Chapter 8: Examples of Communication Systems

A. Microwave Communication
It is widely used for long distance communication. Such as telephone communication,
mobile phone, television distribution etc. It uses point to point radio transmission at
frequency higher than approximately 1 GHz. This transmission system exists in two
forms: Satellite system & Terrestrial (earth-based) system. Microwaves
communication is characterized by the following factors.

1. The useful ranges of frequencies lies between 150 MHz to 150 GHz.
2. It is line of sight communication & is limited by horizon due to the earth curvature.
3. Signal propagation is affected by free space attenuation.
4. Frequency or phase modulation are used.

The useful frequency range of microwave spectrum is divided into a number of band.

Band Frequency Range (GHz)

P 0.25 – 0.39
L 0.39 – 1.55
S 1.55 – 3.90
C 3.90 – 6.30
X 6.30 – 10.9
K 10.9 – 36.0
Q 36.0 – 46.0
Figure: Optical & Radio Horizon
V 46.0 – 56.0
The bands are future divided into a number of sub bands for examples Ku bands
covers the frequency range 10.9 to 14.5 GHz in the K band. Being a LOS limited by
horizon, the height of the antenna above the earth plays the important role in
determining the transmission distance in a microwave communication. Microwaves
are usually bent or reflected beyond the optical horizon i.e. horizon visible to our eyes.
The radio horizon is generally further away from the optical horizon.

The distance to the radio horizon varies with the atmospheric refractive changes and
can be even less than the optical horizon at times. As a rule of thumb of, the optical
and radio horizon is given as do = 0.46h and dr = 0.49h; where h = height of the tower
in meters.
Correction factor: It is used to obtain any quantity related to radio horizon from
the corresponding quantity related to optical horizon i.e. k = do/dr. Where ‘k’ is a
correction factor. If k > 1, then the radio horizon is nearer the optical horizon. If k <
1 the radio horizon is farther than optical horizon.

A.1 Height of Microwave Tower

Tower height should be such that the radio beam is not obstructed by objects like
buildings, tree, mountains etc. The height must be more than the highest obstacle in
the way. Two factors: Earth’s curvature bulge, and Fresnel diffraction contribute to
increasing the effective height.

1. The Earth’s Bulge in calculated as: heb = 0.78*d1*d2 Where, heb = height increase
on account of earth’s bulge, d1 = distance between microwave site and obstacle in
km and d2 = distance between the other microwave site and the obstacle in km.

2. Fresnel Diffraction: The Fresnel phenomenon stuns from the fact that
electromagnetic wave fronts expand as they travel through space. The expanding
properties result in reflection and phase transmission as the wave passes over
obstacles. Hence, additional clearance is required above the obstacle to avoid such
problem. The clearance, in required is expressed in terms of the Fresnel 1st zone,
2nd zone etc. The Radius of the 1st Fresnel zone R in meters is calculated as:

Where, F = frequency of transmission n GHz.

Legend: A, B – Terminal; R – Repeater; A/D - Add and Drop Links

It is made up of two terminal sites and usually one or more repeater sites.

- At TX – side, voice channel are multiplexed into baseband signal and then
modulated into RF carrier.
- At RX-side, RF carries demodulated signal and the resulting baseband signal is de-
multiplexed into individual voice channels.

A repeater site is characterized by two antenna for the two directions. It receives,
amplifies and retransmit RF signal to the next site in sequence. Some repeater may
add or drop of a few lines for local connection. (a) Long Haul Type or (b) Short Haul
Type.

(a) Long Haul Type: Consists of many simple repeaters with small numbers of add
or drop points and covers a long distance from end to end.

(b) Short Haul Type: This system consists of a relatively small numbers of repeaters
with frequent add and drop points.

Three commonly used microwave carrier band are 4, 6 and 11 GHz. The 4 GHz is used
for long haul and the 6 GHz band is useful for both long and short haul
communication.

A.2 Antenna

It requires very high gain antenna. Consider two isotropic antenna separated by a
distance D. The power interrupted by receiving antenna is given by:

PT λ2
PR = (4π D )2

Where, PR = Received Power PT = Transmitted Power

λ = Wavelength of Operation D = distance between two antenna

The path loss is decibel is given by:

(4π .D .f )2
( 3X 10 8 )2 ;
L = 10. log⁡

L = 92.4+20.log(D.f) dB
 Where, D is measured in km and f in GHz.

