Research Note

Business Research Methods
Introduction
UNIT
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Meaning of research
Types of research
Scientific research
Features of scientific research
The scientific research process
Approaches to research
Paradigm shifts- Positivist vs. Interpretive philosophies
Concept of management research
Nature of management research
Value in business decision making
Applying scientific thinking to management problems
Ethical concerns in research
1. MEANING OF RESEARCH
Suppose you are working in the area of marketing. You can work at
different levels such as a salesperson, sales manager or sales promotion
executive. While working, the list of questions that may come to your
mind can be endless such as:
 What is the best strategy to promote the sales of a particular product?
 How satisfied are the consumers with organization’s product?
 What are the factors those influences on consumers buying decision?
 What training do the salespersons need to promote the sale of product?
These types of questions and the need to find answers to them will vary
with the level at which you work in the organization. Research is one of
the ways to help you answer such questions objectively.
The term ‘research’ consists of two words: re and search

Research = Re + Search
Re means again, once more, afresh, new
Search means look thorough or go over thoroughly to look something,
examine to find anything concealed.
Therefore, research is a process of which a person observes the
phenomena again and again and collects the data and on the basis of data
s/he draws some conclusions. In other words, research means searching
again and again for new knowledge on a particular topic through detailed
and systematic studies that helps to increase or revise current knowledge
and find solutions to the problem.
Research refers to the process of systematic investigation for finding

solution to the specific problem and searching new knowledge that
increase or improve existing knowledge. It is a logical and systematic
search for new and useful information on a particular topic. A research can
lead to new contribution to the existing knowledge.
Basically research is done for two purposes:

 To generate new knowledge to the existing knowledge.
 To identify the problem and search the solutions of such problems.
According to Clifford Woody, “research is a careful inquiry or

examination in seeking facts or principles, a diligent investigation to
ascertain something.”
Introduction
According to According to M.H. Gopal, “research is essentially a
systematic inquiry seeking facts through objective verifiable methods in
order to discover the relationship among them and to discover from them
broad principles or laws.”
Research, is thus, an original contribution through scientific study to the

existing stock of knowledge making for its further advancement. The
systematic approach concerning generalization and the formulation of a
theory is also research. From the many definitions there appears to be
conformity that:
 Research is a process of inquiry and investigation
 Research is systematic and methodological
 Research increase knowledge
 Research identify and solve problems
2. TYPES OF RESEARCH
Research is a systematic search for information and new knowledge. Its
main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has
not been discovered as yet. Research can be classified under three
perspectives: application, objective, and inquiry perspectives.
Figure (1.1): Types of research
Based on application perspective

Basic research
Applied research
Based on objective perspective

Descriptive research
Types of research Exploratory research
Correlational research
Explanatory research
Based on inquiry perspective

Qualitative research
Quantitative research
2.1 Based on application perspective: Under this perspective, research

can be classified as basic and applied research.
a) Basic research: Basic research is empirical research in which the goal
is to contribute to researcher’s theoretical knowledge in a field. It
looks at causes and effects relationship in social phenomena. It is done

for knowledge enhancement. The main motivation is to expand man's
knowledge, not to create or invent something. It mainly aims to answer
the question of why, what or how and they tend to contribute the pool
of fundamental knowledge in the research area.
Some examples of basic research are:

 A study on finding out what are the causes of depression.
 A study on how did the universe began?
 A study looking at how caffeine consumption impacts the brain.
 A study assessing whether men or women are more likely to suffer
from depression.
 An investigation into the main elements of brand and branding.
 A critical analysis of factors impacting each stage of product life
cycle.
Notice in these examples, the goal of the research is to simply increase

the amount of knowledge on a topic, not to actually come up with a
solution to a problem.
b) Applied research: Applied research is empirical research in which the

goal is to apply the research findings to solve a problem. It tries to find
answer and solution to specific problems. It is designed to solve
practical problem at the modern world rather than to acquire
knowledge just for knowledge seek. Applied research is conducted
when a decision must be made about a specific real-life problem.
This type of research involves seeking new applications of scientific

knowledge to the solution of a problem, such as a development of a
new system or procedure, new device, or new method in order to solve
the problem.
Some examples of applied research are:

 A study on finding out how to control the cause of depression
(developing therapy or medications).
 A study on how to improve agricultural crop production.
 A study on how to improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or
modes of transportation.
2.2 Based on objective perspective: Under this perspective, research can

be classified as Descriptive, Correlational, and Explanatory research.
Introduction
a) Descriptive research (What is the current situation?): Descriptive
research is a scientific method which involves describing the
characteristics of a population or phenomena without influencing it in
any way. It describes people, products, and situations. The major
purpose of descriptive research is to describe of a situation as it exists
at present or as it naturally occurs. The main characteristic of this
method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can
only report what has happened or what is happening.
Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the

current status of the phenomena to describe “what exists” with respect
to variables or condition in a situation. It can simply be an observation
of something, in which the researcher takes the effective role of
'witness', answering the basic question of 'What happened?' So, the
descriptive research can’t take into account the validity of the research
results, because it does not explain the causes of the results.
For example, a study on examining the organization’s clients profile.

By understanding the customer better, sales and marketing
management will be able to take better decisions on new product
development.
The descriptive research method is basically divided into three types:

 Observation method
 Case study method
 Survey method
b) Exploratory research: Exploratory research is research conducted for

a problem when there are few or no earlier studies. It tends to tackle
new problems on which little or no previous research has been done. It
tends to discover new opportunities. The main purpose of this research
design is to discover of new ideas or to achieve insights into a new
phenomenon. Exploratory research is used when the problems are on
preliminary stage.
Exploratory researches are merely formative for the purpose of gaining

new insights, discovering new ideas, and increasing knowledge of
phenomena. They help to diagnose the dimensions of the problem so
that successive research will be on target.
For example, study on finding out the new management technique in

order to brief a management team. This would be a vital first step
before deciding whether to embrace the technique.
c) Correlational research: Correlational research refers to the

systematic investigation or statistical study of relationships among two
or more variables, without necessarily determining cause and effect. It
seeks to establish a relation / association / correlation between two or
more variables that do not readily lend themselves to experimental
manipulation.
For example, to test the hypothesis ‘Listening to music lowers blood

pressure levels’ there are two ways of conducting research:
 Experimental- group samples and make one group listen to music and
then compare he blood pressure (BP) levels.
 Survey- asks people how they feel, how often they listen, and then
compare.
d) Explanatory research: Explanatory research attempts to clarify why

and how there is a relationship between two aspects of a situation or
phenomenon. The primary purpose of explanatory research is to
explain why phenomena occur and predict future occurrences. It is
characterised by
Explanatory is characterized by research hypotheses that specify the

nature and direction of the relationships between or among variables
being studied. Probability sampling is normally a requirement in
explanatory research because the goal is often to generalize the results
to the population from which the sample is selected. The data are
quantitative and almost always require the use of a statistical test to
establish the validity of the relationships.
For example, this type of research attempts to explain, why stressful

living results in heart attacks; why a decline in mortality is followed
by a fertility decline; or how the home environment affects children’s
level of academic achievement.
2.3 Based on mode of inquiry perspective: Qualitative, and quantitative

research
a) Quantitative research: Quantitative research is the systematic
empirical investigation of observable phenomena via statistical,
Introduction
mathematical or computational techniques. This research is based on
numeric figures or numbers. It usually involves collecting and
converting data into numerical form so that statistical calculations can
be made and conclusions drawn. It aims to measure the quantity or
amount and compares it with past records and tries to project for future
period in social science. It is generally associated with the
positivism/Postpositivism paradigm.
The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because

it provides fundamental connection between empirical observation and
mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Statistics is the
most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research.
Statistical methods are used extensively with in fields such as
economics and commerce.
For example, total sales of soap industry in terms of rupees cores and
or quantity in terms of lakhs tones for particular year, say 2008, could
be researched, compared with past 5 years and then projection for
2009 could be made.
2.4 Qualitative research: Qualitative research is primarily exploratory

research. It is a type of research that deals with phenomena that are
difficult or impossible to quantify mathematically, such as beliefs,
attitudes, opinions, and behaviors. It is used to gain an understanding
of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivation. It is about recording,
analyzing and attempting to uncover the deeper meaning and
significance of human behavior and experience, including
contradictory beliefs, behaviors and emotions.
Qualitative research is concerned with subjective assessment of

attitudes, opinions, and behaviors. It is generally associated with the
social constructivism paradigm which emphasizes the socially
constructed nature of reality.
For example, a study on finding out how students’ behavior influences

on their study.
3. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Scientific research is a logically step-by-step process used for investigating
or solving problems. It focuses on solving problems and pursues a step-by-
step logical, organized, and rigorous method to identify the problems,
gather data, analyze them, and draw valid conclusions there from. Thus,
scientific research is not based on hunches, experiences, and intuition but a

purposive and rigorous.
Because the rigorous way in which the research done, scientific research
enables all those who are interested in researching about the same or
similar issues to come up with comparable findings when the data are
analyzed. The findings of scientific research can be reproduced and
demonstrated to be consistent. One test of the results of scientific research
is for someone else to perform the same research (preferably in a different
way) and get the same result.
 Scientific research helps researchers to state their findings with

accuracy and confidence.
 Scientific research helps various other organizations to apply those
solutions when they encounter similar problems.
 Scientific research tends to be more objective (fact on data) than
subjective (prejudice, emotion,).
 Scientific research applies to both basic and applied research.
According to According to B. Ostle et al. “scientific research is an

investigation followed by experimentation, observation and logical
arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of these three in
varying proportions.”
Therefore, scientific research follows scientific methods and tools to

explain its variables. So it is true to say that “Scientific research relies on
real science rather than idle science.”
4. FEATURES OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Research is an art of scientific investigation. It is a careful investigation or
inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge. Besides that, it has the following features.
Figure (1.2): Features of scientific research
Empirical
Purposive
Rigor
Testability
Features of
scientific research Replicability
Precision
Parsimony
Introduction
4.1 Empirical: Scientific method is concerned with the realities that are
observable through ‘sensory experience.’ It generates knowledge
which is verifiable by experience or observation. Some of the realities
could be directly observed, like the number of students present in the
class and how many of them are male and how many female. The
same students have attitudes, values, motivations, aspirations, and
commitments. These are also realities which cannot be observed
directly, but the researchers have designed ways to observe these
indirectly. Any reality that cannot be put to ‘sensory experience’
directly or indirectly (existence of heaven, life hereafter, and God’s
rewards for good deeds) does not fall within the domain of scientific
method.
4.2 Purposiveness: Scientific research is undertaken with definite aim or

purpose to lead into problem identification or the range of inquiry.
With this specific purpose, scientific research leads to minimize the
possibility of making major errors and increase the possibility of
obtaining meaningful research results.
4.3 Rigor: Scientific research is absolutely rigorous process. Rigor means

carefulness, and the degree of accuracy in research investigations. It
involves a good theory base and a carefully thought-out methodology.
A good theoretical base and a sound methodological design would add
rigor to a purposive study.
4.4 Testability: Scientific research is developed to test the hypothesis. It

tends itself to testing logically developed hypothesis to see whether or
not the data support the hypotheses that are developed. There are
several statistical tools available that facilitates to test hypothesis such
as T-test, Z-test, F-test, etc.
4.5 Replicability: Scientific research is replicable. The results of the test

of hypothesis remained similar again and again when same type of
research is conducted in other similar circumstances. Whatever the
results that previous research had drawn, by using similar methods and
procedures of data collection and analysis the other research studies

also must come out with similar outcomes.
4.6 Precision: Another feature of scientific research is its precision.

Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to reality based on a
sample. Precision reflects the degree of exactness and accuracy of the
results on the basis of samples.
4.7 Generalizability: Another characteristic of scientific research is the

generalizability that the result of research is not restricted up to one
organization. Generalizability means that the result of research
conducted by the one organization is acceptable by the majority of
other organizations. The wider the range of generalizability of the
solutions generated by research, the more useful the research is to the
user. The more generalizable the research, the greater is its usefulness
and value.
4.8 Parsimony: It is also named as economical. For every research task

cost and time is required. The span of time should be moderate, not too
much and not too less. And cost should also not too huge or less but
moderate.
5. THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PROCESS

Scientific research involves a systematic process that focuses on being
objective and gathering data for analysis so that the researcher can come to
a conclusion. Following are the basic steps of scientific research process
which are discussed below.
Figure (1.3): Scientific research process
Formulation of research problem
Review of literature
Hypothesis formulation
Research design
Sampling design
Data collection methods
Data analysis
Hypothesis testing
Generalization and interpretation Introduction
Preparation of report or thesis
5.1 Formulation of research problem: The first step in the research

process is to select and properly define the research problem or
problem statement. Research problem refer to some kinds of difficulty
the researcher might encounter in the context of either theoretical or
practical situation, which s/he would like to resolve and find a solution
to.
5.2 Review of literature: Once the problem has been identified, the
researcher must learn more about the topic under investigation to
know the solution of the problem. To do this, the researcher must
review the literature that provides fundamental knowledge related to
the research problem. A review of literature is an account of what has
been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers.
The review of literature educates the researcher about what studies

have been conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted,
and the conclusions in the problem area. For this purpose, the
abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished
bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals,
conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be
tapped depending on the nature of the problem.
5.3 Hypothesis formulation: This step involved formulation of

hypothesis where hypothesis for the research are drawn from the
literature review. Hypothesis is an unproven statement intended to test
the validity of such factors. In other words, hypothesis formulation is a
tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory which is used
as a guiding principle in the process of investigation of new facts and
theories that are yet unknown.
Hypothesis is based on the findings of previous research (gained from

review of the literature) and perhaps researcher’s previous experience
with the subject. It provides direction to the researcher by suggesting
how to proceed further in the process of discovering new facts and
findings.
5.4 Research design: This step involved planning of data collection and
analysis approaches. A research design is a plan that enable researcher
to decide in advance what to do, how to do, in investigating the
subjects. It is a strategy that specifies which method will be used for
sampling, and which approach will be used for gathering and
analyzing the data. It also includes the time and budgets factors of
research.
Research design determine the following

 The location where the study would be conducted
 The data collection techniques that would be used
 The methods of data analysis that would be adopted
 The manner in which the report would be prepared
5.5 Sample design: Once the research design is prepared, a research

determines the sample design. Sample design refers to the technique or
the procedure which the researcher would adopt in selecting some
sampling units from the population for drawing inferences about the
universe.
Sample design determines the following:

 Sampling unit
 Sampling frame
 Sampling method
 Sample size
5.6 Data collection: After the completion of sample design, the actual
study begins with the collection of data. Data collection is a process of
preparing and actually collecting data. Data can be primary and
secondary data.
 Primary data means original data which are collected from the field for
the first time by performing interview, questionnaire, observation etc.
 Secondary data means data which are already collected by others for
their purpose. It includes report, thesis, journals, books, magazines,
Introduction
newspapers, libraries, and internet. It collects data from previous
research or reports instead of collecting first hand data.
5.7 Data analysis: After the collection of data, the researcher has to
analyze the data so that the research question can be answered. During
data analysis, data processing is done initially and those processed data
are analyzed through statistical tools.
Data processing
Statistical analysis
a) Data processing: Data processing is a statistical method by which the

collected data is so organized that the further analysis and
interpretation of data become easy. It is done through classification,
coding, editing, and tabulation.
 Classification: Classification is the process of reducing large mass of
data in to homogeneous groups for meaningful analysis. The collected
data are categorized based on its nature and feature. For example,
people are classified under male and female.
 Coding: Coding converts the data into numerals and symbols so that
the data can be dealt with in an easy manner. For example, numeric
codes such as 0 for male and 1 for female can be used.
 Editing: Editing is the process of checking and modifying the
collected data to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when
possible.
 Tabulation: Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and
displaying the same in the statistical table for further analysis. It is an
orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows.
b) Statistical analysis: After processing the data, they are analyzed

through statistical tools. Data analysis is in fact the statistical analysis
of data that have been classified, edited, coded, and tabulated. The
processed data are analyzed using statistical tools namely descriptive
statistical tools and inferential statistical tools.
 Descriptive tools: Frequency distribution, measurement of central
tendency (mean, median, and mode), and measure of dispersion.
 Inferential tools: Estimation statistics and hypothesis testing.
In brief, the researcher can analyze the collected data with the help of
various statistical measures.
5.8 Hypothesis testing: After analyzing the data, the researcher test the
hypothesis, if any, s/he had formulated earlier i.e. whether the original
hypothesis is found true or false. Hypothesis testing will result in
either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. While testing
hypothesis, the most usual question is: Do the facts support the
hypothesis or happen to be contrary?
Various statistical tests used for testing hypothesis are:

-T-test
-Z-test
-F-test
-Chi-square test
The hypothesis may be tested through the use of one of more of such
tests, depending upon the nature and objective of research inquiry.
If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalizations

established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be
tested by subsequent researches in times to come.
5.9 Generalization and interpretation: After the testing of hypothesis,

certain conclusions are drawn in relation to hypothesis.
 If the conclusions are drawn by testing hypothesis, they are considered
as generalization that creates theories. Such conclusions are applied in
all the similar organizations.
 If the conclusions are drawn without hypothesis, instead on the basis
of some previous theories, they are considered as interpretation that
create new issues and require further research.
5.10 Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher

has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. The report
informs the world what the research has done, what s/he discovered
and what conclusions s/he has drawn from his/her findings. Writing of
report must be done with great care keeping in view the following.
The layout of the report should be as follows:

 The preliminary pages: It includes title page, acknowledgement,
preface, table of contents, list of figures and tables.
 The main text: It includes research problem, literature review,
hypothesis formulation, research design, sample design, data
Introduction
collection method, testing of hypothesis, and generalization and
interpretation.
 The end matter: It includes references and bibliographies,
appendices, etc.
6. APPROACHES TO RESEARCH
Approaches could refer to designs, methods of data collection or analysis.
Research approach simply refers to a way of doing research. Research is
based on two approaches: qualitative research approach and quantitative
research approach.
Approaches to research
Qualitative approach to Quantitative approach to

research research
6.1 Quantitative approach to research: Quantitative approach to

research is research dealing with issues which can be measured exactly
in the quantity. It is a systematic empirical investigation of any
phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques.
It usually involves collecting and converting data into numerical form
so that statistical calculations can be made and conclusions drawn. Its
objective is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories
and/or hypothesis pertaining to phenomena.
The quantitative approach to research investigates to know how and

why things happen.
The main emphasis of quantitative research is on deductive reasoning

which tends to move from the general to the specific. This is
sometimes referred to as a top down approach.
Some of the characteristics of quantitative research are:

 It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics and
uses numbers.
 It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated.
 The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
 It is conclusive.
 It investigates the what, where, and when of decision making.
For example,
 A study on finding out what proportion of Nepalese male and female

college students use top 5 social networks.
 A study on finding out the important factors that influence the career
choices of Nepalese university students.
6.2 Qualitative approaches to research: Qualitative approach to research

is research dealing with phenomena that are difficult or impossible to
quantify mathematically, such as beliefs, attitudes, opinions, and
behaviors. It is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes,
opinions, and behaviors. Its objective is to gather an in-depth
understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such
behavior.
The qualitative research investigates the why and how of decision

making, not just what, where, when.
The approach adopted by qualitative researchers tends to be inductive

which means that they develop a theory or look for a pattern of
meaning on the basis of the data that they have collected. This
involves a move from the specific to the general and is sometimes
called a bottom-up approach.
Some of the characteristics of qualitative research are:

 It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words.
 Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation.
 Qualitative data cannot be graphed.
 It is exploratory.
 It investigates the why and how of decision making.
For example, A study on finding out how students’ behavior influences

on their study.
Difference between quantitative and qualitative research are as follow:

Quantitative research Qualitative research
Objective subjective
Research questions: How Research questions: What?
many? Strength of Why?
association?
Literature review must be Literature review may be done
done early in study as study progresses or
afterwards
Introduction
Test theory Develop theory
One reality: focus is concise Multiple realities: focus is
and narrow complex and broad
Measurable Interpretive
Researcher is separate Researcher is part of process
Context free Context dependent
Hypothesis Research questions
Reasoning is logistic and Reasoning is dialectic and
deductive inductive
Use instruments Uses communications and
observation
Sample size: n Sample size is not a concern,
seeks ‘informal rich’ sample
7. PARADIGM SHIFTS - POSITIVIST VS. INTERPRETIVE

PHILOSOPHIES
A paradigm is simply a belief system that guides the way we do things and
how we act in our lives. It is a pattern of beliefs and practices that regulate
inquiry within a discipline by providing frames and process through which
research is accomplished. Research paradigm includes research methods
and research philosophies that guide research process and inquires.
Paradigm dictates:
 What is studied and researched.
 The type of questions that are asked.
 The exact structure and nature of the questions.
 How the results of any research are interpreted.
According to Kuhn (1962), “a research paradigm is “the set of common

beliefs and agreements shared between scientists about how problems
should be understood and addressed.”
Paradigms are based on axioms, or statements that are universally accepted

as true. Paradigms are important because they are related to the selection
of research methodologies. Paradigm can be positivist and interpretive.
Paradigm
Positivist Interpretive
7.1 Positivist philosophies: The positivist philosophy is the oldest and

still the most widely used in mass media research. Derived from the
writings of philosophers such as Comte and Mill, positivism is the
paradigm most used in the natural sciences. When the social sciences
developed, researchers modified this technique for their own purposes.
The positivist paradigm involves such concepts as quantification,
hypothesis, and objective measures.
Positivism is the dominant form of research in most business and

management disciplines. Positivist researchers generally assume that
reality is objectively given and can be described by measurable
properties, which are independent of the observers (researcher) and his
or instruments. Positivist studies generally attempt to test theory, in an
attempt to test increase the predictive understanding of phenomena. In
practice it is often assumed that the units of analysis which make up
reality can be classified objectively into subjects and predicts.
7.2 Interpretive philosophies: Interpretive social science traces its roots

to Max Weber and Wilhelm Dilthey. The aim of the interpretive
paradigm is to understand how people in everyday natural settings
create meaning and interpret the events of their world.
Interpretative is not common as positivist in business and

management, but has gained ground over the past 20 years.
Interpretive researchers assume that access to reality (given or socially
constructed) is only through social constructions such as language,
consciousness, shared meanings, and instruments. Interpretive
researchers do not predefine dependent and independent variables, but
focus instead on the complexity of human sense-making as the
situation emerges; they attempt to understand phenomena through the
meanings that people assign to them.
Interpretivism approach generally takes an open minded approach and

starts from data rather than a literature based theory or hypothesis to
be tested out. Interpretivist researchers look at organizations in depth
and generally appoint to extensive conversations, observations and
secondary data analysis such as company documents and reports in
order to overcome generalizability critics.
The basic differences between positivism and interpretivism are

illustrated by Pizam and Mansfeld (2009) in the following manner:
Introduction
Assumptions Positivism Interpretivism
Nature of reality Objective, tangible, Socially
single constructed,
multiple
Goal of research Explanation, strong Understanding,
prediction weak prediction
Focus of interest What is general, What is specific,
average and unique, and deviant
representative
Knowledge LawsAbsolute MeaningsRelative
generated (time, context, and (time, context,
value free) culture, value
bound)
Subject/Researche Rigid separation Interactive,
r relationship cooperative,
participative
Desired How many people What some people
information think and do a think and do, what
specific thing, or kind of problems
have a specific they are confronted
problem with, and how they
deal with them
8. CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT RESEARCH

Management research is a systematic inquiry that helps to solve business
problems and contributes to management knowledge. It refers to
systematic collection and analysis of data with the purpose of finding
answers to problems facing management. Its purpose is to gather
information in order to aid business related decision-making. These
activities include defining business opportunities and problems, generating
and evaluating alternative courses of action, and monitoring employee and
organizational performance.
Management research is a systematic inquiry that provides information to

guide managerial decisions. More specifically, it is a process of planning
(research design), obtaining (collecting data), analyzing, and disseminating
relevant data, information, and insights to decision makers in ways that
mobilize the organization to take appropriate actions that, in turn,
maximize business performance.
According to Uma Sekeran, “Management research is a systematic and

organized investigation conducted to resolve problematic issues in, or
interrelated among, the different areas of management.”
Executives and managers who use business research methods are able to
better understand their company, the position it holds in the market and
how to improve that position.
9. NATURE OF MANAGEMENT RESEARCH

Business research helps the business in many ways, such as contributing
towards new strategic directions and ideas, evaluating and re-evaluating
the current processes and providing better ideas to make the current
processes efficient in forecasting and predicting the future trend of the
business. It enhances the understanding of what consumers want and how
they view the company. Furthermore, business research performs the
following roles:
Figure (1.4): Role of business research
Provide information
Role of business
Helps in decision making
research
Risk management
Shape strategies
9.1 Provide information: Business research collects information from

both inside and outside of organization and provide this information to
the concerned peoples that help to solve problems.
9.2 Helps in decision making: Business research helps in decision

making process, which is important for business growth. Business
research can answer questions for a variety of issues, from getting a
grip on industry trends, determining new products to develop and
deliver to the market, or deciding on which site to locate an outlet, to
better understanding what it takes to satisfy customers to keep them
loyal to business.
9.3 Risk management: Business research can provide parameters in

which a business can flourish and manage risk. Researching trends and
market conditions can identify the need for increased insurance,
Introduction
alternative shipping and transportation needs or the need to assess and
sell assets. Knowing present conditions can lower risk.
9.4 Shape strategies: Business research can inform and shape business
strategies. Researching trends or tracking industry data can provide or
stimulate strategic planning. Knowing what competitors are doing and
the direction they are headed can inform present business strategies.
Conducting business research in the area of consumer preferences
reveals what products need further development and what features
may be beneficial to add.
10. VALUE IN DECISION MAKING

