Unit 1 Sources of Water

VARUVAN VADIVELAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – DHARMAPURI DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
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UNIT - I
SOURCES OF WATER
Public water supply system – Planning, Objectives, Design period, Population forecasting;
Water demand – Sources of water and their characteristics, Surface and Groundwater –
Impounding Reservoir – Development and selection of source – Source Water quality –
Characterization – Significance – Drinking Water quality standards.
1.1 PUPLIC WATER SUPPLY AYSTEM
IMPORTANCE AND NECESSITY OF WATER SUPPLY SCHEME

I.1.1 1mportance of Water
 Man and animals not only consume water, but they also consume vegetation for their
food. Vegetation, in turn, cannot grow without water.
 Growth of vegetation also depends upon bacterial action, while bacteria need water in
order to thrive.
 Good sanitation cannot be maintained without adequate water supply system.
 Man needs water for drinking, cooking, cleaning and washing.
 Water maintains an ecological balance – balance in the relationship between living
things and environment in which they live.
1.1.2 Necessity of Water
 For Drinking and Cooking
 For bathing and washing
 For Watering of Lawns and Gardens
 For growing of crops
 For heating a Air conditioning system
 For street washing
 For fire fighting
 For recreating swimming pools, Fountain etc.,
 For stream power and various industries
1.1. 3 What is Water Supply System?

Water Supply System is a network of pipelines of various sizes with control valves for
carrying water to all streets and supplying water to the consumers.
J. SANTHI AMUTHA WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING UNIT – I SOURCES OF WATER 1

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1.1.3.1 They are to types of Water Supply System

1. Continuous
- Water is available 24 hours a day and seven days a week.
2. Intermittent
- Water is supplied for few hours every day or alternate days
1.2.1 PLANNING
1.2.1.1 Schematic Diagram of Typical Water Supply System

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1.2.1.2 Historical Development

 Most of the historical community settlements throughout the world were made near
springs, lakes and rivers from where water for drinking and irrigation purposes was
obtained.
 In the ninth century, few important water supply structures were constructed by the
Moors in Spain. In the 12th century, small aqueduct was constructed in Paris. In
London, spring water was brought by means of lead pipes and masonry conduits in the
thirteenth century.
 During the first phase of the Industrial Revolution, large impounding reservoirs were
developed due to the necessity of feeding canals.
 The first water filter was constructed in 1804 by John Gibb at Paisley in Scotland.
 The first permanent use of chlorination originated under the direction of Sir Alexander
Houston at Lincoln in 1905.
1.2.1.3 Components of Water Supply System and their Functions

The components of a water supply system can be divided into two major parts:
1. Transmission Line or Transmission Main: Pipeline from intake to reservoir tank.
2. Distribution Line: Pipeline from reservoir tank to tap stand.
1.2.1.4 There are three systems of supply as:
i. Gravity Flow System
ii. Pumping System
iii. Dual System
1.2.2 Objectives of Water Supply System

The quintessential objective of water supply system is to supply water equitably to the
consumers with sufficient pressure so as to discharge the water at the desired location within
the premises.
1.2.3 Design Periods

This quantity should be worked out with due provision for the estimated requirements of the
future . The future period for which a provision is made in the water supply scheme is known
as the design period.

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1.2.3.1 Design Period of Water Supply Scheme:
Water supply projects are designed to serve over a specified period of time. This useful life
time after completion of the project is called "design period".
It is expressed in years. During design period, the structures, equipment and components of
the water supply scheme are supposed to be adequate to serve the requirements. Generally,
the water works are designed for a period of 30 years.
1.2.3.2 Factors are considered while taking a decision on design period of water supply
schemes:
 Useful life of pipes, equipment and structures.
 The anticipated rate of growth. (If rate is more, design period would be less.)
 The rate of inflation in during a period of repayment of loans. (When inflation rate is
high, a longer design period is adopted.)
 Efficiency of component units. (The more the efficiency, the longer will be design
period.)
1.2.3.3 Design period is estimated based on the following:
 Useful life of the component, considering obsolescence, wear, tear, etc.

 Expandability aspect.
 Anticipated rate of growth of population, including industrial, commercial
developments & migration-immigration.
 Available resources.
 Performance of the system during initial period.
1.2.3.4 Design Considerations
 1. Design capacity of water treatment plant = Maximum day demand
 2. Design capacity of water distribution system – Maximum (peak hour flow)
(maximum daily demand + fire flow demand)
1.2.3.5 Water Quantity Estimation
Quantity of water:
Before designing any water supply project, first of all the estimation quantity of water is
calculate. these calculation based on two factors:
1. Rate of Demand
2. Population

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Rate of demand: The requirement of water for various uses are properly and the rate of
consumption per head is calculated.
Population: The person to be served by the scheme aare calculated and estimate the future
population.
The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the water supply scheme has
to be designed requires following data:
1. Water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand in litres per day per head.
2. Population to be served.
Quantity= Per capita demand x Population
1.2.3.6 Water Consumption Rate (Per capita demand)
It is very difficult to precisely assess the quantity of water demanded by the public, since
there are many variable factors affecting water consumption. The various types of water
demands, which a city may have, may be broken into following classes:
Water Consumption for Various Purposes:
Types of Consumption Normal Range Average %

(lit/capita/day)
1 Domestic Consumption 65-300 160 35
2 Industrial and Commercial 45-450 135 30

Demand
3 Public Uses including Fire 20-90 45 10
Demand
4 Losses and Waste 45-150 62 25
1.2.3.7 Definition of terms:

Average Annual Demand (AAD) - The total volume of water delivered to the system in a
full year expressed in gallons. When demand fluctuates up and down over several years, an
average is used.
Average Daily Demand (ADD) - The total volume of water delivered to the system over a
year divided by 365 days. The average use in a single day expressed in gallons per day.

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Maximum Month Demand (MMD) - The gallons per day average during the month with
the highest water demand. The highest monthly usage typically occurs during a summer
month.
Peak Weekly Demand (PWD) - The greatest 7-day average demand that occurs in a year
expressed in gallons per day.
Maximum Day Demand (MDD) - The largest volume of water delivered to the system in a
single day expressed in gallons per day. The water supply, treatment plant and transmission
lines should be designed to handle the maximum day demand.
Peak Hourly Demand (PHD) - The maximum volume of water delivered to the system in a
single hour expressed in gallons per day. Distribution systems should be designed to
adequately handle the peak hourly demand or maximum day demand plus fire flows,
whichever is greater. During peak hourly flows, storage reservoirs supply the demand in
excess of the maximum day demand.
 Demands described above, expressed in gallons per day (gpd), can be divided by the
population or Equivalent Dwelling Units (EDUs) served to come up with a demand
per person or per capita .
 It is expressed in gallons per capita per day (gpcd), or demand per EDU (gpd/EDU).
 These unit demands can be multiplied by future population or EDU projections to
estimate future water demands for planning purposes.’’
 Finally, economic conditions within the region will affect water supply and demand
by affecting the ability of water users to pay for water, as well as the ability of
producers to purchase capital and labor for activities in many industries that may
directly or indirectly affect water use, including agriculture.
1.2.3.8 Factors affecting per capita demand:
a. Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared to that
for smaller towns as big cities have sewered houses.
b. Presence of industries.
c. Climatic conditions.
d. Habits of people and their economic status.
e. Quality of water: If water is aesthetically $ medically safe, the consumption will
increase as people will not resort to private wells, etc.
f. Pressure in the distribution system.

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g. Efficiency of water works administration: Leaks in water mains and services; and
unauthorised use of water can be kept to a minimum by surveys.
h. Cost of water.
i. Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charged in two different ways:
on the basis of meter reading and on the basis of certain fixed monthly rate.
1.2.3.9 Fluctuations in Rate of Demand

• Per capita demand is different in normal conditions and in drought conditions.
• Water demand also fluctuates
– Metered water supply, cost of water, supply pressure
– Seasonally (maximum demand in July and August)
– Seasonally (maximum demand in July and August)
– Daily (more for working days than holidays)
– Hourly (more in morning and evening per day, i.e., two hours of peak demand
over a 24-hour duration)
1.2.3.10 Average Daily Per Capita Demand

= Quantity Required in 12 Months/ (365 x Population)
If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to meet the
fluctuations.
Seasonal variation: The demand peaks during summer. Firebreak outs are generally more in
summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation .
Daily variation depends on the activity. People draw out more water on Sundays and
Festival days, thus increasing demand on these days.
Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range. During active household
working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the evening, the bulk of
the daily requirement is taken.
During other hours the requirement is negligible. Moreover, if a fire breaks out, a huge
quantity of water is required to be supplied during short duration, necessitating the need for a
maximum rate of hourly supply.
So, an adequate quantity of water must be available to meet the peak demand.
To meet all the fluctuations, the supply pipes, service reservoirs and distribution pipes must
be properly proportioned.

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The water is supplied by pumping directly and the pumps and distribution system must be
designed to meet the peak demand.
The effect of monthly variation influences the design of storage reservoirs and the hourly
variations influences the design of pumps and service reservoirs.
As the population decreases, the fluctuation rate increases.
Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x average daily demand
Maximum hourly demand of maximum day i.e. Peak demand
= 1.5 x average hourly demand
= 1.5 x Maximum daily demand/24
= 1.5 x (1.8 x average daily demand)/24
= 2.7 x average daily demand/24
= 2.7 x annual average hourly demand
1.2.3.11 Fire Fighting Demand:
The per capita fire demand is very less on an average basis but the rate at which the water is
required is very large. The rate of fire demand is sometimes traeted as a function of
population and is worked out from following empirical formulae:
Authority Formulae (P in thousand) Q for 1 lakh

Population)
American Q (L/min)=4637 -0.01 41760
1 Insurance
Association
Kuchling's Q (L/min)=3182 31800
2
Formula
Freeman's Q (L/min)= 1136.5(P/5+10) 35050
3
Formula
Ministry of Q (kilo liters/d)=100 31623
Urban
4
Development
Manual Formula
Determination of water demand is indispensable when it comes to the design of a proper

water work project. An accurate estimation of water demand helps to determine the quantities
of water and moments when the water will be used therefore generating various demand
patterns. The demand arises mainly for residential, institutional, industrial and public uses.

