CHEM 15 CHAPTER 4-1

CHEM 15
Chapter 4 CHEMICAL BONDING

Chemical Bonding
How do atoms combine and what are the forces bind them? These questions are fundamental to
chemistry since chemical changes are essentially alterations of chemical bonds.

G.N. Lewis - Atoms interact to gain stability by changing the outermost (valence) configuration
so as to attain the electronic configuration of a noble gas.

Chemical bond - force that holds atoms together to form ionic or molecular compound.

Lewis Theory
1. Valence electrons play a fundamental role in chemical bonding. EXERCISE 4.1
2. Chemical bonding may result from: 1. Give the Lewis symbol for the following elements:
a. transfer of one/more electrons - formation of ions to form an ionic bond. a. Si d. Cl
b. sharing of electrons between atoms - to form a covalent bond. b. P e. K
c. Al
Octet rule - electrons are transferred or shared until each atom acquires an OCTET of outer shell 2. Give the Lewis structure of the following ions:
(valence) electrons. Atoms have the tendency to achieve an electronic configuration with eight a. calcium ion c. potassium ion
valence electrons since an octet of electrons consists of a full s and p subshells of an atom. b. sulfide ion d. nitride ion

Three general types of chemical bonds:

1. Ionic bond - refers to the electrostatic forces that exist between ions of opposite charges;
formed between a strong metal and a nonmetal.
2. Covalent bond - results from the sharing of electrons between atoms; formed usually
between nonmetals.
3. Metallic bond - force that holds several metallic atoms together; between identical metallic
atoms or different metals/alloys.
Lewis/Electron Dot Symbols - shows valence electrons of the atom. The symbol of the
element is surrounded by dots to represent the valence electrons. The dots are placed on the four
sides of the atomic symbol: the top, the bottom, and the left and right sides. Each side can
accommodate up to two electrons. All four sides of the symbol are equivalent; the placement of
electrons is arbitrary.
For main group elements: Group no. = No. of valence electrons
Valence electrons - electrons that reside in the incomplete outer shell of an atom. These are the
electrons that are involved in chemical bonding.
Lewis structures - a combination of Lewis symbols representing the transfer or sharing of
electrons in a chemical bond.
An important breakthrough to the understanding of chemical bonds was the discovery of the
noble gases. Since atoms of the noble gases were not known to form chemical bonds, they must
already have a stable arrangement of electrons. Except for helium, each of the noble gases
has ns2 np6 configuration in its valence shell. Hence, all other atoms must undergo bonding
by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons so as to acquire a noble gas electronic
configuration.
1. Ionic/electrovalent bond - involves complete transfer of electrons. This bond usually
involves metallic and nonmetallic elements where the metal loses electron(s) to form the
cation and nonmetal gain electron(s) to form the anion. The metal cation and nonmetal anion
formed are held by electrostatic attraction.
 CHEM 15 CHAPTER 4-2
The octet rule can be used to derive the formula of the ionic compound. For example, for EXERCISE 4.2
calcium chloride, Draw the process of ionic bonding for the ionic between:
1. Magnesium and sulfur
Cl 2. Barium and oxygen
- 3. Strontium and nitrogen compound formed
2+
Ca + Ca + 2 Cl
Cl
2. Covalent bond - formed between nonmetals or between metalloids resulting from the
sharing of electrons that lead to formation of molecules. The binding force results from the
Some properties of ionic compounds: attraction between the shared electrons and the positive nuclei of the atoms entering into a
1. Strong ionic bond  hard crystals  high melting point bond. The octet rule can also be used to write the Lewis structures for more complex
2. Ions form a geometric pattern compounds.
3. Ionic formula gives simplest ratio to form a neutral crystal (NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, etc.)
4. Good conductors of electricity when in solution - strong electrolytes The number of electrons to be added to the valence electrons so as to make it isoelectronic
with a noble gas is also equal to the number of bonds formed.
Lattice energy - energy required to completely separate a mole of a solid ionic compound into Covalency - number of covalent bonds formed.
gaseous ions. The greater the lattice energy, the more stable an ionic compound is.
Types of covalent bonds:
1. Single bond - formed when atoms share a single pair of electrons.
NaCl( s)  Na  ( g )  Cl  ( g ) H = + 788 kJ/mol e.g. H—H, Cl—Cl, H—Cl, C—C, P—Cl
2. Double bond - formed when atoms share two pairs of electrons.
Relationships: e.g. C=C, C=O
Ionic charge  Lattice energy As the charge of the ions increases, the lattice 3. Triple bond - formed when atoms share three pairs of electrons.
energy increases. e.g. CC, CN, NN
1
Ionic charge  As the charge of the ions increases, the radii Bonding electrons - electrons involved in covalent bond formation.
Radii of ions Nonbonding electrons (or lone pairs) - belong solely to an individual atom.
of the ions decrease.

