BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY

Dr. Shibani Khanra Jha

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
INTRODUCTION
• Boundary layer is formed due to the difference between the velocity of the
flowing fluid and that of the solid boundary.
• When a fluid flows past a solid boundary, a layer of fluid which is in
contact with the boundary surface adheres to it on the account of viscosity.
• As this layer of fluid cannot slip away from the boundary surface, it has the
same velocity as that of the boundary. There is hence, no relative motion
between the fluid and boundary and this condition is called as no slip
condition.
• If the boundary is stationary, the fluid velocity at the surface is zero and
hence the layer of fluid undergoes retardation causing the adjacent layers to
retard.
• This way it develops a small region in the immediate vicinity of the
boundary surface, in which the velocity of the flowing fluid increases from
zero at the boundary surface to velocity of the main stream.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
• This small region is known as Boundary Layer , where in the variation of
velocity is large in a relatively smaller distance resulting in a large velocity
𝜕𝑣
gradient ( ) normal to the boundary surface. There fore, the fluid in this
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣
region has small viscosity and the corresponding shear stress τ = μ is
𝜕𝑦
of appreciable magnitude.
• In the layers away from the boundary this retardation due to viscosity is
negligible and hence velocity will be equal to the that of main stream.
• The flow may thus be considered to have two regions, one close to the
boundary in which viscous forces are produced and the other where viscous
forces are negligible.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

THICKNESS OF BOUNDARY LAYER
The velocity within the boundary layer increases from 0 to 99% of the main
stream velocity, asymptotically.
Thickness of the boundary layer ‘δ’ may thus be considered approximately
equal to the distance ‘y’ from the boundary surface at which the velocity
v = 0.99𝑉.
For greater accuracy the boundary layer thickness is defined in terms of certain
mathematical expressions, commonly known as
1. Displacement Thickness δ*
2. Momentum Thickness θ
3. Energy Thickness δE

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Displacement thickness

It is defined as the distance by which the

boundary surface would have to be
displaced outwards, as shown in the
figure, so that the total actual discharge
would be same as that of an ideal
(frictionless) fluid past the displaced
boundary.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Momentum thickness

• The retardation of flow due to viscosity in the boundary layer

causes reduction in the momentum flux.
• This thickness is hence defined as the distance from the actual
boundary surface such that the momentum flux corresponding to the
main stream velocity 𝑉 through this distance θ equals to the
deficiency or loss in momentum due to boundary layer formation.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Energy Thickness

• The retardation of flow due to viscosity in the boundary layer

causes reduction in the flux of Energy.
• This thickness is hence defined as the distance from the actual
boundary surface such that the energy flux corresponding to the
main stream velocity 𝑉 through this distance δ𝐸 equals to the
deficiency or loss of energy due to the boundary layer formation.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Boundary layer along a long thin plate

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• A long thin plate is held stationary in the direction parallel to the flow with
zero incidence to the velocity of flow.
• This velocity of flow is known as Free stream velocity or Ambient
velocity or Potential velocity
• At the leading edge of the plate the boundary layer thickness is zero.
• On the downstream, for the fluid in contact with the boundary, the velocity
of flow is reduced to zero.
• At a distance δ from the boundary the velocity is nearly V, due to this
velocity gradient is set up, shear resistance to the flow is developed which
retards the motion of the fluid.
• Therefore thickness of the boundary layer goes on increasing in the
downstream direction.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Characteristics of boundary layer