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1.2.3.11 Per Capita Demand (q)
Per Capita Demand (q)

Per capita demand is given by the relation:
1.2.3.12.1 Per capita demand is dependent on the following factors:
1. Water supply system

2. Cost of water
3. Climatic Conditions
4. Size of the city
5. Quality of water supply
6. Pressure in the water distribution system
7. Metering policy and charging method
8. Industrial and commercial activities
9. Development of sewerage facilities
1.2.3.13 Municipal Water Demand

Community’s drinking water consumption
• Say one person consumes =X liters per day (i.e., “X” lpcd (a short form of liters per
capita per day) • Total number of population in a community =“P”
• Total daily water demand = (X) *(P) liters per day
• Say amount of water required for duration = “T” days
• Total amount of water required (V total n)= (X)*(P)*(T) liters
1.2.4 Population Forcasting
1.2.4.1 Definition:
A calculation of how many people will be living in a country or in a town at some point
in the future.
1.2.4.2 Population Forecasting Methods

The various methods adopted for estimating future populations are given below.
1. Arithmetic Increase Method

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2. Geometric Increase Method

3. Incremental Increase Method
4. Decreasing Rate of Growth Method
5. Simple Graphical Method
6. Comparative Graphical Method
7. Ratio Method
8. Logistic Curve Method
1.2.4.3 PROBLEM
Population Forecast by Different Methods
Problem:
Predict the population for the years 1981, 1991, 1994, and 2001 from the following census
figures of a town by different methods.
Year 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971

Population: 60 65 63 72 79 89 97 120
(thousands)
Solution:
Year Population: Increment per Incremental Percentage Increment per

(thousands) Decade Increase Decade
1901 60 - - -
1911 65 +5 - (5+60) x100=+8.33
1921 63 -2 -3 (2+65) x100=-3.07
1931 72 +9 +7 (9+63) x100=+14.28
1941 79 +7 -2 (7+72) x100=+9.72
1951 89 +10 +3 (10+79) x100=+12.66
1961 97 +8 -2 (8+89) x100=8.98
1971 120 +23 +15 (23+97) x100=+23.71
Net values 1 +60 +18 +74.61
Averages - 8.57 (i) 3.0 10.66

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( + ) = increase; ( - ) = decrease
1.2.4.3.1 Arithmetical Progression Method:
Pn = P + ni
Average increases per decade = i = 8.57
Population for the years,
1981= population 1971 + ni, here n=1 decade
= 120 + 8.57 = 128.57
= 120 + 2 x 8.57 = 137.14
= 120 + 3 x 8.57 = 145.71
1994= population 1991 + (population 2001 - 1991) x 3/10
= 137.14 + (8.57) x 3/10 = 139.71
1.2.4.3.2 Incremental Increase Method:
Population for the years,
1981= population 1971 + average increase per decade + average incremental increase
= 120 + 8.57 + 3.0 = 131.57
1991= population 1981 + 11.57
= 131.57 + 11.57 = 143.14
2001= population 1991 + 11.57
= 143.14 + 11.57 = 154.71
1994= population 1991 + 11.57 x 3/10
= 143.14 + 3.47 = 146.61
1.2.4.3.3 Geometric Progression Method:
Average percentage increase per decade = 10.66

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P n = P (1+i/100) n
Population for 1981 = Population 1971 x (1+i/100) n
= 120 x (1+10.66/100), i = 10.66, n = 1
= 120 x 110.66/100 = 132.8
= 120 x (1+10.66/100) 2 , i = 10.66, n = 2
= 120 x 1.2245 = 146.95
= 120 x (1+10.66/100) 3 , i = 10.66, n = 3
= 120 x 1.355 = 162.60
1.2.4.4 Methods of forcasting - Assumptions, scope, and limitations
Methods type Assumptions, scope and limitations

Arithmetic method 1. Constant rate of population increase,
2. Average value of proportionality is assumed to be constant
over several decades, and
3. Used for short term estimate (1-5 years).
Geometric method 1. Population is assumed to increase in proportion to the
number present,
2. Average value of proportionality is assumed to be constant
over several decades, and
3. Used for short term estimate (1-5 years)
Decreasing rate of increase 1. Population is assumed to reach some limiting value or
method saturation point.
Logistic growth curve 1. Population growth is assumed to follow a logistical

method mathematical relationship (i.e., a S-shaped curve).
1.2.5 WATER DEMAND

The total amount of water used by the water system’s customers is referred to as the demand
placed on that system

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1.2.5.1 Definition of Water Demand

The total amount of water used by the water system’s customers is referred to as the demand
placed on that system.
Water Demand is the measure of the total amount of water used by the customers within the
water system. There are several things that can influence the amount of water demanded of
your system.
1.2.5.2 Definitions on water demand

Demand Type Definition Remarks
Annual average day demand Average daily demand
over a period of one year
Maximum day Amount of water required during Useful for peak capacity of
demand the day production and treatment
facilities
Peak hour demand Amount of water required during Useful for analyzing peak
the maximum consumption hour capacity requirement of
in a given day distribution system
Annual maximum Maximum daily demand over a This estimate is important to
daily demand period of one year meet the worst-case water
demand.
1.2.5.3 Three different types of variables Water demand:

1. Peak demand
2. Seasonal demand
3. Daily peak demand
1.2.5.3.1 Total demand depends on following requirements
1. Residential demand
2. Commercial demand
3. Industrial demand
4. Fire-fighting demand
5. Public use
6. Water lost or unaccounted for
1.2.5.3.2 Water demand depends on following factors:
 Climate
 Geographic location
 Size, population and economic condition of community,
 Extent of industrialization

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1.2.5.3.3 Different types of water demands and their variations

Types of Water Demands
Water demands can be classified into:
1. Domestic Water Demand

2. Industrial Water Demand
3. Institutional and Commercial Water Demand
4. Demand for Public
5. Fire Demand
6. Waste and Theft
1. Domestic Water Demand
Domestic water demand accounts for 55 to 60% of the total water consumption. As per IS
1172-1983, the domestic consumption in India accounts for 135 lpcd (liters/capita/day)
For Cooking, Washing hand face, drinking, Bathing, Private Gardening & Irrigation,
Domestic Animals & Private Vehicle, House hold sanitary purpose.
2. Industrial Water Demand
The per capita consumption of industries is generally taken as 50 lpcd.
For Factories, Power Station, Railways & Airport
3. Institutional and Commercial Water Demand
On an average, per capita demand of 20 lpcd is required to meet institutional and commercial
water demand. For highly commercialized cities, this value can be 50 lpcd.
For Business and trade purpose: Hotel, Dairies, Laundries, Restaurants, Garages, School,
College, University, Hospital.
4. Public or Civil Use
The per capita consumption for public and civic use can be taken as 10 lpcd.
This water is used for Road washing, public parks, sanitation purpose, fire demand,
Ornamental purpose etc.
5. Fire Demand
Per capita fire demand is ignored while calculating the total per capita water requirement of a
particular city because most areas have fire hydrants placed in the water main at 100 to 150
meters apart. The fire demand is generally taken as 1 lpcd.

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6. Waste and Thefts

This consumption accounts for 55 lpcd. Even if the waterworks are managed with high
proficiency, a loss of 15% of total water consumption is expected. Due to Leakage in main
pipes, Valve and other fittings, Careless of use of water
1.2.5. 4 Variations in Water Demand

There are different variations in water demands which are calculated for the specific design
of pipe mains, service reservoirs, source of supply, distribution system and pumps.
1. Maximum Daily Consumption
Maximum Daily Consumption = 180% of Average Daily Demand = 1.8q

Maximum daily consumption is the design water consumption for source of supply and pipe
mains.
2. Maximum Hourly Consumption
Maximum hourly consumption = 150% of avg. hourly demand of max.day
= 1.5 x (Maximum daily demand/24)
= 1.5 x (1.8q/24) = 2.7 x (q/24)
Maximum hourly consumption = 2.7 x Annual Average hourly demand

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3. Maximum Hourly Demand of maximum day

Maximum Hourly Demand of maximum day = 2.7q
4. Coincident demand or Coincident draft
Maximum daily demand plus fire demand gives the coincident draft. This design water
consumption is used for distribution system.
1.2.5.3.4 All water demand types are expressed as ratio of mean average daily flow
• In the absence of water demand data, use the following equation:
p = 180 (t ) -10 (1)
p = % of the annual average daily demand for time (t) in days
• Peak hourly demand = 150% of maximum daily demand
An acceptable relationship;
• Fire demand: (2)
Small demand (annually) - but high demand during periods of need
Required fire flow demand must be available in addition to coincident
maximum daily flow rate.
Q = 3.86 (− 01.0 P* +√ P*) (2)
Q Fire flow rate (m3/min) = population in thousand
For average Indian towns or cities the rate of demand of water varies from 100 to 300 litres
per head per day.
The variation in the rate of demand of water is due to several factors which must be carefully
studied and analysed before fixing the rate of demand of water for a particular town or city.
2.5.4 Factors affecting the rate of demand of water
1. Climatic Conditions:
The requirement of water is more at places having hot and dry climate than at places having
cold and humid climate.
At places having hot and dry climate --- more water is required for bathing, washing of
clothes, air coolers, air conditioning, lawn watering, gardening, etc.
The requirement of water is more in summer than in winter -- extremely cold climates
water may be wasted due to taps being always kept open to avoid freezing of pipes -- result
in increased rate of consumption.
2. Cost of Water:

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The rate at which water is supplied to the consumers may also affect the rate of demand of
water.
If the rates at which water is supplied are high -- lesser quantity of water may be consumed
by the people.
The consumption of water reduces only slightly as the cost is increased.
3. Pressure in the Distribution System:
The consumption of water increases with the increase in the distribution pressure.
This is due to increase in loss and waste of water at high pressure -- example, an increase of
pressure from 196 kN/m2 (2 kg/cm2) to 294 kN/m2 (3 kg/cm2) may lead to an increase in
consumption of water by about 25 to 30 per cent.
4. Economic Status of Consumers:
The consumption rate of water is directly dependent upon the economic status of the
consumers.
Rich and upper class people generally consume more water due to their better standard of
living.
Middle class people have average rate of consumption of water while the poor slum dwellers
have a much lower rate of water consumption.
5. Number of Commercial Establishments and Industries:
In general the presence of commercial and other establishments and industries in a town or
city would increase the rate of demand of water.
The rate of demand of water would further increase with the increase in the number of such
establishments and industries.
If the industries develop their own water supply system, then there may not be much increase
in the rate of demand of water for the public water supply system.
6. Method of Charging—Metered or Unmetered Water Supply System (or Policy of

Metering):
The public water supply system may be either metered or unmetered.
(i) In the metered water supply -- meters are fitted at the head of the individual house
connections, which record the quantity of water actually consumed by the consumers.
The consumers are charged for the actual quantity of water consumed by them as
recorded by the meters.
As such with metered water supply the consumers use water carefully with minimum
wastage, resulting in a reduced water use.
(ii) In the unmetered water supply the consumers are charged at a fixed monthly flat rate
irrespective of the quantity of water consumed by them.
In the unmetered water supply the consumers are tempted to use water more --
resulting in a lot of wastage of water.