The bond in CaO (+2 and –2) is stronger than that in NaCl (+1 and –1). This explains why
melting point of CaO (2927°C) much higher than that of NaCl (801°C).

Lewis structure writing for ionic compounds - shows the process of ionic bonding.
Guidelines:
1. Give the Lewis symbol for the metal(s) and the nonmetal(s).
2. Draw an arrow indicating the transfer of electrons from the metal (tail) to the nonmetal
(arrowhead).
3. After the reaction the metal losses all its valence electrons and gains a positive charge
(cation) depending on the number of electrons donated while the nonmetal gains the
electron(s) given up by the metal and gains a negative charge (anion). This is exhibited by
the full octet in the symbol of the anion.
4. Make sure that the equation is balanced in terms of mass (number of atoms) and charge.
Types of Covalent Bond
Electronegativity - the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons towards its nucleus.
Electronegativity decreases down a group and increases from left to right in a period. Fluorine is
the most electronegative element.
1. Polar covalent bond - results from the unequal sharing of electrons. It is formed when one
atom has greater electronegativity than another in a covalently bonded molecule.
Recall the trend in electronegativity, decreases within a group and increasing from left to
right. Among the nonmetals, the trend in increasing electronegativity is P < S < Br < N < Cl
< O < F.
 CHEM 15 CHAPTER 4-3
Consider the bond between H and F. Fluorine is more electronegative than H. Because the 1
electrons spend more time around F, they must spend less time around H. Hence, F gets a Relationships: No. of bonds 
partial negative charge (δ–) and H gets partial positive charge (δ+). Bond length
No. of bonds  Bond energy

No. of bonds  Bond strength

Other examples include HCl, OH, and PCl. Between NN, N=N, and NN, the trend in increasing
No. of bonds: NN < N=N < NN
Dipole moment,  - a measure of the degree of polarity of a molecule. Bond energy: NN < N=N < NN
Bond length: NN < N=N < NN
Relationships: Electronegativity difference  Dipole moment

Electronegativity difference  Bond polarity Lewis Structure Writing for Molecules

Guidelines:
For example, in arranging in order of increasing polarity of the nonmetal-hydrogen bond in 1. Count the total number of valence electrons present from atoms and from the charge if
SbH3, AsH3, PH3, NH3, we calculate the electronegativity difference between the elements polyatomic ion (add or subtract the number of electrons according to the charge).
involved from the given electronegativities of the elements: 2. Write the skeleton structure of the compound. Put the least electronegative atom as the
central atom and surround with other atoms. Hydrogen and fluorine always serve as
Electronegativity outer atoms.
Element Electronegativity Bond
difference 3. Connect all atoms by drawing single bonds between all atoms. Distribute the remaining
H 2.1 SbH 2.9 - 2.1 = 0.8 valence electrons as lone pairs around the outer atoms such that each has eight electrons.
Sb 2.9 AsH 2.1 - 2.0 = 0.1 Octet rule - atoms form bonds such that all atoms get eight electrons. An exception would
As 2.0 PH 2.1 - 2.1 = 0.0 be for that of hydrogen which can only have two electrons to fill the 1s orbital.
P 2.1 NH 3.0 - 2.1 = 0.9 4. If there are not enough electrons for each atom to have an octet, make double and/or triple
N 3.0 bonds between central and surrounding atoms except for fluorine which can only form a
single bond. Check that the total number of electrons satisfies the calculated total number of
From the calculated electronegativity difference, the order in increasing polarity would be PH3 valence electrons for the molecule/ion (that in no. 1).
< AsH3 < SbH3 < NH3. 5. For polyatomic ions, square brackets are drawn around the Lewis structure and the charge is
placed in the upper right hand corner.