Figure: Parabolic Reflector

Parabolic reflectors are used to realize highly directional high gain antenna
concentrating microwave energy into parallel beam, three versions of parabolic
antenna are:

(i) Simple Parabolic (ii) Horn and (iii) Cass grain.

A.3 Wave Guides

Microwave energy is guided to the antenna feed from the transmitter system by
means of waveguides. Based on the shape of the cross-section, wave guides are
classified as:

(1) Rectangular wave guides (2) Circular wave guide

(3) Elliptical waveguide (4) Square waveguide.

The wave guide size determines the cut-off frequency i.e. a frequency below which
satisfactory cannot take place. Therefore, systems operating in different band use
different sizes of guides. For example, for operation in the 3.7–4.24 GHz range, a
rectangular wave guide is used. Wave guides are coded by a letter to indicate the
shape of the cross-section and a number to indicate the larger dimension of the shape.
For example, WR-5-75 means rectangular wave guide with the width being 5-75cm.
Some of the microwave components are:

1. Microwave Tubes (performs the function of generation and amplification in the

microwave portion of the frequency spectrum). It consists of following components.
 (a) Multicarity Klystron Amplifier (b) Reflex Klystron Oscillator.
(c) Travelling Wave Tube (TWT) (d) Backward Wave Oscillator
(e) Magnetrons (f) Crossed-Field Amplifiers

2. Solid State Microwave Devices

(a) Gun Diode Oscillator,

(b) Imapatt Diode Oscillator,
(c) Trapatt Diode Oscillator
(d) Varactor Diode,
(e) Tunnel diode,
(f) PIN diode,
(g) MASERS (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation/same as
LASER except that it works at microwave frequency),
(h) MOSFET: MIC (Microwave Integrated Circuit and Micro-Strip Line)

A.4 Applications of Microwave

- Industrial Application: Measurement of thickness of metal sheets in rolling mills;

continuous measurement of diameter of wires and measurement and monitoring of
moisture content, heating, cooking and processing of flood.
- Medical Application - Cancer treatment.
- Navigation and Remote Sensing - Radar uses microwave radiation to defect the range,
speech and other characterization of remote object.
- Spectroscopy - It is the study of the interaction between radiation and matter as a
function of wave length (λ).
- Rader and communication system.
B. Fiber Optic Communication

B.1 Basic Building Block of Fiber Optic Communication System

Figure: Optical Fiber Communication System

Information to be conveyed enters an electronic transmitter. In electronic transmitter

it is converted into electrical form, modulated and multiplexed. The electrical signal
then goes to optical transmitter where it is converted into optical form i.e. into light.
The light signal is then transmitted over optical fiber. At the receiver end, light signal
is received by optical detector which converts the light signal into an electrical signal.
The electrical signal then enters into electronic receiver where electrical signal is
processed to get the exact information.

Transmitter
It consists of light source and its associated drive circuit. The heart of the transmitter
is a light source. The main function of light source is to convert an information signal
from its electrical form into light. LEDS and laser diodes are used as light sources.

Optical Fiber Cable

It offers mechanical and environment protection to optical fibers contained inside.
The transmission medium in fiber optic communication systems is an optical fiber.
The optical fiber is the transparent and flexible filament that guides light from a
transmitter to a receiver. The optical fiber provides the connection between a
transmitter and a receiver. The optical fiber basically consists of two concentric
layers, the light carrying core and the cladding. The cladding acts as a refractive index
medium which allows the light to be transmitted through the core and to the other
end with very little distortion or attenuation.

Receiver
It consists of photo-detector, amplification and signal restoring circuit. The heart of
an optical receiver is the photo detector. The major task of a photo detector is to
convert an optical information signal back into an electrical signal.
B.2 Components of Optical Transmitter

The main function of an optical transmitter is to convert the electrical signal into
optical signal and to launch the optical signal into the optical fiber. Optical transmitter
consists of optical source, modulator and a channel coupler. Light emitting diodes
(LEDS) and Laser diodes are used as optical sources. The input electrical signal
modulates the intensity of light from the optical source. The optical carrier can be
modulated internally or externally using an electro-optic modulator or acousto-optic
modulator.
Now-a-day’s electro-optic modulators are widely used as external modulators which
modulate the light by changing its refractive index through given input electrical
signal. The function of a coupler is to couple the optical signal to optical fiber cable.
The coupler is a micro lens that focuses the optical signal onto the entrance plane of
an optical fiber with maximum efficiency.

