* STATISTICS IS THE ART OF USING DATA TO MAKE NUMERICAL CONJECTURES

ABOUT PROBLEMS.

* STATISTICS IS A NUMERICAL INFORMATION EXPRESSED IN QUANTITATIVE

TERMS.THE INFORMATION MAY INCLUDE TO OBJECTS, SUBJECTS, ACTIVITIES,
PHENOMENON OR REGIONS OF SPACE.  THE SAID DATA HAVE NO LIMITS AS TO THEIR
REFERENCE, COVERAGE, AND SCOPE. AT THE MACRO LEVEL. EXAMPLES ARE DATA
ON GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT AND SHARES OF AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURING,
AND SERVICES IN GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP). EXAMPLES AT THE MICRO
LEVEL ARE , INDIVIDUAL FIRMS ( LARGE, MEDIUM OR SMALL ); ANNUAL REPORTS OF
COMPANIES CONTAINING FIELD DATA SUCH AS DATA PERTAINING ON SALES,
PRODUCTION , EXPENDITURES, INVENTORIES , CAPITAL EMPLOYED , AND OTHER
ACTIVITIES.

* IN THE PLURAL SENSE, STATISTICS REFERS TO THE SET OF FIGURES OR DATA . IN
THE SINGULAR SENSE, STATISTICS REFERS TO THE WHOLE BODY OF TOOLS THAT
ARE USED TO COLLECT DATA , ORGANIZE AND INTERPRET THEM , AND DRAW
CONCLUSION FROM THEM .

*   A. L. BOWLES :
    i)   STATISTICS IS THE SCIENCE OF COUNTING
   ii)  STATISTICS IS THE SCIENCE OF AVERAGES
 iii) STATISTICS IS THE SCIENCE OF MEASUREMENT OF SOCIAL ORGANISM
REGARDED AS A WHOLE IN ALL ITS MANIFESTATIONS

* BODDINGTON  :
    i)   STATISTICS IS THE SCIENCE OF ESTIMATES AND PROBABILITIES

*   W. I. KING
     i)   STATISTICS IS THE METHOD OF JUDGING COLLECTIVE, NATURAL, OR SOCIAL
PHENOMENA FROM THE RESULTS OBTAINED BY THE ANALYSIS OR ENUMERATION OR
COLLECTION OF ESTIMATES.

*   SELIGMAN
   i)    STATISTICS IS THE SCIENCE THAT DEALS WITH THE METHODS OF COLLECTING ,
CLASSIFYING , PRESENTING , COMPARING , AND INTERPRETING NUMERICAL DATA
COLLECTED TO THROW SOME CLARIFICATIONS ON ANY SPHERE OF INQUIRY.

*   SPIEGAL
   i)    STATISTICS IS CONCERNED WITH SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF COLLECTING ,
ORGANIZING , SUMMARIZING , PRESENTING, AND ANALYZING DATA AS WELL AS
DRAWING VALID CONCLUSIONS AND MAKING REASONABLE DECISIONS ON THE BASIS
OF THE CONDUCTED   ANALYSIS.

*   PROF.  HORACE  SECRIST

     i)    STATISTICS IS THE AGGREGATE OF FACTS , AFFECTED TO A MARKET EXTENT
BY MULTIPLICITY OF CAUSES , NUMERICALLY EXPRESSED , ENUMERATED , OR
ESTIMATED ACCORDING TO REASONABLE STANDARDS OF ACCURACY , COLLECTED
IN A SYSTEMATIC MANNER FOR A PRE-DETERMINED PURPOSE AND PLACED IN
RELATION TO EACH OTHER.

*    STATISTICS IS THE SCIENCE THAT DEALS WITH THE COLLECTION, TABULATION,

CLASSIFICATION , ORGANIZATION , CREATIVE PRESENTATION , ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION OF DATA.
 
***      MAJOR  CHARACTERISTICS   OF  STATISTICS  ***

1.    STATISTICS ARE THE AGGREGATE OF FACTS

        *   IT MEANS THAT A SINGLE FIGURE IS NOT STATISTICS
        *   EXAMPLE  :   NATIONAL INCOME OF A CERTAIN COUNTRY FOR A PARTICULAR
YEAR IS NOT STATISTICS IT IS MERELY A STATISTICAL DATA . ON THE OTHER HAND ,
NATIONAL INCOME OF A PARTICULAR COUNTRY IN 2 OR MORE YEARS IS STATISTICS .