The prime managerial value of business research is that it reduces
uncertainty by providing information that facilitates decision making about
strategies and the tactics used to achieve an organization’s strategic goals.
The decision-making process involves four interrelated stages.
Figure (1.5): Scientific research process
Identifying problems or opportunities
Diagnosis and assessing problems or opportunities
Selecting a course of action
Implementing a course of action
Evaluating the course of action
a) Identifying problems or opportunities: Before any strategy can be

developed, an organization must determine where it wants to go and
how it will get there. Business research can help to plan strategies by
determining the nature of situations or by identifying the existence of
problems or opportunities present in the organization. Business
research may be used as a scanning activity to provide information
about what is occurring within an organization or in its environment.
b) Diagnosing and assessing problems or opportunities: After an

organization recognizes a problem or identifies a potential opportunity,
business research should diagnose the situation so as to clarify the
situation. Managers need to gain insight about the underlying factors
causing the situation.
 If there is a problem, they need to specify what happened and why.
 If an opportunity exists, they may need to explore, refine, and quantify
the opportunity. If multiple opportunities exist, research may be
conducted to set priorities.
a) Selecting a course of action: This stage involves identifying and
selecting the alternative course of action to encounter the problems.
For that business research is conducted to obtain specific information
that will aid in evaluating the alternatives and in selecting the best
course of action. In this case, business research can be designed to
gather the relevant information necessary to determine which, if either,
course of action is best for the organization.
c) Implementing a course of action: Even the best plan is likely to fail

if it is not properly implemented. Business research may be conducted
to indicate the specific tactics required to implement a course of
action. Research provides real information regarding the situation so
that the manager can prepare various subsidiary plans to implement
course of action.
d) Evaluating the course of action: After a course of action has been

implemented, business research may serve as a tool to tell managers
whether or not planned activities are properly executed and
accomplished the results as expected. In other words, managers may
use evaluation research to provide feedback for evaluation and control
of strategies and tactics.
11. APPLYING SCIENTIFIC THINKING TO MANAGEMENT

PROBLEMS
Scientists are trained to only trust what is supported by evidence, so
scientific thought requires not believing something unless it is supported
with proof. Science, however, also requires creativity, so scientific
thinking includes determining means of testing specific ideas to prove
them true or false. In many cases, people who think in a scientific manner
are able to devise experiments to test hypotheses to determine which, if
any, are true.
Introduction
Scientific thinking is based on:
 Evidence or proof
 Highly objective rather than subjective
 Follows step-by-step method to perform any task
Scientific thinking in research refers to the purposive investigation and

step-by-step systematic method that helps to perform the research. It is a
step-by-step logical, organized, and thorough method of research in which
a problem is identified, formulated hypothesis, relevant data are gathered
and analyzed, then test the hypothesis, and finally conclusions are drawn.
The scientific thinking attempts to minimize the influence of the
researchers’ bias on the outcome of an experiment.
Research, where scientific thinking is used, can give more accurate results.
Scientific thinking in research tends to be more objective than subjective.
Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, identifiable
features are frequently shared in common between them.
There are six main features of scientific thinking:

 Scientific thinking is based upon cause-effect relationship and
evidences.
 It involves certain principles and certain assumptions.
 Scientific thinking employs hypotheses to verify the concepts.
 It is free from emotional bias, personal prejudices and it is highly
objective.
 It utilizes accurate measurement and observation to contribute in
situation.
 Scientific thinking employs quantitative analysis in the treatment of
data for drawing conclusions.
12. ETHICAL CONCERNS IN RESEARCH

In general, research must be designed so a respondent does not suffer
physical harm, discomfort, pain, embarrassment, or loss of privacy. Ethical
issues revolve around such concerns as the following:
 How should we treat the people on whom we conduct research?
 Are there activities in which we should or should not engage in our
relations with them?
Ethics refer to the rules of conduct for carrying out research in order to
prevent harm and to properly inform participants of the nature of the study.
These are the principles and guidelines that help to determine and uphold
what is morally justifiable.
Ethics in research refers to a code of conduct or norm of behavior while

conducting research. Ethical conduct applies to the organization and the
members that sponsor the research, the researchers who undertake the
research, and the respondents who provide them with the necessary data.
The goal is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers adverse
consequences from research activities.
Ethical considerations in business research focus on the methods by which

information is gathered and the way the information is conveyed to the
target audience.
While conducting research, researcher must consider the following ethics:

Figure (1.6): Ethical consideration in business research
Informed search
Protection of privacy and confidentiality
Ethical No deception
consideration in
business research Protection from harm
Protection of copyright
No findings in the interest of sponsors
a) Informed consent: Inform consent is a mechanism for ensuring that

people understand what it means to participate in a particular research
study so they can decide in a conscious, deliberate way whether they
want to participate. This means explaining to potential participants the
purpose and nature of the research so they can freely choose whether
or not to become involved. A researcher should have the permission of
the people who they are studying to conduct research involving them.
Informed consent is one of the most important tools for ensuring
respect for person during research.
b) Protection of privacy and confidentiality: Protecting the privacy and

confidentiality rights of respondents is the duty of researcher.
Introduction
 Privacy: [Related with respondent’s body]. The identity of individuals
from whom information is obtained in the course of the research
should be kept secret. The researcher must agree not to reveal the
identity of the participants to anyone other than the researcher and his
staffs who have access to the data.
 Confidentiality: [Related with respondent’s information]. The

information gathered from respondents should assure that data are
available only to those who are authorized to view them.
c) No deception: [Deception=dishonesty].Researcher should provide

correct and full information to the participants about the purpose and
nature of research. Researcher must arrange to fully inform the
participants for conducting research to consent in a timely manner.
Deception is the act of wrongly informing respondents about the nature

of research or conducting study without fully informing participants
about the true purpose of research.
d) Protection from harm: The researcher should take the responsibility

to protect the subjects from whatever harm which might befall them
such as physical discomfort, emotional stress, humiliation,
embarrassment or any other situation that puts the participant at a
disadvantage. There should be no harm to participants’ career
prospects, development or self-esteem.
e) Protection of copyright: Copyright is an intellectual property right

that protects the owner of copyright from unauthorized copying. The
findings /literature review of any business research should avoid the
publication of any third-party unpublished data, methods or results
without the permission of that party. Proper acknowledgements and
credit must be given for all contributions to the research to avoid
claims of plagiarism or impropriety.
f) No findings on the interest of sponsors: In some cases, so-called

independent research studies are actually paid by companies with an
interest in their desired outcome. They influence the way that research
issues are defined and findings presented.
Researcher should not focus on the interest of any other companies.

She should not make the research findings in the favor of company or
sponsors. Likewise, each company must accept responsibility for

policing the conduct and reporting of its own research.
SUMMARY
 Meaning of research: Research refers to the process of systematic
investigation for finding solution to the specific problems and to
search new knowledge that increase or improve existing knowledge.
 Types of research: Based on application perspective(basic and

applied research), based on objective perspective (descriptive,
exploratory, correlational, explanatory research), and based on inquiry
perspective (qualitative and quantitative research).
 Scientific research: Scientific research is a logically step-by-step

process used for investigating or solving problems.
 Features of scientific research: Empirical, purposive, rigor,

testability, replicability, precision, generalizability, and parsimony.
 The scientific research process: Formulation of research problem,

review of literature, hypothesis formulation, research design, sampling
design, data collection methods, data analysis, hypothesis testing,
generalization and interpretation, and preparation of report or thesis
 Approaches to research: Quantitative approach to research is

research dealing with issues which can be measured exactly in the
quantity. Qualitative approach to research is research dealing with
phenomena that are difficult or impossible to quantify mathematically,
such as beliefs, attitudes, opinions, and behaviors.
 Concept and nature of management research: Management

research refers to systematic collection and analysis of data with the
purpose of finding answers to problems facing management.
 Value in business decision making: Identifying problems or

opportunities, diagnosis and assessing problems or opportunities,
Introduction
selecting a course of action, implementing a course of action, and
evaluating the course of action.
 Ethical concerns in research: Search, protection of privacy and

confidentiality, no deception, protection from harm, protection of
copyright, and no findings in the interest of sponsors.
EXERCISE
1. Define the concept of research.
2. Explain the various types of research
3. What is scientific research? Explain its features.
4. Describe the steps in scientific research process.
5. Explain the various approaches to research.
6. What is paradigm shifts? Describe positivist vs. interpretive
philosophies.
7. Explain the concept of management research.
8. Explain the value of management research in business decision
making.
9. What are the ethical considerations that need to be taken while
conducting research?
UNIT LITERATURE
SEARCHING AND
THEORETICAL
2 FRAMEWORK
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Concept of literature review

Purpose of literature review
Steps in literature review
Selecting the review topic
Searching the literature
Obtaining the literature
Evaluating the literature
Writing the review
Concept of theoretical framework
Research and theory
Deductive research approach Introduction
Inductive research approach
Research problem
Research questions
Hypothesis formulation
1. CONCEPT OF LITERATURE REVIEW

Once the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more
about the research topic under investigation to know the solution of the
problem. To do this, the researcher must study journals, books, thesis or
dissertation, research reports, NGO/INGO reports, previous studies,
newspapers etc. that provides knowledge related to the research problem.
A comprehensive review of such documents and preparation of summary
of such study/published literature is called literature review.
Literature review is the process of reading, analyzing, evaluating, and

summarizing previous published documents such as journals, books,
previous studies, newspapers etc. with the purpose of knowing the research
issue in depth and find out appropriate methodology that is to be used in
research. The results or summary of such literature review may be
compiled in a report or they may serve as part of a research article, thesis,
or grant proposal.
Literature review involves the systematic identification, location, and

analysis of documents containing information related to the research
problem. These documents can include articles, abstracts, reviews,
monographs, dissertations, other research reports, and electronic media.
In short, literature review is the process of reading and summarizing

previous, published, or unpublished literatures.
According to P. Haywood and L.C. Wrag, “A literature review is the

process of locating, obtaining, reading and evaluating the research
literature in the area of your interest.”
According to N. Walliman, “A literature review is a summary and

analysis of current knowledge about a particular topic or area of inquiry.”
A literature review is necessary in research for the following reasons:

 Literature review facilitates to understand research problem better and
find out appropriate methodology that is to be used in research.
 Literature review identifies and describes key works relevant to the
current research.
 Literature review illustrates how the research has been done previously
in particular topic.
 Literature review clarify what knowledge and ideas have been
established in the past and outline gap in previous research or the
issues that is left in previous studies and
 Literature review refine, refocus or even change the topic.
The various sources of literature review are:

 Articles
 Books
 Research reports
 Research proposals
 Dissertation/Thesis
 Newspapers
 NGOs/INGOs reports
 Government publications
 Encyclopedia
 Internet search engines
Literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by

accredited scholars and researchers. The task of review of literature is
highly creative and tedious because researcher has to synthesize the
available knowledge of the field in a unique way to provide the rationale
for his study.
Introduction
2. PURPOSE OF LITERATURE
The main purpose of literature review is to convey what knowledge and
ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and
weaknesses are. It provides some insight regarding strong points and
limitations of the previous studies. This enables researcher to improve
his/her own investigation. Furthermore, literature review is performed for
the following purposes:
Figure (2.1): Purpose of literature review
To know the area of interest
To discover what has been written about a

Purpose of
topic already
literature review
To determine research question
To identify relevant methodological issues
To update on current issue
2.1 To know the area of interest: Literature review provides information

about the researcher’s area of interest. Reading of published or
unpublished journal articles, books, thesis, reports, newspapers etc. of
related topic will definitely increases researcher’s breadth of
knowledge of his/her subject area.
2.2 To discover what has been written about a topic already: Literature
review provides information about what other researchers have written
in the area of interest. It helps researcher to find the issues that are
untouched and helps to exclude those issues that have been already
researched. This facilitates researcher to carry on from where others
have already reached. Literature review also enables to identify any
strengths and weaknesses in previous work and thus helps to eliminate
the potential weaknesses.
2.3 To determine research question: Literature review can inspire

research ideas by identifying gaps or inconsistencies in a body of
knowledge, thus helping the researcher to determine or define research
questions. It can help refine or focus a broad research question and is
useful for both topic selection and topic refinement.
2.4 To identify relevant methodological issues: Literature review helps

researcher to identify methods that may be relevant to the research
topic. Different data collection and analyzing techniques are used for
conducting research in different subjects. Literature review provides
ideas regarding the appropriate data collecting and analyzing tools for
different nature of data. It suggests method, procedure, sources of data
and statistical techniques appropriate to the solution of the problem.
2.5 To update on current issues: The goal of literature review is to bring

the reader up-to-date with current literature on a topic and form the
basis for another goal, such as the justification for future research in
the area. It provides the reader with a comprehensive background for
understanding current knowledge and highlighting the significance of
new research.
3. STEPS IN LITERATURE SURVEY

A literature review is more than the search for information, and goes
beyond being a descriptive annotated bibliography. All works included in
the review must be read, evaluated and analyzed, but relationships between
the literatures must also be identified and articulated, in relation to the
field of research. While reviewing literature, researcher should follow the
following steps.
Figure (2.2): Steps in literature review
Selecting a review topic
Searching the literature
Obtaining the literature
Evaluating the literature
Writing the review

Introduction
3.1 Selecting the review topic: Before begin to search for articles or
books, researcher must decide beforehand which subjects are relevant
to the study. Review topic should be guided by a central research
question. Researcher should make a list of the topics which are
relevant to his/her research. Make sure that researcher only focused on
articles and books in those areas, even if s/he come across interesting
books in other areas.
3.2 Searching the literature: After selecting the topic that researcher
interested in, the next step is to search of appropriate related
information in a structured way. A literature search is a systematic and
thorough search of all types of published literature in order a breadth
of good quality references relevant to a specific topic.
To search the literature, following tools are relevant:

a) Library catalogue: Library catalogue is a register of all bibliographic
items found in a library. From library catalogue, researcher can get
various books.
b) Internet search engine: Internet search engines are programs that

search documents for specified keywords and return a list of the
documents where the keywords were found.
c) Encyclopedia: It is a book or set of books giving information on many

subjects or on many aspects of one subject and typically arranged
alphabetically.
d) Bibliographic database: Bibliographic database is a database of

bibliographic records, an organized digital collection of references to
published literature, including journal and newspaper articles,
conference proceedings, reports, government and legal publications,
patents, books, etc.
e) CD-ROM technologies: CD-ROM is an adaptation of the CD that is

designed to store data in the form of text, graphics, and sound. CD-
ROM technology provides the bibliographic details of articles and
books, abstract of various research work and full text of the research
work.
f) Database: Databases provide various formats of information.

Database cane online and manual database. Online database is a
database accessible from a network, including from the internet. These

online databases are delivered primarily via a web browser. Manual
database is a hard-file system consists of paper records, folders and
filling cabinets or storage boxes. This makes it easy to retrieve
documents and information when they are needed.
g) Literature review articles: Existing literature reviews and systematic

reviews can also be important sources of data. They can offer a good
overview of the research that has been undertaken, so that the
relevance to the present work can be determined. They also offer the
bibliographic references for those works that can be accessed.
3.3 Obtaining the literature: After searching the sources where research
and information is published, now it is the time to obtain or collect the
information from those sources which are relevant to the study.
 Literature searched from internet are downloaded or printed.

 Literature from journals, reports, books are collected physically,
photocopied, or written the relevant points in papers.
 Literatures from databases are transferred through CD-ROM or
internet is used.
3.4 Reading and reviewing the literature: After collecting the literature,
researcher should read briefly those collected literature to identify the
relevant and irrelevant literature. If researcher find out the literature
useful for study, then s/he should note them down.
While reading and reviewing each of the literature, following points

should be noted so that it will make easier to write review later and
also avoid from repetition of reading literature:
 Title of the study
 Name of author (s)
 Year of publication
 Summary
Topic Authors Year Summary

Introduction
3.5 Evaluating the literature: Once the reading and reviewing the
literature is completed, it should be filtered because all the collected
literature may not be equally important and useful for the study.
Therefore, researcher should evaluate the literature based on the
following criteria:
 Accuracy
 Scope
 Arrangement
 Author
 Authority
 Style
 Use of methodology
 Update information
 Suitability for specific requirements
3.6 Writing the review: Finally, those selected literature after evaluations
are used for the current research are written that helps to justify the
study. While writing the review, it should be arranged the material on
the basis of rationality and should be organized logically.
4. LITERATURE SEARCH THROUGH THE INTERNET

The internet provides a relatively new tool for conducting literature
review. It is being treated as a rich source for literature. The internet is a
worldwide network of computers that can provide access to a vast range of
literature.
Internet facilitates following during literature search:

 Provide all types of literature: The internet can be thoughts of as
enormous collection of files or documents that are stored on computers
throughout the world and that can be searched for literature of all
kinds.
 Data accessed from anywhere: Since all of the sites or places where
documents are stored are electronically linked, they can be accesses
from a personal computer or terminal connected to a network. It is
then possible to download or retrieved selected literature. The World
Wide Web (WWW) - a networked information system- makes finding
and retrieving this literature especially easy.
 Link electronic database: Browser such Netscape or Internet

explorer are used to find electronic databases or search engine. A
database is a collection of documents assembled by a company or

organization. It usually contains specific types of information such as
lists of journal articles, government documents, research reports,
numerical data, or newspaper and magazine files. Although many are
private and cannot be visited by the general public, there are now so
many that it is usually easy to find more than enough.
An Internet literature review involves a series of steps.

1. Create a list of search terms.
2. Access the net with a browser
3. Use search engines and electronic data bases to find information and
documents.
4. If necessary, modify the list of terms and repeat steps 2 and 3.
Some of most widely used search engines are:

Google http//:www.google.com
Yahoo http//:www. yahoo.com
Alta Vista http//:www.altavista.com
Go Go http//:www.go.com
All the web http//:www.alltheweb.com
5. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Framework is like a map that help researcher to decide which path ad help
researcher to understand other people path (other research).
Theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory

of a research study. It introduces and describes the theory which explains
why the research problem under study exists. It presents logically to the
previous research results and develops scientific base relating to the
assumptions with theories. Theoretical framework is based upon theories
that have already been tested. These are theories that are the results of
painstaking research conducted earlier by other investigators. These are
critical in deductive, theory-testing sorts of studies.
Literature review presents the relationship between dependent and

independent variables that helps to develop hypothesis. It manages the
variables in a logical way that helps to test the problem or theories.
Theoretical framework is needed for the following purposes:

 To clearly identify the variables used in the study.
Introduction
 To see the relationship between variables based on the previous
studies.
 To connect theories with the studies.
 To reduce the bias.
Therefore, theoretical framework is logically structured representation of

the concepts, variables and relationship involved in a scientific study with
the purpose of clearly identifying what will be explored, examined,
measured or described.
A theoretical framework guides researcher’s research, determining what

things s/he will measure, and what statistical relationships s/he will look
for. Following is the format of theoretical framework.
The Exploratory Study of Marketing Capabilities and Export Success:

an Investigation of Thai’s SMEs
Substantial empirical research has been undertaken to identify the

contribution of marketing to export success (Leonidou, Katsikeas and
Samiee, 2002). The integrative review of export literature concluded that a
well-designed export marketing strategy can indeed determine export
success. Market segmentation, product quality, pricing strategy, dealer
support, and advertising were found to be significantly associated with
export performance. This positive relationship is particularly stronger in
recent researches conducted in Europe.
The importance of marketing is also prevalent in studies involving small

and medium-sized (SMEs) exporting firms. Export success of UK SMEs
in the agro-food sector is attributed to the marketing capabilities (Ibeh,
Ibrahim and Panayides, 2006). In addition, marketing capability is
positively associated with an export venture performance in Turkish SMEs
(Zehir, Acar and Tanverdi, 2006). Besides, the dimensions of marketing
capability, distribution network capability and promotion effort capability
are emerged as significant contributors to the Greek manufacturing
exporting firm’s export performance (Katsikeas, Piercy and Ioannidis,
1996).
The success of ASEAN exporters is dependent on marketing. Evidence

from Malaysia showed that successful exporters are more planning
oriented, emphasized product quality improvement and adaptation, and
maintain effective communication with their distributors. The success
factor in expanding into regional market is dependent on the capability to
manage product-mix, ability to target and segment the market, and manage
the export process (Osman, Ramayah and Kim-soon, 2008). Additionally,
product management capability and pricing management capability have
been identified to explain the performance of Indonesian exporters
(Sefnedi, Osman and Daing, 2007).
The study of Ratanasithi et al., (2006) showed that there was a positive
association between product adaptation capability and export performance
in Thailand’s firms. Nevertheless, Julian and O’Cass (2002) indicated that
to be successful in export marketing Thai exporters need to emphasize:
first, the firm’ characteristics consists of firm competencies second, firm
commitment and the export environment consist of competition intensity
third, export market characteristics contribute significantly to the variation
in the export marketing performance of Thai export ventures. Furthermore,
the level of sophistication in the markets marketing infrastructure, degree
of adaptation required with respect to the product’s packaging, the extent
of government intervention, and degree of adaptation required for the
product’s positioning strategy are very important for successful export
marketing performance. In addition, the construct of Thai export
marketing strategy needs to investigate the determinant of export success.
Based on the literature review, this study has sought to answer the
following research question, which marketing capabilities contribute to
export success of Thai SMEs? These relationships are presenting in figure
below:
Marketing capabilities
Product capability
Price capability Export success
Distribution capability
Promotion capability
6. THEORY AND RESEARCH

Theory is defined as a set of systematically interrelated concepts,
definitions and propositions that are advanced to explain and predict a
phenomenon. It may also specify causal relationship among variables. A
theory is an integrated body of definitions, assumptions, and general
propositions covering a given subject matter from which a comprehensive
and consistent set of specific and testable principles can be deducted
logically.
Introduction
All researches are based on theory and most of them contribute to the
improvement in theory. Theory helps to undertake research systematically
and research helps to improve in the existing theory or develop new
theory. Thus, theory and research are related to each other.
Theory performs the following role in research:

 Theory narrows the range of facts to be studied
 Theory provides a conceptual framework for a study
 Summarizes concisely what is already known about the object of
study.
 Theory states a general uniformity beyond the immediate observations.
 Theoretical generalization can be used to predict further facts.
The relationship between theory and research can be presented in

deductive and inductive research approaches:
Relationship between theory and research
Deductive research approach Inductive research approach
6.1 Deductive research approach (Testing theory): It is a top down

approach where research works moves from the more general
information to specific information. In this approach, researcher starts
at the top with a very broad spectrum of information and s/he work
his/her way down to a specific conclusions. This research approach is
used to reach a logical conclusion or to test a theory. In other words,
deductive reasoning is narrower in nature and is concerned with
testing or confirming hypothesis.
Theory
Hypothesis
Observation
Confirmation
Deduction reasoning involves the development of a theory that is

subjected to a rigorous test. Following stages are involved in such
research:
1. Research begins with theory about the topic of interest.
2. Then narrow that down into more specific hypothesis that can be
tested.
3. Again narrow down even further when collecting observations to test
the hypothesis.
4. This ultimately leads to be able to test the hypothesis with specific
data i.e. a confirmation of original theories.
For example, deductive reasoning is based on premises and if the

premises are true, then the reasoning will be valid.
- All men are mortal [Major premise]
- Socrates is a man[Minor premise]
- Therefore, Socrates is mortal [Conclusion]
The premises of the argument -- that all men are mortal and that
Socrates is a man -- are self-evidently true. Because the premises
establish that Socrates is an individual in a group whose members are
all mortal, the inescapable conclusion is that Socrates must likewise
be mortal.

Other general examples are:
- In mathematics, If A=B and B=C, then A=C.
- All birds have feathers and robins are birds, so robins have feathers.
- All cars have at least two doors and a Ford Focus is a car, so the Ford
Focus has at least two doors.
6.2 Inductive research approach (Building theory):It is a bottom-up

approach where research works moves from a part to whole, from
specific to general, or from individual to the universal. It moves from
specific observations to broader generalization and theories. The
process of constructing theory from specific observation is termed as
inductive reasoning.
Theory
Tentative Hypothesis
Pattern (Analysis)
Observation
In inductive reasoning, researcher begins with specific observations
and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some
tentative hypothesis that we can explore, and finally end up developing
some general conclusions or theories.
Introduction
In simple terms, induction is a process of reasoning which infers a
general conclusion based on individual cases.
For example, in Kathmandu last month, a nine year old boy died of an
asthma attack while waiting for emergency aid. After their ambulance
was pelted by rocks in an earlier incident, city paramedics wouldn’t
risk entering the Koteshwor (where the boy lived) without a police
escort.
Thus, based on this example, one could inductively reason that the
nine-year old died as a result of having to wait for emergency
treatment.
7. RESEARCH PROBLEM
There is a famous saying that “Problem well-defined is problem half
solved”. This is true in research because well-defined problems are easy to
solve. Like a medical doctor, a researcher must examine all the symptoms
(presented to him or observed by him) concerning a problem before he can
diagnose correctly. To define a problem correctly, a researcher must know:
what a problem is? Research problem is the first and most crucial step in
the research process. The main function is to decide what researcher wants
to find out about.
What should be happening?
Research
problem
(Research gap)
What is actually happening?
Problem means a question or an issue to be examined.