B.3 Components of Optical Receiver

The main function of optical receiver is to convert the received optical signal back
onto the original electrical signal. The optical receiver consists of a channel coupler,
a photo detector and a demodulator. The coupler focuses the received optical signal
onto if photo detector. The photo detector like avalanche photo diode (APD) or
positive-intrinsic-negative (PIN) diode converts the optical pulses into electrical
pulses. The requirements for a photo detectors are similar to those of an optical
source. It should have high sensitivity fast response, Low noise, low cost and high
reliability.
The demodulator, demodulates the received electrical signal back to original
information. The design of demodulator depends on the modulation format used by
light wave system.

B.4 Snell’s Law and Laws of Reflection

Snell’s law gives a relationship at the interface of two mediums having different
refractive indexes. According to Snell’s law:

According to laws of reflection.

1. The angle at which the incident ray strikes the interface is exactly equal to the
angle the reflected ray makes with the same interface.
2. The incident ray, the normal to the interface and the reflected ray, all lie in the
some plane which is perpendicular to the interface plane between the two
materials.

B.5 Step Index and Graded Index Fiber

Depending on refractive index profile, there are two types of fibers: (a) Step index
fiber and (b) Graded index fiber

(a) Step Index Fiber: In the step index fiber, the refractive index of the core is
uniform throughout and undergoes an abrupt or step change at the core-cladding
boundary. The refractive index profile is defined as:
The light rays that propagate through the fiber are in the form of meridional rays
which will cross the fiber axis during every reflection at the core boundary and
propagate in zigzag manner. Step index fiber can be single mode step index fiber or
multimode step index fiber.

(b) Graded Index Fiber: Graded index fibers do not have a constant refractive index
in the core but a decreasing core index n(r) with radial distance from maximum value
at the axis to a constant value n2 beyond the core radius in cladding. The refractive
index profile is given:

The light rays propagating through it are in the form of skey rays or helical rays which
will not cross the fiber axis at any time and propagate around the fiber axis in a helical
or spiral manner. Graded index fibers are sometimes referred to as inhomogeneous
core fibers.

B.6 Single Mode and Multimode Fibers

Single Mode Fibers:

Single mode fibers have a small core and only one pathway of light. The difference
between the refractive indices of the core and the cladding is very small. With only a
single wavelength of light passing through its core, single mode realigns the light
towards the center of the core instead of bounding it off the edge of the core. Single
mode fiber allows for a higher capacity to transmit information because it can retain
the fidelity of each light pulse over longer distances and it exhibits no dispersion
caused by multiple modes. Single mode fiber also enjoys lower fiber attenuation than
multimode fiber. But single mode fibers also have disadvantages. The smaller core
diameter makes coupling light into the core more difficult. Fabrication of single mode
fibers is very difficult and so the fiber is expensive. According to fiber refractive index
profile single mode fiber is called Single mode step index fiber.

Single Mode Step Index Fiber: Single mode step index fiber has a central core that
is significantly smaller in diameter than any of the multimode fiber. The core diameter
of this fiber ranges from 5am to 10pm. In this type of fiber, light is propagated down
the fiber through reflection. Light rays that enter the fiber either propagate down the
core or are reflected only few times. All rays follow approximately the same amount
of time to travel the length of the fiber.

Multimode Fibers
Multimode fibers have a large core diameter that is much larger than the wavelength
of light transmitted. It allows large number of modes for the light rays travelling
through it. In multimode fibers, the core diameter and relative refractive index
difference are larger than in single mode fiber. Multimode fiber may be categorized
as multimode step index fiber and multimode graded index fiber.