2.     STATISTICS ARE AFFECTED BY A NUMBER OF FACTORS :

         *  EXAMPLE :   THE SALES OF A CERTAIN PRODUCT DEPENDS ON A NUMBER OF
FACTORS SUCH AS ITS PRICE, QUALITY , COMPETITION , INCOME OF CONSUMERS,
ECONOMIC CONDITION  , ETC. ...
3.     STATISTICS MUST BE REASONABLY ACCURATE 
         *   THUS, WRONG FIGURES OR INFORMATION IF ANALYZED WILL LEAD TO
ERRONEOUS CONCLUSIONS

4.     STATISTICS  MUST BE COLLECTED IN A SYSTEMATIC MANNER

         *    DATA COLLECTED HAPHAZARDLY WILL NOT BE RELIABLE AND WILL LEAD TO
MISLEADING CONCLUSIONS.

 5.     STATISTICS MUST BE COLLECTED IN A SYSTEMATIC MANNER   FOR A  PRE -

DETERMINED PURPOSE
        *  PRIOR TO GATHERING STATISTICAL DATA  THE PURPOSE MUST BE CLEARLY
DEFINED.

6.       STATISTICS SHOULD BE PLACED IN RELATION TO EACH OTHER.

        *   DATA  SHOULD BE COMPARABLE OVER TIME AND SPACE .
 
***   USES OF STATISTICS  ***

*     STATISTICS HELPS PEOPLE TO ANSWER QUESTIONS AND MAKE DECISIONS  :

1. EDUCATION :   ASSESS STUDENTS' PERFORMANCE AND CORRELATE FACTORS

AFFECTING TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESSES TO IMPROVE QUALITY OF
EDUCATION .

2.  PSYCHOLOGY :   IT IS USED TO DETERMINE ATTITUDINAL PATTERNS , THE CAUSES

AND EFFECTS OF MISBEHAVIOR

3.  BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS :   IT IS USED TO ANALYZE A WIDE RANGE OF DATA
LIKE SALES , OUTPUTS, PRICE INDICES, REVENUES , COSTS , INVENTORIES ,
ACCOUNTS , AND OTHERS , IN ORDER TO MONITOR STATUS OF CUSTOMERS ,
EMPLOYEES , ORDERS , AND PRODUCTION.

4. RESEARCH  AND  EXPERIMENTATION :  IT IS USED TO VALIDATE OR TEST A CLAIM

OR INFERENCES ABOUT A GROUP OF PEOPLE OR OBJECT , OR A SERIES OF EVENTS .

5.  MEDICINE :    IT IS USED TO COLLECT INFORMATION ABOUT PATIENTS AND

DISEASE AND TO MAKE DECISIONS ABOUT THE USE OF NEW DRUGS OR TREATMENT.

6.   METEOROLOGISTS :  IT IS USED TO FIND PATTERNS IN THE WEATHER AND MAKE

PREDICTIONS .

7.   DEMOGRAPHICS :   IT IS USED TO STUDY THE SIZE , VITAL CHARACTERISTICS OF

THE POPULATION AND HOW THEY CHANGE OVER TIME.

8.   MEDIA  :    NEWS REPORTS  AND INFORMATION  

 
****    IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICS  IN BUSINESS ****

1.    PLANNING OF OPERATIONS 

        * SPECIAL PROJECTS OR RECURRING ACTIVITIES

2.     SETTING UP OF STANDARDS

        *  SIZE OF EMPLOYMENT , VOLUME OF SALES , FIXATION OF QUALITY NORMS
FOR THE MANUFACTURED PRODUCT , NORMS FOR THE DAILY OUTPUT, ETC.

3.     FUNCTIONS OF CONTROL 

       *   COMPARISONS OF ACTUAL PRODUCTION ACHIEVED AGAINST THE NORM OR
TARGET SET EARLIER .