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The installation of meters -- reduces the rate of demand of water.

7. Quality of Water:
If the quality of the supplied water is good, it will be consumed more.
Because the consumers will consider it safe for use and they will use it liberally for various
purposes.
When good quality water will be supplied, the consumers will not use water from other
sources such as private wells, hand pumps, etc.
The rate of demand of water increases with the improvement in the quality of the supplied
water.
8. Sewerage System:
If a town or city is provided with a sewerage system, more water will be required for civic or
public purposes.
The residents of this town or city will also require more water for flushing sanitary units such
as urinals, water closets, etc.
Thus provision of sewerage system for a town or city increases the rate of demand of water.
9. Size of Town or City:
In general bigger is the town or city, higher is the rate of demand of water, and vice versa.
This is so because big towns or cities are invariably provided with sewerage system for which
large quantity of water is required.
The large quantity of water is also required for various other civic or public purposes for
maintaining clean and healthy environment in big towns or cities.
The high standard of living for the residents of a big town or city also leads to a higher rate of
demand of water due to large quantity of water being required for domestic use.
The presence of a water-consuming industry in a town or city may result in a higher rate of
demand of water, even if the town or city is small.
10. System of Supply of Water:

The water may be supplied either intermittently, i.e., for limited periods during certain fixed
hours of the day, or continuously for all the 24 hours of the day. I
t is claimed that with intermittent supply of water the rate of demand of water is less, because
the water being available for a shorter duration the leakage losses and the wastage of water by
various reasons are considerably reduced.

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However, in several cases with intermittent supply of water there is no much reduction
in the rate of demand of water because of the following two reasons:
(i) With intermittent supply of water there is a tendency of many consumers to store water for
use during non-supply period. However, this previously stored water is thrown away in order
to collect fresh water when the supply is resumed. This results in waste of water.
(ii) During non-supply period the water taps are kept open and when the supply starts the
water flowing through the open taps remains unattended, which results in waste of water.
1.3 Sources of water and their characteristics

Life is possible on earth due to the presence of water. Nearly three-fourths of the earth’s
surface is covered with water. Water is also found below the earth’s surface. It is present in
air in the form of water vapour. About 70 per cent of the human body is water. The bodies of
all plants and animals contain water.
1.3.1 Sources of fresh water

 Surface water: Surface water is water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland.
Surface water is naturally replenished.
 Under river flow: Throughout the course of a river, the total volume of
water transported downstream will often be a...
 Groundwater: Groundwater is fresh water located in the subsurface pore space of soil
and rocks.
 Frozen water: Several schemes have been proposed to make use of icebergs as
a water source.
1.3.2 What are the various sources of water available in India?
Water can be obtained from a variety of natural sources. The criteria to be satisfied by water
sources are:
1. The quality of water must be acceptable
2. Quantity must be sufficient to meet the demand.
1.3.3 Raw Water Source
The various sources of water can be classified into two categories:
1. Surface sources, such as

a. Ponds and lakes;
b. Streams and rivers;
c. Storage reservoirs; and
d. Oceans, generally not used for water supplies, at present.

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2. Sub-surface sources or underground sources, such as

a. Springs;
b. Infiltration wells ; and
c. Wells and Tube-wells.
1.3.3.1 What are the Different Sources of Water?
Sources of Water:
Rainwater, oceans, rivers, lakes, streams, ponds and springs are natural sources of water.
Dams, wells, tube wells, hand-pumps, canals, etc, are man-made sources of water.
1.3.3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF WATER SOURCES

1. Above the surface : Rain
2. Surface water Reservoirs, rivers, streams, ponds, tanks and lakes.
3. Ground Water Shallow wells, deep wells and springs.
Rain
Rain is the most important source of water.
It is the purest water free from pathogenic agents. It is clear, bright, sparkling and soft.
Because it is soft, it has a corrosive action on lead pipes. Impurities: Suspended impurities
like dust, soot, micro – organisms; gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen and ammonia. These
are picked up by rain water from the atmosphere.
Surface Water
The sources of surface water are i) Reservoirs ii) Rivers and streams iii) Tanks, ponds and
lakes.
Reservoirs:
These are artificial lakes constructed by masonry or dams built across rivers. Water from
reservoirs is clear, palatable, soft and free from pathogenic organisms. But it may be contami-
nated by human habitations or animals.
Rivers:
Rivers satisfy water needs of several cities and villages. It contains impurities produced by
sewage, industrial wastes, human and animal washings etc. So it is not suitable for dunking
without treatment.
Tanks: They are large excavations in which water is stored. They form an important source
of water in many of the Indian villages. They are contaminated by silt, colloidal matter,
aquatic vegetation, washings of humans and cattle. Also the regular defecation around the

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edges may be drained into them by rain. Because of high degree of contamination, tank water
is not suitable for drinking. Tanks can be improved by:
1. Raising the edges and fencing them.
2. By constructing an elevated platform from where water can be drawn.
3. Periodical removal of weeds.
4. Regular cleaning at the end of dry season.
Ground Water
It is obtained from wells or springs. It is naturally filtered though the ground.
Advantages:
1. It is free from pathogenic agents
2. It does not require treatment
3. Supply may be adequate
Disadvantages:
1. High content of minerals like calcium and magnesium which make it hard.
2. Requires lifting by pumps or other physical means.
Wells:
They are the main sources of water in many Indian villages and towns. According to the
method of construction, they are classified as dug wells and tube wells.
Dug well:
It is the commonest type in India.lt may be an unlined ketch well or a puck well lined by
bricks or stones. If the puck well contains steps (to enable people to get into it to fetch water)
it is called step well. Step well may be contaminated if people take bath, or wash the face,
hands and feet. Also guinea worm disease may be contacted from step wells.
Sanitary well:
It is an improved ideal dug well with the following features:
1. It is located at an elevated site at least 50 feet away from a source of contamination like
latrine, bathing place, cattle shed etc.
2. It should have a lining built by bricks or stones such that water does not enter from the
sides.
3. It should have a parapet, platform, drain and covering.
4. It should have a hand pump to draw water in a sanitary manner.
5. The quality must conform to the standard of safe and wholesome water.

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Tube Wells
There are two types of tube wells.
Shallow tube wells
Deep tube wells.
Shallow tube well (or driven well) consists of an iron pipe sunk into the water bearing
stratum. It has a strainer at the bottom and hand pump at the top. It can be prevented from
pollution by
i. Locating it 15 meters away from a source of pollution like latrine or cattle shed.
ii. Providing a concrete platform all around.
Deep tube wells are several hundred feet deep. They are drilled by mechanical equipment’s.
Water is drawn from them by electrical motor. These wells are costly to construct. But they
are ideal since they supply pure water for long years.
Springs
Springs are natural outlets of ground water held under pressure in the ground. There are four
kinds of springs-shallow springs, deep springs, mineral springs and thermal springs. Spring
water may vary in quality and the yield is also very low.
Rain Water:
Rain water collects on the earth in the form of surface water and underground water
Surface Water:
Water present on the surface of the earth in the form of oceans, rivers, lakes, ponds and
streams is called surface water. The water in rivers and lakes comes from rain and melting of
snow on mountains. Rivers flow into the sea.
Underground Water:
Some of the rainwater seeps through the soil on to the non-porous rocks below. This is
underground water. Sometimes due to high pressure, this water sprouts out in the form of
springs. It can be obtained by digging wells, sinking tube wells, etc.
1.3.3.4 Main sources of water supply in India
The chief sources of all water supplies are rainfall. This water after getting proper treatment
we get from municipal corporation/water supply department i.e. public health engineering
Department.
Other source of water is underground water. Water that has percolated into the ground is
brought on the surface.
The upper surface of free water in the top soil is termed as ground water level/ table.
Form in which underground sources are found infiltration galleries.

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Infiltration wells are sunk in series on the bank of river. Other source is spring an outcrops of
water.
A ground well is defined as an artificial hole/pit made in the ground for the purpose of
tapping of water. Following are types of wells-
(a) Shallow wells.
(b) Deep wells
(c) Tube wells
(d) Artesian wells.
Tube Wells –
Tube wells are of type-
(a) Strainer type
(b) Cavity type
(c) Slotted type
(d) Perforated type.
Tube Wells:
Bores are made into the ground by hand & mechanically operated augers, percussion
equipment or drilled by coring rigs.
The most common bores are made by augers in which a pipe is inserted on a hand pump with
a suction pipe is installed. Hand pumps are for local use and the wells are exposed to the
same pollution risks as the dug wells.
A more scientific deep-bore hand pump called Mark IV, for drawing safe water from deeper
strata, has been developed by Indian Scientists, and is now being extensively used in rural
water supply schemes in India,.
Tube wells deeper than 30 m or so have a lesser chance of being polluted. The possibility of
contamination in any Tube well should never be discounted and water should be tested often
to ensure safety.
Tube well is deep well having diameter 50 to 200 mm.
A bore is drilled in the ground (Percussion core rotary drilling m/c.) For testing the yields of a
well recuperation and constant pumping test is done, pipe for tube well is then inserted in the
bore hole.
It consists, of strainer and blind sections. A strainer is a perforated pipe which is provided
with an arrangement such as that only water will be admitted to inside of the pipe. Pumping is
then started.