A research problem or problem definition refers to some kind of
problem which a researcher experiences or observes in the context of
either theoretical or practical situations and wants to obtain a solution for
the same. It is a gap between actual and desired state. Research problem is
a description of a question or an issue currently existing which need to be
addressed. It is a state of clear and precise statement of questions or issue
that is to be investigated for finding an answer.
In general, a research problem will outline the basic facts of the problem,
explain why the problem matters, and pinpoint a solution as quickly and
directly as possible.
According to Kerlinger, “a good research problem defined as

interrogative sentence or statement that shows what relations exists
between two or more variables.”
According to Selkaran, “Research problem is any situation where a gap

exists before and the actual and the desired ideal state.”
Problem definition can be presented in two ways:

a) By posing question
For example, to what extent has the new advertising campaign been
successful in creating the high-quality, customer-centered corporate
image that it was intended to produce?
b) By making statement
For example, accuracy in documents is insufficient in purchasing after
the introduction of the new software. The errors have increased by
23%, when the target was to reduce errors by 85%.
A good problem statement will clearly define:

What is Where it When it To what I know that
wrong? happened? occurred? extent? because…
 What is wrong?
 Where the problem occurred?
 When the problem occurred?
 What is the extent of problem?
 How I know there is a problem?
-What is wrong? Accuracy in documents is

-Where the problem insufficient in purchasing
occurred? after the introduction of the new
-When the problem occurred software. The errors have
-What is the extent of increased by 23%, when the
problem? target was to reduce errors
-How I know there is a by 85%.
problem?
Introduction
8. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Although the term ‘research question’ and ‘problem statement’ are
sometimes used interchangeably, the research question is often more
specific than the problem statement. Problem statement identifies the basic
issue or problem to be addressed whereas research question divide
problem statement into manageable topics to be researched. In other
words, the problem statement defines and presents the issue in order to
frame specific question.
Problem definition Identifying the area of interest
Way of expressing researcher’s interest in

Research question a problem
A research question is defined as a statement that identifies the

phenomena to be studied. It is an answerable inquiry into a specific
concern or issue i.e. the research will answer the question posed. Research
question is a statement of what researcher hope to have learned by the time
s/he complete the program of research. It helps to keep research focused
and on track. It indicates the purpose and motive of the research
investigation.
Research questions are of three types: Descriptive, Relational, and Casual

questions.
Types of research question
Descriptive question Relational question Casual question
a) Descriptive question: The questions that are designed primarily to

describe what is going on or what exists are termed as descriptive
questions. The question describes the features and existing situation of
any event or objects. Researcher takes the effective role of 'witness',
answering the basic question of 'What happened?'
Some examples of descriptive questions are:

 How many calories do Nepalese consumes consume per day?
 How often do Nepalese students use Facebook each week?
 What are the most important factors that influence the career choices
of Nepalese university students?
b) Relational/Observational question: The questions that are designed

to look at the relationships between two or more variables are termed
as relational questions. It considers how individual items relate to one
another (or not), with the researcher comparing different objects and
asking the question 'How are these connected?'
Some examples of relational questions are:

 What is the relationship between study time and exam scores amongst
university students?
 What is the relationship between gender and attitudes towards piracy
amongst adolescents?
c) Casual question: The questions that are designed to determine

whether one or more variables cause or affects one or more outcome
variables are termed as casual questions. The researcher seeks to
answer the question ‘why did this happen?’
Some examples of casual questions are:

 What is the effect of exercise on heart rate?
 Do the demographic factors of employees affect their organizational
commitment?
9. HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION
After stating the question, the next step in the research study is to
formulate hypothesis. Hypothesis is a tentative answers to the research
question in regard to the problem definition that help in the identification
of variables that could be used as explanatory factors for building up the
argumentation in the development of proposition relevant to the topic.
Problem definition Identifying the area of interest
Way of expressing researcher’s

Research question interest in a problem
Possible answer to the research

Hypothesis formulation question
Introduction
The term hypothesis consists of two words:

Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis
- Hypo means tentative
- Thesis means statement about solution of a problem
- Thus, the meaning of hypothesis is a tentative statement about the
solution of the problem.
Hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what researcher expects

to happen in his/her research. It is a statement temporarily accepted as true
in the light of what is known at the time about the phenomena. Hypothesis
is a tentative statement showing the relationship between two or more
variables, the reliability and validity of which is to be tested and verified.
It is the basis for planning and action in the research for new truth.
A hypothesis is a proposition in testable form and predicts a particular

relationship between two or more variables. If a researcher thinks that a
relationship exists, he should first state it as a hypothesis and then test the
hypothesis in the field.
According to James E. Greighton, “Hypothesis is a tentative supposition
or provisional guess which seems to explain the situation under
investigation.”
According to Lungberg, “A hypothesis is a tentative generalization the

validity of which remains to be tested. In its most elementary stage the
hypothesis may be any hunch, guess, imaginative idea which becomes the
basis for further investigation.”
A hypothesis is a speculation or theory based on insufficient evidence that

lends itself to further testing and experiment. While further testing, a
hypothesis can usually be proven true or false.
A hypothesis is a statement about the relationship between two or more

variables that we set out to prove or disprove in research study.
Hypotheses are of following types:
Types of hypothesis
Null hypothesis Alternative hypothesis
1.1 Null hypothesis: Null hypothesis is a type of hypothesis used in

statistics that proposes no statistical significance exists in a set of
given observation. This form of hypothesis states that there is no

significance between two variables, or that a single variable is no
different than zero. It is the hypothesis that the researcher is trying to
disprove. It is denoted by Ho.
According to null hypothesis there is no relationship between

dependent and independent variable. A null hypothesis always predicts
the absence of a relationship between two variables. For example,
there is no relationship between education and income. These are used
when the researcher believes there is no relationship between two
variables or when there is inadequate theoretical or empirical
information to state a research hypothesis.
Ho: There is no relationship between education and income.
1.2 Alternative hypothesis: Alternative hypothesis is a type of hypothesis

used in statistics that proposes statistical significance exists in a set of
given observation. This form of hypothesis states that there is
significance between two variables, or that a single variable is
different than zero. It is the hypothesis that the researcher is trying to
prove. It is denoted by H1.
According to alternative hypothesis there is relationship between

dependent and independent variable. The alternative hypothesis states
an actual expectation, such as higher level of education increase the
likelihood of earning a higher income.
H1: There is a relationship between education and income.
Other example of Null and alternative hypothesis

Suppose a researcher at Penn State speculates that students in the
College of Arts and Architecture are more likely to be left-handed than
people found in the general population. We only have one sample
since we will be comparing a population proportion based on a sample
value to a known population value.
Research Question: Are artists more likely to be left-handed than

people found in the general population?
Response Variable: Classification of student as either right-handed or
left handed
State Null and Alternative hypothesis

Introduction
Null Hypothesis (Ho): Students in the College of Arts and
Architecture are no more likely to be left-handed than people in the
general population.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Students in the College of Arts and

Architecture are more likely to be left-handed than people in the
general population.
SUMMARY
 Concept of literature review: Literature review is the process of
reading, analyzing, evaluating, and summarizing previous published
documents such as journals, books, previous studies, newspapers etc.
with the purpose of knowing the research issue in depth and find out
appropriate methodology that is to be used in research.
 Purpose of literature review:

 To determine research question
 To identify relevant methodological issues
 To discover what has been written about a topic already
 To know the area of interest
 To update on current issue
 Steps in literature review: Selecting the review topic, searching the

literature, obtaining the literature, evaluating the literature, and
Writing the review.
 Literature search through the internet: The internet provides a

relatively new tool for conducting literature review. It is being treated
as a rich source for literature. The internet is a worldwide network of
computers that can provide access to a vast range of literature.
 Concept of theoretical framework: Theoretical framework is the

structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study.
 Research and theory: Deductive research approach, Inductive

research approach. Deduction is a top down approach where research
works moves from the more general information to specific
information. Induction is a bottom-up approach where research works
moves from a part to whole, from specific to general, or from
individual to the universal.
 Research problem: : Problem definition refers to some kind of

problem which a researcher experiences or observed in the context of
either a theoretical or practical situations and wants to obtain a
solution for the same.
 Research questions: A research question is defined as a statement

that identifies the phenomena to be studied. It is an answerable inquiry
into a specific concern or issue i.e. the research will answer the
question posed.
 Hypothesis formulation: Hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction

about what researcher expects to happen in his/her research. It is a
statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is known at
the time about the phenomena.
EXERCISE
1. What is literature review? Explain its purpose.
2. What are the steps involved in literature review?
3. How the literature is searched through the internet?
4. Explain theoretical framework.
5. Explain deductive and inductive research approaches.
6. What is research problem?
7. Explain the concept of research question.
8. Define hypothesis formulation.
Introduction
UNIT
RESEARCH
DESIGN
3
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Definition of research design

Types of research design
Descriptive (developmental and case study) research design
Exploratory research design
Casual-comparative research design
Experimental research design
Business Research
Concept Methods
of qualitative research
Assumptions of qualitative research
Features of qualitative research
Design of qualitative research
1. CONCEPT OF RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design is the actual framework of research that provides
guidelines regarding the process to be followed in conducting the research.
Decision regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means
concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a research design. In
fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research
is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement
and analysis of data.
Research design is a plan that enable researcher to decide in advance

regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an
inquiry or a research study. It presents work of research serially from the
beginning to the ends in a logical way. It is a strategy that specifies which
method of sampling will be used, and which approach will be used for
Introduction
gathering and analyzing the data. Therefore, research design is a ‘Blue
Print’ for collection, measurement and analysis of data.
Research design outlines how the research will be carried out. It provides
answers to various questions like –
 What kind of sampling will be used?
 What techniques will be used to gather data?
 What techniques will be used to analyze data?
 Which type of research report will be used?
According to C.R. Kothari, “Research design is the conceptual within

which research is conducted. It constitutes the blue print for the
collection, measurement and qualities of data.”
According to William Zikmund, “Research design is a master plan

specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the
needed information.”
Research design provides a clear cut picture of the work before starting the
work and helps in identifying the difficulties that may emerge in the
process of research.
2. TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

To come up with a good research output, a good research design is needed.
Without a good research design, the researcher will find himself flooded
with information which may not be appropriate in meeting his objectives.
Therefore, there are five different research designs available those can be
differently used depending upon situation and nature of the research.
Figure (3.1): Types of research design
Descriptive research design
Exploratory research design
Correlational research design

Types of
research design Casual-comparative research design
Experimental research design
2.1 Descriptive research design: Descriptive research design is a

research design that is concerned with describing the characteristics
of a particular existing/current phenomenon. It attempts to describe

systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or
programme, or provides information about, say, living condition of a
community, or describes attitudes towards an issue. The main purpose
of this research design is to describe the characteristics of current
phenomenon without influencing it in any way.
This type of research is particularly helpful in systematic collection

and presentation of facts and figures to give a clear picture of a
particular existing/ current situation without influencing it in any way.
This type of research does not necessarily seek to explain

relationships, test hypothesis, make prediction or get at meaning and
implications of a study.
Steps in descriptive research design:

1. Determine the objective of study.
2. Prepare for sample design.
3. Collect the data.
4. Process and analyze the data.
5. Prepare report.
Two basic types of research designs are generally used in descriptive

research studies. They are:
a) Developmental research design: Developmental research design is

the research design used to predict the future trend considering to the
changes in events, human, social and cultural activities. It is the study
focused on the progressive changes that occur as an organism
develops. The purpose of developmental research is to assess changes
over an extended period of time.
How does a researcher go about and study the changes? The two
primary ways are cross-sectional and longitudinal studies.
i) Longitudinal design: Longitudinal design is an observational

research method in which a researcher measures the same individuals
or a particular group of peoples for a long period of time. In this
research method there are many observations being conducted over
long periods of time on the same group, or number of people. This
study can extend over years or even decades. The primary purposes of
Introduction
longitudinal study are to describe patterns of change and to explain
casual relationship (cause and effect).
Characteristics of longitudinal study

 It is a type of observational study
 Same individuals are observed over the study period.
 Research study that involves repeated observations
 Focus on the study of change over the time in public opinion or
behavior.
 Can be extended over years or even decades.
 Where data is collected at several points so that changes over time can
be reported.
 Evaluate the subjects at minimum of two different time period so they
can be compared.
ii) Cross-sectional design: Cross-sectional design is defined as

comparing and contrasting samples of different age groups to
determine what difference occurs in each group. The defining feature
of a cross-sectional design is that it can compare different population
groups at a single point in time. It allows researcher to compare many
different variables at the same time.
For example, researcher might choose to measure cholesterol levels

in daily walkers across two age groups, over 40 and under 40, and
compare these to cholesterol levels among non-walkers in the same
age.
However, cross-sectional studies may not provide definite information

about cause-and-effect relationships. This because such studies offer a
snapshot of a single moment in time, they do not consider what
happens before or after the snapshot is taken.
b) Case study: Case is an event, problem, process, activity, program, a

single person, or several people. Case study means any one of these
studies. In other words, case study involves s detail analysis of any
single case or event. It analyses the events through observation and
comes to know the position of total unit. Data may be collected in case
studies through various means such as questionnaires, interviews,
observations, or written accounts by the subjects.
For example, a nurse researcher might be interested in how people

with diabetes respond to an insulin pump. One person or a group of
people with diabetes could be studied for a time to determine their

responses to the use of an insulin pump. Diaries might be used for the
day-to-day recording of information. The nurse researcher would then
analyze these diaries and try to interpret the written comments.
2.2 Exploratory research design: Exploratory research design is a

research design that is used to identify problem and analysis of
problem, selection of alternatives and find new idea in the area where
there is less knowledge. The main purpose of this research design is to
discover of new ideas or to achieve insights into a new phenomenon.
This type of research is particularly helpful in breaking broad and

vague problem into smaller, more precise sub-problem statements,
hopefully in the form of specific hypothesis.
This type of research design is mandatory stage in each research

process, whenever a researcher starts any research; s/he has to come
across this type of research design.
 It is used when problems are in preliminary stage.

 It is used when topic or issue is new and when data is difficult to
collect.
 It is flexible and can address research question of all types.
 It is often used to generate formal hypothesis.
 It linked exploratory research with conceptual framework working
hypothesis.
 Applied research in administration is often exploratory because there
is need for flexibility in approaching the problem.
 Qualitative research methods such case study or field study are often
used in exploratory research design.
Steps in exploratory research design:

1. Review available literatures to gain knowledge about the concerned
area.
2. Perform interview with concerned people to obtain more knowledge of
the research problem.
3. Analyze the selected events carefully so as to get data or facts related
to research problem.
4. Analyze the data collected from various sources.
5. Finally, prepare the research report.
Introduction
2.3 Correlational research design: Correlational research design is a
research design that is used to study the relationship between two
variables. The main purpose of this research design is to see the
relationship and the degree of relationship between variables. This
type of research design is particularly helpful in examining how
strongly pairs of variables are related.
This type of research design assumes that if there is change in one

variable then there will be change in another variable which is called
positive correlation and increase in one variable leads to decrease in
another variable which is called negative correlation.
Steps in correlational research design:

1. Defining research problem.
2. Reviewing literature.
3. Research design.
4. Data collection.
5. Data analysis and interpretation of results.
2.4 Casual-comparative research design: Casual-comparative research

design is a research design that is used to identify the causes of the
problem. It attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship
between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon. The main
purpose of this research design is to investigate the causes of particular
problem by observing existing/current consequences and assessing of
those differences. It is also known as ‘ex post facto’.
This type of research design is particularly helpful on studying a

situation or problem in order to explain the relationship between two
variables (dependent and independent variables), where dependent
variable is already occurred and based on this, independent variables
are investigated.
This type of research investigates the clues about what might cause or
contribute to the occurrence of a particular problem.
Steps in casual-comparative research design:

1. Defining problem.
2. Reviewing the literature.
3. Formulating hypothesis.
4. Preparing research design.
5. Collecting data.
6. Analyzing and interpreting the results.
2.5 Experimental research design: Experimental research is an attempt

by the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may affect
the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to
determine or predict what may occur. It can be used in laboratory and
work field.
Experimental design is a blueprint of the procedure that enables the

researcher to test his/her hypothesis by reaching valid conclusions
about relationships between independent and dependent variables. The
main aim of this design is to see the relationship between variables and
formulating hypothesis.
These are the design where the researcher tests the hypothesis of
casual relationships between variables. Such studies require
procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but
also permit drawing inferences about causality. Usually, experiments
meet these requirements. Hence, these are better known as
experimental research design.
For example, an experiment is carried out to find out which amount of

a toxin will cause symptoms to experimental animals referred to
generally as ‘guinea pigs’. Experimentation need not be done only in
laboratories.
Steps in experimental research design:

1. Identify and define the problem.
2. Formulate hypothesis and deduce its consequence.
3. Construct an experimental that represents all the elements, conditions,
and relations to the consequence.
4. Conduct the experiment.
5. Compile raw data and reduce to usable form.
6. Apply an appropriate test of significance.
3. CONCEPT OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Sometimes researchers may interest in studying human behavior and the
social world inhabited by human beings. But it is difficult to explain
behavior in simply measurable terms. Measurements tell us how often or
how many people behave in a certain way but they do not adequately
answer the question “why?” Research which attempts to increase our
Introduction
understanding of why things are the way they are in our social world and
why people act the ways they do is “qualitative” research.
Qualitative research deals with phenomena that are difficult or

impossible to quantify mathematically, such as beliefs, attitudes, opinions,
and behaviors. It is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes,
opinions, and behaviors. Its objective is to gather an in-depth
understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such
behavior.
Qualitative research is about finding out not just what people think but
why they think it. It is designed to reveal a target audience’s range of
behavior and the perceptions that drive it with reference to specific topics
or issues. It takes an inductive approach and its methods were developed in
the social sciences to enable researchers to study social and cultural
phenomena.
According to Patton, “Qualitative research is an effort to understand

situations in their uniqueness as part of a particular context and the
interaction there.”
Qualitative research is more flexible in that it can adjust to the setting.
4. ASSUMPTION OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

The basic assumptions of qualitative research are as follow:
Figure (3.2): Basic assumptions of qualitative research
Research is subjective
Research is inductive
Basic Research involves fieldwork
assumptions of
qualitative Research keeps holistic approach
research
Research incorporates emergent design
4.1 Research is subjective: Qualitative research is subjective in nature. It

measures any events/issues on the basis researcher’s intuition. This
research measures the data without using mathematical and statistical
tools. Instead, researcher uses his/her own intuition to measure the
events/issues.
4.2 Research is inductive: Qualitative research is primarily exploratory

and focuses on discovery. It is concerned with the generation of new
theory emerging from the data. It does not formulate and test any
hypothesis.
4.3 Research involves fieldwork: Qualitative research is directly

concerned with fieldwork meaning that researcher collects data
himself by contacting to the respondents personally. It emphasizes the
importance of looking at variables in the natural setting in which they
are found.
4.4 Research keeps holistic approach: Qualitative research explains to

any events or issues considering to all the causes of occurrence,
process and relationship between or among the variables. The whole
phenomenon under study is understood as a complex system that is
more than the sum of its parts; focus on complex interdependencies
and system dynamics that cannot meaningfully be reduced to a few
discrete variables and linear, cause effect relationships.
4.5 Research incorporates emergent design: Qualitative research is

openness to adapting inquiry to understand deeply and if there is
situation to change. It means researcher can change design where
necessary. Researcher avoids getting locked into rigid designs that
eliminate responsiveness and pursue new paths of discovery as they
emerge.
5. FEATURES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

There is no universally accepted definition of qualitative research,
although it is accepted that data collected during qualitative research
activities is usually not numerical. Likewise, qualitative research has
following features.
Figure (3.3): Features of qualitative research
Non-numerical measurement
Unique case orientation

Features of Involves fieldwork
qualitative
research Inductive approach
Purposive sampling
Purposive sampling
Introduction
5.1 Non-numerical measurement: It is not based upon numerical

measurements and does not use numbers and statistical methods as key
research indicators and tools. Instead, it uses words as the unit of
analysis and often takes an in-depth, holistic or rounded approach to
events/issues/case studies.
5.2 Unique case orientation: Qualitative research assumes that each case
is special and unique; the first level of analysis is being true to,
respecting, and capturing the details of the individual cases being
studied; cross-case analysis follows from and depends on the quality
of individual case studies.
5.3 Involves fieldwork: Qualitative research is usually involves fieldwork

in which the researcher observes and records behavior and events in
natural setting. The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, or
site in order to observe the subject as it normally and naturally occurs
or behaves.
5.4 Inductive approach: Qualitative research uses an inductive research

approach. This type of research builds hypothesis or theories rather
than testing existing theory. This approach necessitates the researcher
beginning with a completely open mind without any defined ideas of
what will be found. The aim is to generate a new theory based on the
data.
5.5 Purposive sampling: Researcher uses purposive sampling for

qualitative research. The researcher chooses the sample based on who
they think would be appropriate for the study. S/he uses his/her own
judgment about which respondents to choose, and picks those who
best meets the purpose of the study.
5.6 Flexible research design: Qualitative research can change its research
design as per the necessity. Flexible designs allow for more freedom
during the data collection process. These designs are much easier to
plan and carry out. They are also useful when budgetary decisions
have to be taken into account.
5.7 Personal experience and engagement: The researcher has direct

contact with and gets close to the people, situation, and phenomenon
under study; the researcher’s personal experiences and insights are an
important part of the inquiry and critical to understanding the
phenomenon.
6. DESIGN OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research relies primarily on the collection of qualitative data
(i.e., nonnumeric data such as words and pictures) used extensively by
researcher studying human behavior and habits. The design of qualitative
research is probably the most flexible of the various experimental
techniques, encompassing a variety of accepted methods and structures.
Following are the various qualitative research designs:
Figure (3.4): Types of qualitative research design
Ethnography
Phenomenology
Grounded theory
Types of
qualitative Historical studies
research design
Case studies
6.1 Ethnography: Ethnographic research is the study in which the

researcher studies an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a
prolonged period of time by collecting, primarily, observational data.
It studies about culture (beliefs, language, behaviors, and values) of a
distinct group within society. The aim is to gather insight into how
people live; what they do; how they use things; or what they need in
their everyday or professional lives.
Steps in ethnography research
Purpose To describe a culture’s characteristics
Method  Identify culture, variables for study, and review
literature
 Data collection- gain entrance to culture,
immerse self in culture, acquire informants,
Introduction
gather data through direct observation and
interaction with subjects.
Analysis Describe characteristics of culture
Outcomes Description of culture
6.2 Phenomenology: Phenomenology literally means the study of

phenomena. It involves trying to understand the essence of a
phenomenon by examining the views of people who have experienced
that phenomenon. Phenomena may be events, situations, experiences
or concepts.
A phenomenological research study is a study that attempts to

understand people's perceptions, perspectives and understandings of a
particular situation (or phenomenon).In other words, a
phenomenological research study tries to answer the question 'What is
it like to experience such and such?'. This approach involves
researching a small group of people intensively over a long period of
time.
For example, assault victims may experience fear for months or years
after the assault, even when no apparent danger exists. What does this
fear mean? Where does it come from? How is it experienced? The
answers bring us closer to the phenomenon that is lived.
Steps in phenomenology research
Purpose To describe experiences s they are lived
Research What does existence of feeling or experience
question indicate concerning the phenomenon to be
development explored?
Method  Not clearly defined steps to avoid limiting
creativity of researcher
 Sampling and data collection
Analysis  Classify and rank data
 Sense of wholeness
 Examine experiences beyond human
awareness/ or cannot be communicated
Outcomes  Finding describes from subject’s point-of-
view
 Researcher identifies themes
 Structural explanation of finding is
developed
6.3 Grounded theory: Grounded theory is a form of qualitative research

that studies peoples’ experience about some kinds of process and then
generates theory or an explanation how that process works. The main
feature is the development of new theory through the collection and
analysis of data about a phenomenon. It is generated only from the
data collected in the study. The theory does not come from other
sources (e.g., textbooks, researcher opinions). That’s why it is called
grounded theory because the theory is founded in or grounded in or
comes from the data collected in the study.
In short, grounded theory (GT) is a systematic methodology in the
social sciences involving the construction of theory through the
analysis of data.
For example, the grounded theory qualitative method was used by

Williams and Irurita (2005) to study the personal control and
emotional comfort of hospitalized patients. Interviews were conducted
with 40 patients, and 75 hours of field observations were conducted.
The basic psychological process identified by the researchers was
labeled “optimizing personal control to facilitate emotional comfort.”
Personal control referred to the ability of patients to influence their
environment; emotional comfort was defined as a state of relaxation
that affected the physical status of the patient. Personal control was
found to be a central feature of emotional comfort.
Steps in grounded theory

Purpose Theory development
Method Steps occur simultaneously, a constant
comparative process
Data collection- interview, observation, record
review, or combination
Analysis  Concept formation
 Concept development- reduction, selective
sampling of literature, selective sampling o
subjects, emergence of core concepts
 Concept modification and integration
Outcomes Theory supported by examples from data
6.4 Historical studies: Historical studies are systematic collection and

objective evaluation of data related to past events in order to
understand causes, effects, or trends of these events that may help to
explain resent events and anticipate future events.
Introduction
For example, a study on finding out the cause and effect of world war
II.
Steps in historical studies

Purpose Describe and examine events of the past to
understand the presents and anticipate potential
future effects.
Method  Formulate idea- select topic after reading
related literature
 Develop research questions
 Develop an inventory of sources – archives,
private libraries, papers
 Clarify validity and reliability of data-
primary sources, authenticity, biases
Develop research outline to organize investigative
process
Analysis Synthesis of all data; accept and reject data
Outcomes Select means of presentation- biography,
chronology, issue paper
6.5 Case studies: Case study is the study that relates to the in depth
analysis of a single case or small number of units. In a case study the
researcher explores a single entity or phenomenon (‘the case’)
bounded by time and activity (e.g., a program, event, institution, or
social group) and collects detailed information through a variety of
data sources. The case study is a descriptive record of an individual's
experiences and/or behaviors kept by an outside observer.
For example, Furber and colleagues (2010), audited the number of

text (SMS) messages sent and received over a seven months period
between a young mental health outreach service Centre and its clients.
More than 5 percent of the text messages were about appointment
scheduling. The study also looked into the inappropriate use of SMS
between young and the service Centre, which resulted in only 2
percent of the SMS traffic being classified as inappropriate use.
The study concluded that the Centre’s experience of using SMS with
their clients promoted greater access to a therapist or support officer
by improving engagement and retention of clients.
Steps in case study
Purpose Describe in-depth the experience of one person,
family, group, community, or institution.