1. The boundary layer thickness increases as the distance from the leading edge increases.
2. The boundary layer thickness decreases with the increase in the velocity of flow.
3. Greater is the Kinematic Viscosity of the fluid, greater is the boundary layer thickness.
4. The boundary layer thickness is considerably affected by the Pressure Gradient in the
direction of flow.
𝜕𝑝
5. If the flat plate is placed in a stream of uniform velocity then Pressure Gradient, 𝜕𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑝
6. If 𝜕𝑥 < 0, then flow is converging . The resulting pressure force acts in the direction of
flow and it accelerates the fluid and retards the growth in the boundary layer.
𝜕𝑝
7. If > 0, then flow is diverging. The fluid in the boundary layer is further decelerated
𝜕𝑥
and assists in thickening of the layer.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• As the boundary layer develops, upto a certain portion of the plate from the
leading edge, the flow in the boundary layer exhibits all characteristics of a
laminar flow, irrespective of whether the flow of incoming stream is
laminar or turbulent. This is called Laminar Boundary Layer. The
velocity distribution in this layer is parabolic.
(𝑽 − 𝒗) ~ (δ − 𝒚)𝟐
• If the plate is sufficiently long, after a point, the laminar boundary layer
becomes unstable and the flow exhibits characteristics between those of
laminar and turbulent flows and hence called transition region.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• Beyond this region the flow becomes turbulent with rapid increase in
thickness of the layer, resulting in the formation of Turbulent boundary
layer. The velocity distribution in this layer is approximately either One
seventh power law (𝑣~𝑦1/7 ) or it is logarithmic (𝑣~𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦)
• If the plate is very smooth, there is a very thin layer adjacent to the
turbulent boundary layer, with laminar flow characteristics. This layer is
called Laminar sublayer (𝜹′ ) . Velocity distribution may be assumed
linear in this case.
• Reynolds number 𝑹𝒆𝒙 indicates the change of boundary layer from
laminar (𝑅𝑒𝑥 = 3 x 105 ) to turbulent (𝑅𝑒𝑥 = 6 x 105 ) . It is calculated with
distance 𝑥 as the characteristic length.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 𝝆𝑽𝒙
𝑹𝒆𝒙 =
𝝁
• Mass density of fluid = ρ
• Velocity of flow of approaching stream of fluid = 𝑉
• Length measured along the plate from the leading edge = 𝑥
• Dynamic viscosity of the fluid = μ
If the approaching flow is free from any disturbances, then 𝑅𝑒𝑥 > 106
Roughness of the plate, plate curvature, pressure gradient and intensity and
scale of turbulence are some of the factors that affect the change of boundary
layer from laminar to turbulent.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Boundary Layer Equations
The equations of continuity and motion for the steady flow of an incompressible, inviscid
fluid in two dimensions without body forces are as follows,

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
+ =𝟎
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝟏 𝝏𝒑
𝒖 + v = −
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝆 𝝏𝒙

𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗 𝟏 𝝏𝒑
𝒖 +𝒗 = −
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝆 𝝏𝒚

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• Consider the boundary layer on a flat plate with 𝑥 measured along the plate and
𝑦 normal to the plate, with viscous stresses τ acting in the direction parallel to the
plate.
• Small element of fluid of area δ𝑥δ𝑦 in the 𝑥𝑦 plane and unit length normal to the
𝑥𝑦 plane is considered, then on its lower surface there is a force due to shear
stress equal to −τ δ𝑥 in the 𝑥 direction. Similarly on the upper surface force in 𝑥
direction due to shear stress, neglecting terms of higher power of δ𝑦, is given by

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 𝜕τ
• The net force in the 𝒙 direction acting on the element is therefore 𝜕𝑦 (δ𝑥δ𝑦) and hence
as δ𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 δ𝑦 tend to zero, force per unit ,mass in the 𝑥 direction due to viscous
1 𝜕τ
stresses becomes
ρ 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑝
• To complete the equation 𝑢 𝜕𝑥 + v𝜕𝑦 = − 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 ,the above term is added to the RHS and
modified as

Viscous flow In the laminar boundary layer from Newton’s law of viscosity is

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

And hence the equation becomes

μ
Where is the kinematic viscosity υ = ρ

𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗 𝟏 𝝏𝒑
The second equation of motion 𝒖 𝝏𝒙 + 𝒗 = − 𝝆 𝝏𝒚 is unchanged and can be
𝝏𝒚
modified by neglecting terms of smaller order and magnitude, it can be reduced to
𝟏 𝝏𝒑
− 𝝆 𝝏𝒚 = 0
Thus the final equations governing the flow in steady 2-D Laminar boundary layer
on a flat plate are as given below and generally known as Prandtl’s Boundary layer
equations for Two Dimensional Steady Flow of incompressible fluids are given
below.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Derivation of above equations using Navier-Stokes Equations :
𝟏 𝝏𝒑
By integrating − 𝝆 𝝏𝒚 we get