2. Nonpolar covalent bond - results from the equal sharing of electrons. It is formed when
two atoms of the same electronegativity share electrons. A typical example of a nonpolar EXERCISE 4.3
covalent bond is a bond between two similar elements such as NN, CC, and SS. Also, Give the Lewis structure for the following compounds:
for those bonds where the electronegativity difference is zero such as PH. 1. H2O 5. HCN
2. O2 6. NO2-
3. NF3 7. SO42-
Bond energy - energy required to break a particular bond when the substance is in the gas 4. NH4+ 8. CO32-
phase. The value for the bond energy is always positive since it takes energy to break a bond.
It gives a quantitative measure of the bond strength (i.e. stability of molecule).
Formal charge - the charge of an atom assuming equal electronegativity. It represents the
Bond length - the distance between the centers of two bonded atoms. excess or deficiency of valence electrons of the bonded atoms as compared with the neutral atom.
It is a hypothetical charge an atom would have if bonding electrons are shared equally and lone
pairs belong solely to a single atom.
 CHEM 15 CHAPTER 4-4
Benzene consists of six carbon atoms in a hexagon with alternating single
and double bonds between the carbon atoms. The resonance structures for benzene as shown
below have single bonds between each pair of carbon atoms and six additional electrons are
delocalized over the entire ring.

FC = Group no. – Unshared electrons – Covalent bonds or

Note that the formal charge of all the atoms in a molecule/ion must add up to the charge of the
ion. Guidelines in the selection of important contributing structures:
1. The contributing structures must have the same atomic position.
The formal charge is also useful for deciding between possible Lewis structures. When several 2. The distribution of charges must be reasonable. Place positive charge in electropositive or less
Lewis structures are possible, the most stable one will be that in which the atoms bear the electronegative atom and negative charge in electronegative atom.
smallest formal charges, and any negative charges reside on the electronegative atoms. 3. The position of the charges must be reasonable.
 Adjacent like charges contribute to repulsion and are thus less favorable.
Exceptions to the Octet Rule  Adjacent opposite charges contribute to attraction and are thus more favorable.
1. 1s2 4. The greater the number of covalent bonds, the more important is the contributing structure.
2. Molecules with odd number of electrons (e.g. NO, NO2) 5. The lower energy or more favorable structure is the one where all atoms have zero formal
3. Molecules with less than an octet - atoms that participate in bonding but do not have enough charge.
valence electrons to form an octet (e.g. BF3)
4. Molecules with more than an octet: atoms in periods 3 to 7 with expanded d valence shells
(e.g. PCl5, SiF62-, POl3, SF6) EXERCISE 4.5
Since the second-period elements only have 2s and 2p valence orbitals available for bonding, Draw the resonance structures for the following:
and these orbitals can hold a maximum of eight electrons, the second-period elements can 1. NO3- 3. NO2
never have more than an octet of electrons. Elements in the 3rd to 7th period have unfilled 2. SO42- 4. SO3
nd orbitals that can be used in bonding.

EXERCISE 4.4 Theories of Covalent Bonding

Draw the Lewis structures of the following molecules: 1. Valence Bond Theory
1. BeCl2 4. XeF4 It tries to explain the bonding process - the merging of valence atomic orbitals to form an
2. BH3 5. NO2 overlap region. The overlap region can accommodate maximum of two electrons of opposite
3. PF5 6. I3- spins to form a covalent bond.

Resonance - blending of structures (contributing/canonical structures) that represent the real ion
or molecule. Compounds which can be represented by more than one Lewis structures exhibit
resonance particularly those with multiple or delocalized bonds. It averages the bond
characteristics over the entire molecule or ion and lowers the energy of the molecule or ion by an
amount called resonance energy.

Resonance structures are attempts to represent a real structure that is a mix between several
extreme possibilities. For example, in ozone the extreme possibilities have one double and one
single bond. The resonance has two identical bonds of identical character.