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Maintenance of a Tube Well:

Use in the grounds and gardens, then it is essential to ensure that there is no possibility of the
contamination of potable water supplies with these lower-quality supplies, The two systems
must be physically isolated and outlet points with non-potable’ supplies must be clearly
labeled as not suitable for drinking.
(i) Cleaning of screen with hydro sulfuric acid. Hydrochloric acid.
(ii) Removal of lime particles – clogging of screen.
(iii) Replacement of parts. Failure of tube well is due to
(i) Corrosion
(ii) Incrustation – deposition of alkali salts on the inside walls of the tube well.
Types of Well Construction:
(a) Dug well – Shallow well
(b) Driven well – Deep well in unconsolidated solid
(c) Bored/Drilled well.
Sanitary Protection Of Well:
(a) Water tight connection of pump
(b) Covered top
(c) Casing depth 3m below the ground water table.
(d) Distance from the source of contamination, minimum 90 m
(e) No presence of trees
(f) Priming of pump by safe water
(g) Washing of cloth should be prohibited
Open Streams/Springs Etc:
(a) Whenever no other water source is available, it may be necessary to tap a local water-
stream or river. However, the quantity, quality and dependability of the source have to be
investigated. The methods of treatment e.g. filtration disinfection and storage must be
decided on the basis of the results of these investigations.
(b) When the source of water is far away from its area of consumption a detailed survey of
the area, route of pipe line has to be made for laying the water mains.
Rain Water Harvesting:
Conditions for Rain Water Harvesting:
Many area endowed with a fair amount of natural precipitation do not have geographical or
subsoil conditions to absorb and impound the rain water.

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Rivers:
Rivers are commonly used as a source of water but normally require treatment before use
particularly in downstream sections, rivers are often contaminated with waste materials from
industry, agriculture and communities. Rivers are classified in terms of their quality:-
» Class 1a, Good Quality: water of high quality suitable for potable supply abstractions; game
or other high-class fisheries; high amenity value.
» Class 2b, Fair Quality waters suitable for potable supply after advanced treatment
supporting reasonably good coarse fisheries, moderate amenity value.
» Class 3, Poor Quality; waters which are polluted to an extent that fish are absent or only
sporadically present; may be used for low-grade industrial abstraction purposes; considerable
potential for further use if cleaned up.
» Class 4, Bad Quality; waters which are grossly polluted and likely to cause a nuisance.
Lakes (Natural and Artificial):
Where there is a shortage of underground water, lakes or artificial reservoirs may be used to
provide water supplies but this water usually needs some form of treatment prior to use
recently, there has been an increase in the occurrence of algae blooms caused by the growth
of blue-green algae.
Some of these algae produce toxins which are poisonous to fish and mammals. The same
classification scheme is used for rivers and lakes.
Oceans:
The oceans represent the most abundant source of water on the planet, but the cost of
desalination is usually prohibitively high and therefore sea water is not often used as a source
of water. Coastal waters are often contaminated with sewage and heavy metals.
1.3.3.3 Water Sources
Water sources include surface water, ground water sources mainly
Surface Water
The source of both the water sources whether surface water sources or ground water sources-
all are available through rains.
Surface water sources include
1. Water in the rivers
2. Water in the lakes
3. Water in the seas
4. Water in the Oceans
Ground Water sources

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Underground water resources include water which has become underground through
percolation or seepage and is lying in the porous rocks.
Water resources available on surface are not totally usable. Due to saltness, water available in
seas and cans is not usable. Only water found in rivers and lakes and underground water is
usable. Underground water is obtained through bore well, artesian well, geysers and springs.
Importance of Underground Water
Occurrence of Underground Water Rain water that falls on the ground and seeps below the
surface through soil, crevices, joints and fissures and accumulates under the ground, is known
as underground water.
The rocks which allow seepage of water are called permeable rocks, like sandstone. Rocks
which do not allow seepage of water are called impermeable rocks like clayey soil, slate,
marble, granite are not permeable rocks but water seeps in them through joints and fissures
present in them. The seepage of water underground produces a zone of saturation. The upper
limit of the zone of saturation is known as the water table. In this, all the pore spaces, joints
fissures are saturated with water. This water table varies from place to place and from season
to season.
Underground water may reappear as springs along joints or fissures. These springs may be
hot or cold, perennial or temporary.
Importance of Underground Water:
The underground water is a permanent source of water as the rate of the evaporation here is
minimum. It is of great importance for the following reasons: (i) where the surface water is
not freely available underground water is tapped by digging wells. Man uses it for domestic
purposes like drinking, washing, cooking, etc.
(ii) He can irrigate the fields.
(iii) He uses it for industrial purposes like in paper, dyeing, jute and steel industries.
(iv) It sustains vegetation on land. Some of the springs have medicinal value for skin diseases
and stomach problems.
1.4 IMPOUNDING RESERVOIR

An impounding reservoir is a basin constructed in the valley of a stream or river for the
purpose of holding stream flow so that the stored water may be used when supply is
insufficient.
A reservoir with outlets controlled by gates that release stored surface water as needed in a dr
y season; may also store water for domestic or industrial use or for flood control. Also

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known as storage reservoir.

They have the following two functions:
 To impound water for beneficial use.
 To retard flood.
These two functions may be combined to some extent by careful operations.
An impounding reservoir presents a water surface for evaporation. This loss must be
considered. Possibility of large seepage loss must also be considered. If it is economically
impossible to prevent them, the project may have to be abandoned or move it to a more
favorable site. There will be some loss by seepage through and under the dam itself.
1.4.1 Main characteristics
An impounded reservoir, also called embankment pond, is made by building an
embankment or earth fill across a narrow valley so that, while excavated reservoirs usually
consist of improving an existing situation (natural ponds), the impounded reservoirs create a
completely new surface water storage structure.
Excavated reservoirs are preferably located at the lower end of small and closed
watersheds which may be part of longer catchment basins cut in several isolated sub-basins
by natural weirs usually made of ancient fixed dunes.
On the contrary, the impounded reservoirs are intended to intercept runoff from open
watersheds. This important difference has the following consequences for the impounded
reservoirs.
The volume of runoff water is often bigger than the capacity of the reservoir itself so
that it is usually necessary to provide a spillway to bypass surface runoff after the pond is
filled.
The implementation of impounded reservoirs requires a more accurate estimate of the
surface runoff than for excavated reservoirs since both the embankment and the spillway
have to be designed accordingly.
In semi-arid areas the reservoirs built for watering livestock are necessarily of small capacity
for the following reasons:
a. if natural conditions make it possible to build a large artificial reservoir, its water is
certainly going to be used for agriculture rather than for extensive stockbreeding;
b. if for any reason agriculture is not feasible, an easy access to water for a great number of
animals is not to be recommended because of the risk of overgrazing the nearby rangelands.
Therefore the impounded reservoirs for watering livestock in semi-arid countries will usually
have a small to moderate capacity (from a few thousands to a few tens of thousands cubic

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metres) and consequently be usable only part of the average year (from a rainfall point of
view). They rarely can be the only source of water supply for livestock on permanent
rangelands. Limiting the size of ponds is one way of providing some degree of management
of the grazing resources.
1.4.2 Selection of sites
Selecting a suitable site for the impounded reservoirs is important and preliminary
surveys are needed before final design and construction. However, this manual is not
intended to be an exhaustive handbook for dam construction and the purpose of the
indications given hereafter is just to draw the attention to some important points which have
eventually to be studied by a specialist.
a. Morphological characteristics
A good site is where a dam can be built across a narrow section of a valley, the side slopes
are steep and the slope of the valley floor permits a large area to be flooded. Sites where
water may expand over large areas under shallow depth should be avoided since they would
expose a large surface of shallow water to high evaporation.
b. Adequacy of the drainage area
The contributing drainage area should be large enough to fill the reservoir at least 8 years out
of 10. However the drainage area should not be so large than expensive overflow structures
(spillways) are needed to bypass excess runoff during storms. Where rainfall is not too
variable the drainage area can often be chosen to have a minimum cost overflow. However,
in many semi-arid areas this is not the case and irregular, high intensity storms of short
duration may cause extensive damage if proper spillways are not constructed.
The amount of runoff that can be expected from a given watershed depends on so many
interrelated factors that no set rule can be given for its determination. The physical
characteristics that directly affect the yield of water are relief, soil infiltration, evaporation
rate, plant cover and surface storage.
c. Nature of soils in the ponded area
Suitability of a pond site depends on the ability of the soils in the reservoir area to hold water.
The soil should contain a layer of material that is impervious and thick enough to prevent
excessive seepage. However, the presence of a surface layer of sand or other permeable
material does not necessarily mean that the proposed sites should be abandoned; these
pervious layers may just be an alluvial deposit covering an impervious bedrock.
In most cases detailed investigations including auger holes and laboratory tests should be
carried out.

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d. Foundation conditions
Particular attention should be paid to the nature of the soils at the proposed dam location in
order to ascertain that the foundation would ensure stable support for the structure, and
provide the necessary resistance to the passage of water.
Good foundation materials, those that provide both stability and imperviousness, are a
mixture of coarse and fine textured soils like gravel-sand-clay or sand-silt-clay mixtures.
When the soil beneath the dam location is able to ensure the stability but not the
imperviousness, a cut-off core of impervious material must be installed under the dam.
e. Fill material
The availability of suitable material for building a dam is a determining factor in selecting a
pond site. Enough suitable material should be located close to the site so that placement costs
are not excessive.
Materials selected must have enough strength for the dam to remain stable and be tight
enough when properly compacted, to prevent excessive or harmful percolation of water
through the dam.
The best material for an earthfill dam contains particles ranging from small gravel to fine
sand and clay in the desired proportions. The material should contain about 20 percent by
weight of clay particles. Though satisfactory earthfills can be built from soils that vary from
the ideal, the greater the variance, the more precautions needed.
As for the foundations, if the material selected for the earthfill is pervious, a core of clay
material has to be placed in the centre of the fill.
f. Spillway requirements
The function of a spillway is to pass excess storm runoff around the dam so that water in the
pond does not rise high enough to damage the dam by overtopping.
Emergency spillways for small dams in semi-arid countries should have the minimum
capacity to discharge the peak flow expected from a storm of a frequency of 1 year in 10 and
a duration of 24 hours. As a very rough estimate it is possible to use the corresponding
approximately to the most usual situation in semi-arid countries. For a small drainage area
(from a few hectares to a few square kilometres) with moderate slope over the drainage area
and with moderately permeable soils,
D = 1.84 x A0.675
in which D is the peak discharge in litres per second per millimetre of maximum daily rainfall
with a frequency of 1 year in 10 and A is the drainage area in hectares.