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

𝒑 remains constant across the boundary layer and its partial derivative can be replaced
with a total derivative as it does not vary in y direction. Hence the equation can be
written as

Since outside the boundary layer fluid is treated as inviscid, the Euler’s equation of
motion may be applied according to which

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

In the region outside the boundary layer since 𝑣 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 = 𝑉 the ambient velocity
of approaching stream, by substituting these values in the previous equation it
becomes

or
And hence the final equation becomes

As both 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝 are functions of 𝑥 only, integration of above equation leads to

Bernoulli’s equation at any section. i..e..

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Momentum Integral equation of Boundary layer

• This was developed by Theodore von Karman and hence also called as Von
Karman’s Integral equation.
• The equation expresses the relation that must exist between the overall rate
of flux of momentum across a section of boundary layer , the shear stress at
the boundary surface and the pressure gradient in the direction of flow.

Consider an element of the

Boundary layer formed along a
flat plate between sections AB
and CD, at a small distance apart,
h is slightly greater than δ and
AEFD is the control volume as
shown in the figure.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• For unit width in the direction perpendicular to the plane of paper the rate of mass
𝒉
flow across AE into AEFD equals 𝟎 𝝆𝒗 𝒅𝒚
• Rate of mass flow across DF out of AEFD equals

• Net rate of mass flow across DF and AE out of AEFD equals

• Rate of mass flow out of AEFD across EF equals 𝝆𝒗𝒉 δ𝒙 where 𝒗𝒉 is the mean
velocity in y direction at height h above the surface.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• Since there is no net change of mass inside AEFD is
𝑑 ℎ
[ 0
𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑦] 𝛿𝑥
𝑑𝑥
• Rate of change of momentum in x direction equals component of applied force in
that direction. Therefore rate of transport of momentum across DF minus AE is

• The rate of transport of momentum in x direction across EF out of AEFD is

𝑑𝑝
• Force in x direction on AEFD due to pressure is given by −ℎ 𝛿𝑝 = −ℎ 𝛿𝑥
𝑑𝑥
• Due to Shear stress at the boundary, force is given by = τ𝑜 𝛿𝑥
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
• As rate of change in momentum equals to the component of applied force in that
direction we get the following equation.

• Dividing by δ𝒙 and taking the limit δ𝒙 0 we get

• Further modifying the above equation we get

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• Since 𝑉 − 𝑣 becomes zero at the edge of boundary layer, the upper limit
to both the integrals in the previous equations may be changed to infinity.
• Using the displacement and momentum thickness the equation can be
further simplified to

• This equation is the momentum integral equation of the boundary layer and
can be applied to both laminar and turbulent flows as there were no
assumptions made in the derivation regarding the nature of flow.
𝝉𝟎 𝒅𝜽
• The equation is further reduced to = considering a flat plate with
𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝑽
zero incidence, where =0
𝒅𝒙

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Laminar Boundary Layer

• Inside the boundary layer since the viscous forces are predominant, it is
reasonable to assume that the inertial and the viscous forces are of same
order of magnitude in a laminar boundary layer.
𝜕𝑣
• The inertial forces per unit volume is given by ρ𝑣 which is proportional
𝜕𝑥
to ρ𝑉 2 /x for the case of a flat plate. Similarly the viscous force per unit
𝜕τ 𝜕 𝜕𝑣
volume is which is for laminar flow becomes ( )(µ ). In this
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕τ
boundary layer since − 𝑉/δ, hence − µ𝑉/δ2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• Thus if these forces are proportional to each other, then

In which k and k’ are constants

• By exact analytical solution Blasius obtained the value of k as 5. Thus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• The expression of shear stress can also be obtained as
Since the boundary layer

• Introducing the value of δ

• So now the above equation can be written as

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• The value of constant of proportionality has been obtained by exact
analytical solution by Blasius, the equation becomes