Multimode Step Index Fiber: Multimode step index fibers are similar to the single
mode step index fibers except the center core is much larger with multimode
configuration. With this large core diameter there are many paths through which light
can travel. This type of fiber has a large light to fiber aperture and allows more light
to enter the fiber. The light rays that strike the core/cladding interface at an angle
greater than the critical angle are propagated down the core in a zigzag fashion. Light
rays that strike the core/cladding interface at an angle less than the critical angle
enter the cladding and are lost. Light rays take different paths down the fiber, which
results in large difference in propagation times. Due to this light rays travelling down
fiber have a tendency to spread out.
Multimode Graded Index Fiber: The multimode graded index fiber is an
improvement on the multimode step index fiber. Multimode graded index fibers have
non-uniform refractive index. This fiber has maximum density at the center which
gradually decreases towards the outer edge. Light rays propagate down this type of
fiber through refraction rather than reflection. As the light rays propagate down the
fiber, the rays travelling in the outer most area of the fiber travel a greater distance
than the rays travelling near the center. Because the refractive index decreases with
distance from the center, the light rays travelling farthest from the center propagate
at a higher velocity. Therefore all light rays take approximately the same time to
travel the length of the fiber.

B.7 Power Budget and Rise Time Budget

Power Budget: Power budget allows us to calculate power at the receiving end. It
also allows us to determine the loss allocation along the link. Each component in
optical link has a specific loss in dB or dBm.
The main purpose of the power budget is to make sure that the minimum required
power should reach the receiver so that the optical systems maintain reliable
operation.

Rise Time Budget: The main function of rise time budget is to ensure that the system
is able to operate properly at intended bit rate. It helps in determining the dispersion
limitation of an optical fiber link. It is used to allocate the bandwidth among different
components in optical fiber link. The rise time of any linear system is defined as the
time during which the response increases from 10% to 90% of its final output value
when the input is changed abruptly.

In linear system, there is inverse relationship between the bandwidth and the rise
time of linear system. For linear system, consider simple RC circuit. When the input
voltages changes instantaneously across RC circuit the output voltage changes as
The total rise time of the optical fiber link is the root sum square of the rise times from
each contributor. In any optical fiber link if

B.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fiber Optic Communication

Advantages of Optical Transmission Link over Conventional Copper Systems

1. Low Transmission Loss and Wide Bandwidth: Optical fibers have lower
transmission losses and wider B.W. than Copper wires. This means that with
optical fiber cable systems more data can be sent over longer distances, thereby
decreasing the no of wires and reducing the no of repeaters needed for these
spans. This reduction in equipment and components decreases the system cost
and complexity.
2. Small Size and Weight: Optical fibers have very small diameters which are often
no greater than the diameter of a human hair. Hence even when such fibers are
covered with protective coating they are far smaller and much lighter than Cu
cables. The optical fibers have low weight and small (hair sized) dimension of
fibers. This small size and weight offer a distinct advantage over heavy and bulky
wire cables in crowded underground city ducts or in ceiling mounted cable trays.
3. Immunity to Interference: The dielectric nature of optical fibers provides optical
wave guides with immunity to electromagnetic interference (EMI) such as
inductive pick up from signal carrying wires and lighting. It also ensures freedom
from electromagnetic pulse (EMP) effects which is of interest in military
application
4. Electrical Isolation: Since optical fibers are constructed of glass which is an
electrical insulator, there is no problem of ground loops; fiber to fiber cross talk is
very low. Equipment interface problems are simplified. This makes the use of fiber
attractive in electrically hazardous environments, since fiber creates no arcing or
sparking.
5. Signal Security: The light from optical fibers does not radiate significantly and
therefore they provide high degree of signal security. A transmitted optical signal
can’t be obtained from fiber in a non-invasive manner. By using an optical fiber, a
high degree of data security is available, since the optical signal is well confined
within the wave guide. So, these fibers are used where information security is
important such as banking, computers networks and military systems.
6. Abundant Raw Material: The principle material of which optical fibers are made
is silica. This raw material is abundant and inexpensive.
7. No hazard of short circuits as in metal wires.
8. No problems when used in explosive environments.
9. Immunity to adverse temperature and moisture conditions.
10. No need for additional equipment to protect against grounding and voltage
problems.
11. Very nominal shipping, handling and installation costs.

Disadvantages Optical Fiber Cables

1. Strength: Optical fibers have a significantly lower tensile strength than coaxial
cable. This can be improved by providing protective jacket of PVC. In addition
glass fiber is much more fragile than copper wire making fiber less attractive
where hardware portability is required.
2. Optical fiber cables are more susceptible to losses introduced by bending the
cable: Electromagnetic waves propagate through an optical cable by either
refraction or reflection. Therefore bending the cable causes irregularities in the
cable dimensions; resulting in a loss of signal power. Optical fibers are more prone
to manufacturing defects, as even the minor defect can cause excessive loss of
signal power.

3. Specialized tools, equipment and training: Optical fiber cables require special
tools to splice and repair cables and special test equipment to make routine
measurements. Not only repairing fiber cables is difficult and expensive but
technicians working on optical cables also require special skills and training.
Sometimes it is difficult to locate faults in optical cables because there is no
electrical continuity.
C. Satellite Communication System

C.1 What is Satellite?

A Satellite is a solid object which revolves around some heavenly body due to the
effect of gravitational forces which are mutual in nature. We can categorize satellites
in two types, namely Passive Satellites and Active satellites. Passive satellites are not
like active satellites. Even a moon can be a passive satellite. Thus passive satellites are
relay stations in space. A passive satellite can be further subdivided into two types,
namely Natural satellites and artificial satellites. A moon is a natural satellite of earth.
But spherical balloon with metal coated plastic serve as artificial satellites.

Active satellites are complicated structures having processing equipment called

Transponder which is very vital for functioning of the satellite. These transponders
serve dual purpose i.e. provides amplification of the incoming signal and performs
the frequency translation of the incoming signal to avoid interference between the
two signals.

C.2 All about Satellite Communication

The term Satellite communication is very frequently used, but what is satellite
communication? It is simply the communication of the satellite in space with large
number of earth stations on the ground. Users are the ones who generate baseband
signals, which is processed at the earth station and then transmitted to the satellite
through dish antennas. Now the user is connected to the earth station via some
telephone switch or some dedicated link.

Figure: Satellite Communication System

The satellite receives the uplink frequency and the transponder present inside the
satellite does the processing function and frequency down conversion in order to
transmit the downlink signal at different frequency. The earth station then receives
the signal from the satellite through parabolic dish antenna and processes it to get
back the baseband signal. This baseband signal is then transmitted to the respective
user via dedicated link or other terrestrial system.

A satellite communication system operates and works in the millimeter and

microwave wave frequency bands from 1 GHz to 50 GHz. There are various frequency
bands utilized by satellites but the most recognized of them is the uplink frequency
of 6 GHz and the downlink frequency of 4 GHz. Actually the uplink frequency band is
5.725 to 7.075 GHz and the actual downlink frequency band is from 3.4 to 4.8 GHz.
The major components of a Satellite Communication system is spacecraft and one or
more earth stations.

C.3 The Exciting Components of Satellite (Subsystems)

Attitude & Orbit Control System: This subsystem comprises of rocket motors that
keeps the correct orientation of the satellite in space by moving it back to the correct
orbit. Various external forces cause to change the parking position of the satellite. The
primary factors are gravitational forces of sun, moon earth and also other planets of
solar system. Other factors include solar pressure on the antennas and solar sails,
which is present on the body of the satellite. All these factors are hugely responsible
for misbalancing of the satellite and also responsible for changing the parking
position of the satellite. Apart from this the earth’s magnetic field is also playing a
major role in changing the parking position of satellite. The earth’s magnetic field
generates eddy currents in the metallic structure of the satellite as the satellite moves
through the magnetic field. Thus the body of the satellite gets rotated called as wobble
of the satellite.

Remedy for Misbalancing of the Satellite (Station Keeping): It is a method of

periodically accelerating the satellite in the opposite direction against the forces
acting on the body of the satellite like gravitational forces, eddy currents etc. in order
to maintain the correct orientation of satellite in space and maintaining its orbit. The
two most common methods employed to keep the satellite stable in orbit are: spin
stabilization and three axes body stabilization.

TTC and M Subsystem: These subsystems are found partly on the satellite and partly
on the earth stations. Data obtained from the sensors present on the spacecraft are
sent by the Telemetry systems through telemetry link to the controlling earth
stations. The telemetry system monitors the condition of the spacecraft. Furthermore
the Tracking system is present on the earth station which is all concerned about
range, azimuth angles and elevation angles of the spacecraft by providing necessary
information on it. There are various techniques used for tracking of satellite:

1. Velocity and acceleration sensors on the satellite can be used to establish the
change in orbit.
2. Doppler shift of the telemetry carrier from the earth station or beacon transmitter
may be measured to determine the rate at which the range is changing.
3. Ranging tones may be used for range measurement.

Power Subsystem: This is required to run satellite’s housekeeping and

communication system. The block diagram of the power subsystem is shown below

Solar panels generate direct current which is used to operate different subsystems.
The batteries like Nickel-Cadmium batteries are charged by the DC power by
employing the battery chargers. The stabilized low voltage is supplied to power
various subsystems which are generated by the voltage regulator circuits. A dc to dc
converter circuit generates high voltage dc which is used for operating the traveling
wave tube amplifiers. Generation of ac from dc is done by dc to ac inverter circuits for
running ac devices.
Propulsion Subsystem: This subsystem can also be called as a reaction control
subsystem. It is carried by the satellite in the GEO orbit. Its dominant functions are:

• It helps the spacecraft to move to its assigned position in orbit and also helps to
maintain it in that position.
• It is also used to maintain the direction of spin axis attitude control against the
perturbation forces.

The main components of propulsion subsystem are: Low thrust actuators, High thrust
motors e.g.: apogee kick motor, Apogee boost motor and finally Perigee kick motor.
Low thrust actuators are further classified as Chemical thrusters and Electrical
thrusters. These thrusters are used for attitude and orbit corrections. Moreover the
Electric thrusters are mainly of two types:
1) Plasma Thrusters and
2) Ion Thrusters.

Spacecraft Antenna (Subsystem): Antenna subsystem is also an essential

component of satellite system. Basically four main type of antennas are used: these
are:

Figure: Spacecraft Antennas

 1) Monopoles and dipoles (wire antennas), which are mainly used in VHF and
UHF to provide communication for TTC and M subsystem.
2) Horn antennas are mainly used at microwave frequencies. Horns are actually
used as feeds for reflector.
3) Array antennas are actually phased array antennas which are used on
satellites to form multiple beams from single aperture.
4) Reflector antennas are commonly used for earth station antennas and the
most widely employed shape of it is the paraboloid with a feed placed at its
focus. The patterns for different satellite antennas are shown below:

C.4 The Key Electronic Equipment in a Satellite or Transponder

It is the key electronic component in a satellite. The transmitter receiver combination

in a satellite is known as a Transponder.

Transponder performs two major functions:

1) It provides amplification of the signal thus providing a gain of around 110dB.

2) It also does the frequency down conversion or frequency translation of the uplink
signal in order to avoid interference between the received and the transmitted
signal.

Types of Transponders:

1. Bend pipe type Transponder

2. Regenerative type Transponder.
Bend pipe type transponders are also called conventional type transponders:
Diplexer (acting as a two-way microwave gate) is the device which is responsible or
used by the satellite for both receiving the uplink signal and transmitting the
downlink signal. The frequency down conversion is done in the carrier processor.
Amplification of the weak received signal is done in the front end. The downlink
frequency is brought to a sufficient power level by amplification by the power
amplifier such as Traveling Wave tube. The carrier processing equipment determines
whether the transponder is of conventional or regenerative type.

Regenerative Transponders: The regenerative transponder is one where there is

provision for detection and demodulation process. The main advantages are: a) the
signal to noise ratio is improved, b) these are simpler and more flexible to implement
and c) at low baseband frequency the amplification is easier to obtain in case of
regenerative type.

C.5 Frequency Translation Schemes

A. For Conventional Transponders

A.1 RF-RF Translation

This is a single mixer system.

A.2 RF-IF-RF Translation Schemes

This is a double conversion scheme using a single stable oscillator. This kind of
translation scheme provides two advantages over RF-RF conversion scheme:

a) The process of carrier filtering is done at the IF band and

b) Before the return transmitted signal the uplink carriers can be easily removed.
B. For Regenerative Transponders

B.1 IF Re-modulation Scheme:

In this technique the uplink RF spectrum is first translated down to low IF band,
which is then modulated on to return RF.