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In mild climates, the protection of the spillways against erosion is obtained by installing
herbaceous vegetation on the bottom of the spillway. This solution cannot apply in semi-arid
climates where the spillways are usually of two different types. One type is the natural
spillway, a secondary drainage which runs parallel to the main valley and needs only minor
adjustments to bypass the excess storm water. The other is the lined spillway where no
natural saddle is found. An artificial spillway has to be excavated beside the dam and then
lined with stones, concrete or asphalt. The lined spillway is more expensive than the first one.
The ideal solution might consist of selecting a site or oversizing the dam in such a way that a
spillway would not be required. But, because of the great variability of rainfall and
consequently of runoff, such a solution is rarely feasible in the more arid areas. Either the
catchment basin has to be very small and for most years the reservoir would remain empty or
the benefit gained by eliminating the spillway would be more than offset by the increased
cost of the dam.
g. Design of the dam
The detailed design of a dam, even if it is small, cannot be treated here in the framework of
this manual. The main points which have to be taken into consideration are:
i. a water supply pipe through the dam is needed for the stock water troughs;
ii. cutoffs through the foundation and the dam itself may be needed in order to ensure
tightness;
iii. the top of the dam should be wide enough to ensure the stability;
iv. side slopes upstream and downstream should be low enough to prevent collapse.
1.5 DEVELOPMENT AND SELECTION OF SOURCE

When selecting a water source for development, the engineer must consider three
primary factors:
1. water quantity
2. water reliability
3. water quality.
The quantity factor considers the amount of water that is available at the source and
the amount of water that will be required or demanded for use.
The amount of water that maybe available at the source depends on variables, such as
The amount of precipitation
The size of the drained area
Geology,

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Ground surface
Evaporation
Temperature
Topography
Artificial controls.
Water demands are estimated using per capita requirements and other controlling factors,
such as water requirements for fire protection, industrial use, lawn sprinkling, construction,
vehicles, and water delivered to other activities.
The reliability of a water supply is one of the most important factors that the engineer
considers when selecting a water source.
A reliable water source is one that will supply the required amount of water for as
long as needed. To determine the reliability of the water source, the engineer studies data,
such as hydrological data, to determine the variations that maybe expected at the water
source.
Geological data should be studied since geological formations can limit the quantity
and flow of water available. Also, legal advice may be necessary when selecting a water
source since the laws regulating and controlling water rights may vary considerably from
state to state and country to country.
The third primary factor the engineer must consider when selecting a water source is
the quality of the water. Practically all water supplies have been exposed to pollution of some
kind. Therefore, to ensure that water is potable and palatable, it must be tested to determine
the existence of any impurities that could cause disease, odor, foul taste, or bad color. In most
cases, the water will require treatment for the removal of these impurities. In water treatment,
the water is subjected to various filtration and sedimentation processes, and in nearly all cases
is disinfected using chlorine or other disinfecting chemicals.
Once the water source has been selected, development of the source can begin.
Developing a water source includes all work that increases the quantity and improves the
quality of the water or makes it more readily available for treatment and distribution.
In developing a source, the engineer may use the construction of dams, digging
or drilling of wells, and other improvements to increase the quantity and quality of the water.
1.5.1 Surface water utilization and development
Surface water is usually the main source of water for purely pastoral livestock in
semi-arid regions. During the rainy season, precipitation over limited catchment basins runs

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off and concentrates in natural ponds where the soils are sufficiently impervious to prevent
leaking.
Most of these ponds dry out a few weeks after the end of the rainy season, due to the
combined effect of evaporation and seepage. During the dry season, a great part of the
livestock moves towards permanent surface water such as large rivers or permanent lakes or
ponds.
This method of utilization of surface water only requires leading the herds to water
and is always preferred to groundwater by stockbreeders. However, sedimentation and
location often make the rational use of surface water difficult and the improvement of the
natural storage conditions desirable.
Sanding up of ponds decreases their storage capacity until it becomes negligible so
that the actual number of usable poinds is smaller every year. This phenomenon is
aggravated by overgrazing and resulting desertification which makes the upper soil layers
more sensitive to the wind and water erosion.
The remoteness and uneven distribution of the permanent lakes and rivers during the
dry season results in the overgrazing of the pasture lands surrounding the water supplied.
Moreover the agricultural area increases to the detriment of the rangelands which become
smaller while the livestock population tends to grow every year.
Purposes of surface water development will be to increase the storage capacity of
natural ponds to extend their period of utilization, and to create new surface water reservoirs
in order to better the rangeland resources.
Permanent water supplies will rarely be desirable because of the following
factors:
a. In arid and semi-arid regions, runoff coefficients vary in the opposite direction with the
size of the basin; the bigger the catchment basin, the lower the runoff coefficient.
Therefore the quantities of water which can be collected by intercepting the runoff are
usually small.
b. Evaporation is high and may exceed 2 m/year which corresponds to the maximum depth of
most of the ponds even after deepening.
c. Seepage also contributes Co loss of water in the surface reservoirs and the techniques of
lining (with plastic or rubber sheets) are too costly in developing countries.
d. If significant permanent water supplies can be established they will probably be used for
agriculture which is a much more profitable activity than extensive stockbreeding.
e. Permanent surface reservoirs in a hot climate are often subject to health hazards while

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parasitic diseases are much less common around non-perennial ponds.

General guidelines for excavated and impounded reservoir location design and construction
follow for those who are not civil engineers. It is clear that larger excavated and impounded
reservoirs are "water harvesting" devices broadly speaking, but the term is generally used for
smaller storages where the tributary runoff area is treated to increase runoff. The basic
methods to choose a drainage area and a storage volume are the same.
There is essentially a continuum in gradation between large reservoirs and cisterns.
The subdivision of reservoirs which follows is arbitrary but the reader will observe that there
are reservoirs which are excavated in one part to form an embankment, depending on
topographic conditions. The arbitrary division is only for convenience. Small reservoirs are
known by other names in many areas, particularly in Asia where they are usually called
tanks.
1.5.2 What is the role of water in Rural development?
Water plays a critical role in providing livelihood opportunities and sustaining the health and
welfare of rural families around the world. Water resources and rural development publishes
papers describing the role of water resources in supporting livelihood activities in rural areas.
1.5.2.1 Improving the water supply system Rural area
In some remote areas, consumer’s may draw their supplies from wells bored in to aquifers.
Where water spare, water from roofs and storm drains may be stored in tanks for use on the
grounds.
Within the building, water supplies are designed to provide different types of water.
A variety of supplies are required for
» Cold water for drinking.
» Cold and hot water to bathrooms
» Cold water to WCs and bidets.
Water source development
One of the main duties of a water supply provider is to ensure that a safe and plentiful water
supply is available to all segments of a community at a reasonable cost. This may mean
seeking new water sources to satisfy demand. Identifying potential new sources and assessing
their viability prior to development is a skilled technical task that requires several different
factors to be assessed. These factors include:
Volume of water required: This will depend on demand, which relates to the number and type
of potential users. Will the new source be able to meet the demand of all users? Have future
increases in demand and population growth been taken into consideration?

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Quality: Is the water from a safe and protected source? If not, what will be the level of
treatment needed and how will this be achieved? What is the risk of pollution of the source?
Seasonal variations: Is the new water source reliable, or is it vulnerable to seasonal variations
in the availability of water? How will this be accommodated?
Distance between source and users: How far must the water be transported? What is the sort
of distribution system that will be needed? What are the engineering requirements for the
system?
Cost: Following on from all the above, what is the cost of developing the new source (both
capital and continuing operating and maintenance costs) into the future?
Environmental impact: What are the predicted environmental consequences of developing the
water source? Will the benefits of the new supply outweigh any disadvantages?
Sustainability: Can the water source be developed and used in such a way that it does not
compromise the future ability to supply water? For example, the rate of abstraction from a
spring should not exceed the rate of natural replenishment.
Distance between source and users: How far must the water be transported? What is the sort
of distribution system that will be needed? What are the engineering requirements for the
system?
Cost: Following on from all the above, what is the cost of developing the new source (both
capital and continuing operating and maintenance costs) into the future?
Environmental impact: What are the predicted environmental consequences of developing the
water source? Will the benefits of the new supply outweigh any disadvantages?
Sustainability: Can the water source be developed and used in such a way that it does not
compromise the future ability to supply water? For example, the rate of abstraction from a
spring should not exceed the rate of natural replenishment.
1.6 SOURCE WATER QUALITY

Water Quality
The raw or treated water is analysed by testing their physical, chemical and bacteriological
characteristics:
Drinking water varies from place to place, depending on the condition of the source water
from which it is drawn and the treatment it receives.
Even though our tap water supplies are considered to be one of the safest in the world, water
contamination can still occur. There are many sources of contamination, including:

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1.6.1 Definition of Water Quality

 The quality of water may be described in terms of the concentration and state
(dissolved or particulate) of some or all of the organic and inorganic material present
in the water, together with certain physical characteristics of the water.
Water quality is a measure of water's suitability to be used for a specific purpose, such as swimming,
farming, or power generation. Water that is considered unsuitable for one application may be
perfectly acceptable for another purpose. Quality is a statement of the physical, biological, and
chemical characteristics of water based on key conditions. These conditions can vary by location,
such as at different points in a river or by time depending on the climate. Surface water and ground
water can also affect the quality of each other, since these two are connected at the water table. It is
important to recognize that water quality can be adversely impacted by both natural and man-made
factors. Regularly monitoring water sources can help identify potential issues before they cause
serious harm.
1.6.2 How to Test Water Quality

 Smell the water.
 Taste the water.
 Check for cloudiness and particles.
 Examine the color.
 Check your pipes for corrosion or build-up.
1.6.3 Water Quality Characteristics

Biological Characteristics Microorganisms
Bacteria
• Viruses
• Protozoa
• Coliformbacteria (indicate human waste)
• Helminths
• Fungi, algae
Physical Characteristics taste, odor, color
Total solids (dissolved and suspended)

• Turbidity
• Color (apparent and true)

