different cultural rules. This
is not only true for the most prominent ethnic groups, but each working group
shows different cultural differences.

School has its own cultural system and even in the same institution people
see things differently. For example, language, values, fashion style, and various
activities. High school students differ from the language, values, style of fashion,
and the activities of teachers and staff. Their cultural differences are striking,
though often neglected. Prison guards with imprisoned people, patients and
doctors in hospitals, parents and religious groups all have a cultural perspective.
People with physical disabilities live in a world different from those who are not
physically disabled, even though they live in one city. As people move from one
culture to another in a complex society, they use different cultural rules.
Ethnography offers one of the best ways to understand this complex picture of

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modern life. Ethnogafi can show different cultural differences and how people
with different perspectives by interacting.

5. Understanding Human Behavior.

Human behavior is different from the behavior of animals, has a variety of

meanings for the culprit. This meaning can be found. An ethnographer can ask
someone who collects sea shells about his work, what he does, why he does it.
Any explanation.

C. TYPES OF ETHNOGRAPHIC DESIGN

According to Creswell (2012: 464) ethnographic research has diverse
forms. However, the main types that often appear in educational research reports
are realist ethnography, case studies, and critical ethnography.
1. Realistic Ethnography
Realist ethnography is a popular approach used by cultural
anthropologists. Described by Van Maanen in Creswell (2012: 464) ethnography
reflects certain attitudes taken by the researchers towards the individual being
studied. Realist ethnography is an objective view of the situation, usually written
in the perspective of a third person, reporting objectively about the information
learned from on-site research subjects (Creswell, 2012: 464). In this realist
ethnography:
a. Ethnographers describe research from a third-person perspective,
participant observation reports, and their views. The ethnographer
does not write his personal opinion in the research report and remains
behind the scenes as a reporter covering the facts.
b. Researchers report objective data in a form of measurable information,
uncontaminated by biases, political goals, and personal judgments.
Researchers can describe the daily life in detail among the people
examined. Ethnographers also use standard categories for cultural
descriptions (eg family life, work life, social networks, and status
systems).

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 c. The ethnographer produces the views of participants through edited
quotations without changing the meaning and has conclusions in the
form of interpretation and presentation of culture (Van Maanen in
Creswell, 2012: 464).
2. Case Studies
The term case study is often used in conjunction with ethnography. Case
studies are an important part of ethnography, though different from ethnography
in some respects. Case study researchers focus on programs, events, or activities
that involve individuals and not groups (Stake in Creswell, 2012: 465). When
researchers conduct group research, they may be more interested in describing
group activities rather than identifying patterns of behavior shown by the group.
The ethnographers together perform a search that evolves as a group that interacts
from time to time. At the beginning of his research, researchers tend to identify
cultural themes. One of the main concerns is anthropology, but they only focus on
the deep exploration of the actual "case" (Yin in Creswell, 2012: 465).
Although some researchers identify the "case" as a study object (Stake in
Creswell, 2012: 465), others consider it to be an inquiry procedure (eg, Merriam,
1998). Case studies are an in-depth exploration of a limited system (eg, activities,
events, processes, or individuals) based on extensive data collection (Creswell,
2007). Bounded means that the case is separate from other things in terms of time,
place, or physical boundaries. Thus, the results obtained only apply to the object
under study and can not be generalized to other objects although still the same.
Some things that become consideration in determining the type of cases to
be studied in qualitative research, among others:
a. Whether the case is experienced by an individual, several individuals
separately or in groups, programs, activities, or activities (eg, teachers,
some teachers, or the application of new math programs).
b. The "case" is a process consisting of a series of steps (eg, a college
curriculum process) that form a sequence of activities.
c. A case is selected for scrutiny because it is unusual and beneficial, here
is the division:

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 1) Intrinsic case (intrinsic case), if the case studied in depth
contains interesting things to learn comes from the case itself,
or can be said to contain intrinsic interest.
2) The instrumental case, if the case is studied in depth because the
result will be used to improve or refine the existing theory or to
develop a new theory. This can be said to be an instrumental
case study, the interest to learn it is beyond the case or external
interest.
3) Collective case, is where some cases are described and
compared by providing insight into the problem. A case study
investigators may examine several schools to illustrate an
alternative approach to school choice for students.
4) Researchers seek to develop an in-depth understanding of the
case by collecting various forms of data (eg, images, clippings,
video, and e-mail). The explanation provides an in-depth
understanding of some good case requirements to study, as
researchers have limited time to devote and explore the depths
of a case to be studied.
5) Researchers also view cases in a broader context, such as
geography, politics, social, or economy.