O O Figure 4.1 Covalent bonding through orbital overlap

O O
O O
 CHEM 15 CHAPTER 4-5
2. Hybridization - the process of mixing of atomic orbitals of the same atom to form b. sp2 hybrid orbital: Mixing one s and two p orbitals
degenerate orbitals (orbitals of the same energy) called hybrid orbital. The number of
hybrid orbitals formed is equal to the number of pure atomic orbitals that combine.

a. sp hybrid orbital: Mixing one s and one p orbital

Figure 4.2 Formation of sp hybrid orbital

Figure 4.3 Formation of sp2 hybrid orbital

Consider BeCl2, the ground state orbital diagram for Be is

Consider BF3, the ground state orbital diagram for B is

But indicates that Be does not form covalent bonds with Cl since Be’s electrons are already
paired. To be able to form two bonds, one of Be’s electrons must be promoted to 2p:
and promoting one of B’s 2s electrons to 2p gives

Now there are two Be electrons for bonding, but this indicates that the two Be–Cl bonds are
different since one forms from a 2s orbital and other from the 2p orbital. But experiments
indicate that the two Be–Cl bonds are equivalent. The 2s and 2p orbital hybridizes to
form two equivalent sp hybrid orbitals:
Now there are three B orbitals for bonding, but this indicates that two of the B–F bonds (from
2s) should be the same but one (from 2p) should be different. But experiments indicate that
the three B–F bonds are equivalent. The 2s and 2p orbital hybridizes to form three
equivalent sp2 hybrid orbitals:
 CHEM 15 CHAPTER 4-6
c. sp3 hybrid orbitals: Mixing one s and three p orbitals Table 4.1 Geometric arrangements of hybrid orbital sets

Figure 4.4 Formation of sp3 hybrid orbital

Guidelines in predicting the hybrid orbitals formed:
1. Draw Lewis structure to determine total number of bonds on central atom
Consider CH4.
2. Given the Lewis structure, we can determine what hybrid orbitals must be involved by
counting the number of bonds around each atom (counting multiple bonds as one) and
number of lone pairs.

d. sp3d hybrid orbitals: Mixing of one s orbital, three p orbitals, and one d orbital
e. sp3d2 hybrid orbital: Mixing of one s orbital, three p orbitals, and two d orbitals
 CHEM 15 CHAPTER 4-7
Number of bonds + Hybrid 3. AB4 - tetrahedral - maximum distance between electrons requires
Lone Pairs Orbitals 3D structure with each outer atom to be 109.5° from the other outer atoms (e.g. CH4).
2 sp
3 sp2 4. AB5 - trigonal bipyramidal
4 sp3 Trigonal - three outer atoms form planar triangle around central atom.
5 sp3d Bipyramidal - two outer atoms directly above and below central atom, connecting outer atom
6 sp3d2 forms two three-sided pyramids.

Positions:
EXERCISE 4.6 Equatorial positions - ends of planar triangle. Three of the outer atoms are at equatorial
What are the hybrid orbitals for the central atom in each of the following molecules? positions - 120° from each other.
1. PCl3 4. NH2- Axial positions - above and below central atom. Two atoms are at axial positions - 90°
2. IBr4 -
5. SCN- from equatorial atoms.
3. SeF4 6. SnCl5-
5. AB6 - octahedral - (octa = eight) connecting six atoms → eight faces
All outer atoms are 90° away from each other. The terms axial and equatorial do not apply
3. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory because all six positions are identical (e.g. SF6).
The best arrangement of a given number of electron pairs is the one that minimizes the
repulsion among them. The valence electron pairs (electron domains) surrounding an atom
repels one another so the orbitals containing those electrons are oriented as far apart as
possible.

Types of valence electron pairs: bonding pairs - shared electrons

nonbonding pairs - lone pairs

Types of electron repulsions: lone pair - lone pair (lp-lp)

lone pair - bonding pair (lp-bp)
bonding pair - bonding pair (bp-bp)

Order of increasing degree of repulsion: bp-bp < bp-lp < lp-lp

Molecules Where Central Atom Has No Lone Pairs

Electron domain - a region in which the electrons will most likely be found.
 Lone pair (nonbonding electrons) – electron domain located principally on one atom
 Bond pair - shared among bonded atoms

General formula: AB z where: A = central atom

B = outer atoms
z = 2 to 6

1. AB2 - linear - the two outer atoms are 180° from each other (e.g. HCN).

2. AB3 - trigonal planar - three outer atoms at the corners of an equilateral triangle, each
outer atom is 120° from the other two outer atoms (e.g. CH2O).
 CHEM 15 CHAPTER 4-8
Table 4.2 Electron pair geometries 1. AB2E - bent
Start with AB3 molecule (trigonal planar) and replace a B atom w/ lone pair, the bond angle is
now less than 120° (e.g. SO2).

2. Four electron domains

a. AB3E - trigonal pyramidal (central atom + 3 outer atoms make a pyramid)
Start with AB4 molecule (tetrahedral) and replace a B atom w/ lone pair, the bond angles are
now less than 109.5° (e.g. NH3)

b. AB2E2 - bent
Start with AB4 molecule (tetrahedral) and replace 2 B atoms with 2 lone pairs, the bond
angles are now less than 109.5° (e.g. H2O)

2. Five electron domains

a. AB4E - seesaw
Start with AB5 molecule and replace one X atom with one lone pair. The B atom can be taken
from an axial or an equatorial position:
 From axial position: The lone pair is 90° from three equatorial B atoms.
 From equatorial position: The lone pair is 90° from two axial and 120° from two other
equatorial B atoms.
Taking B atom from equatorial position is preferred since it maximizes space between
lone pair and B atoms. The bond angles are now less than 90° and less than 120° (e.g.
SF4).

b. AB3E2 - T-shaped
Start with AB5 molecule and replace two B atoms with two lone pairs. Both B atoms are taken
from equatorial positions to maximize distance between the lone pairs. The bond angles for
remaining atoms are now less than 90° (e.g. ClF3).

c. AB2E3 - linear
Start with AB5 molecule and replace three B atoms with three lone pairs. The first two B
atoms are taken from equatorial positions. The third B atom taken can be taken from either
equatorial or axial positions:
 From axial: The third lone pair would be 90° from other lone pairs.
 From equatorial: The third lone pair would be approximately 120° from other lone pairs.
Taking third B atom from equatorial position is therefore preferred to maximize space and
Molecules Where Central Atom Has One or More Lone Pairs the bond angle is now 180° (e.g. XeF2).
General formula: AB z En where: A = central atom
3. Six electron domains
B = outer atoms
a. AB5E - square pyramidal (central atom + 5 B atoms make 4-faced pyramid)
E = lone pairs
Start with AB6 (octahedral) and replace one B atom with one lone pair. Since all six outer
z = 2 to 6
positions are identical, doesn't matter which one you take. Remember that there are no axial
n = 1, 2, …
or equatorial positions for octahedral. The bond angles are now less than 90° (e.g. BrF5).
 CHEM 15 CHAPTER 4-9
b. AB4E2 - square planar (central atom + 4 B atoms form square all in 1 plane) Table 4.3 Continuation…
Start with AB6 (octahedral) and replace 2 B atoms with 2 lone pairs. Again, it doesn't matter
which B atom is taken first but the second B atom must be taken 180° away from it to
maximize space between lone pairs. The bond angles are now exactly 90° since lone pairs
balance each other (e.g. XeF4).

Table 4.3 Electron pair geometries and shapes

 CHEM 15 CHAPTER 4-10
Electron pair/electron domain geometry - arrangement of electrons pairs whether lone pair
or bonding pairs around the central atom.
Molecular geometry - arrangement of the atoms in space which may be predicted from the
electron pair geometry. It is the actual shape of the molecule. Any nonbonding pairs are not part
of the description of the molecular geometry.

Steps in determining the molecular geometry:

1. Write down the Lewis structure.
2. Count the total number of electron pairs (lone pair + bond pair) around the central atom.
Note that double bonds and triple bonds counted as one electron pair.
3. From this, determine the electron domain geometry.

No. of electron pairs

Electron domain geometry
(lp + bp)
2 Linear
3 Trigonal planar
4 Tetrahedral
5 Trigonal bipyramidal
6 Octahedral

4. If the central atom does not have a lone pair then the molecular geometry (shape) is the
same as the electron domain geometry. In the presence of lone pairs in the central atom,
substitute the lone pairs for bond pairs, imaginarily removing one bond per lone pair and
making certain that they are as far apart as possible.
5. After having been considered the position of the lone pairs, predict the shape of the molecule.
Refer to the figure as follows.