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• Taste & odor (organic compounds in surface water; dissolved gases in ground water)
• Temperature
Chemical Characteristics Natural or Manmade pH

• Anions & cations(dissolved solids)
• Alkalinity (HCO3-, CO32+,OH-system)
• Hardness (Ca2+, Mg2+)
• Dissolved gases (O2, CO2, H2S, NH3, N2,CH4…)
• Priority pollutants (organic and inorganic)
Microbial Contamination Is Of Major Concern For Water

•Protozoans -Amoeba, cryptosporidium, giardia, .…
•Bacteria – Salmonella, typhus, cholera, shigella, …
•Viruses –Polio, hepatitis A, meningitis, encephalitis,…
•Helminths
–Guinea worm, hookworm, roundworm,…
Disinfection of water
• Chlorination –Highly effective for bacteria, and effective for viruses –Not effective for
protozoa –Inexpensive, very common
•Boiling –Complete sterilization possible
•Chlorination –Highly effective for bacteria, and effective for viruses –Not effective for
protozoa –Inexpensive, very common
•Ozonation –Highly effective
•Ultraviolet radiation –Effective for low turbidity
•Boiling –Complete sterilization possible
•Ozonation –Highly effective
•Ultraviolet radiation –Effective for low turbidity
Physical characteristics
•Coloris due to dissolved (true color) or colloidal (apparent color) material…iron,
manganese, clay,…

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•Taste/odor…typically treated by aeration (to release dissolved gas from ground water) or
activated carbon (to remove organics from surface water)
1.6.4 Some of the major physical characteristics of water are as follows:

1. Suspended Solids
2. Turbidity
3. Colour
4. Taste and Odour
5. Temperature
Physical parameters define those characteristics of water that respond to the senses of sight,
touch, taste or smell. Suspended solids, turbidity, colour, taste and odour and temperature fall
into this category.

1. Suspended Solids:
Suspended solids in water may consist of inorganic or organic particles or of immiscible
liquids (oils or greases). Inorganic solids such as clay, silt and other, soil constituents are
common in the surface water. Organic materials such as plant fibres and biological solids
(bacteria, algae cells etc.) are also common constituents of surface waters.
These materials are often natural contaminants resulting from the erosive action of water
flowing over surfaces. Suspended water is rarely a constituent of ground water because of the
filtering capacity of soil. Domestic waste water usually contains large quantities of suspended
solids that are mostly organic in nature. Wide varieties of suspended impurities of either
organic or inorganic nature may result from industrial use of water.
Suspended water has the following impacts:

(a) Suspended matter is aesthetically displeasing and biological degradation of the organic
matter may result in the form of harmful by-products.
(b) The suspended matter provides adsorption sites for harmful chemical or biological
organisms which may adversely affect the flora and fauna of the stream.
(c) Upon settling down the suspended particles suffocate the organisms inhabiting the bottom
of aquatic habitats.

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(d) The suspended matter reduce the light thereby result in reduced photosynthesis & a
corresponding loss in food production, which in turn affects the life of the consumers
depending on the aquatic flora for their nutritional requirements.

2. Turbidity:
Turbidity is a measure of the extent to which light is either absorbed or scattered by
suspended material in water. Because absorption and scattering are influenced by both size
and surface characteristics of the suspended material, turbidity is not a direct quantitative
measurement of suspended solids.
For example one small pebble in a glass of water would produce virtually no turbidity. But if
this small pebble were crushed into hundreds of particles of colloidal size, a measurable
turbidity would result, even though the mass of solids had not changed.
Most turbidity in surface water results from the erosion of colloidal material such as clay, silt,
rock fragments and metal oxides from the soil. Vegetable fibres and micro-organisms also
contribute to turbidity. Household and industrial waste water may contain a wide variety of
turbidity producing materials. Soaps, detergent and emulsifying agents produce stable
colloids that result in]turbidity.
Turbidity has the following adverse impacts on the quality of water:

(a) The colloidal material associated with turbidity provides adsorption sites for chemicals
that may be harmful or cause undesirable tastes and odours and for biological organisms that
may be harmful.
(b) Turbidity may impart a brown or other colour to water in natural water bodies depending
upon the light absorbing properties of the solids and may interfere with the light penetration
and photosynthetic reactions in streams and lakes.
(c) Accumulation of turbidity causing particles in porous stream beds results in sediment
deposits that can adversely affect the flora and fauna of the stream.
3. Colour:
Pure water is colourless but water in nature is often coloured by foreign substances. Water,
whose colour is partly due to suspended matter, is said to have apparent colour. Colour

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contributed by dissolved solids that remain after removal of suspended matter is known as
true colour.
The tanning, humic acid etc. present in the organic debris (leaves, wood, weeds etc.) impart a
yellowish brown colour to water as it comes in contact with them. Iron oxide cause reddish
water and manganese oxides cause brown or blackish water.
Industrial wastes from textile and dyeing operations, food processing, pulp and paper
production, chemical production, and mining, refining and slaughter house operations may
add substantial colouration to water in receiving streams.
Colour has the following impact on water quantity:

(a) Coloured water is not aesthetically acceptable to the general public.
(b) Highly coloured water is unsuitable for laundering, dyeing, paper making, beverage
manufacturing, dairy production and other food processing and textile and plastic production.
Thus, the colour of the water affects its marketability for both domestic and industrial use.
4. Taste and Odour:

Many substances with which water comes into contact in nature or during human use may
impart perceptible taste and odour. These include minerals, metals and salts from the soil, and
products from biological reactions and constituents of waste water.
Water tastes bitter when contaminated with alkaline impurities and salty when the impurities
are metallic salts. Biological decomposition of organic debris impart a characteristic taste and
odour of rotten eggs which is mainly due to hydrogen sulphide. Growth of algae, micro-
organisms, hydrogen sulphide and ammonia give an obnoxious odour to water making it unfit
for use.
The impact of taste and odour on water quality is:

(a) Consumers find taste and odour aesthetically displeasing for obvious reasons. Because
water is thought of as tasteless and odourless, the consumer associates taste and odour with
contamination and may prefer to use a tasteless, odourless water that might actually pose
more of a health threat.
(b) Odours posed by organic substances may pose more than a problem of simple aesthetics
since some of those substances may be carcinogenic.

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5. Temperature:
It is one of the most important parameters in natural surface water systems I he temperature
of surface waters governs to a large extent the biological species present and then- rate of
activity. Temperature has an effect on most chemical ructions that occur in natural water
systems.
Temperature also has a great effect on the solubilities of gases in water. The use of water for
dissipation of waste heats in industry and the subsequent discharge of the heated water may
result in dramatic temporary change in receiving streams.
Increased temperature of water has the following impacts:

(a) Cooler waters usually have a wide diversity of biological species .At lower temperatures,
the rate of biological activity i.e. utilisation of food supplies growth reproduction etc. is
slower. Biological activity increases with increase in temperature (double with an
increase of 10 °C).
(b) Some aquatic organisms die due to increased temperature (e.g. cold water fishes like
trouts). Fishes are affected dramatically by temperature and by dissolved oxygen levels,
which are a function of temperature.
(c) The oxygen saturation percentage decreases and. therefore, the dissolved oxygen level
(DO level) is reduced. Low DO level coupled with high temperatures result in increasing
the metabolic activity of micro-organisms thereby resulting in the reduction in the
availability of oxygen leading to anaerobic conditions.
(d) The toxicity of chemical pollutants increases with increased in temperature.
(e) Growth of algae is accelerated and becomes problematic when the algal cells cluster to
form mats.
(f) Most chemical reactions involving dissolution of solids are accelerated by increased
temperatures. The solubility of gases, however, decreases at elevated temperatures.
(g) The viscosity of water increases with decreasing temperature. The maximum density of
water occurs at 4 °C, and density decreases on either side of that temperature. Both
temperature and density have a subtle effect on plank tonic micro-organisms in natural
water system.

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Rise in the temperature of water (and air) to a harmful level due to heat from I power plant,
automobiles, industries etc. is called thermal pollution.
Thermal pollution may be controlled by dry towers. A cooling tower passes cool air over
pipes containing hot water (thermal power plants) transferring heat to the air.
This is called indirect cooling in contrast to the direct cooling in which water is pumped from
the river and after being used only once for cooling purposes it is at once returned to the sea
or river instead of using the same water again and again before finally dissipating it into the
water bodies resulting in a significant rise in the temperature of the water.
1.6.5 ANALYSIS OF WATER (Laboratory Test)

Physical Characteristics of Water
1. Turbidity of Water
The turbidity is measured by a turbidity rod or by a turbidity meter with optical observations
and is expressed as the amount of suspended matter in mg/l or parts per million (ppm).
For water, ppm and mg/l are approximately equal.
The standard unit is that which is produced by one milligram of finely divided silica (fuller’s
earth) in one litre of distilled water.
Turbidity Rod:
The turbidity can be easily measured in the field with the help of a turbidity rod. It consists of
an aluminium rod which is graduated as to give turbidity directly in silica units (mg/l)
Turbidimeter:
The turbidity can be easily measured in the laboratory with the help of a instruments called
turbidity meter. In general, a turbidity meter works on the principle of measuring the
interference caused by the water sample to the passage of light rays.
Jackson’s candle Turbidimeter:
The height of water column will therefore be more for less turbid water and vice versa.
Longer the light path lower the turbidity. Such a turbidimeter can not measure turbidites
lower than 25 JTU.
It can be used for natural sources only and can not be used to measure the turbidity of
treated water supplies, for which Baylis turbidity meter or modern nephelometers are
used.
Baylis Turbidimeters