• The total horizontal force FD can be obtained by

in which B is the width of the plate and L is the length of plate respectively
• The average drag coefficient is obtained by

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• If assumed that the velocity distribution is linear with y upto the boundary
layer, then
𝑣 𝑦
= for y<=δ
𝑉 δ
and the boundary conditions are at y=0, v=0 and y=δ, v=V, where V is the
velocity of the approaching stream outside the boundary layer.
Thus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• Substituting the values in the above equations

• Integrating the above equation we get

• Since at x=0, δ=0, hence C=0. Thus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

•Further local drag coefficient may be obtained as

•Skin friction drag FD on one side of the plate is obtained as

•The average drag coefficient is obtained as

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

The momentum thickness and displacement thickness are given by

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Turbulent Flow

• Turbulent boundary layers are usually thicker than laminar ones.

• Due to the intermingling of fluid particles between different layers of the

fluid, the velocity distribution is much uniform.

• In turbulent boundary layer, large velocity changes occur in a relatively

smaller distance and hence at the boundary the velocity gradient is steeper.

• The velocity distribution follows logarithmic law and can be represented by

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• The above equation cannot be applied to the velocity distribution at the
boundary.
• Immediately adjacent to the boundary layer there is laminar sublayer which
is very thin and the velocity distribution may be taken as linear
• The expressions for δ, cf, Cf are given as

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• Schilichting assumed a logarithmic velocity distribution for the flow in the
boundary layer equation and obtained a semi empirical equation

• When the plate is of such a length that for some distance from the leading
edge of the plate the boundary layer is laminar and remaining is turbulent,
then combined equations are used for the computation for average drag
coefficient

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• The constant A in the above equation depends on the value of Reynolds
number at which the laminar flow becomes turbulent.

• The values for A for various values of critical Reynolds Number is given by

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• In most of the cases the critical value of Rex is taken as 5x105 and the
equation becomes

• For higher values of Re the following equation can be used

• The value of constant A depends upon the critical ReL and is also taken
from the table

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Laminar Sublayer
• If the plate is very smooth, even in the zone of turbulent boundary layer,
there exists a very thin layer immediately adjacent to the boundary in which
the flow is laminar.
• This thin layer is commonly known as lamina sub layer and its thickness is
represented as δ′
• Since the flow in the laminar sublayer is laminar it follows a parabolic
velocity distribution which van be approximately taken as linear.
• Hence logarithmic or exponential velocity distribution cannot be applied
within laminar sublayer
11.6μ τ0
δ′ = Where 𝑉 ∗ = is known as shear or friction velocity.
𝑉∗ ρ

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Boundary layer on rough surfaces
• In most practical applications connected with boundary layer development
on flat plates as ships, airplane wings etc., the surfaces cannot be
considered smooth.
• For a rough plate if 𝑘 is the average height of roughness projections on the
surface of the plate and δ is the thickness of the boundary layer then
𝒌
relative roughness is a significant parameter indicating the behaviour of
𝜹
the boundary surface.
𝑘
• Considering 𝑘 constant, decreases along the plate as δ increases in the
δ
downstream direction. Therefore, the front portion of the plate behaves
differently from its rare portion.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

If the plate is sufficiently long and assumed that the boundary layer is turbulent
from the leading edge of the plate, the front portion of the plate will act as
hydro dynamically rough, followed by a transition region and the
downstream portion of the plate will be hydro dynamically smooth.
𝑉∗ 𝑘𝑠
Hydrodynamically smooth <5
μ
𝑉∗ 𝑘𝑠
Transition 5< < 70
μ
𝑉∗ 𝑘𝑠
Hydrodynamically Rough > 70
μ
Where 𝑘𝑠 is the equivalent sand grain roughness

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

In the completely rough regime the local drag coefficient 𝑐𝑓 and Average drag
coefficient 𝐶𝑓 are given below :

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Separation of Boundary Layer