Method Direct observation and interaction with subject
Analysis Synthesis of experience
Outcomes In-depth description of the experience
SUMMARY
 Definition of research design: A research design is the actual
framework of research that provides guidelines regarding the process
to be followed in conducting the research.
 Types of research design: Descriptive (developmental and case

study) research design, exploratory research design, Correlational
research design, Casual-comparative research design, and
Experimental research design.
 Concept of qualitative research: Qualitative research deals with

phenomena that are difficult or impossible to quantify mathematically,
such as beliefs, attitudes, opinions, and behaviors.
 Assumptions of qualitative research: Research is subjective,

Research is inductive, Research involves fieldwork, Research keeps
holistic approach, Research incorporates emergent design
 Design of qualitative research: Ethnography, Phenomenology,

Grounded theory, Historical studies, Case studies.
EXERCISE
1. What is research design?
2. Explain the various types of research design.
3. What is qualitative research?
4. State the basic assumption of qualitative research.
5. Describe the features of qualitative research.
6. What are the various designs of qualitative research?
Introduction
UNIT MEASUREMENT,
SCALING
AND
4 SAMPLING
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Concept of variables
Concept and nature of measurement
Scale construction for attitude measurement
Scales commonly used in business research
Validity and reliability of measurement
Sources of measurement problems
Concept of sampling
The sampling process
Types of sampling
Probability sampling
Non-probability sampling
Sampling and non-sampling errors
1. CONCEPT OF VARIABLES
A variable is either a result of some force or it is the force that causes a
change in another variable so that its change can be measured. It converts
difficult concepts into easily understandable concepts which then can be
measured, empirically. The variables need to be defined and measured.
Introduction
Variable is the characteristics that can be measured and assigned
categorical values. These characteristics can be of persons, groups, events,
ideas, feelings, events, or any other type of category that researcher is
trying to measure. And the values of variable varies or changes from
person to person, group to group or even within one person over time. For
example, gender is a variable; it can take two values: male and female.
Variable Value Variable Value
Male Female Small

Gender Medium
Size
Large
Single
Married White
Marital status
Divorced Colour Blue
Widowed Black
A variable is defined as anything that varies or changes in value. It takes

on two or more values. Because variable represents a quality that can
exhibit differences in value, usually magnitude or strength, it may be said
that a variable generally is anything that may assume different numerical
or categorical values. For example, marital status is a variable; it can take
on values of never married, single, married, divorced, or widowed.
According to P.V. Young, “A variable is any quantity or characteristics

which may poses different numerical values or categories.”
Variable, to put in layman statement is something that can change and/or

can have more one.
All researches examine some kind of variable(s). A variable is not only

something that we measure, but also something that researcher can
manipulate and something s/he can control for. Basically, variable are of
following types:
Figure (4.1): Types of variables
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Types of variables
Moderating variable
Intervening variable
1.1 Independent variable (cause): Independent variable is the variable

that influences the dependent variable either positively or negatively.
It is the presumed cause. This is a variable that researcher will
manipulate to see if it makes the dependent variable change. It is
called independent because the researcher can choose what it should
be and can manipulate it to study the effect it causes.
Independent variable is the variable that the researcher changes to test

his/her dependent variable. A change in the independent variable
directly causes a change in the dependent variable.
For example, income is the independent variable because it influences

another variable consumption.
Income Consumption
Independent variable Dependent variable
1.2 Dependent variable (effect): A dependent variable is a variable

whose value depends upon independent variable (s).It is the variable
that is influenced by the independent variable. In other words,
dependent variable is the effect of independent variable. It is called
dependent because it depends on the independent variable. By the
analysis of the dependent variable, researcher finds the solution of the
problem. This variable is the primary interest to the researcher.
For example, consumption is the dependent variable because it is

influenced by independent variable income.
Income Consumption
Independent variable Dependent variable
1.3 Intervening variable (mediating variables): An intervening variable

is a variable that explain a relations or provides a causal link between
other variables. It is considered as the intermediate step between the
independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV). It is caused
by the IV and is itself a cause of the DP.
Intervening variable specifies a given cause (original predictor

variable, IV) that works indirectly through a more direct cause
Introduction
(mediator variable) to a final effect (outcome variable, DV). The
mediator is adding to the overall variance accounted for in the model
and trying to explain ‘why’ the DV and IV are related.
For example, a higher education (independent variable) typically

leads to a higher income (dependent variable). Occupation is an
intervening variable here between education and income because it is
causally affected by education and itself affects income. In other
words, more schooling tends to mean a better job, which in turn tends
to bring a higher income.
Education Occupation Income
Independent variable Intervening variable Dependent variable
1.4 Moderating variable: A moderating variable is a third variable, the

presence of which modifies the original relationship between the
independent and the dependent variable. It alters the direction or
strength of the relationship between independent variable and
dependent variable. It affects the strength of the relationship between
the independent and dependent variable.
For example, this schematic suggests that the relationship between

stress and depression may differ in strength at different levels of
social support. In other words, stress may be more strongly
associated with depression under conditions of low social support
compared to conditions of high social support.
Stress Depression
Independent Social support Dependent

variable variable
Moderating variable
2. CONCEPT AND NATURE OF MEASUREMENT

In social phenomena there are two types of variables- qualitative and
quantitative. Many aspects of social phenomena like emotion, attitude,
faiths, etc. belongs to qualitative data and is not measurable directly. As
such researcher should study some procedures which may enable him to
measure abstract concepts more accurately. This brings to the study of
measurement and scaling. Measurement or scaling implies conversion of

qualitative data into quantitative data and then measuring them.
Measurement is a systematic way of assigning numbers or some other

symbols to the characteristics of certain objects. It is essential to provide
number or symbol to measure characteristics of qualitative facts because of
their difficulty in measurement. When numbers or symbols are used, the
researcher must have a rule for assigning a number to an observation in a
way that provides an accurate description. Measurement can be described
as a way of obtaining numbers or symbols to represent the properties of
persons, objects, events or states under study - in which the numbers or
symbols have the same relevant relationship to each other as do the things
represented.
Number property under study
1 Male
2 Female
We could have also assigned
M Male
F Female
When researcher observes and records a variable, it has characteristics that

influence the type of statistical analysis that s/he can perform on it. These
characteristics are referred to as level of measurement of the variable.
There are four levels of measurement.
Figure (5.2): Levels of measurement
Nominal scale
Ordinal scale
Levels of
measurement Interval scale
Ratio scale
a) Nominal scale: [Simply labels object] Nominal scale is simply a

system of assigning number or letters to data in order to label them. It
simply assigned numbers or letters to data which serve as labels for
identification or classification. The nominal scale occurs when the
Introduction
observations do not have a meaningful numeric value. Such numbers
cannot be considered to be associated with an ordered scale.
For example,
1) What is your gender? 2) What is hair color?
 M- Male  1- Brown
 F-Female  2- Black
 3- Grey
3) Where d o you live? 4) What is your occupation?
 A- Kathmandu  1- Doctor
 B- Biratnagar  2- Engineer
 C Pokhara  3- Pilot
b) Ordinal scale: [Numbers are used to place objects in order] Order

scale is a system of classifying data into categories that can be ranked.
It arranges data according to their magnitude in an ordered
relationship. The use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of ‘greater
than’ or ‘less than’ (an equality statement is also acceptable) without
being able to state how much greater or less. Ordinal scale does not
attempt to make the intervals of the scale equal in terms of some rule.
For example,
1) What is your position in class?
 First
 Second
 Third
2) When considering a job offer, please rank the
importance of the following (Please fill in your rank
order using numbers 1 through 5 with 1 being the most
important):
 Positive working environment [ ]
 Salary [ ]
 Benefits [ ]
 Vacation time [ ]
 Challenging workload [ ]
c) Interval scale: [Put equal intervals between objects, represent equal

differences] Interval scales is a system of arranging order of objects
and adjusting intervals in terms of some rule that has been established
as a basis for making the units equal. The primary limitation of the
interval scale is the lack of a true zero.
For example,
1) Please select your age.
 1-20
 21-40
 41-60
 61 and above
2) How satisfied are you with the level of service you have
received?
 Very satisfied
 Somewhat satisfied
 Neutral
 Somewhat dissatisfied
 Very dissatisfied
d) Ratio scale: A ratio scale is an interval scale with the additional

features of an absolute zero point. In other words, ratio scales are a
particular type of interval scale. The zero point has real meaning, such
that the ratio between any two scores also has a meaning. For example,
age is a ratio scale, with a 50-year-old person twice as old as a 25-
year-old. With a ratio scale, ratios of numbers do reflect ratios of
magnitude.
For example, the responses could range from 0 to any figure.

How many hours do you spend on computers? ………….
How many children do you have? ………….
What is your annual household income? ………….
How long have your lived in Kathmandu? ………….
Of the last 10 cans of baked beans that you bought, how many
were Heinz?
 None
 1
 2
 3
Introduction
3. SCALE CONSTRUCTION FOR ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT

Attitude is a predisposition or a tendency to respond positively or
negatively towards a certain idea, object, person, or situation. It is a mental
state involving beliefs, feelings, values and dispositions to act in a certain
way. There are three components of attitude- cognitive, affective, and
behavioral component. The primary reason for measuring such attitude is
to gain an understanding of the reasons why people behave the way they
do. Therefore, attitude measurement is useful to uncover perceptions and
opinions people may have about specific objects.
Social science researchers have developed various scales for the

measurement of attitude of people. Such measurement is known as attitude
measurement. Attitude measurement is an act of converting the
qualitative information into quantitative facts. Attitude measurement is
also known as scaling.
Various scales are used for attitude measurement are Likert scale, semantic
differential scale, cumulative scale, and Thurstone’s differential scale.
Scaling can be defined as the process of measuring the quantitative aspects
of subjective or abstract concepts.
Figure (5.3): Scale construction for attitude measurement
Likert scale
Semantic differential scale

Scale construction
for attitude Guttman’s cumulative scale
measurement
a) Lickert scale: The Likert scale is a way of measuring person’s attitude

towards something by stating the extent to which they agree or
disagree with a series of statements about the attitude object. Each
response is given a score and the item scores are summed to produce
an overall score that indicates the respondent’s attitude.
The response may be based on 5-point or 7-point scale. The response

to each of the statement is marked in accordance with the degree of
agreement or disagreement.
For example:
A Likert scale for assessing attitudes towards different teachers might
include:
1 2 3 4 5
Helpful: Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly
disagree
Angry: Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly
disagree
Kind: Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly
disagree
Construction of Likert scale: The original Likert scale was

developed in 1932 by Rensis Likert, a psychologist who was
interested in measuring people’s opinions or attitudes on a variety of
items. This scale has been used since then and is probably the most
widely-used scale aside from the dichotomous yes/no scale.
The procedure for constructing Likert scale is as follow:

1. Determine the focus: what concept are you going to measure (see what
people's attitudes are toward it)?
2. Ask a group of people (or a person) to write down different statements
about this concept, reflecting different opinions or attitudes about the
subject. Make sure you have a large number of statements, making
sure that people can express their degree of agreement or disagreement
on a five or seven-point scale.
Introduction
3. Rating the scale items: the next step is to have your group rate each
statement on your five-point (or seven-point, or 10-point) scale in
terms of how much each statement indicates a favorable or
unfavorable towards the concept. The members of the group must not
express their own opinion; they must only indicate how favourable or
unfavorable they feel each statement is. All statements (Likert items)
in the Likert scale must use the same number of points on the scale (so
either a 5-point scale, or a 7-point scale, but not a mix of the two).
4. Select the items for the actual scale: The next step is to compute the
intercorrelations between all pairs of items, based on the ratings of the
judges. In making judgments about which items to retain for the final
scale there are several analyses you can:
o Throw out any items that have a low correlation with the total
(summed) score across all items
o For each item, get the average rating for the top quarter of judges and
the bottom quarter. Then, do a t-test of the differences between the
mean value for the item for the top and bottom quarter judges.
b) Semantic differential scale: The semantic differential scale is a way

of measuring a person’s attitude towards something by getting them to
rate it according to a series of bi-polar scales.
This scale refers to a seven point rating procedure in respect of a

number of attributes and according to the bipolar adjectives denoting
the extreme points. The central position denotes neutrality. The
extreme characteristics are given names and the in-between
characteristics are represented by blank spaces.
For example:
Student’s attitude towards teachers can be measured using a semantic
differential scale like this:
Kind 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unkind
Helpful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unhelpful
Friendly ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. Threatening
Construction of semantic differential scale: The procedure for

constructing semantic differential scale is as follow:
1. Write a large number of statements that concern the particular
attitudinal object being investigated. For example, one may be looking
at the role of voluntary agencies in providing health services in rural
areas. Most of these statements should either be moderately positive or
moderately negative.
2. Administer the poll of statements on a group of respondents who are

similar to the population on whom the scale will be used. For example,
if we want to study the attitude of housewives the pool should be
administered on a group of housewives with similar background to our
final population.
3. Assign scale values to the degrees of agreement or disagreement with
each item. The particular values may differ from one researcher to
another. Sometimes one may adopt the values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
4. Calculate a total attitude score for each respondent using the same
scaling procedure. The distribution of total scores is then used to refine
the list of items. This step is called item analysis.
5. Analyze the responses and select for the scale those items which most
clearly differentiate between the highest and lowest scores. This can be
done by dividing the respondents into the high and low scoring
categories. The high scorers can be assumed to be with favorable
attitudes and the low scorers can be taken as having the least favorable
attitudes.
6. The statements remaining in the pruned list are randomly ordered on
the scale form. The positive and negative one are mixed.
7. The scale is not administered on the respondents who are asked to
indicate their degree of agreement with the item. A respondent’s score
is generated as the sum of his scores on each statement.
c) Guttman’s cumulative scale: The Guttman’s cumulative scale is a

way of measuring a person’s attitude towards something by making
use of a series of statements on which respondents express his/her
agreement or disagreement.
This technique is based on a series of statements that possess a

cumulative effect in the sense that the statements which are related
amongst them form a cumulative series. Accordingly, a respondent
who agrees positively to statement number 5 also agrees positively to
statements 4, 3, 2, and 1. This type of scale is characterized by
unidimensional because the responses form a pattern such that an
affirmative reply to a statement at one end, implies affirmative replies
to the statements prior to that end-statement. The responses that
indicate either agreement or disagreement with the statements are
given below:
Item number
Score
5 4 3 2 1
Introduction
x x x x x 5
x x x x 4
x x x 3
x x 2
x 1
0
X denotes agreement with the item. A score of 5 means that the

respondent is in agreement with all the statement that indicates the
most favorable attitude.
Construction of Guttman’s cumulative scale: The procedure for

constructing Guttman‟s cumulative scale is as follow:
a. Determine the focus: what concept are you going to measure (see what
people's attitudes are toward it)?
b. Ask a group of people (or a person) to write down different statements
about this concept, reflecting different opinions or attitudes about the
subject. Make sure you have a large number of statements, making
sure that people can either degree or disagree with them (no - open -
questions for instance).
c. Rating the scale items: the next step is to have your judges rate each
statement, indicating whether the statement expresses a positive
(favourable) or negative (unfavorable) attitude towards the concept.
d. Developing the scale: construct a matrix or table that shows the
responses of all the respondents on all of the items. Then sort this
matrix so that respondents who agree with more statements are listed
at the top and those agreeing with fewer are at the bottom. For
respondents with the same number of agreements, sort the statements
from left to right from those that most agreed to those that fewest
agreed to.
e. If there are lots of items, you need to use a data analysis called
scalogram analysis to determine the subsets of items from our pool
that best approximate the cumulative property. Then review these
items and select the final scale elements. There are several statistical
techniques for examining the table to find a cumulative scale.
f. Because there is seldom a perfectly cumulative scale you usually have
to test how good it is. These statistics also estimate a scale score value
for each item. This scale score is used in the final calculation of a
respondent's score.
d) Thurstone’s differential scale: Thurstone’s differential scale is made

up of statements about a particular issue and each statement has a
numerical value indicating the respondent’s attitude about the issue,

either favorable or unfavorable. People indicate which of the
statements with which they agree and the average response is
computed.
This method is based on a large number of statements relating to the

views about an idea, practice, an institution or a group of individuals.
A panel of judge is approached to study these statements. Each judge
is required to place these statements in eleven groups so that the most
unfavorable gets place in the first group and the most favorable in the
eleventh group. Statements with which judges do not agree are
omitted. Each of these items is assigned a score on the scale, on the
basis of the median position of the items assigned by the members of
the panel. The final scale that is constructed consists of the relevant
number, about 20 items.
Construction of Thurstone’s differential scale: The procedure for

constructing Thurstone’s differential scale is as follow:
A B C D E F G H I J K
Unfavorable Neutral Favorable
1. Collect a large number (as many as possible, perhaps 100) of

statements related to the attitude in question.
2. Have a number of judges (≥20) sort the statements independently into
11 piles that vary from the most favorable through neutral to most
unfavorable statements.
3. Study the frequency distribution of the rating for each statement and
eliminate those statements that the different judges have assigned to a
number of different piles.
4. Determine the scale value of each of the remaining statements- that is
number of the pile in which the median of the distribution lies.
5. Select one or two statements from each of the eleven piles for the final
scale.
6. Separate cards are given to the respondents who are asked to sort these
statements into a number of intervals. Each respondent is given 11
cars, the first card having letter A, the second B and so on. The first
card with letter ‘A’ represents most unfavorable attitude and the last
card with letter ‘K’ represents most favorable attitude. The middle
card with letter ‘F’ is neutral neither representing favorable nor
unfavorable attitude about the subject or event as shown above.
Introduction
4. SCALE COMMONLY USED IN BUSINESS RESEARCH

The common types of scaling techniques used in business research while
conducting research are classified into comparative and non-comparative
scales.
Figure (5.4): Scaling techniques
Scaling techniques
Comparative scales Non-comparative scales
Paired comparison Continuous Itemizes

rating scale rating scale
Guttman scale
Rank order Likert scales
Constant sum Semantic differential
Staple scale
5.1 Comparative scales: [Items are directly compared with each other.
e.g. do you prefer Wai Wai or Mayos?] Comparative scales are scales
where the respondents make use of a standard frame of reference
before answering the question. It involves the direct comparison of
stimulus objects. Comparative scale data must be interpreted in
relative terms and have only ordinal or rank order properties. For
example, a question like ‘How do you rate Barista in comparison to
Café Coffee Day on quality of beverages?’
Types of comparative scales are:

a) Paired comparison: This is an ordinal level technique where a
respondent is presented with two items at a time and asked to choose
one. The resulting data from this scale is ordinal in nature. This is the
most widely used comparison scale technique.
For example:
Which of the following cars do you prefer the most?
[i] Suzuki Baleno [ii] Honda city
b) Guttman scale: The Guttman’s cumulative scale is a way of

measuring a person’s attitude towards something by scoring system
where agreement with one extreme scale item results also in
endorsement of all other items that take a less extreme position. It
makes use of a series of statements that are growing or descending in
how positive or negative a person is towards the subject.
The intent of the scale is the person will agree with all statements up to
a point and then will stop agreeing. The scale may be used to
determine how extreme a view is, with successive statements showing
increasingly extremist positions.
For example,
1. Do you drink alcohol? [ ]
2. Do you smoke marijuana? [ ]
3. Do you use cocaine? [ ]
One might anticipate that all person who answer ‘yes’ to #3 would
also answer ‘yes’ to #1 and #2, and so forth.
c) Rank order: This is comparative scales where respondents are

presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or
rank them according to some criterion. The ‘order’ could be something
like preference, liking, importance, effectiveness, etc.
For example,
Please rank the following from 1 to 4 according to their importance.
Price [4]
Comfort [2]
Stylish [3]
Durability [1]
d) Constant sum: It is a rating scale where the respondents are asked to

allocate a total of 100 points between various objects to reflect the
Introduction
differences and gaps. The respondent distributes the points to the
various objects in the order of his preference.
For example,
Please divide 100 points among the following characteristics of buying
a car indicating the relative importance of each characteristic to you.
Style [50]
Ride [10]
Economical [35]
Warranty [05]
Friendly dealer [00]
100
5.2 Non-comparative scales: [Each item is scaled independently of the

others. e.g. how do you feel about mayos?] Non-comparative scales
are scales where respondents do not make use of any frame of
reference before answering the questions. The resulting data are
generally assumed to be interval or ratio scaled. These include
continuous rating scales and itemized rating scales.
a) Continuous rating scale (Graphic rating scale): It is a rating scale

where the respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the
appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme of the
criterion variable to the other. In other words, in graphic rating scale
the respondent is asked to tick his preference on a graph. The form of
the continuous scale varies considerably depending on the imagination
of the researcher.
For example,
How would you rate sears as a department store?
Version 1
Probably the worst ....1………………………Probably the best
Version 2
Probably the worst…………………………..Probably the best
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
b) Itemized rating scales: In itemized rating scales, the respondents are

provided with a scale that has a number or brief description associated
with each category. The categories are ordered in terms of scale
position and the respondents are required to select the specified

category that best describes the object being rated.
The commonly used itemized rating scales are the Likert scale,
semantic differential and staple scale.
 Likert scale (Summated scale): It is one-dimensional scale from
which respondents choose one option that best aligns with their view.
Respondents are asked to indicate their level of agreement and
disagreement with a given statement by way of an ordinal scale.
The benefit of Likert scale is that questions used are usually easy to
understand and so lead to consistent answer. A disadvantage is that
only few options are offered, with which respondents may not fully
agree.
For example,
Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
disagree agree
 Semantic differential scale: It is a seven point rating scale with end

points associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning. It is
a scale used for measuring the meaning of things and concepts. There
are two aspects of meaning: denotative and connotative. The semantic
differential measures connotative meaning. The scale is set up using
polar adjectives (opposite meaning terms) at each end.
For example,
Safe 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Risky
Affordable 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Expensive
Good …… …… …… …… …… …… …… Bad
Active …… …… …… …… …… …… …… Passive
 Staple scale: Staple scale is a slight modification of semantic

differential scale. It is unipolar rating scale with categories numbered
from -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero). Rating may range from
+3 to -3, +5 to -5, very accurate to very inaccurate. This scale is useful
for the researcher to understand the positive and negative intensity of
attitudes of respondents.
Introduction
For example,
+5 +5
+4 +4
+3 +3
+2 +2
+1 +1
Low prices Friendly environment
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
5. VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENT

For every dimension of interest and specific question or set of questions,
there are a vast number of ways to make questions. Although the guiding
principle should be the specific purposes of the research, there are better
and worse questions for any particular operationalization. How to evaluate
the measures? Two of the primary criteria of evaluation in any
measurement or observation are:
 Whether we are measuring what we intend to measure.
 Whether the same measurement process yields the same results.
Sound measurement must meet the tests of validity and reliability. In fact,
these are the two major considerations one should use in evaluating a
measurement tool. Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures
what we actually wish to measure. Reliability has to do with the accuracy
and precision of a measurement. We briefly take up the relevant details
concerning these tests of sound measurement.
Concentration of measurement
Reliability of measurement Validity of measurement
5.1 Reliability of measurement: In normal language, we use the word

reliable to mean that something is dependable and that it will give the
same outcome every time. We might talk of a football player as
reliable, meaning that he gives a good performance game after game.
Reliability refers to the tendency toward consistency found in

repeated measurement of the same phenomenon. It is the degree to
which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results.
Reliability indicates the precision of measurement scores, how

accurately such scores will be reproduced with the repeated
measurements.
The reliability of the measurement may be obtained by one of the

three methods those include test-retest, parallel forms, and inter-rater
reliability. These are further discussed below:
Figur e: Level s of measurem ent
Nomi nal scale
Leve l s of O rdin al scal e

me asur e men t
In ter val scale
Ra tio scal e
Test-retest reliability
Types of
reliability Parallel forms reliability
Inter-rater reliability
a) Test-retest reliability [Twice test same result]: Test-retest reliability

is a measure of reliability obtained by administering the same test
twice over a period of time to a group of individuals. The results of the
test are then compared and degree of reliability is determined. In other
words, the results from time first are compared to results from time
second in order to determine how well the instrument consistently gets
the same results.
b) Parallel forms reliability[Two measuring tools same result]:Parallel

forms reliability is a measure of reliability obtained by developing two
measuring tools (both tools must contain items that probe the same
construct, skill, knowledge base, etc.) to the same group of individuals.
The scores from the two measuring tools are then compared on item-
by-item basis and the degree of similarity is determined.
c) Inter-rater reliability [Different respondents same result]:Inter-rater

reliability is a measure of reliability used to assess the degree to which
the judgment of different respondents or raters on the same question or
issue is consistent. This is the condition when several researchers or
raters rate the question or issue in the similar way.
5.2 Validity of measurement: While reliability is necessary, it alone is

not sufficient. For a test to be reliable, it also needs to be valid. For
example, if your scale is off by 5 lbs, it reads your weight every day
Introduction
with an excess of 5lbs. The scale is reliable because it consistently
reports the same weight every day, but it is not valid because it adds
5lbs to your true weight. It is not a valid measure of your weight.
Validity refers to the ability of measuring tools to measure what it

intends to measure. It is about how accurate an instrument is at
measuring what it is trying to measure. It is related with suitability or
meaningfulness of the measurement. Validity encompasses the entire
experimental concept and establishes whether the results obtained
meet all of the requirements of the scientific research method. The
validity of a measurement tool is considered to be the degree to which
the tool measures what it claims to measure; in this case, the validity is
an equivalent to accuracy. Types of validity are as follows:
Figure: Leve ls of measurem ent
Nomi nal scale
Le ve l s of O rdin al scal e
me asur e men t
In ter val scale
R ati o scale
Content validity
Types of validity
Criteria-related validity
Construct validity
a) Content validity: Also known as face validity, content validity

involves the systematic examination of the test content to determine
whether it covers a representative sample of the behavior domain to be
measured. If the instrument contains a representative sample of the
universe then the content validity is high.
This is when researchers simply look at the items on the research

instrument and give the opinion if the items appear to accurately
measure what they are trying to measure. Content validity ensures that
the measuring tools include an adequate and representative set of items
that would tap the concept. The more the scale item represents the
concept of the research topic; the instrument has the greater content
validity.
For example, does an IQ questionnaire have items covering all areas

of intelligence discussed in the scientific literature?
b) Criteria-related validity: Criteria-related validity involves the

correlation between the test and a criterion variable (or variables)
taken as representative of the construct. In other words, it compares
the test with other measures or outcomes (the criteria) already held to
be valid. It helps to establish correlation between actual and standard

work. If the correlation between actual and standard work is high, then
validity of such instrument is high.
Example 1, employee selection tests are often validated against

measures of job performance (the criterion), and IQ tests are often
validated against measures of academic performance (the criterion).
Example 2, if a physics program designed a measure to assess

cumulative student learning throughout the major. The new measure
could be correlated with a standardized measure of ability in this
discipline, such as an ETS field test or the GRE subject test. The
higher the correlation between the established measure and new
measure, the more faith stakeholders can have in the new assessment
tool.
c) Construct validity: Construct validity refers to the extent to which

Operationalization of a construct (i.e., practical tests developed from a
theory) do actually measure what the theory says they do. It is a
context when items that probe the same construct produce similar
results. It wants the agreement between a theoretical concept and a
specified measuring instrument.
Construct validity evidence involves the empirical and theoretical

support for the interpretation of the construct. Such lines of evidence
include statistical analyses of the internal structure of the test including
the relationships between responses to different test items.
Example 1, a women’s studies program may design a cumulative

assessment of learning throughout the major. The questions are
written with complicated wording and phrasing. This can cause the
test inadvertently becoming a test of reading comprehension, rather
than a test of women’s studies. It is important that the measure is
actually assessing the intended construct, rather than an extraneous
factor.
Example 2, a measure of intelligence might be expected to predict

grades in school and results from standardized academic achievement
tests but not personality traits.
6. SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT PROBLEMS