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One of the two glass tubes is filled with water sample (whose turbidity I to be measured) and
the other is filled with standard water solution of known turbidity. The electric bulb is lighted
and the blue colour in both the tubes is observed from the top of the instrument.
Modern Nephelometer: for low turbidity less than 1 unit.
NTU – Nephelometric Turbidity Units
FTU – Formazin Turbidity Units
Ratio turbidimeter: River water has maximum amount of turbidity.
2. Colour
The presence of colour in water is not objectionable from health point of view, but
may spoil the colour of the clothes being washed. The standard unit of colour is that which is
produced by one milligram of platinum cobalt dissolved in one litre of distilled water.
For public supplies, the colour number on cobalt scale should not exceed 20 and
should be preferably less than 10.
Colour determined by an instrument is known as tintometer.
3. Taste and Odour
The extent of taste or odour present in a particular sample of water is measured by a
term called odour intensity, which is related with the threshold odour or threshold odour
number.
Water to be tested is therefore gradually diluted with odour free water, and the
mixture at which the detection of odour by human observation is just lost, is determined. The
number of times the sample is diluted represents the threshold odour number.
For public supplies, the water should generally free from odour, i.e. the threshold
number should be 1 and should never exceed 3.
4. Temperature of Water
For potable water, temperature of about about C is desirable. It should not be
more than C.
5. Specific Conductivity
The total amount of dissolved salts present in water can be easily estimated by
measuring the specific conductivity of water.
Chemical Characteristics of Water

1. Total Solids and Suspended Solids

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Total solids (suspended solids + dissolved solids) can be obtained by evaporating a

sample of water and weighing the dry residue left and weighing the residue left on the filter
paper.
The suspended solid can be found by filtering the water sample. Total permissible
amount of solids in water is generally limited to 500 ppm.
2. pH value of Water
If concentration increases, pH decreases and then it will be acidic.
If concentration decreases, pH increases and then it will be alkaline.
pH + pOH = 14
if the pH of water is more than 7, it will be alkaline and if it is less than 7, it will be acidic.
The alkalinity is caused by the presence of bicarbonate of calcium and magnesium or by the
carbonates of hydroxides of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium.
Some, but not all of the compounds that cause alkalinity also cause hardness.
pH Measurement:
the pH value of water can be measured quickly and automatically with the help of
a Potentiometer.

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The pH can also be measured by indicators as given below:
Permissible pH value for public supplies may range between 6.6 to 8.4.
The lower value of pH may cause incrustation, sediment deposits, difficulty in chlorination.
3. Hardness of Water
Hard waters are undesirable because they may lead to greater soap consumption,
scaling of boilers, causing corrosion and incrustation of pipes, making food tasteless etc.
Temporary Hardness:
If bicarbonates and carbonates of calcium and magnesium are present in water, the
water is render hard temporarily as this hardness can be removed to some extent by simple
boiling or to full extent by adding lime to water. Such a hardness is known as temporary
hardness or carbonate hardness.
Permanent Hardness:
If sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium or magnesium are present in water, they
can not be removed at al by simple boiling and therefore, such water require special treatment
for softening. Such a hardness is known as permanent hardness or non-carbonate hardness.
It is caused by sulphates, chlorides, nitrates of Ca and Mg.
Carbonate hardness = Total hardness or Alkalinity (which ever is less)
Non-carbonate hardness = Total hardness – Alkalinity
 Carbonate hardness is equal to the total hardness or alkalinity which ever is less
 Non-carbonate hardness is the total hardness in excess of the alkalinity. If the
alkalinity is equal to or greater than the total hardness, there is no non-carbonate
hardness.

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 One French degree of hardness is equal to 10mg/l of CaCO3.

 One British degree of hardness is equal to a hardness of 14.25mg/l.
 Water with hardness upto 75 ppm are considered soft and above 200 ppm are
considered hard and in between is considered as moderately hard.
 Underground waters are generally harder than surface waters.
 The prescribed hardness limit for public supplies range between 75 to 115 ppm.
4. Chloride Content
The chloride content of treated water to be supplied to the public should not exceed a value of
about 250 ppm.
The chloride content of water can be measured by titrating the water with standard
silver nitrate solution using potassium chromate as indicator.
(5) Nitrogen Content
The presence of nitrogen in water may occur in one or more of the following reasons:
1. Free ammonia: It indicates very first stage of decomposition of organic matter. It
should not exceed 0.15mg/l
2. Albuminous or Organic Matter: It indicates the quantity of nitrogen present in
water before the decomposition of organic molten has started. It should not exceed
0.3mg/l
3. Nitrites: Not fully oxidized organic matter in water.
4. Nitrates: It indicates fully oxidized organic matter in water (representing old
pollution).
 Nitrites is highly dangerous and therefore the permissible amount of nitrites in water
should be nil.
 Ammonia nitrogen + organic nitrogen = kjeldahl nitrogen
 Nitrates in water is not harmful. However the presence of too much of nitrates in
water may adversely affect the health of infants causing a disease
called methemoglobinemia commonly called blue baby disease.
 The nitrate concentration in domestic water supplies is limited to 45 mg/l.
6. Metal and other chemical substances in water:
Iron – 0.3ppm, excess of these cause discolouration of clothes.
Manganese – 0.05ppm
Copper – 1.3ppm
Sulphate – 250 ppm

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Fluoride – 1.5 ppm, excess of this effects human lungs and other respiratory organs.
Fluoride concentration of less than 0.8 – 1.0 ppm cause dental cavity (tooth decay). If
fluoride concentration is greater than 1.5ppm, causing spotting and discolouration of teeth (a
disease called fluorosis).
7. Dissolved gases
Oxygen gas is generally absorbed by water from the atmosphere but it being consumed by
unstable organic matter for their oxidation. Hence, if the oxygen present in water is found o
be less than its saturation level, it indicates presence of organic matter and consequently
making the waters suspicious.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):
The extent of organic matter present in water sample can be estimated by supplying oxygen
to this sample and finding the oxygen consumed by the organic matter present in water. This
oxygen demand is known as Biological oxygen demand (BOD).
It is not practically possible to determine ultimate oxygen demand. Hence, BOD of water
during the first five days at C is generally taken as the standard demand.
= Loss of oxygen in mg/l x dilution factor.

The BOD of safe drinking water must be nil.
Bacterial and Microscopic Characteristics of Water

Five types of parasitic organisms (i.e. bacteria, protozoa, viruses, worms and fungi) are
generally known to be infective to main and are found in water.
1. Bacteria
These are the minute single cell organisms possessing no defined nucleus and having no
green material to help them manufacture their own food. They are reproduced by binary
fusion and may of various shapes and sizes are 1 to 4 microns, examined by microscope.
a) Non-disease causing bacteria – Non pathogenic bacteria.

b) Disease causing bacteria – Pathogenic bacteria.
2. Protozoa
These are single cell animals and are the lowest and the simplest form of animal life. They
are bacteria eaters and thus destroy Pathogens. They are counted by microscope.

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3. Viruses
4. Worms
These are the larva of flies.
5. Fungi
These are those plants which grow without sunlight and live on other plants or animals, dead
or alive.
Classification of bacteria based on oxygen requirement:
1. Aerobic bacteria: Those which require oxygen for their survival.

2. Anaerobic bacteria: Those which flourish in the absence of free oxygen.
3. Facultative bacteria: Those which can survive with or without free oxygen.
Pathogenic bacteria
These can be tested and counted in the laboratories but with great difficulty. These tests are
therefore, generally not performed in routine to check up of the water quality. The usual
routine tests are generally conducted to detect and count the presence of coliforms which in
themselves harmless organisms, but their presence or absence indicates the presence or
absence of pathogenic bacteria.
Methods to measure the presence of coliform bacteria:
1. Membrane filter technique (modern technique)
2. Mixing different dilution of a sample of water with lactose froth and incubating them
in test-tubes for 48 hours at C. the presence of acid or carbon dioxide gas in

tubes will indicate the presence of coliform bacteria.
Most probable number (MPN) represent the bacterial density.
Coliform index
It may be defined as the reciprocal of the smallest quantity of a sample which would
give a positive portion. Coliform sometimes called bacteria coli (B-coli) or Escherichia (E-
coli) are harmless aerobic micro-organisms.
If not more than 1 coliform is present per 100ml of water, then water is said to be safe
for drinking.

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Objective:
To determine chemical parameters such as hardness, alkalinity, and chemical oxygen
demand COD) of water samples.
Theory:
It is needless to emphasize the importance of water in our life. Without water, there is no life
on our planet. We need water for different purposes. We need water for drinking, for
industries, for irrigation, for swimming and fishing, etc.
Water for different purposes has its own requirements for composition and purity. Each body
of water needs to be analysed on a regular basis to confirm to suitability. The types of
analysis could vary from simple field testing for a single analyte to laboratory based multi-
component instrumental analysis. The measurement of water quality is a very exacting and
time consuming process, and a large number of quantitative analytical methods are used for
this purpose.
Total hardness:
Theory:
Hardness in water is that characteristic, which “prevents the lathering of soap”. This is
due to presence in water of certain salts of calcium, magnesium and other heavy metals
dissolved in it. A sample of hard water, when treated with soap does not produce lather, but
on other hand forms a white scum or precipitate. This precipitate is formed, due to the
formation of insoluble soaps of calcium and magnesium.
Thus, water which does not produce lather with soap solution readily, but forms a
white curd, is called hard water. On the other hand, water which lathers easily on shaking
with soap solution, is called soft water. Such water consequently does not contain dissolved
calcium and magnesium salts in it.
Temporary or carbonate hardness:
It is caused by the presence of dissolved bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium and
other heavy metals and the carbonate of iron. Temporary hardness is mostly destroyed by
mere boiling of water, when bicarbonates are decomposed, will produce insoluble carbonates
or hydroxides, which are deposited as a crust at the bottom of vessel.
Permanent or non-carbonate hardness:

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It is due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium, magnesium, iron, and
other heavy metals. Unlike temporary hardness, permanent hardness is not destroyed on
boiling.
The degree of hardness of drinking water has been classified in terms of the
equivalent CaCO3 concentration as follows:
In a hard water sample, the total hardness can be determined by titrating the Ca2+ and
Mg2+ present in an aliquot of the sample with Na2EDTA solution, using NH4Cl-NH4OH
buffer solution of pH 10 and Eriochrome Black-T as the metal indicator.
Na2H2Y (Disodium EDTA solution) → 2Na+ + H2Y-
Mg2+ + HD2- (blue) → MgD (wine red) + H+
D (metal-indicator complex, wine red colour) + H2Y- →Y- (metal EDTA complex colourless)
+ HD- (blue colour) + H+
Ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid (EDTA) and its sodium salts form a chelated soluble
complex when added to a solution of certain metal cations. If a small amount of a dye such as
Eriochrome black T is added to an aqueous solution containing calcium and magnesium ions
at a pH of 10 ± 0.1, the solution will become wine red. If EDTA is then added as a titrant, the
calcium and magnesium will be complexed. After sufficient EDTA has been added to
complex all the magnesium and calcium, the solution will turn from wine red to blue. This is
the end point of the titration.
Units of Hardness:
1. Parts per million (ppm): Is the parts of calcium carbonate equivalent hardness per
106 parts of water, i.e, 1 ppm = 1 part of CaCO3 eq hardness in 106 parts of water.
2. Milligram per litre (mg/L): Is the number of milligrams of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
present per litre of water. Thus:
1 mg/L = 1 mg of CaCO3 eq hardness per L of water.
3. Clarke’s degree (oCl): Is number of grains (1/7000 lb) of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per
gallon (10 lb) of water. Or it is parts of CaCO3equivalent hardness per 70,000 parts of water.
Thus,

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1oClarke = 1 grain of CaCO3 eq hardness per gallon of water.