Figure 4.5 Summary of electron pair geometries and molecular shapes

Nonbonding electron pairs (lone pairs) and electrons in multiple bonds exert greater repulsive
forces on adjacent electron pairs and thus, they tend to compress the angles between bonding
pairs.
 CHEM 15 CHAPTER 4-11
Rules on electronic repulsion: 6. In octahedron, any lone pair occupies any position and the result is
1. Types of repulsion always square pyramidal geometry. However if two lone pairs are present, they must be
Bonding pair–bonding pair < lone pair–bonding pair < lone pair–lone pair opposite to each other resulting to a square planar geometry.

7. Multiple bonds do not affect the gross geometry of the molecule because the geometry is
primarily determined by the number of sigma bonds and lone pairs. Lone pairs occupy hybrid
orbitals while multiple bonds do not.

EXERCISE 4.7
For each of the following,
a. Draw the Lewis structure
b. Indicate the molecular geometry
c. Indicate the bond angles
1. PCl3 4. NH2-
Figure 4.6 Comparison between bonding and nonbonding electron domains
2. IBr4- 5. SCN-
3. SeF4 6. SnCl5-
A bonding pair of electrons is attracted by both nuclei of the bonded atoms. In contrast, a
nonbonding pair is attracted primarily by only one nucleus. Because a nonbonding pair
Geometry of Molecules with More than One Central Atom
experiences less nuclear attraction, its electron domain is spread out more in space than the
Overall geometry of entire molecule cannot be described instead describe shape around each
bonding pairs.
central atom in molecule
The H–X–H bond angle decreases from C to N to O:
Polarity of Polyatomic Molecules
H Recall that a polar covalent bond is a consequence of the unequal sharing of electrons. It results
from two bonded atoms with different electronegativities. Meanwhile, a nonpolar covalent bond is
H C H H N H O
H H H H a result of the equal sharing of electrons between bonded atoms which have the same
109.5O 107O 104.5O electronegativity.
For a molecule with more than two atoms, the dipole moment depends on both the polarities of
There is greater repulsion among lone pairs as the number of lone pairs in the central atom the individual atoms and the geometry of the molecule. Note that bond dipoles and dipole
increases. This results to a decrease in bond angle. moments at vector quantities, that is, they have both a magnitude and direction. The net dipole
moment of a polyatomic molecule is the sum of its bond dipoles.
2. The increasing size and lower electronegativity of the central atom permits the lone pairs to
be drawn out farther thus decreasing repulsion between bonding pairs. For example, in CO2, both C–O bonds are polar but the entire molecule is nonpolar. The two
In order of decreasing bond angle (decreasing electronic repulsion): H2O > H2S > H2Se bonds in CO2, although equal in magnitude, are exactly in opposite direction. Hence, the bond
dipoles “cancel” each other resulting to a net dipole of zero. On the other hand, in water, the
3. Repulsions exerted by bonding pairs decrease as the electronegativity of the bonded atom bond dipoles are also in equal magnitude but do not exactly oppose each other. Thus, it has a
increases. nonzero overall dipole moment and is therefore polar.
In order of decreasing bond angle (decreasing repulsion): H2O > F2O

4. Presence of multiple bonds increases repulsion between bonding pairs.

In order of decreasing bond angle: HC≡CH > H2C=CH2 > H3C–CH3

5. In trigonal bipyramidal, double bonds, lone pairs, and less electronegative atoms
prefer the equatorial position.

Figure 4.7 Overall dipole moments of carbon dioxide and water

 CHEM 15 CHAPTER 4-12
Molecules in which the central atom is symmetrically surrounded by identical atoms are nonpolar.
For ABz molecules in which all the B atoms are the same, certain symmetrical geometries - linear
(AB2), triognal planar (AB3), tetrahedral and square planar (AB4), trigonal bipyramidal (AB5), and
octahedral (AB6) - must lead to nonpolar molecules even though the individual bonds might be
polar.

4. Molecular Orbital Theory

It describes the electrons in a molecule by using specific wave functions called molecular
orbitals. Just as electrons in atoms are found in atomic orbitals, electrons in molecules are
found in molecular orbitals.

Properties of Molecular Orbitals

 It holds maximum of 2 electrons of opposite spins. Figure 4.9 Pi bond formed in ethylene
 It has definite or discrete energy states.
 The electron density distribution can be represented by contour diagrams (similar to atomic
orbitals - s, p, d, and f). Consider acetylene, C2H2, each carbon is sp hybridized and thus have linear electron pair
 Molecular orbitals are formed by the linear combination of atomic orbitals and the geometry. The sp hybrid orbitals form the C–C and C–H  bonds. The two unhybridized p
overlap results in the formation of sigma () and pi () bonds. orbitals form two  bonds.
Sigma bond - formed by the head-on overlap of atomic orbitals. The electron density is
centered about an imaginary line passing through the nuclei. Sigma bonds are free to rotate
about the axis.
Pi bond - formed from the sideways overlap of atomic orbitals. It concentrates electron
density on opposite sides of the line passing through the nuclei. The overlap region lies above
and below the internuclear axis. A pi bond can be formed only if unhybridized p orbitals
are present on the bonded atoms. It can introduce rigidity into the molecules (no free
rotation).

Figure 4.10 Formation of two pi bonds in acetylene

In the case of benzene, there are six C–C sigma bonds formed from the overlap of six sp2
hybridized carbons, six C–H sigma bonds, and six unhybridized p orbitals that lie
perpendicular to the plane of the molecule.

Figure 4.8 The pi bond

Consider ethylene, C2H4, it has one sigma and one pi bond. Both carbons are sp 2 hybridized
and have trigonal planar electron pair and molecular geometries.
 CHEM 15 CHAPTER 4-13
For example, for H2: 1s (H) + 1s (H) = 2 MOs

Figure 4.11 Delocalized pi bonding in benzene

Figure 4.12 Molecular orbitals from 1s orbitals

Types of Molecular Orbitals
a. Bonding molecular orbital - concentrates electron density between two nuclei. It has
lower energy and thus more stable.

b. Antibonding molecular orbital - characterized by a node(s) which are regions where

atomic orbitals tend to cancel each other.

Bonding electrons - occupy bonding molecular orbitals.

Antibonding electrons - occupy antibonding molecular orbitals.
Bond order - related to stability of covalent bond.

Bond order = ½ (bonding electrons - antibonding electrons)

BO = 1  1  bond  single bond

BO = 2  1  bond + 1  bond  double bond Figure 4.13 Molecular orbital diagrams for H2 and He2 molecules
BO = 3  1  bond + 2  bonds  triple bond
BO = 0  molecule does not exist

Guidelines:
1. No. of MOs formed = no. of AOs combined
2. AOs combine with AOs of the same energy
e.g. 2s combine with 2s
3. Increasing overlap results to: lower energy bonding MO
higher energy antibonding MO
4. Pauli’s exclusion principle - a maximum of two electrons of opposite spins can be
accommodated in each MO
5. Hund’s rule - maximum multiplicity
 CHEM 15 CHAPTER 4-14

Figure 4.15 Molecular orbital energy diagram for n = 2

As the atomic number decreases, it becomes more likely that a 2s orbital on one atom can
interact with the 2p orbital on the other. As the 2s-2p interaction increases, the 2s MO lowers in
energy and the 2p orbital increases in energy.
 For B2, C2 and N2 the 2p orbital is higher in energy than the 2p.
 For O2, F2 and Ne2 the 2p orbital is higher in energy than the 2p.

Figure 4.14 Molecular orbitals from 2p atomic orbitals

 CHEM 15 CHAPTER 4-15
EXERCISE 4.8
1. Write the molecular geometry of F2 and OF. Which, if any, of these molecules is
paramagnetic? Which should be more stable towards dissociation?
2. Deduce the bond order in each of the following:
c. CN+ c. CN-
d. CN d. NO

3. Consider the diatomic molecules of the second period Li2, Be2, B2, and C2. Which is/are likely
to exist?
4. Arrange the following in order of increasing property
a. Bond length N2+, N2, N2-
b. Paramagnetism B2, C2, N2, O2, F2
Figure 4.16 Energy bands in metals
Metallic Bonding
Metallic bond - electrons are relatively free to move throughout the three-dimensional structure.