Introduction
While performing measurement, there are several factors that may lead to
problems. Therefore, researcher should keep in mind some sources of
measurement problems. The most common sources of measurement
problems/errors are as follow:
Figure : Sources of measurement problems
The respondent
Sources of
measurement The measurer
problems
The data collection instrument
6.1 The respondent: An error that encountered from the side of

participants while responding the answers is termed as the respondent
associated errors. Such errors may occur when:
 Respondents may not understand the questions and provides the
answers that are not relate to problem under investigation.
 Respondents may understand the questions but s/he don’t want to give
a strong negative or positive opinion.
 Respondents may have no knowledge of the subject with no intentions
of revealing that to the researcher, which can cause the data collected
to be full with guesses or assumptions.
6.2 The measurer: Errors that are caused from the side of researcher
while asking questions to the respondents is termed associated errors.
Such errors may occur when:
 Interviewer changes the responses by paraphrasing, rewording or
reordering the questions; that cause a major change in the responses by
the participants.
 Lack of concentration of interviewer while checking the wrong
response or not recording the complete responses can distort the
findings.
6.3 The data collection instrument: Errors that are caused by faults in
data collection instruments such as questionnaires rather than the
respondents and measurers are termed as instrument associated errors.
Such errors may occur when:
 Poor choice of wording, in terms of the meaning that the research
intended to convey or the terms of the respondent’s vocabulary or
concept of words.
 Not included the broad questions about the entire subject that
researcher trying to investigate.
 Excessive length or monotony of questions that bores and tires
respondent.
 Inadequate space for answering the questions or not waiting for the
response, and poor printing questions and final data findings.
7. CONCEPT OF SAMPLING
We check a sample of rice to see whether the rice well boiled or not.
In most cases, when doing research to understand the behavior of all

people known as population, researcher simply cannot collect data from
every single individual. Instead, they choose a smaller group of individuals
known as sample that represents the larger group (population).
Sample is a subgroup or subset of a population that is used to represent

the entire group as a whole. The finite or infinite group is called population
and its subset is called sample. For example, there are 500 students in a
college those are called population and among those 50 students are
chosen for the research those are called sample. Sampling enables
researchers to make estimates of some characteristics of the population.
 Population is a group of individuals or other entities from which

samples are taken for measurement.
 Sample is a subset of population that is used to study the population as
a whole.
A sample is the representatives selected from the population specially

selected to represent the population. The process of selecting those
representatives from the population is called sampling. Thus, sampling is
simply the process of learning about the population on the basis of sample
drawn from it.
Introduction
Sampling is the process of selecting the sample from the population. It is
the process of selecting a number of individuals or items for a study in
such a way those individuals represent the larger group from which they
were selected. In other words, sampling is the process of obtaining
information about an entire population by examining only a part of it.
According to Mildred Parton, “Sampling is the process or method of

drawing a definite number of the individuals, cases or the observations
from the particular universe, selecting art of a total group for
investigation.”
The purpose of sampling is to draw conclusions about populations from

samples, to enables us to determine a population’s characteristics by
directly observing only a portion (or sample) of the population.
Sampling is used because:

 Sampling allows researchers to learn a great deal about a population
without having to solicit information from every member of that
population.
 Without sampling, researchers would not have the time or money to
study and learn about the large population.
 Researcher during studying a small universe provides a detail and
comprehensive information.
8. THE SAMPLING PROCESS

Sampling process is the procedure required right from defining a
population to the actual selection of sample elements. There are seven
steps involved in this process.
8.1 Defining the target population: Target population is the entire

group of people of interest from whom the researcher needs to obtain
information.
For ex, if a kitchen appliances firm wants to conduct a survey to

ascertain the demand for its micro ovens, it may define the population
as ‘all women above the age of 20 who cook (assuming that very few
men cook)’.
A well defined population reduces the probability of including the

respondents who do not fit the research objective of the company. For
ex, if the population is defined as all women above the age of 20, the
researcher may end up taking the opinions of a large number of

women who cannot afford to buy a micro oven.
8.2 Specifying the sampling frame: Once the definition of the population
is clear a researcher should decide on the sampling frame. A sampling
frame is the list of elements from which the sample may be drawn.
Identifying the sampling frame, which could be a telephone directory,
a list of blocks and localities of a city, a map or any other list
consisting of all the sampling units? It may be pointed out that if the
frame is incomplete or otherwise defective, sampling will not be able
to overcome these shortcomings.
Continuing with the micro oven ex, an ideal sampling frame would be
a database that contains all the households that have a monthly income
above Rs.20, 000. However, in practice it is difficult to get an
exhaustive sampling frame that exactly fits the requirements of a
particular research. In general, researchers use easily available
sampling frames like telephone directories and lists of credit card and
mobile phone users.
8.3 Specifying the sampling unit: A sampling unit is a basic unit that
contains a single element or a group of elements of the population to
be sampled.
In this case, a household becomes a sampling unit and all women

above the age of 20 years living in that particular house become the
sampling elements. If it is possible to identify the exact target audience
of the business research, every individual element would be a
sampling unit.
8.4 Selection of sampling method: The sampling method outlines the

way in which the sample units are to be selected. All sampling
methods can be grouped under two distinct heads, that is, probability
and non-probability sampling. The choice of the sampling method is
influenced by the objectives of the business research, availability of
financial resources, time constraints, and the nature of the problem to
be investigated.
8.5 Determination of sample size: There are various ways of classifying

the techniques used in determining the sample size. A couple those
hold primary importance and are worth mentioning are whether the
Introduction
technique deals with fixed or sequential sampling and whether its logic
is based on traditional or Bayesian methods.
 In non-probability sampling procedures, the allocation of budget,
thumb rules and number of sub groups to be analyzed, importance of
the decision, number of variables, nature of analysis, incidence rates,
and completion rates play a major role in sample size determination.
 In the case of probability sampling, however, formulas are used to

calculate the sample size after the levels of acceptable error and level
of confidence are specified.
8.6 Specifying the sampling plan: In this step, the specifications and
decisions regarding the implementation of the research process are
outlined. These are guide lines that would help the researcher in every
step of the process. As the interviewers and their co-workers will be on
field duty of most of the time, a proper specification of the sampling
plans would make their work easy and they would not have to revert to
their seniors when faced with operational problems.
Suppose, blocks in a city are the sampling units and the households are
the sampling elements. This step outlines the modus operandi of the
sampling plan in identifying houses based on specified characteristics.
It includes issues like how is the interviewer going to take a systematic
sample of the houses. What should the interviewer do when a house is
vacant? What is the re-contact procedure for respondents who were
unavailable? All these and many other questions need to be answered
for the smooth functioning of the research process.
8.7 Selecting the sample: This is the final step in the sampling process,
where the actual selection of the sample elements is carried out. At this
stage, it is necessary that the interviewers stick to the rules outlined for
the smooth implementation of the business research. This step
involves implementing the sampling plan to select the sampling plan
to select a sample required for the survey.
9. TYPES OF SAMPLE
Sampling is the process of selecting participants from the population. For
selecting participants, following types of sampling are used.
Types of sampling
Probability sampling Non-probability

9.1 Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sample in which

every unit in the population has an equal chance or probability
(greater than zero) of being selected in the sample, and the
probability of selection can be accurately determined or known.
For example, a researcher wants to do research about students’

behaviors at college where there are 1000 students. He intended to
take 150 students as samples. Now 150 students will be selected from
among 1000 students, where everyone has an equal chance of being
selected.
Probability sampling can be of following types: Simple random

sampling, Stratified sampling, Cluster sampling, Systematic sampling,
and Multi-stage sampling
a) Simple random sampling: Simple random sampling is method of

sampling in which each members of the population have an equal
probability of selection as a sample. It is free from sampling bias.
To conduct a simple random sample, the researcher must first prepare

an exhaustive list (sampling frame) of all members of the population
of interest. From this list, the sample is drawn so that each person or
item has an equal chance of becoming drawn during each selection
round. Therefore, simple random sampling is a method of selecting ‘n’
units out of population size ‘N’ units by giving equal probability to all
units.
For example, a researcher is interested study about students’

behaviors at college where there are 1000 students. Researcher has to
select 100 students for his study. For that, researcher can select
samples by writing every student’s symbol number on a piece of paper
and put in a hat. Selecting the sample from the hat is random and each
student has an equal chance of being selected.
Samples may be drawn with or without replacement.

 Simple random sampling with replacement: If the sample element
is selected once and may be selected again in the next drawing, this
sampling procedure is called simple random sampling without
sampling. Each element is returned to the sampling frame after it is
selected so that it may be sampled again.
Introduction
 Simple random sampling without replacement: If the sample

element is selected once and cannot be selected again, this sampling
procedure is called simple random sampling without sampling. Each
element selected for the sample is then excluded from the sampling
frame.
Some of the procedures for selecting random sampling are as follow:
 Lottery method: In lottery method, the populations are numbered on

small and identical slips of paper which are folded and mixed together
in a drum or in a flat container. A blindfold selection is then made
from the number of slips required to constitute the desired size of
sample.
 Use of random number tables: Under this method random number

table which has been so constructed that each of the digits from 0, 1,
2 ... 9 appears with approximately the same frequency and
independently with each other. The best way to choose a sample is to
use a random number table (or let a computer generate a series of
random numbers automatically).
 Selecting from sequential list: Under this method the names of the
respondents/items are first arranged serially according to alphabetical,
geographical or simply in serial order. Then out of this every 10th
number or any such number that is determined by the researcher based
on the cases may be taken up.
Steps in selecting a simple random sample:

1. Define the target population
2. Identify an existing sampling frame of the target population or develop
a new one
3. Evaluate the sampling frame for under-coverage, over-coverage,
multiple coverage, and clustering, and make adjustments when
necessary
4. Assign a unique number to each element in the frame
5. Determine the sample size
6. Randomly select the targeted number of population elements.
b) Systematic sampling: It is a method of sampling in which sample

elements are selected from a list or from sequential files based on a
system of intervals in a numbered population. In this method, the first
element is selected randomly from a list or from sequential files, and

then every nth element is selected.
Steps in systematic sampling

1. Number the units in population from 1 to N
2. Decide on the n (sample size) that is required
3. Select an interval size k=N/n
4. Randomly select an integer between 1 to k
5. Finally, take every kth unit
Example, a researcher is interested to study about students’ behaviors

at college where there are 1000 students. Researcher has to select 100
students for his study. For that, students would be put into list form
and then every 10th student would be selected for inclusion in the
sample.
c) Stratified sampling: This method is used when samples are needed

from heterogeneous population. Stratified random sampling is defined
as a combination of independent samples selected in proper
proportions from homogeneous groups within a heterogeneous
population.
Stratified sampling is a method of probability sampling in which the

target population is first categorized into mutually exclusive,
homogeneous segments (strata), and then a simple random sample is
selected from each segment (stratum). The samples selected from the
various strata are then combined into a single sample.
Steps in stratified sampling

1. Determine the variables to use for stratification.
2. Determine the proportionate stratification based on study’s
information needs and risks.
3. Divide the sampling frame into separate frames for each stratum.
4. Randomize the elements within each stratum’s sampling frame.
5. Follow random or systematic procedure to draw the sample.
Example 1, a researcher is interested to study about students’

behaviors at college where there are 1000 students. Researcher has to
select 100 students for his study. For that, students of that college is
separated or categorized into first, third, fifth, and seventh semesters.
There are four strata of students population (first, third, fifth, seventh
Introduction
semesters) from which researcher can select his sample using simple
random sampling technique of 25 samples from each semester.
Example 2,
Example of stratified sampling
Population All people in Nepal
Groups (strata) 5 development regions in Nepal
(Eastern, Central, Western, Mid-
Western, Far western development
region)
Simple random 500 people from each development
sampling region.
Sample 5x500=2500 selected people
d) Cluster sampling: It is a method of sampling in which elements of the

population are randomly selected in naturally occurring grouping
(clusters). It is similar to stratified sampling because the population to
be sampled is subdivided into mutually exclusive groups. However,
these groups are referred to as clusters instead of strata because they
are “naturally occurring groupings such as schools, households, or
geographic units.”
In stratified random sampling, all the strata of the population is

sampled while in cluster sampling, the researcher only randomly
selects a number of clusters from the collection of clusters of the entire
population. Therefore, only a number of clusters are sampled, all the
other clusters are left unrepresented.
Steps in cluster sampling

1. Divide population into clusters
2. Randomly sample clusters
3. Measure all units within sampled clusters
Example, a researcher is interested to study about students’ behaviors

at college where there are 1000 students. Researcher has to select 100
students for his study. For that, students of that college is separated or
categorized into first, third, fifth, and seventh semesters which
constitute sampling frame. But the numbers of students are too large.
Researcher might then restrict himself with first and third semester,
which constitute the secondary sampling frame. Finally researcher
would select students from each of these semesters. Researcher then
selects these students for samples.
Example of cluster sampling
Population All people in Nepal

Groups (strata)
5 development regions in Nepal (Eastern,
Central, Western, Mid-Western, Far western
development region)
Simple random 2 development regions from 5 development
sampling regions.
Sample Every people in the 2 selected development
regions.
e) Multi-stage sampling: Multi-stage sampling represents complex form

of cluster sampling in which population is divided into groups
(clusters) and then, one or more clusters are selected at random and
everyone within the chosen cluster is sampled.
This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. This

technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large
geographical area like an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling
the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such as
states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within
towns. If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the
sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.
For example, in the first stage, geographical regions, such as local

government areas, are selected. In the second stage, perhaps schools
may be selected. In the third stage, the unit of analysis - perhaps
teachers or students, are sampled. If the unit of analysis is not selected
in the first step, then the sampling procedure is multi-stage sampling.
In multi-stage sampling, other sampling techniques may be used at the
different stages. For example, the first stage may use random
sampling, the second stage may use purposive sampling, and the third
stage may use stratified sampling.
The steps in multi-stage sampling are as follows:

 Organize the sampling process into stages where the unit of analysis is
systematically grouped.
 Select a sampling technique for each stage.
 Systematically apply the sampling technique to each stage until the
unit of analysis has been selected.
9.2 Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is a sampling

technique where the samples are gathered in a process that does not
Introduction
give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being
selected. These sampling are used when the number of elements in a
population is either unknown or cannot be individually identified. In
such situations the selection of elements is dependent upon other
considerations.
Non-probability sampling tends to:

 These are cheaper
 These are used when a sampling frame is not available
 These are useful when population is so widely dispersed that cluster
sampling would not be efficient
Non-probability sampling can be of following types:

Figure (5.7): Types of non-probability sampling
Convenience sampling
Quota sampling
Types of non-
probability Judgment sampling
sampling
Snowball sampling
a) Convenience/Accidental/Haphazard sampling: It is a sampling

method in which samples are selected based on researcher’s ease or
comfort of access. The samples are selected in accordance to the
requirement/convenience of the researcher. It is not normally
representative of the target population because sample units are only
selected if they can be accessed easily and conveniently.
It is the least costly, in terms of time, effort and money, but may result
in poor quality data and lacks intellectual credibility.
Example, a researcher is interested study about students’ behavior in

college where there are 1000 students. If the researcher is only
interested in achieving a sample size of say 100 students, he may
simply stand at one of the main entrance to college, where it would be
easy to invite and interview those students to take part in the research.
Likewise other examples could be:

 The female moviegoers sitting in the first row of a movie theater
 The first 100 customers to enter a department store
 The first three callers in a radio contest.
b) Quota sampling: It is a sampling method in which sample is based on

the judgment of the researcher. It is judgmental sampling technique in
which the first stage consists of developing categories or quotas of the
population and the second stage consists of sample elements being
selected in convenience or judgment.
In quota sampling:
 Firstly, a population is segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups,
just as in stratified sampling.
 Secondly, judgment is used to select the subjects or units from each
segments based on specified proportion.
Quota sampling works in a way similar to stratified sampling where

the population is divided into mutually exclusive subgroups, but the
sample is non-random i.e. it does not ensure that every member in the
population is equally likely to be chosen. As such, each stratum may
not be proportionately represented in a quota sample, unlike a
stratified sample.
Steps in quota sampling

1. Divide the population into strata, or groups of individuals that are
similar (or homogeneous) in some way that is important to the
response.
2. Choose a separate sample from each spectrum. This does not have to
be random sample.
3. Combine these samples to form a quota sample.
Example, a researcher is interested study about students’ behavior in

college where there are 1000 students. Since he believes male and
female students have different behaviors, the researcher decides to
stratify the population by gender. In the first step: from student
attendance sheets, he knows that 60% of students are female. He
wants a sample of size 200. To get a proportional sample, he decides
to sample 120 females and 80 male students. In the second step:
researcher might be tempted to interview those 120 females and 80
male students.
c) Judgment/Purposive sampling: It is a sampling method in which

sample are selected based on researcher’s judgment or interest or
Introduction
knowledge that s/he believed those selected sample addresses the
purpose of a particular research problem under investigation. In other
words, the researcher chooses the sample based on who they think
would be appropriate for the study. The researcher uses his/her own
judgment about which respondents to choose, and picks those who
best meets the purpose of the study. Thus, the sample representatives
are highly dependent upon the good judgment of the researcher.
The judgment sampling is appropriate when the desired population for

the study is uncommon or very difficult to locate and employ. The
researcher targets a particular group of people whose background
expertise relates to the objective of the study.
Example, if a researcher want to study an impact of undeclared

economic sanction in Nepal by India, researcher select a sample of
twenty of the senior Nepalese professor to provide their opinion on the
subject. Researcher considers that the judgments of these professors
are much more superior to the sample rather than the opinion of
researcher’s neighbors.
d) Snowball sampling: It is a sampling method in which samples are

selected based on referrals- using existing interview subjects as a
means of making contact with others. This sampling method is used
where the respondents for the study are difficult to identify and best
located through referral networks. For sampling, an initial group of
individuals are discovered, and then subsequent respondent,
possessing similar characteristics, are identified based on referrals
provided by the initial respondents.
Researcher starts with one or two information rich respondents and ask
them if they know persons who know a lot about researcher’s topic of
interest or who represent the characteristics researcher are interested
in. The snowball sampling method is appropriate to study drug culture,
individuals with HIV/AIDS, prostitutes, teenage gang activities, black
markets, political environments, power elites etc. where respondents
are difficult to identify and contact.
Steps in snowball sampling

1. Try to identify one or more units in the desired population
2. Use these units to find further units and so on until the sample size is
met
For example, if a researcher wishes to interview drug dealer from

Kathmandu, s/he might interview a few drug dealers s/he knows or
can locate and would then request them to contact with other drug
dealers.
10. SAMPLING AND NON-SAMPLING ERRORS

Error describes the differences between a value obtained from a data
collection process and the true value for the population. The greater the
error, the less representative the data are of the population. Data can be
affected by two types of error: sampling error and non-sampling error.
Types of errors
Sampling errors Non-sampling errors
10.1 Sampling errors (Unsystematic errors): Sampling error is the

error, which is made in selecting samples that are not representative
of the population. This error is the difference between sample value
and actual value of the population. Sampling error does not occur in a
census, as the census values are based on the entire population.
Sampling errors occur when:

 The proportions of different characteristics within the sample are not
similar to the proportions of the characteristics for the whole
population [i.e. if the samples are men (45%) and female (55%), then
similar proportion should be taken in sample].
 The sample is too small to accurately represent the population.
 The sampling method is not random.
Sampling errors can be controlled through:

 Careful sample designs
 Large samples
 Multiple contacts to assure representative response
10.2 Non-sampling error (systematic errors): A non-sampling error is a

statistical error caused by human error to which a specific statistical
analysis is exposed. These errors can include, but are not limited to,
data entry errors, biased questions in a questionnaire, biased
processing/decision making, inappropriate analysis conclusions and
false information provided by respondents. These errors mainly arise
at the stage of data collection and processing of data.
Introduction
Non-sampling errors are of following types:

a) Non-response error: This refers to error that occurs when failure to
obtain a response from some respondents because of absence, non-
contact, refusal, or some other reason. It can be complete non-response
or partial response.
b) Response error: This refers to error that occurs when respondents

intentionally or accidently providing inaccurate response. This may be
due to concepts, questions or instructions are not clearly understood by
the respondent.
c) Interviewer error: This refers to error that occurs when interviewers

incorrectly record information; are not neutral or objective; influence
the respondent to answer in a particular way; or assume responses
based on appearance or other characteristics.
d) Processing error: This refers to error that occurs in the process of

data collection, data entry, coding, editing and output. The error can
arise while transferring the data from the questionnaires to the
spreadsheet on the computer.
e) Coverage error: This refers to error that occurs when a unit in the
sample is incorrectly excluded or included, or is duplicated in the
sample (e.g. a field interviewer fails to interview a selected household
or some people in a household).
SUMMARY
 Concept of variables: A variable is defined as anything that varies or
changes in value. Variables take on two or more values.
 Concept and nature of measurement: Measurement is a systematic

way of assigning numbers or some other symbols to the characteristics
of certain objects.
 Scale construction for attitude measurement: Lickert scale,

Semantic differential scale, Guttman’s cumulative scale, and
Thurstone’s differential scale
 Scales commonly used in business research: Comparative and non-

comparative scale.
 Validity and reliability of measurement: Validity refers to the

ability of measuring tools to measure what it intends to measure. It is
about how accurate an instrument is at measuring what it is trying to
measure. Reliability refers to the tendency toward consistency found
in repeated measurement of the same phenomenon.
 Concept of sampling: Sampling is the process of selecting the sample

from the population. It is the process of selecting a number of
individuals or items for a study in such a way those individuals
represent the larger group from which they were selected.
 Types of sampling: Probability sampling, and non-probability

sampling.
 Sampling and non-sampling errors: Sampling error is the error,

which is made in selecting samples that are not representative of the
population. A non-sampling error is a statistical error caused by human
error to which a specific statistical analysis is exposed.
Non-sampling error is a sampling technique where the samples are

gathered in a process that does not give all the individuals in the
population equal chances of being selected.
EXERCISE
1. Explain the concept of variable in research
2. Define measurement. How an attitude of people can be measured?
3. Explain various scale construction.
4. Explain the concept of validity and reliability
5. What is sampling?
6. State various types of probability sampling.
7. State various types of non-probability sampling.
8. What is sampling error?
9. What is non-sampling error?
Introduction
UNIT DATA COLLECTION

AND ANALYSIS
5
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Business
Concept Research Methods
of data
Types of data
Sources of secondary data
Sources of primary data
Questionnaire
Concept of research interview
Observation
Data analysis
Organizing and preparing data
Presenting data in tables
Presenting data in graphs and charts
Statistical techniques
Hypothesis testing
Methods of collecting qualitative data
Methods of analyzing qualitative data
1. CONCEPT OF DATA
After the samples are selected, the next and one of the important steps in
research is to gather the requisite information or data from the sample
respondents.
Introduction
Research data is defined as the information collected through record-
keeping, observing, or measuring. In other words, research data is types of
information that is collected, observed, or created, for purposes of analysis
to produce original research results.
Research data is defined as recorded factual material commonly retained

by and accepted in the scientific community as necessary to validate
research findings. The first work or research is data collection.
Data collection is a process of preparing and collecting of data for a

particular purpose from various sources, that has been systematically
observed, recorded, organized that enables one to answer relevant
questions and evaluate outcomes. The goal for all data collection is to
capture quality evidence that then translates to rich data analysis and
allows the building of a convincing and credible answer to questions that
have been posed.
2. TYPES OF DATA
For any research data can be collected through primary sources and
secondary sources. Therefore, data are classified based on sources as:
primary and secondary data.
Types of data
Primary data Secondary data
2.1 Primary data: The primary data are those which are collected afresh
and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character. Such
data are originally collected by the researcher and field work is
required to generate primary data. Primary data are collected through
various methods like questionnaires, interviews, and observations etc.
by the researcher. It can be a lengthy process but does provide first-
hand data.
For example, getting data through interview.
Advantages of using primary data:

 The investigator collects data specific to the problem under study.
 There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected (for the
investigator).
 If required, it may be possible to obtain additional data during the
study period.
2.2 Secondary data: The secondary data are those which have already
been collected by someone else and which have already been passed
through the statistical process. These data are collected by a party not
related to the research study but collected these data for some other
purpose and at different time in the past. If the researcher uses these
data then these become secondary data for the current users. These
may be available in written, typed or in electronic forms such as
books, thesis, reports, journals, internets, etc.
For example, getting data through previous thesis, book, bank report
etc.
Advantages of using secondary data:

 No hassles of data collection due to already been collected by someone
else.
 It is less expensive.
 The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality of data.
3. SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA

Secondary source is a source that contains secondary data. It is data
collected by someone other than the user. Common sources of secondary
data for research include the following:
Sources of data
Published sources Unpublished sources
3.1 Published sources: Published sources refer to the data and

information that are published after the completion of works. Such
sources are government, INGO/NGO, private reports and publications.
These reports are published on regular basis i.e. annually, quarterly,
monthly, fortnightly, weekly, daily, and so on.
a) Government reports and publications: Government offices such as

Central Bank, ministries, various departments, Central Bureau of
Statistics etc. regularly publish their reports and research reports.
b) INGO reports and publications: INGO such as UN, WTO, World

Bank, IMF, ADB, ILO publish report and conduct research regularly
which serve as sources of data.
Introduction
c) Private sector reports and publications: It includes various reports
and publications published by private sector such as Commercial Bank
annual reports, Chamber of Commerce, FNCCI etc. for the knowledge
of public. Such reports are the prime sources of information or data to
others.
d) Newspaper and magazine: Various newspapers as well as magazines

also do collect data in respect of many social and economic aspects.
Some of them are: Kantipur daily news, Himalayan times, Kathmandu
Post, VOW magazine, Boss Magazine, Economic Times and so on
those work as secondary sources of data.
3.2 Unpublished sources: Unpublished sources refer to the data and

information that are not published after the completion of works.
These records are maintained properly by the government, agencies,
private offices and firms. Such unpublished sources of secondary data
includes:
 Academic research report such as thesis or dissertation.
 Reports of private sector organizations.
 Government and non-government reports having confidential
information.
 Diaries
4. ADVANTAGES OF USING SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data contains the following advantages:
4.1 Available from other sources: Secondary data is available from
other sources and may already have been used in previous research,
making it easier to carry out further research. It is time-saving and
cost-efficient: the data was collected by someone other than the
researcher.
4.2 Pre-established degree of validity and reliability: A clear benefit

of using secondary data is that much of the background work needed
has already been carried out, such as literature reviews or case
studies. The data may have been used in published texts and
statistics elsewhere, and the data could already be promoted in the
media or bring in useful personal contacts. Secondary data generally
have a pre-established degree of validity and reliability which need
not be re-examined by the researcher who is re-using such data.
4.3 Provide a baseline for primary research: Secondary data can

provide a baseline for primary research to compare the collected
primary data results to and it can also be helpful in research design.
4.4 Access to inaccessible subjects: One of the basic advantages of

content analysis is that it allows research on subjects to which the
researcher does not have physical access. These could be people of
old civilizations, say marriage patterns. These could also be the
documents from the archives, speeches of the past leaders (Quaid-e-
Azam) who are not alive, the suicide notes, old films, dramas, poems,
etc.
4.5 Relatively low cost: Although the of documentary analysis can vary
widely depending on the type of document analyzed, how widely
documents are dispersed, and how far one must travel to gain access
to them, documentary analysis can be inexpensive compared to large-
scale surveys. Many a time’s documents are gathered together in a
centralized location such as library where the researcher can study
them for only the cost of travel to the repository.
4.6 High quality: Although documents vary tremendously in quality,

many documents, such as newspaper columns, are written by skilled
commentators and may be more valuable than, for example, poorly
written responses to mailed questionnaires.
5. DISADVANTAGES OF USING SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data contains the following disadvantages:
5.1 Inappropriateness of the data: Secondary data source may provide

researcher with vast amount of information, but quantity is not
synonymous of appropriateness. This is simply because it has been
collected to answer a different research question or objectives. The
inappropriateness may be for instance, because of the data was
collected many years ago, the information refers to a entire country
when one aims to study a specific region, or the opposite, one aims to
study an entire country but the information is given in a region wide.
5.2 Incompleteness: Many documents provide incomplete account to the

researcher who had no prior experience with or knowledge of the
events or behavior discussed. A problem with many personal
documents such as letters and diaries is that they were not written for
Introduction
research purposes but were designed to be private or even secret.
Both these kinds of documents often assume specific knowledge that
researcher unfamiliar with certain events will not posses.
5.3 Lack of availability of documents: There are many areas of study

for which no documents are available. In many cases, information
simply was never recorded. In other cases it was recorded, but the
documents remain secret or classified, or have been destroyed.
6. SOURCES AND METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA

Primary data is data used in research originally obtained through the direct
efforts of the research. Primary source is a source that contains primary
data. Following are the sources of primary data:
Sources of data
Interview Questionnaire Observation
7. CONCEPT OF QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

A questionnaire is simply a ‘tool’ for collecting and recording data about
a particular issue of interest. It is mainly made up of a list of questions
designed to gather response from respondents on a given topic, issue or
event. The responses obtained from such questionnaires are used to test
hypothesis. Questionnaires are suitable for primary research. Attitude,
motivation, self-concept, age, previous knowledge etc. are the variables
which can be measured through questionnaire.
The questionnaire is the medium of communication between the researcher

and the subject, although sometimes administered on the researcher’s
behalf by an interviewer. In the questionnaire, the researcher articulates the
questions to which s/he wants to know the answers and, through the
questionnaire, the subjects’ answers are conveyed back to the researcher.
Questionnaire can be delivered through:

 Mail questionnaire
 Telephone
 In-house survey
 Mall intercept
 Computer questionnaire
Questionnaire has the following advantages:

 The data gathered is standardized and therefore, easy to analyze.
 Data can be gathered quickly from a large number of respondents. ·
 It is possible to compare results with similar research used in other
institutions.
 Respondents can answer anonymously which may produce more
honest answers.
 One person can administer the whole process if they have the
necessary skills.
8. COMPONENTS OF QUESTIONNAIRE
Generally, questionnaire is composed of three components: Part
incorporating explanatory information, main body, and part incorporating
personal information. These are discussed below:
Part incorporating explanatory
information
Components of Main part
questionnaires
Part incorporating personal information
8.1 Part incorporating explanatory information: The first part of

questionnaire provide the information to the respondents about the
need of information, purpose of collecting information, and reasons
of filling the questionnaires. It provides the guidelines or instructions
for filling the questionnaire.
This part of questionnaire includes the following information:

 Introduction of research and research organization
 Objectives of research
 For example:
Guidelines Literacy
to fill up the questionnaire
questionnaire
 The purpose of this study is to examine teachers’ beliefs of literacy
Privacy and confidentiality of respondents
development in order to refine teacher-training practices. This study
 Address to deliver the questionnaire
is being conducted through the University of PU. This questionnaire
 Words of thanks
asks about your PERSONAL beliefs of how children first learn how
to read. Think of children in nursery school and early primary
grades, from Nursery 1 to 3. Consider how they learn to read and
answer the following questions based on your beliefs. Do NOT write
your name on this questionnaire. Your responses will be anonymous
and will never be linked to you personally. Your participation is
entirely voluntary. If there are items you do not feel comfortable
answering, please skip them.
Thanks for your cooperation. Binod Lingden Subba

Introduction
8.2 Main part: This is the second part of questionnaire that consist
questions and possible answers to the questions. This is the main part
of questionnaire because it provides basic information to solve the
problem. In this part, questionnaire is enlisted with the questions for
collections of data with the purpose of solving the research problem.
It covers all necessary subjects under investigation adequately.
Questions may be long or short depending upon the amount of data
sought.
For e.g. Following items describe statements about children learning
how to read. Indicate your agreement or disagreement with the
following statements by circling your response using this scale.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Strongly
Disagree Somewhat Somewhat Agree
SD SA
1 Kids need to develop good speaking and 1 2 3 4 5 6
listening skills before they can learn to
read.
2 Before entering school, a child can learn 1 2 3 4 5 6
reading skills like letters and awareness
of books
3 Parents can help a young child learn to 1 2 3 4 5 6
read by talking to them and asking
questions.
8.3 Part incorporating personal information: This is the last part of

questionnaire where demographic characteristics of respondents are
mentioned. This part includes age, gender, education level, marital
status, family income, occupation and so on. This information can be
used for segmenting the samples by various characteristics that

enable the researcher to analyze data through tabulation.
For example:
Please circle the most appropriate response.
1. Gender: (a) Male (b) Female
2. Please write your age: ………………
3. Education you completed: (a) SLC (b) Bachelor (c) Master
4. Type of school you teach at: (a) Government (b) Private
9. PRINCIPLES OF QUESTIONNAIRE WRITING

Questionnaire design is one of the hardest and yet one of the most
important parts of the research process. Researcher should consider some
guidelines while developing questionnaire which are known as principles
of questionnaire. Some of the major principles of questionnaire are as
follow:
Figure (6.1): Principles of questionnaire
Match the objectives
Clear and precise
Avoid double-barreled questions

Principles of
questionnaire Understand the participants
Use natural and familiar language
Pilot test questionnaire
9.1 Match the objectives: The questionnaire should be designed in a

way that it should obtain objectives of research through the analysis
Introduction
of responses collected. Make sure the questionnaire items match
research objectives.
9.2 Clear and precise: The questionnaire should be clear, precise, and
unambiguous. Assume that respondents read items quickly and
provide quick answers. The goal is to eliminate the chance that the
question will mean different things to different people.
9.3 Avoid double-barreled questions: Never ask for a single answer to

a combination of questions. Double-barreled question combines two
or more issues in a single question. In general, whatever, whenever
the words appear in a questionnaire statement, checks whether this is
a double-barreled question.
9.4 Understand the participants: A key to effective questionnaire

construction is good understanding of research participants.
Researcher should decide participants before developing
questionnaire. Structure of questionnaire should be based on
competence level of participants. For example, the composition of
word used questionnaire should be constructed differently to illiterate
than literate participants.
9.5 Use natural and familiar language: The questionnaire should use
language that is understandable to the people who are going to fill
out questionnaire. Researcher must know enough about participants
to use language familiar to them. Using of natural and familiar
language makes it easier for participants to fill out a questionnaire
and helps participants feel more relaxed and less threatened by the
task of filling it out. Consideration should be given in age, education
level, cultural background when deciding on the kind of language to
use.
9.6 Pilot test questionnaire: It is a cardinal rule in research that

researcher must try out, or pilot test, questionnaire to determine
whether it operates properly before using it in a research study.
Researcher should conduct pilot study with a minimum of five to ten
people. Researcher should finalize questionnaire only after the
incorporation of suggestions of pilot study.
10. THE RESEARCH INTERVIEW

An interview is a data collection method in which data are collected by
asking questions orally to the respondents. It is a systematic way of
talking and listening to people and is another way to collect data from
individuals through conversations. Interview is particularly useful for
getting the story behind a participant’s experiences. The purpose of
conducting interviews is to collect information from a single person
through a systematic and structured format. Interview is far more personal
form of research than questionnaire. Interview may be structured and
unstructured.
According to Vivien Palmar, “the interview constitutes a social situation

between the two persons, the psychological process involved requiring
both the individuals mutually respond through the social research. The
purpose of the interview calls for a varied response from the two parties
concerned.”
Interviews are ways for participants to get involved and talk about their
views. In addition, the interviewees are able to discuss their perception and
interpretation in regards to a given situation.
 Interviews typically allow for more focused discussions and follow‐up

questions.
 Individuals may offer information in interviews that they wouldn’t
offer in a group context.
 Interviews can be an excellent source for stories and context.
 The interviewer can observe the non‐verbal behaviors of an
interviewee.
11. FACE-TO-FACE INTERVIEW

Face-to-face interview is a data collection method when the interviewer
directly communicates with the respondent in accordance with the
prepared questionnaire. This method enables to acquire factual
information, consumer evaluations, attitudes, preferences and other
information coming out during the conversation with the respondent. Thus,
face-to-face interview method ensures the quality of the obtained data and
increases the response rate.
Face-to-face (F2F) interviewing is one of the oldest and most widely used
methods of conducting primary research. F2F interviews are conducted by
researcher and a target respondent in the street, home, office, meeting
place, etc.
Advantages of F2F Interviews

Introduction
 Allow for more in-depth data collection and comprehensive
understanding
 Body language and facial expressions are more clearly identified and
understood
 The interviewer can probe for explanations of responses
 Stimulus material and visual aids can be used to support the interview
 Interview length can be considerably longer since the participant has a
greater commitment to participate
Disadvantages of F2F interviews

 Interviews are more time consuming to recruit and conduct
 As a result of timing and travel, F2F interviews can be expensive
 Interviews can deliver biased responses
 Most carefully vet the respondent’s ability before investing time in the
recruitment process and interview process.
12. TELEPHONE INTERVIEW

Telephone interview is a data collection method when the interviewer
communicates with the respondent on the telephone in accordance with the
prepared questionnaire. Usually, standardized questionnaires with closed-
ended questions are recommended for this kind of questioning.
Consequently, telephone interview is short and focused on a collection of
concentrated information.
The potential benefits associated with using telephone interviews as a

mechanism of data collection include:
 Using economic and human resources efficiently,
 Minimizing disadvantages associated with in-person interviewing,
 Developing positive relationships between researchers and
participants, and
 Improving quality of data collection.
The potential challenges to telephone interviewing include

 Maintaining participant involvement,
 Maintaining clear communication,
 Communicating with participants who offer extraneous information,
 Encountering participants with health concerns, and
 Communicating with a third party.
Telephone interviews are similar to other forms of market research

interview, but are carried out over the phone. Telephone interviews fall
under two broad categories - teledepths and quantitative interviews.
a) Teledepths are similar to a face to face depth interview, with the
researcher utilizing a topic guide as opposed to a structured
questionnaire. The major advantage of performing teledepths are that
numerous and geographically disparate respondents can be
interviewed relatively easily and cheaply - as opposed to the travel
involved if interviewing the same respondents face-to-face. However,
the researcher does sacrifice certain elements which are sometimes
important, such as the ability to view body language, and the
reassurance that a face to face conversation can give if the topic is
particularly personal.
b) Quantitative interviews are most often carried out on the telephone

via the use of a CATI system. Computer Aided Telephone
Interviewing allows responses to be instantly put in to a computer
system ready for analysis, and also means that quotas can be
accurately tracked without the time-lag which can occur when
interviews are carried out on paper and have to be returned to the
office for inputting and processing.
13. COMPUTER ASSISTED INTERVIEWING

Computer Assisted Interviewing (CAI)? refers to the way in which
computers can be used in the development and administering of survey
questionnaires. It has also been known as Computer-Assisted Survey
Information Collection (CASIC). Rather than using a paper questionnaire,
interviewers carry laptops from which questions are read out and responses
to the survey questions are entered. The data is then transmitted back to the
field centre via modem.
CAI was first used in the UK in 1990 on the Labour Force Survey, and by
1995, all of the social surveys carried out by the Office for National
Statistics used this method. It is thought to be one of the most influential
developments in survey data collection. One of the most commonly used
software programmes for this is Blaise, which was developed by Statistics
Netherlands (although this is by no means the only one of its kind).
Introduction
There are several different types of Computer-Assisted-Interviewing, each
of which is used for the various modes of survey data collection. They are
described in more detail below:
a) Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI) is used when
administering a questionnaire face-to-face. The interviewer uses his
laptop screen to read the questions to pose and inputs the responses.
The interviewer reads questions from the screen (which the respondent
cannot usually see) and responses are typed in to designated fields.
b) Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) is a similar

setup to CAPI and is used in telephone interviews. The interviewer
asks questions by telephone and records answers on a computer. CATI
automates the interviewees’ calls, the recall in case of absence and
checks quota.
c) Computer Assisted Self Interviewing (CASI) is used particularly

when questions are of a sensitive nature, such as crime and offending
or sexual behaviour and attitudes. Respondents are given the laptop
and are able to enter their responses themselves. It is thought to
increase the validity of responses, as respondents are more likely to
give truthful answers (whilst the interviewer cannot see what they are
doing) such as crime and offending or sexual behaviour and attitudes.
Respondents are given the laptop and are able to enter their responses
themselves. It is thought to increase the validity of responses, as
respondents are more likely to give truthful answers (whilst the
interviewer cannot see what they are doing).
14. CONCEPT OF OBSERVATION

Observation is a data collection method in which data are collected
through systematic noting and recording of events, behaviors, and objects
in the social setting chosen for study. It is also referred to as field notes-
detailed, nonjudgmental, concrete descriptions of what has been observed.
Researchers simply watch people or situations and record the observed
data.
Observation method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with

those people who are not capable of giving verbal reports or their feelings
due to any reasons. Field notes are taken throughout the observations and
are focused on what is seen. A researcher obviously needs an audio-visual
recorder for a complete collection of such comprehensive record.
15. METHODS OF OBSERVATIONS

There are two approaches to collecting primary data through the use of
observational methods: Participant and non-participant observation.
a) Participant observation: Participant observation is a data collection

method in which the researcher not only observes the research
participants, but also actively engages n the activities of the research
participants. In this type of observation the observer lives as a member
of the subjects of the study while observing and keeping notes of the
attributes of the subject that is being researched so that s/he can
directly experience, the phenomenon being studied.
b) Non-participant observation: Non-participant observation is a data

collection method in which the researcher observes participants
without actively participating. In this type of observation the
researcher does not lives as a member of the subjects of the study. The
researcher watches the subjects of his/her study, with their knowledge
of his status as a researcher, but without taking an active part in the
situation under study.
16. DATA ANALYSIS

After data is collected and it is analyzed to answer questions, test
hypotheses or disprove theories. Data analysis is a process for obtaining
raw data and converting it into information useful for decision-making
users. It is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical
techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate
data.
According to Statistician John Tukey (1961), data analysis is defined as

“procedures for analyzing data, techniques for interpreting the results of
such procedures, ways of planning the gathering of data to make its
analysis easier, more precise or more accurate, and all the machinery and
results of (mathematical) statistics which apply to analyzing data.”
The goals of the data analysis are:

 To describe and summarize the data.
 To identify relationships between variables.
 To compare variables.
 To identify the difference between variables.
 To forecast outcomes.
Introduction
17. ORGANIZING AND PREPARING DATA : Data processing
Data continues to be in raw form, unless and until they are processed and
analyzed. Processing is a statistical method by which the collected data is
so organized that the further analysis and interpretation of data become
easy. It is an intermediary stage between the collection of data and their
analysis and interpretation.
There are four important stages in the processing of data. They are:
editing, coding, classification, and tabulation.
Figure (6.3): Stages of data processing
Editing
Coding
Classification
Tabulation
17.1 Editing: As soon as the researcher receives the data, he should
screen it for accuracy. Editing is the process of examining the data
collected through various methods to detect errors and omissions and
correct them for further analysis. Through editing, it is ensured that
the collected data are accurate, consistent with other facts gathered,
uniformly entered and well arranged so that further analysis is made
easier. The purpose is to detect omissions, errors, and inconsistencies
in responses.
17.2 Coding: Coding is the process by which response categories are

summarized by numerals or other symbols to carry out subsequent
operations of data analysis. This process of assigning numerals or
symbols to the responses is called coding. Coding is necessary for
efficient analysis and through it the several replies may be reduced to
a small number of classes which contain the critical information
required for analysis. In general it reduces the huge amount of
information collected in to a form that is amenable to analysis.
For example, numeric codes such as 0 for male and 1 for female can
be used instead of entering the word male or female in response to a
question that asks for the identification of one’s gender. Generally,
computer is used for coding of data.
17.3 Classification: Classification is the process of reducing large mass of

data in to homogeneous groups for meaningful analysis. It converts
data from complex to understandable and unintelligible to intelligible
forms. It divides data in to different groups or classes according to
their similarities and dissimilarities. When the data are classified,
they give summary of whole information.
For example, classification of respondents based on geographical area
is:
Geographical area No. of respondents
Eastern 30
Western 20
Mid-western 45
Far western 40
Total 135
17.4 Tabulation: Tabulation is the process of transferring classified data
from data-gathering tools to the tabular form in which they may be
systematically examined. It is an orderly arrangement of data in rows
and columns. Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and
displaying the same in compact form for further analysis.
Data presented in tabular form is much easier to read and understand

than the data presented in the text the main purpose of tabulation is to
prepare the data for final analysis. It is a stage between classification
of data and final analysis.
18. PRESENTING DATA IN TABLES

A table is a data structured that organizes information into rows and
columns. It is an arrangement and presentation of data in a logical order. It
can be used to both store and display data in a structured format. Tabular
presentation of data allows data to be organized for further analysis, allows
large amounts of raw data to be sorted and reorganized in a neat format,
and allows the inclusion of only the most important or relevant data.
18.1 Parts/components of table: A table consists of the following parts:

Figure (6.4): Parts of table
Number of table
Title
Parts of table Head note
Captions
Column number
Footnote
Source note Introduction
 Number of table: Every table is to be numbered. The purpose of

numbering a table is to facilitate referencing to it. The table number is
to be written in bold letter and capital letter.
 Title: The title of the table should be as short as possible. It should tell
the reader about (i) what data are, (ii) to where the data refer to and
(iii) to whom the data refers to.
 Head note: The information given in parentheses following the title is
called a head note.
 Captions: Column headings in the table are referred to as captions.
 Column number: In each table there should be a column number
which help the researchers while comparing between two columns.
 Body: The body of the table consists of information.
 Footnotes: Sometimes footnotes are also given at the bottom of the
table to point out a particular irregularity or characteristics, etc., to the
items incorporated in the table.
 Source note: At the end of the table below, the source from which the
table is extracted should be mentioned clearly.
Table 1.1 [Table number]
Remittance in Nepal for 2015 [Title]
(Rs. in crore) [Head note]
Sl. USA. UK. [Captions]
No.
1 2 3 [Columns no.]
Body of the table

[Body]
Note: vvvvv gekgnken gke genjnjg egnenin

igeigneig enign [Foot note]
Source: Nepal Rastra Bank [Source note]

18.2 Types of tables: There are three ways of presenting data in table.
These are:
Figure (6.5): Parts of table
One way or simple table

Types of table
Two way table
Multivariate table
a) One way or simple table: A table that presents the data based on
single characteristics is referred as simple table. This table shows
relationship of one characteristic and the values corresponding to that
characteristic. For example, number of students enrolled in V.S.
Niketan College for BBA program can be presented as follows:
Table 5.6
No. of students enrolled in VSN
Year No. of students
2012 140
2013 145
2014 120
2015 100
Source: VSN Registration department
b) Two way table: A table that presents the data based on two
characteristics is referred as two way table. It derives relationship
between two interrelated characteristics. Two way tables are formed
by dividing caption into two parts. For example, numbers of students
are divided into male and female.
Table 5.6
Year No. of students
Male Female
2012 80 60
2013 60 85
2014 50 70
2015 40 60
c) Multivariate table: The table presents the data based on three or more
than three characteristics is referred as multivariate table. It is also
Introduction
called high order table. This method is usually followed when the
researcher thinks that it is better to present data in combination rather
than separately.
Table 5.6
No. of students
Year Male Female
From From From From outside
inside outside inside valley
valley valley valley
2012 30 50 30 30
2013 30 30 25 60
2014 30 20 30 40
2015 15 25 20 40
19. PRESENTING DATA IN GRAPHS AND CHARTS

Data can be understood better when it is presented as a graph rather than as
a table because the graphs have the ability to reveal a trend or comparison.
In the world of statistics, graphs give us the relationship between different
variables or show the value spread of a given variable or phenomenon.
Depending upon the nature, situations and nature of research various types
of graphs and charts are used. Some of them are discussed below:
19.1 Bar graph: Bar graph is a graphical display of data using bars of
different heights. It is a chart that presents grouped data with
rectangular bars with lengths proportional to the values that they
represent. The bar can be plotted vertically or horizontally to show
comparisons among categories. One axis of the chart shows the
specific categories being compared, and the other axis represents a
discrete value.
Movie comedy Action Romantic Drama4
Rate 4.3 2.5 3.5 4.5
favourate type of movie

Drama
Romantic
19.2 Sc
Temperature 14 16 11 15 18 22 19 25 23 a
ActionIce
cream 21 32 18 33 40 52 41 61 54 t
Comedysales (Rs) t
er
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
plots: Scatter plot is a visualization of the relationship between two
variables measured on the same set of individuals. It is paired by
using a horizontal axis (the x axis), and a vertical axis (the y axis).
The data is displayed as a collection of points, each having the value
of one variable determining the position on the horizontal axis and
the value of the other variable determining the position on the
vertical axis.
70
60
Ice creas sales (Rs)
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Tepperature
19.3 Time-series graphs: A time series plot is a graph that you can use to
evaluate patterns and behavior in data over time. A time series plot
displays observations on the y-axis against equally spaced time
intervals on the x-axis. The horizontal axis shows the time and the
vertical axis is for the data values. These kinds of graphs can be used
to show trends as time progresses.
Week 1 2 3 4 5 6
Weight 1 2.5 4 5.5 6 6.5
Introduction
Total amount of weight loss

7
6
Weight loss (kg)

5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Week
19.4 Histogram: Histogram is the most accurate graph that represents a

frequency distribution. In the histogram the scores are spread
uniformly over the entire class interval. The class intervals are
plotted on the x-axis and the frequencies on the y-axis. Each interval
is represented by a separate rectangle.
The area of each rectangle is proportional to the number of measures

within the class- interval. The entire histogram is proportional to the
statistical data set.
20. STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES

Statistics is concerned with the scientific method by which information is
collected, organized, analyzed and interpreted for the purpose of
description and decision making. The goal of statistics is to gain
understanding from data.
There are two subdivisions of statistical method: Descriptive statistics and

inferential statistics. These are further classified into several other
components. Descriptive and inferential statistics are interrelated. It is
almost always necessary to use methods of descriptive statistics to
organize and summarize the information obtained from a sample before
methods of inferential statistics can be used to make more thorough
analysis of the subject under investigation.
Types of statistical analysis
Descriptive statistics Inferential statistics
20.1 Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistics deals with the

description of data that have been gathered. It is the branch of
statistics devoted to the summarization and description of data. Such
data are often in the form of raw, unorganized numerical values.
These are used to explain the activities or fundamental characteristics
or behaviors. Descriptive statistics includes the various descriptive
measures such as frequency, measurement of central tendency, and
measures of dispersion.
For example, suppose a pet shop sells cats, dogs, birds and fish. If 100
pets are sold and 40 out of the 100 were dogs, then one description of
the data on the pets sold would be that 40% were dogs. This same pet
shop may conduct a study on the number of fish sold each day for one
month and determine that an average of 10 fish were sold each day.
The average is an example of descriptive statistics.
According to Weiss, “Descriptive statistics consists of methods for

organizing and summarizing information.”
Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distribution of one variable.