4. Degree French (oFr): Is the parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 105 parts of water.
Thus,
1o Fr = 1 part of CaCO3 hardness eq per 105 parts of water.
Relationship Between Various Units of Hardness:
1ppm =1 mg/L=0.1oFr =0.07oCl

1mg/L=1 ppm=0.1oFr =0.07oCl
1oCl=1.43oFr=14.3 ppm=0.7omg/L
1oFr=10 ppm=10 mg/L=0.7oCl
Alkalinity:
Theory:
 Alkalinity is an aggregate property of the water sample which measures the acid-
neutralizing capacity of a water sample.
 It can be interpreted in terms specific substances only when a complete chemical
composition of the sample is also performed.
 The alkalinity of surface water is due to the carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxide
content and is often interpreted in terms of the concentrations of these constituents.
 Higher the alkalinity, greater is the capacity of water to neutralize acids. Conversely,
the lower the alkalinity, the lesser will be the neutralizing capacity.

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Alkalinity of sample can be estimated by titration with standard H2SO4 or HCI solution.
Titration to pH 8.3 or decolourisation of phenolphthalein indicator will indicate complete
neutralization of OH- and 1/2 of CO32-, while to pH 4.5 or sharp change from yellow to
orange of methyl orange indicator will indicate total alkalinity.
To detect the different types of alkalinity, the water is tested for phenolphthalein and total
alkalinity, using Equations:
Where,
A = titrant (mL) used to titrate to pH 8.3

B = titrant (mL) used to titrate to pH 4.5
N = normality of the acid (0.02N H2SO4 for this alkalinity test)
50,000 = a conversion factor to change the normality into units of CaCO3
Once PA and TA are determined, then three types of alkalinities, i.e, hydroxides, carbonates
and bicarbonates can be easily calculated from the table:

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Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):

Theory:
COD is used as a measure of oxygen equivalent to organic matter content of a sample that is
susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant.
For samples from a specific source, COD can be related empirically to BOD. COD
determination has advantage over BOD determination in that the result can be obtained in
about 5 hours as compared to 5 days required for BOD test.
The organic matter gets oxidized completely by K2Cr2O7 in the presence of H2SO4 to produce
CO2 and H2O. The excess of K2Cr2O7 remained after the reaction is titrated with ferrous
ammonium sulphate. The dichromate consumed gives the O2 required for oxidation of
organic matter.
Procedure:
 Under the chemical content, select the tests- Hardness, Alkalinity or COD.
a. Determination of Hardness of Water Sample
1. Select the titrant.

2. Adjust the speed of the drops from the burette.
3. Adjust the molarity of titrant.
4. Select a definite volume of water sample.

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5. Choose the indicator & start the titration.

6. When colour changes from wine red to blue click the "stop" button & note the volume of
EDTA used.
7. Then calculate the hardness of water sample in ppm using the equation as follows.
Observations And Calculations:
Volume of EDTA used=..................mL.

Molarity of EDTA =..................M.
Volume of the water sample =..................mL.
Therefore the total hardness of the sample is
= =.................ppm.
Result:
Total Hardness of the water sample = ..................ppm.
b. Determination of Alkalinity of Water Sample.

1. Select the titrant.
2. Select the normality.
3. Adjust the speed of the drops from the burette.
4. Select the titrate & choose a definite volume of the water sample.
5. Select the indicator, phenolphthalein to get a pink colour.

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6. Stop titration when the solution becomes colourless & calculate phenolphthalein alkalinity
(PA) as CaCO3 (mg/L) using the equation. Let A is the volume of titrant (mL) used in the
titration (V1).
7. Add methyl orange to the same flask & continue titration till the colour changes from yellow
to orange. The total volume of titrant corresponds to total alkalinity (TA) as CaCO3 (mg/L).
Let B is the total volume of titrant (mL) consumed with both the indicators (V2).
Observations and Calculations:
Volume of HCl corresponding to phenolphthalein end point (A)=..................mL.

Normality of acid =..................N
Normality of water corresponding to phenolphthalein end point =
=..................ppm.
Volume of HCl corresponding to methyl orange end point (B)=..................mL.
Normality of acid =..................N
Normality of water corresponding to methyl orange end point =
=..................ppm.

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Results:
Alkalinity is due to............ =..............ppm.
c. Determination of COD of water sample
1. Select the water sample.

2. To reflux the contents in the RB flask click the "switch on mantle" button.
3. Click "start titration" to titrate the contents.
4. Select the normality of ferrous ammonium sulphate (FAS).
5. Start titration & note the volume of titrant consumed when colour changes from bluish green
to wine red. (Let the volume of titrant be V2 mL).
6. Repeat the same with the blank (Let the volume of the titrant be V1mL).
7. COD calculated using the equation.
Observations And Calculations:
Volume of FAS used= (V1-V2) =..................mL.

Normality of FAS =..................N.
Therefore COD of the water sample
= =..............ppm.
Result:
COD of water sample =....................ppm.

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1.7 CHARACTERIZATION AND SIGNIFICANCE

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SELECTION OF THE MOST SUITABLE WATER SOURCE

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SELECTION OF THE TYPES OF WELL AND PUMP OR WATER LIFTING DEVICE
Factors affecting per capita demand:

1.8 DRINKING WATER QUALITY STANDARDS:
S.No Characteristic/Parameter BIS ICMR WHO

1 Colour 5 2.5
2 Odour Agreeable Unobjectionable Unobjectionable
3 Turbitity 10NTU 5NTU 2.5NTU
4 pH 6.5 – 8.5 7 – 8.5 7 – 8.5
5 TDS 500 mgl 500 mgl 500 mgl
6 Hardness 300 mgl 300 mgl 200 mgl
7 Ca 75 mgl 75 mgl 75 mgl
8 Mg 30 mgl 50 mgl 30 mgl
9 CL 250 mgl 200 mgl 200 mgl

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10 Sulphate 200 mgl 200 mgl 200 mgl

11 Fe 0.3 mgl 0.1 mgl 0.1 mgl
12 Nitrate 45 mgl 20 mgl 45 mgl
13 Phenolic compunds 0.001 mgl 0.001mgl 0.001mgl
14 Cd, Sc 0.01 mgl - 0.01 mgl
15 Cu, As 0.05 mgl 0.05mgl 0.01 mgl
16 Cyanides 0.05 mgl - 0.1 mgl
17 Pb 0.1 mgl - 0.1 mgl
18 Residual Chlorine 0.2 mgl - -
19 Pesticides Absent - -
20 PAH - - -
21 Anionic detergents 0.2 mgl - -
BIS- Beaurau of Indian Standards.

ICMR- Indian Council for Medical Research.
WHO- World Health Organization.

Unit 1 Sources of Water

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VARUVAN VADIVELAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY – DHARMAPURI DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

1.1 PUPLIC WATER SUPPLY AYSTEM

IMPORTANCE AND NECESSITY OF WATER SUPPLY SCHEME

1.1. 3 What is Water Supply System?

J. SANTHI AMUTHA WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING UNIT – I SOURCES OF WATER 1

1.1.3.1 They are to types of Water Supply System

1.2.1.1 Schematic Diagram of Typical Water Supply System

J. SANTHI AMUTHA WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING UNIT – I SOURCES OF WATER 2

J. SANTHI AMUTHA WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING UNIT – I SOURCES OF WATER 3

1.2.1.2 Historical Development

1.2.1.3 Components of Water Supply System and their Functions

1.2.2 Objectives of Water Supply System

1.2.3 Design Periods

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1.2.3.1 Design Period of Water Supply Scheme:

1.2.3.3 Design period is estimated based on the following:

 Useful life of the component, considering obsolescence, wear, tear, etc.

1.2.3.5 Water Quantity Estimation

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Quantity= Per capita demand x Population

1.2.3.6 Water Consumption Rate (Per capita demand)

Water Consumption for Various Purposes:

Types of Consumption Normal Range Average %

2 Industrial and Commercial 45-450 135 30

1.2.3.7 Definition of terms:

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1.2.3.8 Factors affecting per capita demand:

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1.2.3.9 Fluctuations in Rate of Demand

1.2.3.10 Average Daily Per Capita Demand

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1.2.3.11 Fire Fighting Demand:

Authority Formulae (P in thousand) Q for 1 lakh

Determination of water demand is indispensable when it comes to the design of a proper

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1.2.3.11 Per Capita Demand (q)

Per Capita Demand (q)

1.2.3.12.1 Per capita demand is dependent on the following factors:

1. Water supply system

1.2.3.13 Municipal Water Demand

1.2.4 Population Forcasting

1.2.4.2 Population Forecasting Methods

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2. Geometric Increase Method

Year 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971

Year Population: Increment per Incremental Percentage Increment per

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1.2.4.3.1 Arithmetical Progression Method:

Population for the years,

1981= population 1971 + ni, here n=1 decade

= 120 + 8.57 = 128.57

1991= population 1971 + ni, here n=2 decade

= 120 + 2 x 8.57 = 137.14

2001= population 1971 + ni, here n=3 decade

= 120 + 3 x 8.57 = 145.71

1994= population 1991 + (population 2001 - 1991) x 3/10

= 137.14 + (8.57) x 3/10 = 139.71

1.2.4.3.2 Incremental Increase Method:

Population for the years,

= 120 + 8.57 + 3.0 = 131.57

1991= population 1981 + 11.57

= 131.57 + 11.57 = 143.14

2001= population 1991 + 11.57