4.     ACCORDING TO  CROXTEN  AND COWDEN :

       *    PROJECT PLANNING
       *    BUDGETARY PLANNING AND CONTROL
       *    INVENTORY  PLANNING AND CONTROL
     *  QUALITY CONTROL
       *   MARKETING
      *    PRODUCTION
      *    PERSONNEL  ADMINISTRATION 
5.       ACCORDING TO  IRVING  W.  BURR  :
      *     CUSTOMER WANTS AND NEEDS
      *       MARKET RESEARCH
      *       DEVELOPMENT DESIGN AND SPECIFICATIONS
      *        PURCHASING
      *        PRODUCTION
      *        INSPECTION
      *        PACKAGING   AND SHIPPING
      *        SALES AND COMPLAINTS
      *        INVENTORY  AND  MAINTENANCE
      *       COSTS
      *        MANAGEMENT CONTROL
      *       INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING
      *        RESEARCH

******   MISUSES  OF  STATISTICS  ******

1.    SOURCES OF DATA NOT GIVEN
2.     DEFECTIVE DATA
3.      UNREPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE
4.      INADEQUATE SAMPLE
5.      UNFAIR  COMPARISON
6.      UNWANTED CONCLUSION
7.      CONFUSION OF CORRELATION  AND  CAUSATION
 
*******     LIMITATIONS  OF STATISTICS   ****

1.       THE PHENOMENA OR CONCEPTS ARE NOT AMENABLE TO MEASUREMENT

2.       STATISTICS REVEAL THE AVERAGE BEHAVIOR , THE NORMAL OR GENERAL

TREND , AN APPLICATION OF THE " AVERAGE " CONCEPT IF APPLIED TO AN
INDIVIDUAL OR A PARTICULAR SITUATION MAY LEAD TO A WRONG CONCLUSION AND
MAY EVEN BE DISASTROUS.

3.         STATISTICS ARE COLLECTED FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE , SUCH DATA MAY
NOT BE RELEVANT OR USEFUL IN OTHER SITUATIONS OR CASES

4.         STATISTICS ARE NOT 100% PRECISE AS IN MATHEMATICS OR ACCOUNTING.

5.      IN STATISTICAL SURVEY, SAMPLING IS GENERALLY USED AS IT IS NOT

PHYSICALLY POSSIBLE TO COVER ALL THE UNITS OR ELEMENTS COMPRISING THE
UNIVERSE . THE RESULTS MAY NOT BE APPROPRIATE AS FAR AS THE UNIVERSE IS
CONCERNED.

6.      ASSOCIATION OR RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO OR MORE VARIABLES IS

STUDIED IN STATISTICS , BUT SUCH A RELATIONSHIP DOES NOT INDICATE CAUSE
AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIP.  IT SIMPLY SHOWS THE SIMILARITY OR DISSIMILARITY IN
THE MOVEMENT OF THE TWO VARIABLES .

7.        IT DOES NOT REVEAL ALL PERTAINING TO A CERTAIN PHENOMENA .

 
******     SCOPE OF  STATISTICS  ********

1.       IT OFTEN BECOMES NECESSARY TO EXAMINE HOW TO PAIRED DATA SETA ARE
RELATED.

2.       SITUATIONS OCCUR QUITE OFTEN WHEN AVERAGING ( TOTALLING ) OF DATA IS

REQUIRED ON PRICES AND/ OR QUANTITIES EXPRESSED IN DIFFERENT  UNITS OF
MEASUREMENT .

3.       IT IS NECESSARY TO EXAMINE THE PAST PERFORMANCES OF AN ACTIVITY

WITH A VIEW IN DETERMINING ITS FUTURE BEHAVIOR.

4.      IT IS NECESSARY TO OBTAIN THE MOST LIKELY FUTURE ESTIMATION ON ANY

ASPECT/S RELATING TO A BUSINESS OR ECONOMIC ACTIVITY .
 
 *****     FIELDS  OF  STATISTICS    ****

1.    DESCRIPTIVE  STATISTICS   REFERS TO COLLECTING , TABULATING ,

CLASSIFYING , ORGANIZING , PRESENTING, ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING DATA.

2.    INFERENTIAL  STATISTICS  ALSO KNOWN AS INDUCTIVE STATISTICS . IT DRAWS

INFERENCES OR MAKING BROAD GENERALIZATION . IT ALSO REFERS TO ANALYZING
OR COMPARING AND INTERPRETING DATA .
 
********     CONSTANTS   AND  VARIABLES  ****

*      CONSTANTS REFER TO THE FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES THAT DO NOT CHANGE

IN VALUE.