Physical properties of metals:

 Luster
 High electrical conductivity
 High thermal/heat conductivity
 Malleability and ductility

Electron Sea Model for Metallic Bonding

In this model, the metal is pictured as an array of metal cations in a sea of electrons. Electrons
are confined to the metal by electrostatic attractions to the cations and they are uniformly
distributed throughout the structure.

Molecular Orbital Model for Metals - Band Theory
In a metal, the number of atomic orbitals that interact or overlap is very large. Thus, the number
of molecular orbitals is also very large. It is pictured to have an energy band - having numerous
and continuous tiny energy separation of between metal orbitals. Electrons available for metallic
bonding do not completely fill the available molecular orbitals. Hence, it is partially filled and the
electrons at the top require a little input to be promoted to still higher energy orbitals.
Figure 4.17 Energy bands of metallic conductors and insulators
According to the molecular orbital theory, metals are able to conduct electricity because there are
more molecular orbitals in the band than are necessary to accommodate the bonding electrons.
In metals, an excited electron may easily move to a nearby higher orbital. Meanwhile, the
bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals of insulators such as diamond, are separated by a
large energy gap so there are no nearby orbitals for the electrons to move to making diamond a
poor conductor of electricity.

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
1. Which specie has more than eight electrons around the central atom BF3, BF4-, or BrF3?

2. In drawing the Lewis structure for the following compounds, which one would have oxygen as
the central atom SO2, OF2, or SOCl2?
 CHEM 15 CHAPTER 4-16
3. Draw the Lewis structure for the following compounds. Evaluate the formal charges of each 10. For each of the following compounds, draw the Lewis structure,
atom in the structure. identify the shape of the molecule based on the VSEPR theory and indicate the relevant bond
a. NO2+ e. NO3- angles. From the structure, predict the polarity of the species.
b. C2N2 f. SiF6 a. ClF2- e. PCl4+
c. ClO2- g. O22- b. SO3 2-
f. SO3
d. H2SO4 (H is bonded to O) h. ClF3 c. BF4- g. NF3
d. XeF4 h. SiF4
4. Indicate whether the following phrase is associated with ionic, covalent, or metallic bond.
a. Bronze 11. Pick from each pair the one that will exhibit the given property to the greater extent.
b. Between atoms with large electronegativity difference a. Bond angle H3O+ H2O
c. Between nonmetals b. Polarity of the molecule BF3 NF3
d. Arranged in geometric patterns forming crystals c. Bond angle NH4+ NH3
e. Exists as molecules d. Bond angle sp sp3
f. Cations and anions e. Bond angle SF2 BF2
g. Metal and nonmetal f. Polarity of the molecule SF2 SO3
h. SO2 g. No. of H.O. on central atom TeCl4 XeF4
i. MgF2 h. Bond angle sp3d2 sp3
j. Between atoms with large ionization energies i. Bond strength C–O C–N
j. Paramagnetism OF+ OF
5. Pick from each pair the one that will exhibit the given property to a greater extent. k. Bond order N2 F2
a. Bond polarity N–H B–F l. Bond length O2 B2
b. Net number of lone pairs NH3 CH4 m. No. of sigma bonds C2H2 C2H4
c. Bond length Cl–F F–F n. No. of antibonding electrons He2 He2+
d. C–C bond energy C–C C=C o. Stability C2 C22-
e. Formal charge on N NH4+ NH3
f. Net number of lone pairs NH2- NH4+
g. Bond polarity H–Cl H–F
h. Bond length N–N N=N
i. Electronegativity O Cl
j. Formal charge on O H2O H3O+

6. For each of the following, predict the geometry and the polarity of the molecule:
a. PCl5 d. BCl3
b. H2Se e. H2O
c. CO

7. Predict the geometry of the following:

a. H3O+ c. ClO2-
b. NH4 +

8. Arrange BF3, H2S, and H2O in increasing dipole moment.

9. Deduce the hybridization of the central atom for each of the following molecules:
a. FClO c. SF5-
b. N2F2