B.2 Demodulation- Re-modulation Scheme:

The re-modulation removes the uplink noise and interference from return
modulation.

C.6 Satellite Launch Vehicles

Satellites are launched into its orbit by the satellite launch vehicles. These satellite
launch vehicles are basically multistage rockets. It is classified into:

Expendable Launch Vehicle, ELV (These vehicles get destroyed in space and it also
carries more than one satellite with it e.g. Arianne, Delta etc.) and

Reusable Launch Vehicle, RLV/Space Transportation System, STV (The vehicle

will return back to the earth after leaving the satellite in space. Thus they can be
reused again and again, e.g. Space shuttle)
D. GSM (Cellular Mobile Communication)

D.1 Introduction

- GSM was the world’s first digital cellular system (2G – Cellular System) in Europe
to specify the digital modulation and network level architectures and services.
- GSM was originally developed to serve as pan-European cellular service in 900MHz
(now also available in 1800MHz frequency band).
- GSM standard is set by ETSI – European Telecommunication Standards Institute.

D.2 Objectives

The design objectives of the GSM system can be briefly states as below:

• Excellent speech quality and High security and privacy

• Low module terminal cost and Low service and facilities cost
• Design of sleek and handled mobile terminals
• International roaming and Wide range of services and facilities
• Ability to adopt to new and innovative features
• Narrowband ISDN compatibility and High Spectral Efficiency
• Digital Radio

The digital radio uses the 900/1800 MHz band. The mobile terminal vary in power
class 20 watts to as low as 0.8 watts. A GSM cell can cover a maximum distance of up
to 30 kilo meters. The system can provide service to mobile customers traveling up
to a maximum speed of 250 Km/hr.

D.3 GSM Network Elements and Architecture

Mobile station distinctly include two entities: Mobile Terminal Equipment (MT) and
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). SIM is one of the most remarkable features of GSM,
which is a memory device that stores information such as subscriber’s identification
number, the networks and countries where the subscriber is entitled to service,
privacy keys and other user specific information. Another remarkable features of GSM
are ‘Global Roaming’ and ‘On-the-Air-Privacy’ which is provided by the system and
therefore it is virtually impossible to eavesdrop (listen without the speaker’s
knowledge) on GSM radio transmission.
GSM system architecture consists of three major interconnected subsystems. These
subsystems interact between themselves and with the users through certain network
interfaces.

Figure: GSM System Architecture

1. Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

BSS is also known as Radio Subsystem. It provides and manages radio
transmission paths between the mobile station (MS) and the Mobile Switching
Center (MSC). It consists of many Base Station Controllers (BSCs) which connect
the MS to the NSS via MSCs. Mobile handoffs (handover) between tow BTSs under
the control of the same BSC are handled by the BSC itself and not by the MSC
which reduce the switching burden to MSC.

2. Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS) and

NSS manages the switching functions of the system and allows the MSCs to
communicate with other networks such as the PSTN and ISDN. MSC is the central
unit in NSS and controls the traffic among all the BSCs. NSS includes three
different databases:
a) Home Location Register (HLR): Contains subscriber information and location
information for each user;
b) Visiting Location Register (VLR) – which temporarily stores the IMSI
(International Mobile Subscriber Identify) and customer information for each
roaming subscriber;
c) Authentication Center (AUC) – a strongly protected database which handles
the authentication and encryption keys for every single subscriber in HLR and
VLR. It contains a register called Equipment Identity Register (EIR) which
identifies stolen or fraudulently altered phones.
3. Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)
OSS supports the operation and maintenance of GSM and allows system
engineers to monitor, diagnose and troubleshoot all aspects of GSM system.

Besides, GSM includes Enhanced Service Subsystem (ESS) which includes:

Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) System – allows wireless access to Internet

sites from customer mobile handsets and manages telephony events.

Intelligent Network (IN) System – provides value added features such as Pre-Paid
Service (PPS), Free Phone Service (FPH), Premium Rate Service (PRM), Mobile
Virtual Private Network (MVPN), Universal Access Number (UAN) etc.