*       VARIABLES  ARE QUANTITIES THAT MAY TAKE ANYONE OF A SPECIFIED SET OF

VALUES. IT ALSO REFER TO ANY OBSERVABLE CHARACTERISTICS OR ATTRIBUTES
OF A GROUP   OF OBJECTS , INDIVIDUALS OR EVENTS

***    CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES  ****

1. QUALITATIVE  ( CATEGORICAL )  VARIABLES :  IT REFERS TO NON MEASURABLE

CHARACTERISTICS THAT CAN NOT ASSUME  A NUMERICAL VALUE BUT CAN BE
CLASSIFIED INTO TWO OR MORE CATEGORIES .   IT REFERS TO QUALITATIVE
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SUBJECT OR AN OBJECT . A CHARACTERISTIC IS
QUALITATIVE IN NATURE WHEN ITS OBSERVATIONS ARE DEFINED AND NOTED IN
TERMS OF THE PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF A CERTAIN ATTRIBUTE IN DISCRETE
NUMBERS .     
**   TYPES OF QUALITATIVE DATA  **

         A)   NOMINAL DATA ARE THE OUTCOME OF CLASSIFICATION  INTO TWO OR

MORE CATEGORIES OF ITEMS OR UNITS COMPARING A SAMPLE OR POPULATION
ACCORDING TO SOME QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS.
                    EXAMPLES :    GENDER, LEVELS OF EDUCATION , CLASSIFICATION OF
WORKERS,  ETC.

             B)    RANK DATA   ARE THE RESULT OF ASSIGNING RANKS TO SPECIFY ORDER
IN TERMS OF INTEGERS  1, 2, 3, ... N . IT IS  ALSO REFERRED TO AS ORDINAL DATA.
                    EXAMPLES :  LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE, RANKING OF CANDIDATES ,
SEQUENCE OF APPEARANCE IN A PARTICULAR SHOW , ETC.

2. QUANTITATIVE ( NUMERICAL ) VARIABLES  ARE THOSE THAT CAN BE QUANTIFIED

IN DEFINITE UNITS OF MEASUREMENT .

***  TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE DATA  ***

          A)   CONTINUOUS VARIABLE  IS THE ONE THAT CAN ASSUME ANY VALUE
BETWEEN TWO POINTS ON A LINE SEGMENT , THUS REPRESENTING ON INTERVAL
VALUES .
         *    CONTINUOUS DATA REPRESENTS THE NUMERICAL VALUE OF A CONTINUOUS
VARIABLE.
             EXAMPLES :    WEIGHT , LENGTH, HEIGHT , THICKNESS , VELOCITY ,
TEMPERATURE , STRENGTH , ETC.

            B)     DISCRETE VARIABLE  IS THE ONE WHOSE OUTCOMES  ARE MEASURED

IN FIXED NUMBERS .
           *  DISCRETE DATA ARE THE VALUES ASSUMED BY A DISCRETE VARIABLE.
                  EXAMPLES :   NUMBER OF CUSTOMERS VISITING A DEPARTMENT STORE
EVERYDAY , INCOMING FLIGHTS AT AN AIRPORT, DEFECTIVE ITEMS IN A
CONSIGNMENT RECEIVED FOR SALE , ETC.
 
**   INDEPENDENT/ ENDOGENOUS  VARIABLES  AND   DEPENDENT / EXOGENOUS
VARIABLES  REFER TO VARIABLES HAVING CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS.
 
*****  DATA  AND INFORMATION  ****
*      DATA REFERS TO AN ACTIVITY OF INTEREST , A PHENOMENON , OR A  PROBLEM
SITUATION UNDER STUDY.

*       INFORMATION   REFERS TO PROCESSED DATA .

 

******   SOURCES OF DATA  ****

1.  PRIMARY DATA    REFERS TO FIRST HAND COLLECTION OR OBSERVATION

2.  SECONDARY DATA    REFERS TO DATA TAKEN FROM ANOTHER SOURCE WHICH
MAY BE PUBLISHED OR UNPUBLISHED.
 
*****    SCALES OF MEASURING DATA  ****
1.       NOMINAL SCALE
2.       ORDINAL SCALE
3.       INTERVAL SCALE
4.      RATIO SCALE
 
****  METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA  ****
1.       SURVEY METHOD
                *   DIRECT OR INTERVIEW METHOD
               *    INDIRECT  OR QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
2.       REGISTRATION METHOD
3.       OBSERVATION METHOD
4.       EXPERIMENTATION
5.       CENSUS
6.       MEASUREMENTS
7.       MEDIA
           *   BROADCAST
          *     WRITTEN
8.       DIARY METHOD
9.       CONTENT ANALYSIS
10.     BUSINESS RESEARCH
11.     GROUNDED THEORY 
12.    CASE STUDY METHOD
 
****   POPULATION , SAMPLE  AND CENSUS   ****

*POPULATION OR UNIVERSE   REFERS TO THE TOTALITY OF OBSERVATIONS ABOUT

WHICH AN INFERENCE MAYBE DRAWN OR A GENERALIZATION BE MADE 

*SAMPLE  REFERS TO THE PART OF TOTALITY WHICH IS OBSERVED FOR DATA

COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS TO GAIN KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE POPULATION.

*CENSUS REFERS TO THE TOTAL COVERAGE OF THE DESIRED INFORMATION ABOUT

A GIVEN POPULATION OF INTEREST.
 
****** SAMPLING IS BETTER THAN POPULATION  BECAUSE  :  *******
1.       CHEAPER
2.       SAVES  TIME
3.      COVERS  WIDER  AREA
4.       MORE ACCURATE
 
*******    SLOVEN'S FORMULA IN DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE   ******
                              n  =  N/ ( 1 + Ne^2 )
                  * NOTE :  THE MARGIN OF ERROR e , COULD RANGE BETWEEN  1%  AND 
10%  DEPENDING ON THE DESIRE OR INTENTION OF THE RESEARCHER .
 
***************     TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES  ***********

1.         RANDOM SAMPLING     THE MOST COMMONLY USED SAMPLING TECHNIQUE IN

WHICH EACH MEMBER IN THE POPULATION IS GIVEN AN EQUAL CHANCE OF BEING
SELECTED IN THE SAMPLE .

2.        NON - RANDOM  SAMPLING  IS A METHOD OF COLLECTING A SMALL PORTION

OF THE POPULATION BY WHICH NOT ALL THE MEMBERS IN THE POPULATION ARE
GIVEN THE CHANCE TO BE INCLUDED IN THE SAMPLE .
 
*********    PROPERTIES  OF RANDOM SAMPLING  *****
1.       EQUIPROBABILITY     MEANS THAT EACH MEMBER OF THE POPULATION HAS AN
EQUAL CHANCE OF BEING SELECTED AND INCLUDED IN THE SAMPLE .

2.       INDEPENDENCE     MEANS THAT THE CHANCE OF ONE MEMBER BEING DRAWN
DOES NOT AFFECT THE CHANCE OF THE OTHER MEMBER .
 
***********     TWO KINDS  OF RANDOM SAMPLING  TECHNIQUE  ******

1.          RESTRICTED RANDOM SAMPLING     INVOLVES CERTAIN RESTRICTIONS

INTENDED TO IMPROVE THE VALIDITY OF THE SAMPLING.

2.          UNRESTRICTED RANDOM  SAMPLING  IS CONSIDERED THE BEST RANDOM

SAMPLING DESIGN BECAUSE THERE WERE NO RESTRICTIONS IMPOSED AND EVERY
MEMBER IN THE POPULATION HAS AN EQUAL CHANCE OF BEING INCLUDED IN THE 
SAMPLE.
 
*********   RANDOM SAMPLING TECHNIQUES  *********
1.       LOTTERY  OR FISHBOWL SAMPLING
2.       SAMPLING WITH THE USE OF TABLE OF RANDOM NUMBERS
3.       SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
4.       STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
            *  SIMPLE STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
            *   STRATIFIED PROPORTIONAL RANDOM SAMPLING 
5.       MULTI - STAGE  OR MULTIPLE SAMPLING
 
***************     NON - RANDOM SAMPLING  TECHNIQUES   ************
1.       JUDGEMENT  OR  PURPOSIVE  SAMPLING
2.       QUOTA  SAMPLING
3.       CLUSTER SAMPLING
4.       INCIDENTAL  SAMPLING
5.      CONVENIENCE  SAMPLING
 
******    TYPES OF  QUESTIONNAIRE   *******

1.    STRUCTURED    THE WORDINGS AND ORDER OF QUESTIONS ARE UNIFORM FOR
ALL RESPONDENTS .

2.    UNSTRUCTURED    THE WORDINGS AND ORDER OF QUESTIONS CAN VARY FOR
DIFFERENT 
SUBJECTS; USUALLY USED FOR QUALITATIVE STUDIES LIKE CASE STUDIES , ETC.
 