3. Critical Ethnography

Critical ethnography is a type of ethnographic research in which authors

are interested in championing the emancipation of marginalized groups in society
(Thomas in Creswell, 2012: 467). Critical researchers usually think and search
through their research, advocating against inequality and dominance (Carspecken
& Apple in Creswell, 2012: 467). For example, critical ethnographers examine
schools that provide facilities for particular students, create unjust situations
among different members of the social class, and allow gender discrimination.

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 The main components of critical ethnography are factors such as
orientation-oriented values, empowering communities by granting more authority,
challenging the status quo, and concerns about power and control (Madison in
Creswell, 2012: 467). These factors are among others

a. Investigate on social issues of power, empowerment, inequality,

injustice, domination, repression, hegemony, and victimization.

b. The researchers conducted critical ethnography so that their research

did not further marginalize the individual being studied. Thus, the
questioners collaborate, actively participate, and work together in the
writing of the final report. Critical ethnographers are expected to be
cautious in entering and leaving the research site, as well as providing
feed back.

c. Ethnographers provide a conscious understanding, recognizing that

interpretations reflect our own history and culture. Interpretation can
be only temporary and depends on how participants will see it.

d. Critical researchers position themselves and are aware of their role in

research report writing.

e. This position is not neutral for critical researchers, it means that

critical ethnography will be a defender of change to help change our
society so that no one is oppressed and marginalized.

f. Ultimately, critical ethnographic reports will be a messy, multilevel,

multimetode approach to investigation, full of contradictions,
unthinkable, and tension (Denzin, in Creswell, 2012: 467).

D. CHARACTERISTICS OF ETHNOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH

According to Creswell (2012: 468) some characters that can illustrate
ethnographic research, including cultural themes, cultural sharing groups, patterns

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of shared behavior, beliefs and language, field research, description or
arrangement, and reflection of researchers
1. Cultural theme
Ethnographers usually study cultural themes derived from cultural
anthropology. Ethnographers do not dare to scrutinize what they see. Instead, they
are interested in increasing knowledge of culture and studying the specific theme
of a particular culture. Cultural themes in ethnography are general and not
intended to narrow the research, instead being the lens that broadens the views of
researchers early on into the field to study the group, and they seek the
manifestation of that matter.

Cultural themes can be found from introductory texts of cultural

anthropology (Wolcott in Creswell, 2012: 468), discovering through the
dictionary the concept of cultural anthropology and another approach is to find
cultural themes in ethnographic studies in education. Usually the author
announces it in the title or at the beginning of the research report.

2. Cultural group (culture sharing group)

Ethnographers study cultural groups in one location. In studying a group,
the ethnographer identifies one site (for example, an elementary school
classroom), looks for groups within it (for example, a reading group), and collects
data about the group (for example, observes during reading activities). It
distinguishes ethnography from other forms of qualitative research (eg, narrative
research) that focus on the individual, not the group. A cultural group in
ethnography is two or more individuals who have shared behavior, beliefs, and
languages.
Groups like these usually have certain characteristics. A group may vary in
size, but individuals in the group need to meet regularly and interact over a period
of time (eg, 2 weeks to 4 months) to develop patterns of behavior, thinking, or
speaking. . These groups often represent larger groups, such as reading groups in
third grade classes.

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 Often, ethnographers study groups that are strange to them to see them in a
"fresh" and different way, as if they are extraordinary and unique "(LeCompte et
al., In Creswell, 2012: 469).