• Boundary layer thickness is affected by the pressure gradient in the

direction of flow
𝜕𝑝
• When pressure gradient = 0, the boundary layer continues to grow in
𝜕𝑥
thickness along a flat plate.
𝜕𝑝
• When pressure gradient < 0, then the boundary layer tends to reduce in
𝜕𝑥
thickness
𝜕𝑝
• When pressure gradient > 0, the boundary layer thickens rapidly
𝜕𝑥
• The adverse pressure gradient and the boundary shear decrease the
momentum in the boundary layer

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• If they act over a sufficient distance they can cause the fluid in the
boundary layer to come to rest as they have very less kinetic energy
• Hence the boundary layer is deflected sideways from the boundary,
separates from it and moves into main stream, this phenomenon is called
separation.
• Consider a fluid flow over a curved surface. As it starts flowing, it is
accelerated until a point C the velocity just outside the boundary layer is
maximum.
• At this section, the pressure is minimum.
• From A to C the pressure gradient is negative.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
•Beyond C the pressure increases and hence the net pressure force on an element of
fluid in the boundary layer opposes the forward flow.
•Thus at a certain distance of point C the fluid near the boundary surface is soon
brought to standstill.
•The fluid can no longer follow the contour of the curved surface and it separates
from it.
𝜕𝑣
•The separation first takes place where at the boundary becomes zero and this
𝜕𝑦
point is known as separation point.
•A further retardation of the fluid can also sometimes result in the bacflow as at
point E.
•If all the points of backward flow are joined by a smooth curve the curve is called
separation streamline.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
• Separation occurs with laminar and turbulent boundary layers but laminar
boundary layers are more susceptible to separation.
• This happens because the increase in velocity with the distance from the
boundary surface is less rapid in laminar flow.
• In turbulent flow the velocity of flow is much more uniform because of the
mixing of layers of fluid particles.
• Hence, relatively higher velocity prevails in turbulent boundary layer,
which reduces the tendency of separation.
• Separation of boundary layer forms a wake zone of disturbed fluid on the
downstream in which pressure is approximately constant and much less
than the upstream, hence gives rise to boundary forces

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• This net force in the direction of flow caused by pressure diffence is known
as pressure drag or form drag and its magnitude depends on the form or
shape of the boundary.
• The separation of flow may be caused due to adverse pressure gradient
unless the angle of divergence is very small.
• Example: flow in a divergent passage or diffuser.
• Since the separation of boundary layer gives rise to additional resistance to
flow attempts are made to avoid separation by some means.
• Example: the flow past a streamlined object.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

a) Motion of solid boundary:
• Since it is possible to eliminate the formation of
a boundary layer, by causing the solid boundary
to move with the flowing fluid, such a motion
may be achieved in the simplest ways by
rotating a circular cylinder lying in a stream of
fluid.

• On the upper side of the cylinder, the fluid as well as the cylinder move in the same
direction, hence the boundary layer does not form and separation is completely
eliminated.
• On the lower side of the cylinder fluid motion is opposite to that of the cylinder,
separation would occur.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

b) Acceleration of the fluid in the boundary layer:

•This method consists of supplying additional energy to the particles of fluid which are
being retarded in the boundary layer.
•This may be achieved either by injecting fluid into the region of boundary layer (b) or by

diverting a portion of the fluid of the main stream from the region of high pressure to the
retarded region of the boundary layer through a slot provided in the body as in the case of
slotted wing.
•The disadvantage in this method is that if the fluid is injected into a laminar boundary layer,

it undergoes a transition to turbulent boundary layer, resulting in an increased skin friction

drag.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
c) Suction of the fluid from the boundary layer :

• The slow moving fluid in the boundary layer is removed by suction through slots or
a porous surface
• This way, on the downstream of the point of suction a new boundary layer starts
developing which can withstand adverse pressure gradient and hence separation is
prevented.
• The suction of the fluid from the boundary layer delays its transition from laminar
to turbulent and hence skin friction drag is reduced.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
d) Streaming of body shapes :
• By using suitably shaped bodies, the point of transition of boundary layer from
laminar to turbulent can be moved downstream, resulting in a reduced skin friction
drag.
• By this method, the separation may be eliminated.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus