Nurul Afifah

1811522020

BIOGRAPHY CLAUDE SHANNON

Claude Shannon, in full Claude Elwood Shannon, (born April 30,

1916, Petoskey, Michigan, U.S.—died February 24, 2001, Medford, Massachusetts), American
mathematician and electrical engineer who laid the theoretical foundations for digital
circuits and information theory, a mathematical communication model.

After graduating from the University of Michigan in 1936 with bachelor’s degrees

in mathematics and electrical engineering, Shannon obtained a research assistant’s position at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). There, among other duties, he worked with the
noted researcher Vannevar Bush, helping to set up differential equations on Bush’s differential
analyzer. A summer internship at American Telephone and Telegraph’s Bell
Laboratories in New York City in 1937 inspired much of Shannon’s subsequent research
interests. In 1940 he earned both a master’s degree in electrical engineering and a Ph.D. in
mathematics from MIT. He joined the mathematics department at Bell Labs in 1941, where he
first contributed to work on antiaircraft missile control systems. He remained affiliated with Bell
Labs until 1972. Shannon became a visiting professor at MIT in 1956, a permanent member of
the faculty in 1958, and professor emeritus in 1978.
Shannon’s master’s thesis, “A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits”
(1940), used Boolean algebra to establish the theoretical underpinnings of digital circuits.
Because digital circuits are fundamental to the operation of modern computers and
telecommunications equipment, this dissertation was called one of the most significant master’s
theses of the 20th century. In contrast, his doctoral thesis, “An Algebra for Theoretical Genetics”
(1940), was not as influential.
In 1948 Shannon published “A Mathematical Theory of Communication,” which built on
the foundations of other researchers at Bell Labs such as Harry Nyquist and R.V.L. Hartley.
Shannon’s paper, however, went far beyond the earlier work. It established the basic results
of information theory in such a complete form that his framework and terminology are still used.
(The paper appears to contain the first published use of the term bit to designate a single binary
digit.)
An important step taken by Shannon was to separate the technical problem of delivering a
message from the problem of understanding what a message means. This step permitted
engineers to focus on the message delivery system. Shannon concentrated on two key questions
in his 1948 paper: determining the most efficient encoding of a message using a given alphabet
in a noiseless environment, and understanding what additional steps need to be taken in the
presence of noise.
Shannon solved these problems successfully for a very abstract (hence widely applicable)
model of a communications system that includes both discrete (digital) and continuous (analog)
systems. In particular, he developed a measure of the efficiency of a communications system,
called the entropy(analogous to the thermodynamic concept of entropy, which measures the
amount of disorder in physical systems), that is computed on the basis of the statistical properties
of the message source.
 Shannon’s formulation of information theory was an immediate success with
communications engineers and continues to prove useful. It also inspired many attempts to apply
information theory in other areas, such as cognition, biology, linguistics, psychology, economics,
and physics. In fact, there was so much enthusiasm in this direction that in 1956 Shannon wrote a
paper, “The Bandwagon,” to moderate some overenthusiastic proponents.

Renowned for his eclectic interests and capabilities—including such activities as juggling

while riding a unicycle down the halls of Bell Labs—Shannon produced many provocative and
influential articles on information theory, cryptography, and chess-playing computers, as well as
designing various mechanical devices.
Nurul Afifah
1811522020

Mark Zuckerberg Biography

Mark Zuckerberg born on May 14, 1984, in White Plains, New York, Mark Zuckerberg
co-founded the social-networking website Facebook out of his college dorm room. He left
Harvard after his sophomore year to concentrate on the site, the user base of which has grown to
more than 2 billion people, making Zuckerberg a billionaire. The birth of Facebook was
portrayed in the 2010 film The Social Network.
Early Life, Mark Elliot Zuckerberg was born on May 14, 1984, in White Plains, New
York, into a comfortable, well-educated family, and raised in the nearby village of Dobbs Ferry.
His father, Edward Zuckerberg, ran a dental practice attached to the family's home. His mother,
Karen, worked as a psychiatrist before the birth of the couple's four children—Mark, Randi,
Donna and Arielle. Zuckerberg developed an interest in computers at an early age; when he was
about 12, he used Atari BASIC to create a messaging program he named "Zucknet." His father
used the program in his dental office, so that the receptionist could inform him of a new patient
without yelling across the room. The family also used Zucknet to communicate within the house.
Together with his friends, he also created computer games just for fun. "I had a bunch of friends
who were artists," he said. "They'd come over, draw stuff, and I'd build a game out of it." To
keep up with Mark's burgeoning interest in computers, his parents hired private computer tutor
David Newman to come to the house once a week and work with Mark. Newman later told
reporters that it was hard to stay ahead of the prodigy, who began taking graduate courses at
nearby Mercy College around this same time. Zuckerberg later studied at Phillips Exeter
Academy, an exclusive preparatory school in New Hampshire. There he showed talent in
fencing, becoming the captain of the school's team. He also excelled in literature, earning a
diploma in classics. Yet Zuckerberg remained fascinated by computers, and continued to work
on developing new programs. While still in high school, he created an early version of the music
software Pandora, which he called Synapse. Several companies—including AOL and Microsoft
—expressed an interest in buying the software, and hiring the teenager before graduation. He
declined the offers.
Time at Harvard, After graduating from Exeter in 2002, Zuckerberg enrolled at Harvard
University. By his sophomore year at the ivy league institution, he had developed a reputation as
the go-to software developer on campus. It was at that time that he built a program called
CourseMatch, which helped students choose their classes based on the course selections of other
users. He also invented Facemash, which compared the pictures of two students on campus and
allowed users to vote on which one was more attractive. The program became wildly popular,
but was later shut down by the school administration after it was deemed inappropriate. Based on
the buzz of his previous projects, three of his fellow students—Divya Narendra, and twins
Cameron and Tyler Winklevoss—sought him out to work on an idea for a social networking site
they called Harvard Connection. This site was designed to use information from Harvard's
student networks in order to create a dating site for the Harvard elite. Zuckerberg agreed to help
with the project, but soon dropped out to work on his own social networking site with friends
Dustin Moskovitz, Chris Hughes and Eduardo Saverin. Zuckerberg and his friends created a site
that allowed users to create their own profiles, upload photos, and communicate with other users.
The group ran the site—first called The Facebook—out of a dorm room at Harvard until June
2004. After his sophomore year, Zuckerberg dropped out of college to devote himself to
Facebook full time, moving the company to Palo Alto, California. By the end of 2004, Facebook
had 1 million users.
The Rise of Facebook. In 2005, Zuckerberg's enterprise received a huge boost from the venture
capital firm Accel Partners. Accel invested $12.7 million into the network, which at the time was
open only to ivy league students. Zuckerberg's company then granted access to other colleges,
high school and international schools, pushing the site's membership to more than 5.5 million
users by December 2005. The site then began attracting the interest of other companies, who
wanted to advertize with the popular social hub. Not wanting to sell out, Zuckerberg turned
down offers from companies such as Yahoo! and MTV Networks. Instead, he focused on
expanding the site, opening up his project to outside developers and adding more features.
Zuckerberg seemed to be going nowhere but up, however in 2006, the business mogul
faced his first big hurdle. The creators of Harvard Connection claimed that Zuckerberg stole their
idea, and insisted the software developer needed to pay for their business losses. Zuckerberg
maintained that the ideas were based on two very different types of social networks but, after
lawyers searched Zuckerberg's records, incriminating Instant Messages revealed that Zuckerberg
may have intentionally stolen the intellectual property of Harvard Connection and offered
Facebook users' private information to his friends.
Zuckerberg later apologized for the incriminating messages, saying he regretted them. "If
you're going to go on to build a service that is influential and that a lot of people rely on, then
you need to be mature, right?" he said in an interview with The New Yorker. "I think I've grown
and learned a lot." Although an initial settlement of $65 million was reached between the two
parties, the legal dispute over the matter continued well into 2011, after Narendra and the
Winklevosses claimed they were misled in regards to the value of their stock. Zuckerberg faced
yet another personal challenge when the 2009 book The Accidental Billionaires, by writer Ben
Mezrich, hit stores. Mezrich was heavily criticized for his re-telling of Zuckerberg's story, which
used invented scenes, re-imagined dialogue and fictional characters. Regardless of how true-to-
life the story was, Mezrich managed to sell the rights of the tale to screenwriter Aaron Sorkin,
and the critically acclaimed film The Social Network received eight Academy Award
nominations. Zuckerberg objected strongly to the film's narrative, and later told a reporter at The
New Yorker that many of the details in the film were inaccurate. For example, Zuckerberg had
been dating longtime girlfriend Priscilla Chan, a Chinese-American medical student he met at
Harvard, since 2003. He also said he never had interest in joining any of the final clubs. "It's
interesting what stuff they focused on getting right; like, every single shirt and fleece that I had
in that movie is actually a shirt or fleece that I own," Zuckerberg told a reporter at a start-up
conference in 2010. "So there's all this stuff that they got wrong and a bunch of random details
that they got right." Yet Zuckerberg and Facebook continued to succeed, in spite of the criticism.
Time magazine named him Person of the Year in 2010, and Vanity Fair placed him at the top of
their New Establishment list. Forbes also ranked Zuckerberg at No. 35—beating out Apple CEO
Steve Jobs—on its "400" list, estimating his net worth to be $6.9 billion.
Philanthropic Causes, Since amassing his sizeable fortune, Zuckerberg has used his millions to
fund a variety of philanthropic causes. The most notable examples came in 2010. In September
of that year, he donated $100 million to save the failing Newark Public Schools system in New
Jersey. Then, in December 2010, Zuckerberg signed the "Giving Pledge", promising to donate at
least 50 percent of his wealth to charity over the course of his lifetime. Other Giving Pledge
members include Bill Gates, Warren Buffett and George Lucas. After his donation, Zuckerberg
called on other young, wealthy entrepreneurs to follow suit. "With a generation of younger folks
who have thrived on the success of their companies, there is a big opportunity for many of us to
give back earlier in our lifetime and see the impact of our philanthropic efforts," he said.
Going Public. Zuckerberg made two major life changes in May 2012. Facebook had its initial
public offering, which raised $16 billion, making it the biggest internet IPO in history. How
Zuckerberg's company will handle this influx of cash remains to be seen. But Zuckerberg may be
looking at more acquisitions. He personally negotiated the company deal to buy Instragram the
previous month. After the initial success of the IPO, the Facebook stock price dropped somewhat
in the early days of trading, though Zuckerberg is expected to weather any ups and downs in his
company's market performance.
Family Life and Personal, On May 19, 2012—a day after the IPO—Zuckerberg wed his longtime
girlfriend, Priscilla Chan. About 100 people gathered at the couple's Palo Alto, California home.
The guests thought they were there to celebrate Chan's graduation from medical school, but
instead they witnessed Zuckerberg and Chan exchange vows. In May 2013, Facebook made the
Fortune 500 list for the first time—making Zuckerberg, at the age of 28, the youngest CEO on
the list.
In November 2015, Zuckerberg and Chan welcomed a daughter, Max, and Zuckerberg
announced he would be taking two months of paternity leave to spend with his family. He and
his wife also pledged in an open letter to their daughter that they would give 99 percent of their
Facebook shares to charity. "We are committed to doing our small part to help create this world
for all children," the couple wrote in the open letter that was posted on Zuckerberg's Facebook
page. "We will give 99% of our Facebook shares — currently about $45 billion — during our
lives to join many others in improving this world for the next generation."
In September 2016, Zuckerberg and Chan announced that the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative
(CZI), the company into which they put their Facebook shares, would invest at least $3 billion
into scientific research over the next decade to help “cure, prevent and manage all diseases in our
children's lifetime." Renowned neuroscientist Cori Bargmann of The Rockefeller University, was
named the president of science at CZI.
They also announced the founding of Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, a San Francisco-based
independent research center that will bring together engineers, computer scientists, biologists,
chemists and others in the scientific community. A partnership between Stanford University,
University of California, San Francisco, and University of California, Berkeley, Biohub will
receive initial funding of $600 million over 10 years. In March 2017, Zuckerberg and Chan
announced on Facebook that they were expecting their second child. Daughter August was born
on August 28. The CEO has undertaken a personal challenge at the start of every year since
2009, with previous efforts including learning to speak Mandarin and only eating meat he had
killed himself.
Fake News and Cambridge Analytica Scandal, After enduring criticism for the proliferation of
fake news posts on his site leading up to the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Zuckerberg in early
2018 announced his personal challenge to develop improved methods for defending Facebook
users from abuse and interference by nation-states. "We won't prevent all mistakes or abuse, but
we currently make too many errors enforcing our policies and preventing misuse of our tools,"
he wrote on his Facebook page. "If we're successful this year then we'll end 2018 on a much
better trajectory." However, Zuckerberg came under fire again a few months later when it was
revealed that Cambridge Analytica, a data firm with ties to President Donald Trump’s 2016
campaign, had used private information from approximately 87 million Facebook profiles
without the social network alerting its owners. The resulting outcry seemed to shake investors'
confidence in Facebook, its shares dropping by 15 percent after the news became public.
Following a few days' silence, Zuckerberg surfaced on various outlets to explain how the
company was taking steps to limit third-party developers' access to user information, and said he
would be happy to testify before Congress. On Sunday, March 25, Facebook took out full-page
ads in seven British and three American newpapers, penned in the form of a personal apology
from Zuckerberg. He promised the company would investigate all of its apps, and remind users
which ones they can shut off. "I’m sorry we didn’t do more at the time," he wrote. "I promise to
do better for you." Amid increasing calls for his resignation from investor groups, Zuckerberg
traveled to Capitol Hill and met with lawmakers ahead of his two-day testimony, scheduled for
April 10 and 11. The first day of hearings, with the Senate Commerce and Judiciary Committees,
was considered a tame affair, with some senators seemingly grasping to understand the business
model that powered the social media giant.
The follow-up hearing before House Energy and Commerce Committee proved far
testier, as its members grilled the Facebook CEO over privacy concerns. During the day's
testimony, Zuckerberg revealed that his personal information was among the data harvested by
Cambridge Analytica, and suggested that legal regulation of Facebook and other social media
companies was "inevitable." The negative PR seemingly did little to slow the company's
progress, as Facebook rebounded to see its stock close at a record $203.23 on July 6. The surge
bumped Zuckerberg past Berkshire Hathaway chief Warren Buffett to become the world's third-
richest person, behind fellow tech behemoths Jeff Bezos and Bill Gates. However, the gains were
wiped out when Facebook shares dropped a staggering 19 percent on July 26, following an
earnings report that revealed a failure to meet revenue expectations and slowing user growth,
erasing nearly $16 billion of Zuckerberg's personal fortune in one day.