3. Co-ownership of patterns of behavior, beliefs, and language

Ethnographers look for patterns of behavior, beliefs, and language of a

group that has adopted a culture over time. The purpose of finding these shared
patterns of behavior, beliefs, and languages implies two important points. First,
the group under study should have / adopt common patterns that can be detected
by the researcher. Second, each member of the group studied equally adopts every
behavior, belief, and language as well as the combination of the three elements.
The pattern in ethnography consists of social interaction that tends to remain as a
comprehensible rule and a common goal, and one of a combination of behavior,
belief, and language.

a) Behavior: an action performed by an individual in a cultural group /

background.

b) Confidence: how individuals think about or understand something in a

cultural setting

c) Language: language in ethnogafi refers to how individuals talk to others

in a cultural setting

4. Fieldwork (fieldwork)

Ethnographers collect data by spending time in places where they live,

work, or play. To understand the best pattern of a cultural group, the ethnographer
spends a long time with the group. These patterns can not be easily seen through
questionnaires or with short meetings. In contrast, ethnographers go "to the field,"
living together or often visiting the people who are being studied, and slowly
learning the cultural ways in which groups behave or think. "Field" (field) in

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ethnography means that researchers collect data in the environment in which
participants are located and where cultural patterns can be learned. The data
collected by ethnographers are divided into three types, namely:

a) Emic Data

Information provided directly by the participants. This data is often

referred to as first-rate concepts, in the form of local languages, thoughts,
ways of expression shared / shared by the participants (Schwandt in
Creswell, 2012: 471)

b) Etic Data

Information in the form of interpretation of researchers made in

accordance with the perspective of the participants. This data is often
referred to as second level concepts, ie phrases or terminology that
researchers make to express the same phenomena expressed by the
participants (Schwandt in Creswell, 2012: 471).

c) Data Negotiation

Information shared by the participants and researchers for use in

the study. Negotiations can occur in different stages during the course of
the study, such as when approving procedures for entering the study site,
respecting each other, and developing plans for re-information.

During the field research, ethnographers used various techniques

to collect data. Table 14.3, which is a composite list of LeCompte and
Schensul (1999) and Wolcott (2008), presents a qualitative and
quantitative form of data collection. Structured observation and interview
techniques are popular among ethnographers.

5. Description, Themes, and Interpretation

Ethnographic researchers describe and analyze cultural groups and make

interpretations of the patterns of everything seen and heard. During the data

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collection, the ethnographer began to form a study. This activity consists of
analyzing data for descriptions of individuals and places of cultural groups,
analyzing patterns of behavior, beliefs, and languages, and reaching some
conclusions about the meaning of studying people and locations (Wolcott, in
Creswell, 2012: 472).

In ethnographic description is defined as a detailed description of the

individuals or field research used to describe the phenomenon that occurs in the
group under study. The description should be detailed and comprehensive.
Descriptions must be able to arouse the reader's senses so that they feel as if they
are present in the field of research and interact with the participants.

Differences between descriptions and themes are sometimes difficult to

make. What can be used to determine the theme is that the theme results from the
interpretation of the facts about people and activities. The theme function is to
make information or facts meaningful. In ethnography, the resulting themes
always reveal patterns of behavior, thoughts, or languages shared by the
participants.

Interpretation in ethnography is the ethnographer drawing conclusions

about what has been learned. The analysis phase is the most subjective.
Researchers are concerned with the description and theme of what has been
learned, which often reflects some combination of researchers to make personal
judgments, return to the literature on cultural themes, and raise further questions
based on the data. This may also include in terms of addressing problems that
arise during fieldwork that create a temporary hypothesis.

6. Context or Settings

Researchers present descriptions, themes, and interpretations in context or

from cultural groups. Context in ethnography is the setting, situation, or
environment surrounding the group / culture being studied. It is layered and
interlinked, consisting of factors such as history, religion, culture, politics,
economics, and the environment (Fetterman in Creswell, 2012: 473). Context can

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also be a physical location (such as a school, building condition, classroom wall
color, or sound), history such as memorable experiences, personality conditions,
and individual social conditions such as profession, income, geographical
mobility. including the income level, the working class, or one's funding system.

7. Reflection of Researcher

In ethnography, reflexivity refers to the consciousness and openness of the

researcher to discuss how he can perform his role while respecting and respecting
the field and the participants. Because ethnographic research requires that
researchers stay for a relatively long period of time in the field, the researcher
should consider the impact on the field and the participants. That's why
researchers have to negotiate with important people on the field when going into
the field. In the writing of the report, the researcher also realizes that his
interpretation is influenced by his own cultural background so that his
interpretation and conclusions are tentative so that it remains open for discussion
again. Therefore, in the report the researcher needs to show the position and point
of view he uses in interpreting (Denzin, in Creswell 2012: 474). Being reflective
also means that the writer's conclusion is tentative (temporary) not convincing to
answer new questions. This research may end with questions that ask for answers
or some views from the reader's point of view to consider them.

Meanwhile, according to Nobuo Shimahara (in Gall et al, 2003: 486)

identified three main characteristics of ethnographic research:

1. Focus on finding cultural patterns in human behavior

2. Focus on the emic's perspective from participants / cultures
3. Focus on studying the natural setting in which culture is manifested

E. ETHICS PROBLEM IN IMPLEMENTING ETHNOGRAPHICAL

RESEARCH
Ethical issues in ethnography arise especially when researchers do field
work when researchers collect data. Madison (in Creswell, 2012: 474) reminds

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researchers with a question "what are the moral and ethical implications of
conducting field research?". Ethics in ethnography-related challenges on the
ground that require negotiation on how to gain access to the people and places to
be studied, how long to reside, whether recording of daily talks or interviews
taken, and how to interact with each other respect (Ryen in Creswell, 2012: 474).
According to Madison (in Creswell, 2012: 474) ethics in ethnographic
research are:
1. Ethnographers should be open and transparent about data collection Must
convey about research objectives, impacts that may arise, sources of funding.
2. Researchers should study people or places with respect, avoid danger, maintain
their dignity, and ensure their privacy is maintained.
3. Researchers and participants need to negotiate limits related to these factors.
4. Ethnographic researchers also have responsibility for the scientific community,
such as not cheating one of the participants or readers (eg manipulating data,
fabricating evidence, forging, plagiarizing) or not reporting errors.
5. Research should be done with respect to other researchers not to be banned
from entering the group's environment in the future.
6. Researchers should provide feedback and reward those who are researched
fairly and may provide something that is needed
7. Researchers should also be aware of the potential negative impacts of their
presentations and publications that may be present in the population studied.

F. ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH PROCEDURES

Perhaps the number of procedures in conducting ethnographic research is as
much as the number of ethnographers themselves. Since the early days of cultural
anthropology when researchers were 'sent' to remote islands without guidance for
ethnographic research, we have established procedures, even though they have general
procedures, to guide an anthropological study.
The following are the steps to develop ethnographic research according to
Spradley

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1. Setting informants
There are five minimal requirements for selecting informants, namely: (a)
full enculturation, ie knowing his or her culture well, (b) direct involvement, (c)
unfamiliar cultural atmosphere, usually increasingly accepting cultural acts as
they are, preamble, (d) have sufficient time, (e) non-analytical.
2. Conducting interviews to informants
Ethnographic interviews are a special type of speech event. Three
important elements in ethnographic interviews are their explicit objectives,
explanations and ethnographic questions.
3. Make ethnographic notes
An ethnographic record includes field notes, image recording devices,
artifacts and other objects documenting the cultural atmosphere being studied.
4. Asking descriptive questions
The descriptive question takes "advantage of the power of language to
interpret the setting". The ethnographer needs to know at least one setting in
which the informant performs his routine activities.
5. Conducting an ethnographic interview analysis.
This analysis is an investigation of the various parts as conceptualized by
the informant.
6. Create a domain analysis.
This analysis is done to find the initial domain that focuses on the domains
that are the names of objects.
7. Asking a structural question which is an advanced stage after identifying the
domain.
8. Make taxonomic analysis.
There are five important steps to make a taxonomy, namely: (a) select a
taxonomic analysis domain, (b) identify the appropriate substitution framework
for analysis, (c) find the subset between several terms covered, (d) find the larger
domain, f) create a temporary taxonomy.
9. Ask a contrasting question where the meaning of a symbol is believed to be
found by discovering how a symbol differs from other symbols.

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10. Make component analysis.
Component analysis is a systematic search for various attributes
(components of meaning) associated with cultural symbols.
11. Discovering cultural themes..