Content and Location Based Services (C&LBS) System and Unified Messaging
System (UMS) e.g. Voice Mail, Fax Mail, E-Mail, Visual Mail, Short Message Service
(SMS) etc.

While, Billing and Customer Care System (B&CCS) is responsible for obtaining the
call details of each of the customers from the HPLMN as well as from all VPLMNs for
raising the invoice. It incorporates a powerful and flexible rating engine that would
enable the service provider to offer innovative and competitive tariff packages. This
subsystem also incorporates a sophisticated printing subsystem for distributed
printing of the customer invoices.

D.3 GSM Interfaces

- Each BSC typically controls up to several hundred Base Transceiver Stations

(BTSs). The MS communicate with the BSS over the Radio-Air-Interface called Um-
Interface.

- The interface that connects a BTS to a BSC is called Abis-Interface, which carriers
traffic and maintenance data. In practice, Abis for each GSM BS manufacturer has a
subtle differences, and therefore, the service providers has to use the same
manufacturer for the BTS and BSC equipment.

- The BSCs are physically connected via dedicated/leased lines or microwave link to
the MSC and the interface between a BSC and a MS is called the A-Interface. This
allows a service provider to use the BSs and switching equipment made by
different manufacturers.
D.4 GSM Radio System

- GSM utilizes two bands (890-915 and 935 – 960) of 25 MHz band.
- The 890 – 915 MHz band is used for Subscriber-to-Base Transmissions (Reverse
Link/Uplink) and the 935 – 960 MHz band is used for Base-to-Subscriber
(Forward/Downlink)
- GSM use FDD (Frequency Division Duplexing) and combination of TDMA (Time
Division Multiple Access) and FHMA (Frequency Hopping Multiple Access)
schemes to provide base stations with simultaneous access to multiple users.
- The available forward and reverse frequency bands are divided into 200 KHz wide
channels called ARFCN (Absolute Radio Frequency Numbers).
- ARFCN denotes a forward and reverse channel pair which is separated in
frequency by 45 MHz
- Each of eight subscribers uses the same ARFCN and occupies a unique time slots
per frame.
- Radio transmission on both forward and reverse link are made at a channel data
rate of 270.833 kbps using GMSK Modulation.
E. Communication System in Nepal

In Nepal, operating any form of telecommunication service dates back to B.S. 1973.
But formally telecom service was provided mainly after the establishment of MOHAN
AKASHWANI in B.S. 2005.Later as per the plan formulated in First National Five year
plan (2012-2017), Telecommunication Department was established in B.S.2016. To
modernize the telecommunications services and to expand the services, during third
five-year plan (2023-2028), Telecommunication Department was converted into
Telecommunications Development Board in B.S.2026. After the enactment of
Communications Corporation Act 2028, it was formally established as a fully owned
Government Corporation called Nepal Telecommunications Corporation in B.S. 2032
for the purpose of providing telecommunications services. After serving the nation
for 29 years with great pride and a sense of accomplishment, Nepal
Telecommunication Corporation was transformed into Nepal Doorsanchar Company
Limited (NDCL) from Baisakh 1, 2061. Nepal Doorsanchar company Limited is a
company registered under the Company Act 2053. However, the company is known
to the general public by the brand name "Nepal Telecom" as its registered trademark.

Nepal Telecom has always put its endeavors in providing its valued customers a
quality service since its inception. To achieve this goal, technologies best meeting the
interest of its customers has always been selected. The nationwide reach of the
organization, from urban areas to the economically non- viable most remote
locations, is the result of all these efforts that makes this organization different from
others.

Definitely Nepal Telecom's widespread reach will assist in the socio-economic

development of the urban as well as rural areas, as telecommunications is one of the
most important infrastructures required for development. Accordingly, in the era of
globalization, it is felt that milestones and achievements of the past are not adequate
enough to catch up with the global trend in the development of telecommunication
sector and the growth of telecommunication services in the country will be guided by
technology, declining equipment prices, market growth due to increase in standard
of life and finally by healthy competition.

Converting Nepal Telecom from a government owned monopoly to a business

oriented, customer focused company in the competitive environment, Nepal Telecom
invites all the shareholders in the sacred work of nation building.