***********   TYPES OF QUESTIONS  ******

1.    CLOSED - ENDED  QUESTION   RESPONDENT SELECTS ONE OR MORE OF THE

SPECIFIC CATEGORIES PROVIDED BY THE RESEARCHER .

2.    OPEN - ENDED  QUESTION   RESPONSE CATEGORIES ARE NOT SPECIFIED ; THE
RESPONDENTS ARE FREE TO ANSWERS AS THEY PLEASE .
 
**********  ADVANTAGE  OF CLOSED - ENDED QUESTIONS  ******

1.     THE ANSWERS ARE STANDARD , AND CAN BE COMPARED FROM PERSON TO
PERSON

2.      THE ANSWERS ARE MUCH EASIER TO CODE AND ANALYZE , AND OFTEN CAN BE
CODED DIRECTLY FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE.

3.      A RESPONDENT WHO IS UNSURE ABOUT THE MEANING OF THE QUESTION CAN
OFTEN TELL FROM THE ANSWER CATEGORIES WHAT IS EXPECTED ( SELF -
ADMINISTERED )

4.      IRRELEVANT RESPONSES ARE AVOIDED.

 
***********    DISADVANTAGES OF  CLOSED - ENDED  QUESTIONS  ********

1.    RESULTS ARE BIASED AGAINST ANY CATEGORY THAT WAS NOT INCLUDED IN
THE LIST OF POSSIBLE RESPONSES.
2.       IT IS VERY EASY FOR A RESPONDENT WHO DOES NOT KNOW THE ANSWER OR
HAS NO OPINION TO TRY TO GUESS THE APPROPRIATE ANSWER OR EVEN TO
ANSWER RANDOMLY

3.    THE RESPONDENT MAY FEEL FRUSTRATED BECAUSE THE APPROPRIATE

CATEGORY FOR HIS ANSWER IS NOT PROVIDE AT ALL OR IS NOT PROVIDED IN
SUFFICIENT DETAIL.

4.  VARIATIONS IN ANSWERS AMONG THE DIFFERENT RESPONDENTS MAY BE

ELIMINATED BY FORCED - CHOICE RESPONSES. 

****************     ADVANTAGES OF  OPEN - ENDED  QUESTIONS   ********

1.       THEY CAN BE USED WHEN ALL OF THE POSSIBLE ANSWER CATEGORIES ARE
NOT KNOWN , OR WHEN THE INVESTIGATOR WISHES TO SEE WHAT THE
RESPONDENT VIEWS AS APPROPRIATE ANSWER CATEGORIES

2,       THEY ALLOW THE RESPONDENT TO ANSWER ADEQUATELY , IN ALL DETAILS HE

LIKES ,M AND TO QUALIFY AND CLARIFY HIS ANSWER.

3.     THEY CAN BE USED WHEN THERE ARE TOO MANY POTENTIAL ANSWER
CATEGORIES TO LIST ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE

4.      THEY ALLOW MORE OPPORTUNITY  FOR CREATIVITY AND SELF - EXPRESSION
BY THE RESPONDENT.
 
*************     DISADVANTAGES OF OPEN - ENDED  QUESTIONS  *****

1.  THEY MAY LEAD TO COLLECTION OF WORTHLESS AND IRRELEVANT

INFORMATION.

2.       CODING IS OFTEN  VERY DIFFICULT AND SUBJECTIVE  , LEADING TO LOW -

INTER - CODER RELIABILITY

3.     OPEN - ENDED QUESTIONS REQUIRE SUPERIOR WRITING SKILLS , BETTER

ABILITY TO EXPRESS ONE'S FEELINGS VERBALLY , AND GENERALLY A HIGHER
EDUCATIONAL LEVEL THAN THOSE OF CLOSED - ENDED QUESTIONS.

4.        OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS REQUIRE MUCH MORE OF THE RESPONDENT'S TIME
AND EFFORT , AND MAY INVITE A HIGH REFUSAL RATE .
 
*****************   PITFALLS  IN  QUESTION   CONSTRUCTION  **************
1.       INCORRECT  ORDERING OF QUESTIONS
2.       DOUBLE - BARRELED  QUESTIONS
3.       SENSITIVE  OR THREATENING QUESTIONS
4.       UNREALISTIC QUESTIONS 
5.       INCOMPLETE/ NON - EXHAUSTIVE LISTING
6.      BIASED WORDING
7.       LEADING QUESTIONS
8.      VAGUE   QUESTIONS
9.       HYPOTHETICAL QUESTIONS