G. ETHNOGRAPHIC DATA COLLECTING INSTRUMENT

During field research, ethnographers used a variety of techniques to collect
data. Table 14.3, which is a composite list of LeCompte and Schensul; Wolcott (in
Creswell, 2012: 471), displays some data collection techniques. Structured
observations and interviews are very popular among ethnographers. The data
collection instruments in the complete ethnographic research are as follows:

1. In-depth interview (indepth interview)

Is a series of questions posed by researchers to the subject of research.
Given the naturalistic character of ethnography, the question form or interview is
an open and flowing question, but to keep the focus of the research it is better to
have an interview guide that is flexible. Each interview conducted, the researcher
must deepen it by making notes of interviews and observations. Therefore, the
interview activity will always generate new questions that deepen what has been
received from the research subject. In the context of deepening the data, the
interview process can be done spontaneously or planned.

2. Participant observation (participant observation).

To find out in direct detail how the culture belongs to an individual or a
group of people then an ethnographic researcher should be an "insider". Being an
"insider" will benefit researchers in generating data that is natural. Researchers
will know and understand what the subject of research, daily behavior, habits - the
habits of daily life, to the understanding of the symbols of the life of the subject of
research in everyday life that could be other people do not understand what
exactly the symbol. Being an insider gives the researcher a tremendous access to
uncover all things without the slightest hindrance, because the subject of the study

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will feel the presence of the researcher is like a part of his family, so there is no
doubt and obstacles for the subject to behave naturally, just as he lives in everyday
life . However, being an insider through participant observation does not make the
researcher dissolve until it can not distinguish itself with the subject of research. It
is this position that must be fully guarded in conducting ethnographic research.

3. Focus Group Discussion (Focus Group Discussion)

Is a joint discussion between researchers with research subjects directed.

In this context is actually the ability of researchers to present the main issues or
themes, package it and then discuss and manage the discussion becomes directed
in the sense that the discussion process remains within the theme area and not too
widespread let alone to include the emotion of the subject in excess to be the
keyword of the discussion process good. These focus group discussions can start
with a selection of pre-defined discussion members by the researcher, or can be
done randomly, but still pay attention to the strengths of each discussion
participant, from the level of education, intellectuality, experience and even
gender balance. With this determination, it is a step to avoid the inequality or
dominance of one group or individual in a discussion. Then, proceed with the
theme that will be carried researchers, and discuss together. This process is then
the researchers recorded in detail to then be used as a footing base to deepen and
enrich ethnographic data.

4. Life history

It is a long and detailed record of the subject's life history. Through this
life history record ethnographers will understand in detail what the life of the
subject of research and the factors that influence it including the existing culture
in the environment. The historical record of life, requires the researcher's ability to
be observant in seeing every detail of one's life, so that clearly illustrated how the
life of the subject of research from birth to adult so that found important events
that become turning points in the life history of the research subjects. Although
almost the same as the pattern of autobiography, but there are differences,

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especially on the more powerful efforts in writing to avoid the subjectivity of the
author.

5. Document analysis.

Document analysis is needed to answer questions directed, in addition to

increasing understanding and research information. Given that the research
location does not all have available documents, it is helpful for a researcher to ask
questions about informants who can help to decide what types of documents
might be available. In other words, document requirements depend on the
researcher, but the researcher must be aware of the limitations of the document,
and may be the researcher trying to understand the available documents, which
may help understanding

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 Chapter 3

Conclusion

Ethnography is derived from the word ethos, ie nation or ethnicity and

graphein is writing or description. The term ethnography is actually an
anthropological term, born in the first stage of its development before the 1800s.
Etnogarafi is the result of the record of European explorers They record all the
interesting phenomenon encountered during the journey, among others, contains
about the customs of istitiadat, the composition of society, language and the
physical characteristics of the tribes. So like any other research, the variables of
this research are more on the life and culture of a society.

Ethnographic research is also an activity of collecting materials of

kete¬rangan or data that is done systematically about way of life as well as
various social activity and various cultural objects from a society. The unique
events and events of the cultural community will attract the attention of
ethnographers. Researchers learn more from the owners of culture, and are deeply
respectful of how they learn about culture. That is why involved observation
becomes important in research activities.

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