This study provides researcher with profiles of companies, work
groups, persons, and other subjects on any of a multiple of
characteristics such as size.
Figure (6.6): Types of descriptive analysis
Frequency distribution
Types of
descriptive Measurement of central tendency
analysis Mean
Median
Mode
Measure of dispersion
Quartile deviation
Mean deviation
Standard deviation Introduction
a) Frequency distribution: Frequency distribution is a table that shows

how frequently each value of a variable occurs in a set of scores. It
refers to the number of repetition of variables or values or events. The
main purpose of developing frequency distribution is to summarize
data by grouping into mutually exclusive classes and the number of
occurrences in a class.
For example, U.S. embargo of Cuba has worked overall. Do you think
the U.S. embargo of Cuba has worked very well, well, not very well,
or not at all?
Frequ Percent Valid Cumul
ency Percent ative
percent
V Very well 88 8.8 9.3 9.3
A Well 134 13.4 14.3 23.6
L Not very well 295 29.5 31.4 55.0
I Not at all 423 42.3 45.0 100
D Total 939 93.9 100
No response 61 6.1
Total 1000 100
Frequency table has four elements:
 Frequency count of interviews in survey (after weighting).
 Percent percentages of all respondents, with those who did not answer
or said they did not know included.
 Valid Percent Percentages of all respondents who answered the
question with an opinion on it. Respondents who did not answer or
said they did not know are not included.
 Cumulative Percent This adds up percentages from top to bottom as
you go. It is just there to make the arithmetic easier.
b) Measurement of central tendency (Mean, Median, and Mode): A

measure of central tendency is a single value that describes the way in
which a group of data clusters around a central value. In other words,
it is a statistical measure that identifies a single value as representative
of an entire distribution. It is a measure that tells where the middle of a
bunch of data lies. It aims to provide an accurate description of the
entire data. It is the single value that is most typical/representative of
the collected data.
There are three measures of central tendency: mean, median, and

mode.
 Mean: Mean is the most common measure of central tendency. It is
simply the sum of numbers divided by the number of numbers in a set
of data. This is also known as average.
For example:
Let’s find the mean of the following sets of numbers.
24, 37, 39, 12, 88
First add all the numbers together
24+37+39+12+88=200
Now since there are 5 numbers, divide the answer by 5.
200/5
So the mean of 24, 37, 39, 12, 88 is 40
 Median: Median is the number present in the middle when the

numbers in a set of data are arranged in ascending or descending order.
If the number of numbers in a data set is even, then the median is the
mean of the two middle numbers.
For example:
Let’s find the median using the number
24, 37, 39, 12, 88
First put them in numerical order.
12, 24, 37, 39, 88
Now it’s easy to see the middle number, which is 37
Therefore, 37 is median
 Mode: Mode is the value that occurs more frequently in a set of data.
It is simply that value which has the highest frequency. Mode is most
readily obtained from a frequency distribution table or graphical
representation.
Introduction
For example:
Let’s find mode for the following list of values:
13, 18, 13, 14, 13, 16, 14, 21, 13
The mode is the number that is repeated more often than any other, so
13 is the mode.
13, 13, 13, 14, 14, 16, 18, 21
Let’s find the mode for the following list of values:

1, 2, 4, 7
The mode is the number that is repeated most often, but all the
numbers in this list appear only once, so there is no mode.
c) Measure of dispersion (Range, Quartile deviation, Mean deviation,

and Standard deviation): The statistical measures which are used to
measure the scatteredness of data are known as measures of
dispersion. The main purpose of measure of dispersion is to measure
the reliability of measurement of central tendency and comparison of
consistency of two or more set of data.
 Range: The simplest method for measuring dispersion is range. Range

is the difference between the largest value and the smallest value in the
data set. It is more informative to provide the minimum and the
maximum values rather than providing the range. While being simple
to compute, the range is often unreliable as a measure of dispersion
since it is based on only two values in the set.
Formula for calculating range is:

Range= Largest value – Smallest value
For example, following are the marks obtained by students. Calculate

the range.
Marks obtained 30-40 40-50 50-60
No. of students 5 7 8
Highest value=60, Lowest value=30

Range= Largest value – Smallest value= 60-30=30
 Quartile deviation or inter-quartile deviation: Quartile deviation is

one-half the distance from the third quartile (Q3) and the first quartile
(Q1). It is defined as the difference between the 25 th and 75th
percentile. Hence the inter-quartile range describes the middle 50% of

observations.
Formula for calculating quartile deviation is:

Quartile deviation (QD) = (Q3 – Q1)/2
For example:
Calculate the quartile deviation from the following data:
8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20
Here, n=7, the first and third quartiles are:
Q1= (n+1)/4 = (7+1)/4=2 i.e. second number Q1= 10
Q3=3(n+1)/4 = 3(7+1)/4= 6 i.e. the 6th number Q3= 18
Therefore, Q.D. = (Q3-Q1)/2=(18-10)/2=8/4=2
 Mean deviation: Mean deviation is the average of difference between

data and mean value of the same data. Mean deviation is calculated
from mean, median, and mode but the most appropriate is median
while calculating mean deviation.
Formula for mean deviation is:

Mean deviation = (Mean deviation from mean)/Mean
Mean deviation from median = (Mean deviation from median)/Median
Mean deviation from mode = (Mean deviation from mode)/Mode
For example, calculate the mean-deviation for the following data:

Introduction
x 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58
f 2 0 15 29 25 12 10 4 3
 Standard deviation: Standard deviation is a measure that is used to

quantify the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of data values. It
always measures from the mean or average value of the series. A low
standard deviation indicates that the data points tend to be close to the
mean (also called the expected value) of the set, while a high standard
deviation indicates that the data points are spread out over a wider
range of values.
Standard deviation is calculated in three different series:

 Standard deviation in case of individual series
 Standard deviation in case of discrete series
 Standard deviation is case of continuous series
For example, calculate SD of the following numbers:

20, 85, 120, 60 and 401
AM= (20+85+120+60+40)/5=65
Now, SD is calculated through the following:
20.2 Inferential statistics: Inferential statistics make inference about

populations using data drawn from the population. Instead of using
the entire population to gather the data, the statistician will collect a
sample and make inferences about the entire population using the
sample. Thus, the statistical method that helps to estimate the
population from the analysis of sample data is known as inferential
statistics. With inferential statistics, researcher tests a hypothesis and
draw conclusions about a population, based on sample.
For example, researcher wants to know the average height of all men
in a city with a population of so many million residents. It isn’t very
practical to try and get the height of each of man. This is where
inferential statistics comes into play. Inferential statistics makes
inferences about populations using data drawn from the population.
Instead of using the entire population to gather the data, the
statistician will collect a sample (s) from the millions of residents and
make inferences about the entire population using the sample.
According to Weiss, “Inferential statistics consists of methods for

drawing and measuring the reliability of conclusions about population
based on information obtained from a sample of the population.”
Inferential statistics are also known as sampling statistics and are

mainly concerned with two major types of problems: (i) the estimation
of population parameters, and (ii) the testing of statistical hypotheses.
Types of inferential analysis
Estimation statistics Hypothesis testing
a) Estimation statistics: Estimation statistics are used to make estimates

about population values based on sample data. A statistic that is used
to estimate the population parameter from the analysis of sample is
called estimation statistics. The primary aim of estimation methods is
to estimate the size of an effect and report an effect size along with its
confidence intervals, the latter of which is related to the precision of
the estimate. There are two types of estimation statistics, confidence
intervals and parameter estimation.
 Confidence intervals: A confidence interval gives an estimated range

of values which is likely to include an unknown population parameter,
Introduction
the estimated range being calculated from a given set of sample
data. These statistics allows establishing a range that has a known
probability of capturing the true population value. It helps to estimate
the value or characteristics of population analyzing the sample.
The confidence interval is an interval estimate of a population

parameter; this is the plus-or-minus figure reported in, for example,
newspaper or television opinion poll results. If you use a confidence
interval of 4 for example, and 54% percent of your sample picks one
answer, you can be “sure” that if you had asked the question of the
entire relevant population, between 50% and 58% would have picked
that answer (plus or minus 4). There are three factors that determine
the size of the confidence interval for a given confidence level. These
are: sample size, percentage and population size.
The precision of the estimate depends on the size of the sample.

Clearly the larger the sample the better the estimate will be. Precision
is measured by calculating the standard error of the estimate or a
confidence interval (usually the 95% confidence interval).
For example,
Consider the following times (to the nearer hour) that 16 patients
experience relief from a migraine after taking a certain drug:
7 8 1 2 6 3 5 2 4 9 4 6 5 6 9 8
Mean=5.312hours
Standard deviation= 2.522 hours
Thus the estimate of the mean time for a patient to experience relief is
5.312 hours.
The 95% confidence interval for the meantime to experience relief is
calculated to be 3.975 to 6.649.
It can be said that there is a probability of 0.95 that the population

mean lies between 3.975 hours and 6.649 hours. This provides a clear
idea of how precisely the population mean has been estimated by these
data.
b) Hypothesis testing: This is discussed below:
21. STATISTICAL TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis testing is an inferential procedure that uses sample data to

evaluate the credibility of a hypothesis about a population.
A hypothesis test is a statistical test that is used to determine whether there

is enough evidence in a sample of data to infer that a certain condition is
true for the entire population. It allows using statistical data analysis to
make statistical inferences about whether or not the data gathered support
a particular hypothesis.
A hypothesis test examines two opposing hypotheses about a population:

the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is
the statement being tested. Usually the null hypothesis is a statement of
"no effect" or "no difference". The alternative hypothesis is the statement
researcher want to be able to conclude is true. Based on the sample data,
the test determines whether to reject the null hypothesis. Researcher uses a
p-value, to make the determination. If the p-value is less than or equal to
the level of significance, which is a cut-off point that s/he defined, and
then s/he can reject the null hypothesis.
Two major types of hypothesis are parametric test and non-parametric test.
Types of hypothesis testing
Parametric test Non-parametric test

T-test Chi-square test
Z-test Mann-Whitney test
F-test Kruskal Wallis test
1) Parametric test for hypothesis testing: Parametric statistical test is

one that makes assumptions about the parameters (defining properties)
of the population distribution(s) from which one's data are drawn. In
other words, the test of hypothesis assuming that the samples are taken
from normally distributed population is called parametric test.
If the information about the population is completely known by means

of its parameters then statistical test is called parametric test.
Some of the parametric tests for hypothesis testing are:

 T-test: A T-test is a statistical examination of two population means.
A t-test helps you compare whether two groups have different average
values (for example, whether men and women have different average
Introduction
heights) and is commonly used when the variances of two normal
distributions are unknown and when an experiment uses a small
sample size. It is more appropriate when the sample size is less than
30.
For example, a t-test could be used to compare the average floor

routine score of the U.S. women's Olympic gymnastics team to the
average floor routine score of China's women's team.
 Z-test: A Z-test is a statistical test used to determine whether two

population means are different when the variances are known and the
sample size is large. It is a statistical test where normal distribution is
applied and is basically used for dealing with problems relating to
large sample when n≥30. The test statistic is assumed to have a normal
distribution and nuisance parameters such as standard deviation should
be known in order for an accurate z-test to be performed.
 F-tests: F-test is a statistical test that is used to determine whether two

populations having normal distribution have the same variances or
standard deviation. This is an important part of Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA). However in case the population is non normal, F test may
not be used and alternate tests like Bartlett’s test may be used.
Generally the comparison of variance is done by comparing the ratio
of two variances and in case they are equal the ratio of variances are
equal.
2) Non-parametric test for hypothesis testing: If there is no knowledge

about the population or parameters, but still it is required to test
hypothesis of the population. Then it is called non-parametric test.
Nonparametric statistics refer to a statistical method wherein the data

is not required to fit a normal distribution. Nonparametric statistics
uses data that is often ordinal, meaning it does not rely on numbers,
but rather a ranking or order of sorts. For example, a survey conveying
consumer preferences ranging from like to dislike would be considered
ordinal data.
Nonparametric tests are sometimes called distribution-free
tests because they are based on fewer assumptions (e.g., they do not
assume that the outcome is approximately normally distributed). The
cost of fewer assumptions is that nonparametric tests are generally less
powerful than their parametric counterparts (i.e., when the alternative
is true, they may be less likely to reject H0).
 Chi-square test: Chi-square is a statistical test commonly used to

compare observed data with data we would expect to obtain according
to a specific hypothesis. It is a statistical test used to compare expected
data with what we collected. The data used in calculating a chi-square
statistic must be random, raw, mutually exclusive, drawn from
independent variables and be drawn from a large enough sample. For
example, the results of tossing a coin 100 times would meet these
criteria.
For example, consider tossing a coin 100 times. The expected result of
tossing a fair coin 100 times is that heads will come up 50 times and
tails will come up 50 times. The actual result might be that heads
comes up 45 times and tails comes up 55 times. The chi-square
statistics will show any discrepancies between the expected results
and the actual results.
Chi-square is used to in two similar but distinct circumstances:

 Test of goodness of fit test for estimating how closely an observed
distribution matches an expected distribution. How "close" are the
observed values to those which would be expected under the fitted
model? One statistical test that addresses this issue is the chi-square
goodness of fit test.
 Test of independent for estimating whether two random variables are

independent of each other. It is used when two nominal variables and
you want to see whether the proportions of one variable are different
for different values of the other variable. Suppose N observations are
considered and classified according two characteristics say A and B.
We may be interested to test whether the two characteristics are
independent. In such a case, we can use Chi square test for
independence of two attributes.
 Mann Whitney U test: A popular nonparametric test to compare

outcomes between two independent groups is the Mann Whitney U
test. It is used to test whether two samples are likely to derive from the
same population (i.e., that the two populations have the same shape).
Some investigators interpret this test as comparing the medians
between the two populations. Recall that the parametric test compares
the means (H0: μ1=μ2) between independent groups.
Introduction
In contrast, the null and two-sided research hypotheses for
the nonparametric test are stated as follows:
H0: The two populations are equal versus
H1: The two populations are not equal.
Mann-Whitney U test is used for every field, but in frequently used in

psychology, medical/nursing and business. For example, in
psychology, it is used to compare attitude or behavior, etc. In
medicine, it is used to know the effect of two medicines and whether
they are equal or not. It is also used to know whether or not a
particular medicine cures the ailment or not. In business, it can be
used to know the preferences of different people and it can be used to
see if that changes depending on location.
 Kruskal Wallis test: A popular nonparametric test to compare

outcomes among more than two independent groups is the Kruskal
Wallis test. It is the non-parametric alternative to ANOVA used to test
for difference between several independent groups.
The Kruskal Wallis test is used to compare medians among k

comparison groups (k > 2) and is sometimes described as an ANOVA
with the data replaced by their ranks. The null and research
hypotheses for the Kruskal Wallis nonparametric test are stated as
follows:
H0: The k population medians are equal versus
H1: The k population medians are not all equal
The procedure for the test involves pooling the observations from the k
samples into one combined sample, keeping track of which sample
each observation comes from, and then ranking lowest to highest from
1 to N, where N = n1+n2 + ...+ nk.
Assumptions:
 Random samples from populations
 Independence within each sample
 Mutual independence among samples
 Measurement scale is at least ordinal
 Either k population distribution functions are identical, or else some of
the populations tend to yield larger values than other populations
Other non-parametric tests are

1) Friedman test
2) Wilcoxan signed-rank test

3) McNemar’s test
4) Fisher’s exact test
5) Mood's Median test
22. METHODS OF COLLECTING QUALITATIVE DATA

Qualitative data are forms of information gathered in a nonnumeric form.
Common examples of such data are: interview transcript, field notes, video
and audio recording, images, documents (reports, meeting minutes,
emails). Such data usually involve people and their activities, sign,
symbols, artifacts and other objects they fill with meaning. The most
common forms of qualitative data are what people have said or done.
Sources of qualitative data
Observation Focus group In-depth interview
22.1 Observation: Observation is a data collection method in which data

are collected through systematic noting and recording of events,
behaviors, and objects in the social setting chosen for study. It is also
referred to as field notes- detailed, nonjudgmental, concrete
descriptions of what has been observed. Researchers simply watch
people or situations and record the observed data.
Observation method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with

those people who are not capable of giving verbal reports or their
feelings due to any reasons. Field notes are taken throughout the
observations and are focused on what is seen. A researcher obviously
needs an audio-visual recorder for a complete collection of such
comprehensive record.
There are two approaches to collecting primary data through the use of
observational methods: Participant and non-participant observation.
23. Participant observation: Participant observation is a data collection

method in which the researcher not only observes the research
participants, but also actively engages n the activities of the research
participants. In this type of observation the observer lives as a member
of the subjects of the study while observing and keeping notes of the
attributes of the subject that is being researched so that s/he can
directly experience, the phenomenon being studied.
Introduction
24. Non-participant observation: Non-participant observation is a data

collection method in which the researcher observes participants
without actively participating. In this type of observation the
researcher does not lives as a member of the subjects of the study. The
researcher watches the subjects of his/her study, with their knowledge
of his status as a researcher, but without taking an active part in the
situation under study.
24.1 Focus groups: Focus group is an organized discussion with a small

group of people on a specific topic. It is used to gather data, usually
in the forms of opinions, from a selected group of people on a
particular and re-determined topic or issues, e.g. consumer topic,
political topic etc. Focus group involves 6 to 12 people during
discussion. These participants are selected because they have certain
characteristics in common that relate to the topic of the focus group.
The purpose of focus group discussion is to gain knowledge about a

particular topic or need by interviewing a group of people directly
affected by the issue. For that, the researcher creates a relaxed
atmosphere and records in some way what is being said (e.g. by use of
a tape-recorder, video, note-taker etc.) The researcher encourages free
discussion, but is ready to intervene if necessary to resolve group
problems.
24.2 In-depth interview: In-depth interview is a qualitative data

collection method which proceeds as a confidential and secure
conversation between an interviewer and interviewee. This method of
interview is appropriate if researcher need to gain an insight into
individual evaluation of specific material. In-depth interview can
produce precise and specific answers as well as an exhaustive and
varied knowledge about individual determined experiences, opinions,
and motives which group interview cannot encompasses.
One of the advantages of the in-depth interview is that there is time for
the respondent in peace, to further develop and give reasons for his/her
individual point of views- without being influenced by the opinions of
other respondents. It is a loosely structured interview. It allows
freedom for both the interviewer and the interviewee to explore
additional points and change direction, if necessary.
25. METHODS OF ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA

In qualitative research, findings do not arrived at by means of statistical

procedures or quantification. Qualitative data analysis involves the
identification, examination, and interpretation of patterns and themes in
textual data and determines how these patterns and themes help answer the
research questions at hand. Qualitative data are analyzed for their
meaningful content and they are interpreted rather than counted or
measured.
Qualitative data are analyzed through the following methods:

Figure (6.7): Methods of analyzing qualitative data
Methods of Content analysis

analyzing
qualitative data Narrative analysis
Thematic analysis
25.1 Content analysis: Content analysis is a procedure for the

classification, summarization and tabulation of the contents of
documents or communication. It can be used to analyze a written or
spoken record of event or items that has been collected through
interviews, observation, focus groups etc. Content analysis is a
particularly useful approach when the purpose is to classify,
summarize, quantify and tabulate qualitative data.
It provides a quantitative (numerical) description. Quantification

allows us to characterize the material in a way that is potentially
reliable and valid. The information is broken down into categories and
then summarized. Content refers to the meaning of the information.
For example, a content analysis of newspapers could include

 Topics of news stories (e.g., local vs. international)
 Emotional tone of reporting
 Political orientation of columnists
Steps in content analysis

 Identify the essential data.
 Develop bases for tabulation.
 Develop bases for content analysis.
 Develop the layout for the construction of design.
 Classify various variables into various groups.
Introduction
 Establish procedures for the use of materials.
25.2 Narrative analysis: Narrative analysis is a technique of recording

and analyzing the information and subject based on the story or
narration of the respondents or people related to an event or subject
matter. It uses various data sources, such as stories, autobiography,
family stories, life experience etc. as the unit of analysis to research
and understand the way people create meaning in their lives as
narrative. In this process, researcher request to the respondents to
provide detail information related to a subject or event on the basis of
observation or experience.
Steps in narrative analysis are given below:

 Obtain the data
 Focus on analysis of data obtained from interview, observation,
biography, etc.
 Codify data using sign or symbols to the classes of data.
 Identify the relationship among the various classes.
25.3 Thematic analysis: A theme represents a level of patterned response

or meaning from the data that is related to the research questions at
hand. Thematic analysis is a search for themes that emerges as being
important to the description of the phenomenon. It focuses on
examining the themes within of data. These emerging themes then
become categories for analysis. Themes need to provide an accurate
understanding of the ‘big picture’.
Thematic analysis enables researchers to use a wide variety of types of

information in a systematic manner, due to the theoretical flexibility it
entails, and is therefore very useful in synthesizing data from different
sources.
One of the advantages of TA is that it’s theoretically-flexible. This

means it can be used within different frameworks, to answer quite
different types of research question. It suits questions related to
people’s experiences, or people’s views and perceptions, such as
‘What are men’s experiences of body hair removal?’ or ‘What do
people think of women who play traditionally male sports?’ It suits
questions related to understanding and representation, such ‘How are
food and eating represented in popular magazines targeted at teenage
girls?’ Note these different question types would require different
versions of TA, informed by different theoretical frameworks.
Steps in thematic analysis are given below:

a) Familiarization with the data: This phase involves reading and re-
reading the data, to become immersed and intimately familiar with its
content.
b) Coding: This phase involves generating succinct labels (codes!) that

identify important features of the data that might be relevant to
answering the research question. It involves coding the entire dataset,
and after that, collating all the codes and all relevant data extracts,
together for later stages of analysis.
c) Searching for themes: This phase involves examining the codes and
collated data to identify significant broader patterns of meaning
(potential themes). It then involves collating data relevant to each
candidate theme, so that you can work with the data and review the
viability of each candidate theme.
d) Reviewing themes: This phase involves checking the candidate

themes against the dataset, to determine that they tell a convincing
story of the data, and one that answers the research question. In this
phase, themes are typically refined, which sometimes involves them
being split, combined, or discarded.
e) Defining and naming themes: This phase involves developing a

detailed analysis of each theme, working out the scope and focus of
each theme, determining the ‘story’ of each. It also involves deciding
on an informative name for each theme.
f) Writing up: This final phase involves weaving together the analytic
narrative and data extracts, and contextualizing the analysis in relation
to existing literature.
Introduction
UNIT RESEARCH
PROPOSALS AND
REPORT WRITING
6
Business
CHAPTER ResearchOUTLINE
Methods
Topic selection
Research proposal
Purpose of research
Types of research proposal
Structure of research proposal
Writing research reports
The reporting process
Procedure for writing report
Style of writing research report
Typing of the research report
Layout of the research report
Citations by using APA format
References by using APA format
Essentials of a good research report
1. TOPIC SELECTION
The selection of an appropriate topic is the first major challenge in
conducting research. There are no simple rules for selecting a topic of
interest, but there are some considerations for making a decision as to
appropriateness. It is generally unwise to define something as important as
a dissertation topic without first obtaining a broad familiarity with the
Introduction
field. This implies a large amount of exploring the literature and talking
with the experts. Without this initial exploration researcher can neither
know the range of possibilities of interesting topics nor have a clear idea of
what is already known.
While selecting a topic for research, following points should be consider:

a) Choose something that researcher interested on: Research takes a
long time, often much more time than researcher expect it will, so s/he
should not choose a topic or jump onto someone’s research project
unless s/he is truly interested in the subject matter. Investing
something that does not excite researcher makes the research process
far more arduous, and s/he will likely regret it. In addition to being
time-consuming, research can also be frustrating as you usually run
into unforeseen obstacles. Staying motivated is difficult enough then
the topic is something s/he is really passionate about.
b) Choose a topic that is feasible: Thought should be given to

personnel, time, equipment and money that are available before
conducting research. Since every researcher has different limitations or
restrictions, the question of feasibility often depends on the individual
research, but some questions researcher can ask himself are:
 Does s/he have the budget needed to conduct this research?
 Does s/he have the know-how needed to conduct this research?
 Does s/he have access or can s/he obtain access to whatever it is s/he
wants to research?
 Is the content robust enough to be considered completely trustworthy?
c) Select a topic with a moderate amount of published information: If

researcher chooses a topic that is too broad, s/he may find more
published information than s/he can assimilate in the available time.
On the other hand, if researcher selects a topic that is too specific, s/he
may discover that not enough published information is available. In
this situation, researcher can choose an entirely new topic or try to find
a way to broaden the existing topic, in order to locate more resources.
d) Choose a topic that’s appropriate to the length of research:

Researcher often picks topics that are too broad to be adequately
covered. Narrow topics lead to close observation, while broad topics
lead to overgeneralization.
e) Avoidance of duplication: If the topic has been researched, the

results should be reviewed to explore whether major questions that
deserve further investigation remain unanswered. If not, another topic

should be chosen.
f) Political acceptability: It is advisable to research a topic that has the

interest and support of the authorities. This will facilitates the smooth
conduct of the research and increases the chance that the results of the
study will be implemented.
2. RESEARCH PROPOSAL
The preparation of a research proposal is an important step in the research
process. All research institutions require that a proposal must be prepared
and submitted for approval before work is started on the project.
Improving procedures in a research activity are important, but it is not
sufficient if they are not carefully planned and systematically carried out.
A worthwhile research project is likely to result only form a well-designed
proposal. The initial draft proposal is subjects to modifications in the light
of analysis by the student himself and his project adviser, and other
members of the advisory committee.
Research proposal is document written by a researcher that provides a

detailed description of the proposed research topic. It is a plan of action
and a strategy to be carried out according to the objectives of the study.
Research proposal is like an outline of the entire research process that
gives a reader a summary of the information discussed in a research. The
goal of a research proposal is to present and justify the need to study a
research problem and to present the practical ways in which this research
should be conducted.
The research proposal is a blue print of the proposed project It can be

compared with the blue print of a building, which is prepared by an
architect before the bids are let and the construction is started. It is a form
of research design which is blueprint for conducting and controlling
research work.
A research proposal can be rejected as unsuitable or poorly designed and

on the basis of this, a piece of research can be rejected. The proposal is,
therefore, an important document; one that is worth spending some time
on to get right.
Good proposals quickly and easily answer the following questions:

Introduction
 What do you want to do, how much will it cost, and how much time
will it take?
 How does the proposed research relate to the sponsor's interests?
 What difference will the project make to: your university, your
students, your discipline, the state, the nation, or any other concerned
parties?
 What has already been done in the area of your project?
 How do you plan to do it?
 How will the results be evaluated?
 Why should you, rather than someone else, do this project?
3. PURPOSE OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL

The main purpose of a research proposal is to show that the problem
researcher propose to investigate is significant enough to warrant the
investigation, the method s/he plan to use is suitable and feasible, and the
results are likely to prove fruitful and will make an original contribution.
The various functions of research proposals are:
Figure: Purpose of research proposal
Prepare plan
Provide information
Purpose of
research Provide justification
proposal
Inform research methodology
Provide direction
a) Prepare plan: Research proposal is a map for proposed research that

develop a clear sense of direction early on in the study. It prepares
plans about how researcher collects data, analyze it, and expect the
results of research. This plan will make research easier to conduct.
b) Provides information: Research proposal is prepared to provide the

information about the proposed research to the research committee
which evaluates and approves the proposal. Likewise, it is prepared to
provide necessary information to funding agency or organization those
seeking solution or possible alternatives of the problems.
c) Provide justification: In general term, justification means the action

of showing something to be right or reasonable. The proposal
provides a justification for the proposed research. It is prepared to

prove that the research is essential in the subject selected by the
researcher as topic. The justification demonstrates that researcher is
familiar with the key literature in the area and can critically evaluate it
and use it to build an argument to justify the research question.
d) Inform research methodology: Whatever the research methodology

used in the proposal will be adopted in the research. Therefore,
research proposal provides guidelines to the researcher for
implementing methodology towards the solution of the problems so
that researcher does not violate the approved methodology.
e) Provide direction: Once researcher has begun his/her research study,

a research proposal can help to remain on track - and can also remind
him why researcher started this project in the first place. It provides
guidelines to the researcher for adopting the systematic approach
towards the solution of the problems.
4. TYPES OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Research proposal are of three types namely academic, solicited, and
unsolicited research proposal. These are discussed below:
Figure: Types of research proposal
Academic research proposal

Types of
research Solicited research proposal
proposal
Unsolicited research proposal
a) Academic research proposal: Academic research proposal is a

proposal that is prepared to complete any academic degree. Such
proposal is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
award of Master, MPhil, and Doctoral program. Before conducting
any research, it is mandatory to submit proposal on subject in which
student is interested. Its intent is to convince a supervisor or academic
committee that new topic and approach are sound, so that student can
gain approval to proceed with the actual research.
b) Solicited research proposal: Solicited proposal is a proposal that is

prepared on the request of individual and organizations. This proposal
is written and submitted to the organization in response to the issuance
Introduction
of a ‘Request for Proposal’, a document that identifies a specific
research problem of interest to the funding agency for which they are
specifically seeking a solution. Interested investigator then submits a
“concept” or "white paper" briefly outlining their proposed solution to
the problem. If the funding agency or company is interested, they may
then request that the investigator submit a full proposal for
consideration of funding.
c) Unsolicited proposal: Unsolicited proposals are not submitted in

response to a solicitation, but are submitted by an investigator who
thinks that the proposed research will be of relevance to a specific
agency’s mission. In other words, unsolicited proposal is a proposal
that is prepared by the researcher in his/her own interest not on the
request of sponsoring organization.
Unsolicited proposals are not submitted in response to a solicitation,

but are submitted by an investigator who thinks that the proposed
research will be of relevance to a specific agency’s mission.
5. STRUCTURE OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL

There are no hard and fast rules governing the structure or components of
a proposal. It mostly depends on the nature of a research or format
approved by a particular university or sponsoring agency. Generally, in a
typical format main components of a research proposal are as below:
Figure: Components of research proposal
Background of the study
Statement of the problem
Literature review
Statement of hypothesis
Significance of the study
Limitation of the study
Research methodology
References
a) Background of the study: This is the first step of the research

proposal that provides information about research topic in brief. The
background information should indicate the root of the problem being
studied, its scope, and the extent to which previous studies have
successfully investigated the problem, noting, in particular, where gaps
exist that your study attempts to address.
Background of the study contains the following information:

 General information about the research topic
 Relevant literatures
 Reason for area of this interest
 Rationale of the proposed study
b) Statement of the problem: This is the second step in research

proposal that states what gave rise to the research. It describes the
context for the study and it also identifies the general analysis
approach. The problem statement is the guiding theme of the proposal.
For this section, the following questions should be answered: Why

does this research study need to be conducted? What specific issues
does this study raise that have not been observed in other literature
pertaining to the topic? Answering these questions will allow readers
to understand why this particular study is important and how the study
will attempt to answer new, never-before asked questions.
c) Literature review: This is the third step in research proposal that

researcher review published research related to the purpose and
objectives described above. It should be noted that references may be
found throughout the proposal, but it is preferable for most of the
literature review to be reported in this section. It should summarize the
results of previous studies that have reported relationships among the
variables included in the proposed research.
d) Statement of hypothesis: This is the fourth step in research proposal

that formulate hypothesis for the proposed research. Hypothesis is a
tentative answers to the research question in regard to the problem
definition that help in the identification of variables that could be used
Introduction
as explanatory factors for building up the argumentation in the
development of proposition relevant to the topic.
 If the research is expected to be based only on descriptive analysis

there will be no need of testing hypothesis.
 If someone wants to examine the relationship between dependent and
independent variables, the hypothesis must be formulated.
e) Significance of the study: This is the fifth step in research proposal

that states why it is important to do research. It indicates how the
proposed research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in
the area under investigation.
f) Limitation of the study: This is the sixth step in research proposal

that states the potential weaknesses of the study or work which will
not be attempted by the researcher while conducting research. It shows
the area which will not be attempted by the researcher in the proposed
research due to different reason.
g) Research methodology: This is the seventh step of research proposal

that presents the proposed research methodology (e.g. research design,
sampling design, data collection techniques, data analysis, and planning of
time scheduling for research) and explain which is the most appropriate to
effectively answer the research question.
a) Research design: This section describes the type of research design

that will be used in the proposed research. Will it be exploratory,
descriptive, correlational, casual-comparative, or experimental design?
The design should also describe the sequence of events that will occur
in conducting the research.
b) Sampling design: This section describes the sampling unit, sampling

frame, sampling techniques, and sampling size that will be used in the
proposed study.
c) Data collection techniques: This section describes the data collection

technique that will be used in the proposed study. It outlines the
general plan for collecting the data. Data can be collected through
either primary or secondary sources.
d) Planning of data analysis: This section will explain how the data will
be analyzed in the proposed research once they are collected. It is
often useful to organize this section according to the research

questions, explaining how you will analyse the data to answer each
question. This section must be planned before any data is collected,
otherwise it may be impossible to analyse the data in such a way as to
answer the questions.
e) Planning of time scheduling for research: This section describes the

sequence of activities necessary to conduct the proposed research. It
includes the time necessary to complete each activity. After reading
this section, the reader will have a clear understanding of what steps
will be taken, the order in which they will occur, and the time each
step will require.
h) References: This is the final step in research proposal where

researcher list all references cited in the proposal. Generally this is
done in alphabetical order by the last name of the author. However,
each field has different format requirements.
6. WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS

Research report is a formal statement of the research process and its
results. It is a written document or oral presentation based on a written
document that communicates the problem studied, methods used for
studying it and the findings and conclusions of the study. The purpose of a
research report is to communicate to interested persons in such manner
that enable them to understand the research process and to determine the
validity of the conclusions. Research report prepared by students to
achieve academic degree is known as thesis or dissertation whereas
research report presented by non-academic sector is known as report. It is
the last stage of research process.
Research report is a statement of the results of an investigation or a brief

description of the research work done by the researcher. Reports
communicate information which has been compiled as a result of research
and analysis of issues. The information is presented in a clearly structured
format making use of sections and headings so that the information is easy
to locate and follow.
According to Kuiper and Clippinger, “Report is an organized, objective

presentations of observation, experiences, or facts used in the decision
making process.”
Introduction
Thus, research report is the systematic, articulate, and orderly presentation
of research work in a written form. It can be based on practical work,
research by reading or a study of an organisation or industrial/workplace
situation.
7. THE REPORTING PROCESS

Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive
work. The usual steps involved in writing research report are as follow:
Figure (7.7): Research reporting process
Logical analysis of the subject matter
Preparation of the final outline
Preparation of rough draft
Rewriting and polishing the rough draft
Preparation of final bibliography
Writing the final draft
a) Logical analysis of the subject-matter: It is the first step which is

primarily concerned with the development of a subject. There are two
ways in which to develop a subject: logically and chronologically.
 The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections

and associations between the one thing and another by means by
means of analysis. Logical treatment often consists in developing the
material from the simple possible to the most complex structures.
 Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in

time or occurrence. The directions for doing or making something
usually follow the chronological order.
b) Preparation of the final outline: It includes the preparation of the

final outline. Outlines are the framework upon which long written
works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical organization of
the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.
c) Preparation of the rough draft: It includes the logical analysis of the

subject and preparation of the final outline. In this the researcher sits to
write down what s/he has done in the context of his/her research study.
Researcher will write down:

 The procedure adopted by the researcher in collecting the material for
his/her study along with various limitations faced by him.
 The technique of analysis adopted by the researcher.
 The broad findings and generalizations and the various suggestions
s/he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned.
d) Rewriting and polishing the rough draft: After making rough draft,
now it is the time to identify weaknesses of rough draft and correction
is done by rewriting and polishing the rough draft. This step happens
to be most difficult part of all formal writing. Usually this step
requires more time than the writing of the rough draft.
While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for
weaknesses in logical development and presentation. The mechanics
of writing- grammar, spelling and usage should be checked.
e) Preparation of a final bibliography: Next in order comes the task of

the preparation of the final bibliography. Bibliography is an appendix
to the reports. It is the list of books in some way pertinent to the
research, which has been done. It should contain all those works which
the researcher has consulted and should be presented in an alphabetical
order.
f) Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft
should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple
language, avoiding the vague expression abstract terminologies and
technical jargons. Every attempt should be an attempt to solve some
intellectual problem must contribute to the solution of a problem and
must add to the knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.
8. PROCEDURE FOR WRITING RESEARCH REPORT

Although it may be a tedious process, writing a research report can be
easy, as long as researcher follow the following procedures.
Figure: Procedure for writing research report
Preparation of outline
Organize materials
Start writing report
Prepare the first draft Introduction
Review and rewrite
a) Preparation of outline: The first step of writing report is the

preparation of outlines. Outlines are the framework upon which long
written works are constructed. It directs to the researcher to manage
the materials in a proper way. This also enable researcher to see
broadly which information s/he want to communicate and how the
various points are related to one another. Outline helps to prepare the
logical organization of the material and a reminder of the points to be
stressed in the report.
Example of outline format
1. Introduction
1.1 Statement of problem
1.2 significance of the study
1.3 Research objective
2. Literature review
3. Research methodology
3.1 research design
3.2 Sampling design
3.3 Data collection technique
4. Data analysis
5. Results
6. Discussion
7. Conclusion
b) Organize materials: After preparing of outline, researcher decides

what information will be included and in what sequence it should be
presented. Researcher begins by grouping together points that are
related. These may form sections or chapters.
c) Start writing report: After having organized materials into

appropriate sections and heading, researcher can begin to write the
first draft of report. Researcher can copy outline into separate file and
expand on each of the points, adding data and elaborating on the
details. It can be begins with the introduction and proceed through to
the conclusion. Or s/he may start writing from any chapter of the
report as per his/her interest. Chapters, sections and even individual
paragraphs are written with a clear structure.
d) Prepare the first draft: At this step, researcher prepares a rough

sketch of the research report. First draft is just a rough copy of report
that researcher continues to shape, edit, and strengthen after it is
written. Researcher can rearrange the sequence, or delete some
content. First draft usually consists of writing report based on outline
that serves as guides for what researcher intend to include and s/he
intends to include it.
e) Review and rewrite: Finally, researcher reviews the first draft to find
out errors and weaknesses in the report and prepares to rearrange or
rewrite the report for improving such errors. In any report, there is
always some scope for improvement. S/he can also review the report
to identify any errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, sentence
structure etc. Once researcher is satisfied with the content and
structure of redrafted report, s/he can turn attention to the presentation.
9. STYLE OF WRITING RESEARCH REPORT

The research report should be written in a style that it is creative, clear and
concise. Therefore the following considerations should be kept in view in
writing a research report.
1. The research must be reported in full and its results are subjected to
criticism and verification.
2. A research report is always written in third person i.e. he, she or the
investigator. I, we, you, my, our and us should not be used.
3. It is prepared and written in past tense and present-prefect tense
because it is reported usually after completion of the work.
4. The scientific language is used rather than literary language. The
British-English pattern is followed in writing a research report. The
spellings of the words are employed of the British English.
5. It is typed printed/cyclostyled on 11" 9" size (thesis size) sunlit bond
papers. There should be left a margin of 1-1/2" right margin one inch
top and bottom margin should be 1-1/4" in each. The same machine of
typing must be used for typing research report.
Introduction
6. The presentation of matter should be in floating sequence. There
should be consistency in the form and content organization.
7. An appropriate and proper format of research report should be used.
8. The footnotes, references, tables, figures, heading, subheading and
bibliography should be provided in its standard form.
9. It should be typed in double space, quotations or citation should be
given in single space. A word should not be split in two aspects due to
the shortage of space in a line. A table, figure and diagram should
always be given on a single pace. If table size is large. a large size
paper should be used. It should not continue on the next page.
10. A typist with great experience and proficiency should be employed for
preparing thesis or dissertation, because it is the responsibility of the
researcher that a thesis should be typed in proper form. The correction
of major errors is not the responsibility of the typist.
11. Good research reports are not written hurriedly. Even an expert and
experienced researcher revise many times before he submits a
manuscript for typing. Typographical standards for the thesis or
dissertation are more exacting. Therefore, every typist cannot prepare
a thesis; there are the experts for typing thesis, who should be
employed for typing thesis.
10. TYPING OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

Research report is highly technical activity. It requires special writing
skills and knowledge of format. The following things need to be consider
while typing the research report.
a) Footnotes: The footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page” and are
separated from the text by a 3 cms horizontal line drawn from the left
margin. Footnote enables the researcher to substantiate his
presentation by quotations or citations of other authorities, to give
credit to sources of material that he has reported and to provide the
reader with specific sources that he may use to verify the authenticity
and accuracy of material quoted.
b) Heading: Generally a research report is divided into chapters; each

chapter begins from a new page. The title of a chapter is called the
chapter heading. The work ‘CHAPTER’ is written in capital letters, in
the centre of the page and title is placed three spaces of the chapter.
c) Pagination: Page numbers are typed in the upper right hand corner,
one inch below the top edge of the page. Assigning page numbers of
the report is very essential. The title page or initial page of any section
does not have a page number typed on it, but a number is allotted to it
in the series of pages.
The small or lower Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv,) are assigned for the
pages of preliminary section. The serial Arabic nos. 1, 2, 3, 4…..so on
are assigned for the pages of textual body or main body of the report
i.e. Chapter I to last and Bibliography.
d) Tables: A table is used for presenting statistical data. It enables the

readers to comprehend and interpret data quickly and to understand
significant aspects at a glance. The work ‘TABLE’ is followed by the
serial Roman number which is placed at the centre two spaces above
the title of the table. The title of the table is written in capital letters at
the centre of the page. The statistical data are presented in vertical
columns and horizontal row, according to some classification of
subject matter.
e) Figures: A figure is a device that presents statistical data in pictorial

or visual form. The figure is used to a variety of graphs, charts, maps,
sketches, diagrams and drawings. It helps to understand the aspects of
data clearly and easily. One idea or fact should be presented in each
figure. The description of the figure must be given in the textual body.
‘FIGURE’ should be written in the centre of the page at the top of the
figure. The title of the figure should be written in capital letters two
spaces below the figure.
f) Proof reading: A research report should not have errors. It requires

that final typed copies must be checked carefully. All types of errors
should be deleted before submission. Thus, proof reading of final
typed copies should be done two or three times. The following are the
some practical suggestions with regard to the technique of corrections:
 Generally four or five copies are prepared for the final report. The last
typed copy should be taken for correction purpose.
 The last typed copy should be read thoroughly, the errors should be
recorded on a separate page indicating page number, Para number, line
number and kind of error. It should be corrected with help of black
refill.
11. LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

Research report is a statement of the results of an investigation or a brief
description of the research work done by the researcher. The information
Introduction
is presented in a clearly structured format making use of sections and
headings so that the information is easy to locate and follow. It is the last
stage of research process. The layout of research report is presented below:
Title of report
Declaration
First part: Certificate
Preliminary material Foreword
Acknowledge
Preface
Table contents
List of tables/List of figures
Abbreviation
Introduction
Literature review
Second part: Methodology and research design
Body of the report Sampling design
Data collection methods
Data analysis
Results and Discussions
Conclusions and recommendation
References or bibliography
Third part: Appendices
Supplementary Glossary
material Index
First Part: Preliminary material

Title of report It includes the title of the report, the author’s
name, institution, module, course, logo, and
the date.
Declaration Here, the researcher declares that this report is
original one not been submitted to any other
institution/University for fulfilling any other
degree.
Certificate Here, a certificate or recommendation by the
research supervisor is to be inserted in the
report.
Foreword Here, one skilled, experienced or eminent
personality in the given research field cites
about the advantages and usefulness of the
current research study.
Acknowledge Here, researcher acknowledges any help s/he
have received in collecting the information for
the report. This may be from librarians,

respondents, supervisor, field supporters etc.
Preface/ Here, researcher try to present a brief account
Executive of nature of the study and the circumstances
summary/ that lead to the study. In other word, this is the
Abstract condensed version of the entire study.
Tables of content Here, researcher provides a list of major
heading and sub-heading with page numbers
that helps the reader to identify their required
matter.
List of Here, researcher mentioned along with the SI.
tables/figure No. of the table/figure and page number in
which table/figure are inserted in the text with
the title of the tables/figures.
Abbreviation Here, researcher narrates the short forms used
frequently in the study.
Second part: Body of the part
Introduction It specifies the context of the study. What
scholar researched and why are mentioned in
this section.
Literature It enables the researcher to learn from previous
review theory on the subject. It gives a theoretical
basis for the research and help to determine
the nature of research.
Methodology It covers the objectives of the study,
hypothesis, sample, data collection and
analysis.
Sampling design Here, a researcher determines the sampling
unit, sampling frame, sampling methods,
sample size, and sampling area.
Data collection This section describes the data collection
methods technique that will be used in the proposed
study. It outlines the general plan for collecting
the data. Data can be collected through either
primary or secondary sources.
Data analysis In this step, data are analyzed through
statistical and mathematical tools. Analyzing
data involves examining it in ways that reveal
the relationships, patterns, trends etc. that can
be found within it. A careful analysis of the
outcome or results from data collected is
necessary for drawing meaningful conclusion
(s) and putting forward the necessary
Introduction
recommendation.
Results and Results and discussion section present project
discussions findings and analysis of those findings.
Result: [What you found] Result section is
related with the reporting of what has found in
the research. It set out results, reporting of
what has found in the project. It set out results,
including any statistical analysis and whether
or not the results are significant. It presents the
finding of the project, but do not interpret
them. Tabulation of data, equations, charts,
and figures can be used effectively to present
results clearly and concisely.
Discussion: [Interpret the results] Discussion is

related with interpretation and evaluation of
results presented in the previous section. It
involves discussion about the relevance of
results and justifies how the finding fit with
other study in the area.
Discussion has four purposes, it should:

 Interpret and explain results
 Answer research question
 Justify approach
 Critically evaluate study
Conclusions and In this section, researcher presents his results

recommendation and actions that should be taken as a result of
finding.
Conclusion: [Summary of results/findings]

Conclusion is brief statement of what was
found. Conclusions are to be drawn with
reference to the previously stated objectives of
the project. This should highlight the major
results. The conclusion should not contain
figures or make reference to them.
Recommendation: [What needs to be done as a

result of your findings] Recommendation
suggests suitable changes/solutions. It should
be given for any further changes or work that
would better accomplish the project objectives,
or can extend them. Recommendations are

usually listed in order of priority.
Third part: Supplementary material

References or These are the list of the resources which are
bibliography used by the researcher during the research
work.
Appendices It attaches those items of the report that do not
fit into the main body of the research report.
Generally the questionnaires are given as
appendix.
Glossary It is an alphabetical listing of unfamiliar terms
or local languages, with their meaning, used in
the study.
12. CITATIONS BY USING APA FORMAT

A citation is a short note that documents researcher’s source (s) of
information. It provides the reader with identifying information so that
they are able to access the original sources. This may be footnote, endnote
or parenthetical reference and is placed next to each quote or paraphrase in
order to document its source. When researcher refers to another’s work,
cite his/her work.
Citation can be done in various styles such as MLA, APA, SBLA, etc. and
vary according to the discipline. The content and order of information
varies with each style. The most common citation style for documenting
sources is APA (American Psychological Association) style of citation.
This APA citation guide, revised according to the 6 th edition of the APA
manual, provides the general for in-text citations.
APA style of citation: The citation under APA style is given below:
a) One author: Give the author's surname and the year of publication. If
the author's name is stated in the sentence, always place the year in
parentheses immediately after the name.
Clark's (1998) study shows that . . .

(Clark, 1998).
b) Two authors: Give both surnames separated by the word and when

including the names in the text of a sentence. For citations in
parentheses use an ampersand (&).
Introduction
Flannigan and McBride (2001) state the results...
(Flannigan & McBride, 2001).
c) Three-five authors: Give all the authors surnames for the first in-text
citation, then use et al. for subsequent citations.
(FIRST citation) Sawyer, Jimmerson, Bradley, Connors, and Ramirez

(2010)...
Sawyer et al. (2010)...
d) Six or more authors: Give only the first author's name followed by et
al. (not in italics) and the year for all in-text citations.
Martinez et al. (1990) describe...

(Martinez et al., 1990)
13. REFERENCES BY USING APA FORMAT

Referencing is a standardized method of formatting the information
sources researcher has used in his/her written work. This is a
comprehensive list of all the works used in the research project. It serves
two purposes: (i) acknowledges the sources, and (ii) allows the reader to
trace the source.
The most common reference style for documenting sources is APA

(American Psychological Association) style of referencing. This APA
referencing guide, revised according to the 6 th edition of the APA manual,
provides the general for referencing.
APA style of referencing: The referencing under APA style is given

below:
a) APA style of referencing for books:

General format
Author, A. B. (Year). Title of work. Location:

Publisher.
 First: Surname of author

 Second: First alphabet of first and middle name
 Third: Published date inside the bracket
 Fourth: Name of the book (Font should be italic)
 Fifth: Address of publisher
 Sixth: Name of publisher
 For a book with single author

Lingden, B. (2014). International Business. Dillibazar: Dreamland
Publication.
 For a book with later edition

Lingden, B. (2014). International Business (2nded.). Dillibazar:
Dreamland Publication.
 For a book with two or more writers

Lingden, B.,&Bhattarai, A. (2014). International Business. Dillibazar:
 For a book edited by others

Lingden, B., &Dhakal, R. (Eds). (2014). International Business.
Dillibazar: Dreamland Publication.
 For a book without date

Lingden, B. (n.d). International Business. Dillibazar: Dreamland
Publication.
 For a book without publisher
Lingden, B. (n.p). International Business. Dillibazar: Dreamland
Publication.
 For a book with corporate or institutional author

World trade organization. (2014). International Business. Dillibazar:
b) APA style of referencing for Journal article:

General format
Author, A. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, xx (xx),

xx- xx.
 First: Surname of author

 Second: First alphabet of first and middle name
 Third: Year of publication in brackets
 Fourth: Title of article
 Fifth: Name of journal
 Sixth: Volume (issue)
 Seventh: Page number
Introduction
 For a journal article (print)

Lingden, B. (2014). International marketing strategy and export
performance: PhD Review Journal, 2(1), 90-92.
 For a journal article with more than one author (print)

Lingden, B., &Poudel, M. (2010). Physical collisions and injury
during professional rugby league skills training. Journal of science
and Medicine, 13(5), 210-234.
 For a journal article (Online)

Lingden, B. (2010). Physical collisions and injury during professional
rugby league skills training. Journal of science and Medicine, 13(5),
210-234. Retrieved from http://www. binling.com/journal.asp?
ref=0962-1067
 For a journal article with more than one author (Online-DOI)

Lingden, B., & Poudel, M. (2010). Physical collisions and injury
during professional rugby leagure skills training. Journal of science
and Medicine, 13(5), 210-234. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2010.03.007
14. ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD RESEARCH REPORT

Research report provides factual information depending on which
decisions are made. So everyone should be taken to ensure that a research
report should be taken to ensure that a report has all the essential qualities
which turn it into a good report. A good research report must have the
following qualities:
Figure: Essentials of a good research report
Clarity
Factual
Conciseness
Essentials of
good report Reader-orientation
Attractive presentation
Unbiased recommendation
a) Clarity: The first requirement of good research is the clarity in

concept of writing and presentation. The research should be simple
and understandable. A good report is one which is drafted in a
simple, clear, and lucid language. There should not be ambiguity as
regard the statements made in the report. A reader should be able to
understand the entire report easily, exactly, and quickly.
b) Factual: A report should be always factual. The findings,

conclusions, and recommendations included in the report should be
supported by information and data collected from reliable sources.
Statistical tables should support statement made in the report.
Attention needs to be given to this reliability aspect in report writing.
c) Conciseness: A good report should be concise but it does not mean

that a report can never be long. Rather it means that a good report is
one that transmits maximum information with minimum words. It
avoids unnecessary detail and includes everything which are
significant and necessary to present proper information.
d) Reader-orientation: While drafting any report, it is necessary to

keep in mind about the person who is going to read it. That’s why a
good report is always reader oriented. Readers’ knowledge and level
of understanding should be considered by the writer of report. Well
reader-oriented information qualifies a report to be a good one.
e) Attractive presentation: Presentation of a report is also a factor

which should be considered for a good report. A good report provides
a catchy and smart look and creates attention of the reader. Structure,
content, language, typing and presentation style of a good report
should be attractive to make a clear impression in the mind of its
reader.
f) Unbiased recommendation: Recommendations on report usually

make effect on the reader mind. So if recommendations are made at
the end of a report, they must be impartial and objective. They should
come as logical conclusion for investigation and analysis.
EXERCISE
Introduction
1. What is research proposal? What are its functions?
2. What are the various types of research proposals?
3. Describe about the various components of research proposal.
4. What is research report? State the process of research report.
5. Write various types of research report.
6. Explain the procedure for writing research reports.
7. Write any four conventions of academic writing.
8. What are the components of project report?
9. What are the good qualities of good research report?
Prepared By: Professor.Dr.

Satish Kumar Ojha
Saraswati Multiple
Campus,Lekhnathmarg ,
Thamel, Kathmandu.

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Business Research Methods

The term ‘research’ consists of two words: re and search

Research refers to the process of systematic investigation for finding

Basically research is done for two purposes:

According to Clifford Woody, “research is a careful inquiry or

Research, is thus, an original contribution through scientific study to the

Figure (1.1): Types of research

Based on application perspective

Based on objective perspective

Based on inquiry perspective

2.1 Based on application perspective: Under this perspective, research

looks at causes and effects relationship in social phenomena. It is done

Some examples of basic research are:

Notice in these examples, the goal of the research is to simply increase

b) Applied research: Applied research is empirical research in which the

This type of research involves seeking new applications of scientific

Some examples of applied research are:

2.2 Based on objective perspective: Under this perspective, research can

Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the

For example, a study on examining the organization’s clients profile.

The descriptive research method is basically divided into three types:

b) Exploratory research: Exploratory research is research conducted for

Exploratory researches are merely formative for the purpose of gaining

For example, study on finding out the new management technique in

c) Correlational research: Correlational research refers to the

For example, to test the hypothesis ‘Listening to music lowers blood

d) Explanatory research: Explanatory research attempts to clarify why

Explanatory is characterized by research hypotheses that specify the

For example, this type of research attempts to explain, why stressful

2.3 Based on mode of inquiry perspective: Qualitative, and quantitative

The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because

2.4 Qualitative research: Qualitative research is primarily exploratory

Qualitative research is concerned with subjective assessment of

For example, a study on finding out how students’ behavior influences

scientific research is not based on hunches, experiences, and intuition but a

 Scientific research helps researchers to state their findings with

According to According to B. Ostle et al. “scientific research is an

Therefore, scientific research follows scientific methods and tools to

4. FEATURES OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

4.2 Purposiveness: Scientific research is undertaken with definite aim or

4.3 Rigor: Scientific research is absolutely rigorous process. Rigor means

4.4 Testability: Scientific research is developed to test the hypothesis. It

4.5 Replicability: Scientific research is replicable. The results of the test

procedures of data collection and analysis the other research studies

4.6 Precision: Another feature of scientific research is its precision.

4.7 Generalizability: Another characteristic of scientific research is the

4.8 Parsimony: It is also named as economical. For every research task

5. THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PROCESS

Figure (1.3): Scientific research process

Formulation of research problem

Data collection methods

Generalization and interpretation Introduction

Preparation of report or thesis

5.1 Formulation of research problem: The first step in the research

The review of literature educates the researcher about what studies

5.3 Hypothesis formulation: This step involved formulation of

Hypothesis is based on the findings of previous research (gained from

Research design determine the following

5.5 Sample design: Once the research design is prepared, a research

Sample design determines the following:

a) Data processing: Data processing is a statistical method by which the

b) Statistical analysis: After processing the data, they are analyzed

Various statistical tests used for testing hypothesis are: