01-12-2016
Durability, Quality Control and
Workmanship
Dr. A. K. Mullick
Former Director General,
NCBM, New Delhi,
E-maiI – ajoy_mullick@rediffmail.com
IABSE Workshop on
IRC: 112,
MMRDA Auditorium,
Mumbai,
19 November 2016
Concept of Service Life of Structures
• fib (CEB-FIP) model code defines service life
as ‘the actual period of time during which a
structure or any of its components satisfy the
design performance requirement without
unforeseen major maintenance and repair’.
• IRC: 112 defines Design Life as ‘assumed
period for which a structure or part of it is to
be used for its intended purpose with
anticipated maintenance but without
necessity of major repair’
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Cl. 14.1 – contd.
Emphasis on impermeability
• One of the main characteristics influencing the durability of
concrete is its permeability to the ingress of water, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, chloride, sulphate and other potentially
deleterious substances.
• Degree of permeability is governed by the constituents, the
mix proportions and workmanship used in making concrete.
• A suitably low permeability can be achieved by having
adequate cement content, low water cement ratio, use of
blended cements, ensuring complete compaction of the
concrete and adequate curing.
5 6
Durability Provisions in
IRC: 112
Clause 14.1 of the Code
• Intent - ‘the structure shall be designed such that
deterioration over its design service life does not impair
the performance of the structure below that intended,
having due regard to the service environment and the
anticipated level of maintenance’.
• Factors influencing durability;
Ø The environment,
Ø The cover to embedded steel,
Ø The type and quality of constituent materials,
Ø The cement content and water/cement ratio of the
concrete,
Ø Workmanship, to obtain full compaction and efficient
curing, and
Ø The shape and size of the member.
Modes of fluid transport
• Flow of water due to application of a hydrostatic head,
characterised by water permeability coefficient.
• Water absorption and uptake of water resulting from capillary
forces, characterised by a sorptivity coefficient.
• Ion diffusion: movement of ions as a result of concentration
gradient, characterised by ion diffusion coefficient.
• Other variants are possible; like gas diffusion, water vapour
diffusion, pressure induced gas flow etc.
In view of so many possible modes, one should really be
concerned with a notion of collective ‘penetrability’ of
fluids; nevertheless, the commonly accepted term is
‘permeability’, which is mostly adopted to describe
transport of fluids through concrete.
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Lesser corrosion with mineral admixtures – Data from Middle-East

Relationship between Permeability and Water/Cement Ratio
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Cl. 14.2.Common mechanisms of

deterioration
• Corrosion of reinforcement/prestressing tendons,
• Frost attack,
• Alkali-aggregate reactions,
• Attack from sulphates,
• Attack by aggressive chemicals,
• Acid attack,
• Abrasion.
Details are given in Annexure B-2

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Corrosion of Reinforcement

The basic mechanism of corrosion of steel, is an electro-chemical

phenomenon, involving an anode process and a cathode process;

• Anode: Fe ® 2e- + Fe2+

(Metallic iron)
• Cathode: 1/2O2 + H2O + 2e- ® 2(OH)-

In addition, the corrosion undergone by steel is due to

combination of iron and (OH-) ions;

• Fe + 1/2O2 + H2O ® Fe2+ + 2(OH)- ® iron

hydroxide (rust)

Mechanism of corrosion of steel in concrete

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Effect of carbonation
• Atmospheric CO2 is converted to carbonic acid (H2CO3) in the Quick test for depth
presence of moisture,
of carbonated
• H2CO3 attacks Ca(OH)2 in hydrated cement paste; this is concrete using solution
called carbonation.
of phenolphthalein
H2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 = CaCO3 + 2H2O in dilute alcohol;
• Because of consumption of Ca(OH)2, carbonation lowers the
pH value of concrete and reduces the protection to steel by Carbonated portion
the alkalinity of the surrounding medium.
turns colourless, i.e.
• If carbonation is very high, the pH can be as low as 8.
natural colour.
• Carbonation is not significant when the pores of concrete are
saturated, because of slow rate of diffusion of CO2 in water
compared to that in air. On the other hand, if there is Carbonated portion will
insufficient water in the pores, CO2 remains in gaseous form have magenta colour.
and does not react with the hydrated cement.
• The highest rate of carbonation occurs at a relative humidity
of 50 to 70 percent.

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Interaction of pH value and chlorides

in concrete
• The steel reinforcement, being well protected in the
alkaline medium in concrete, can withstand a certain
amount of chloride ion to be present before corrosion
can take place.
• On the other hand, if the passivity is destroyed because
of one reason or the other, and the pH of concrete is
below a certain threshold value, only oxygen and water
are needed for corrosion to take place.
• Concrete constructions, in order to be durable, have to
ensure that the limiting amount of chloride ions is not
exceeded in concrete and neither the pH value of
concrete is lowered below the threshold value.
Interaction of chloride content and pH value of corrosion-
damaged concrete structures in India
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Cl. 14.3. Design for Durability Factors in deciding classification

Basic steps for designing for durability are;
• To establish the aggressiveness of the service environment
(exposure condition), with respect to the various
mechanisms of deterioration. Different components of the
structure can be exposed to different service environment.
• To select the type of structure suitable for the service
environment.
• To select the materials, mix proportions, workmanship,
design and detailing, including minimum cover to steel.
(fib # 53, 2009)
• Macro-climate - The general environmental conditions of the
area in which the structure is situated,
• Meso-climate - The specific location and orientation of the
concrete surface being considered and its exposure to
prevailing winds, rainfall etc.,
• Micro-climate - Localised conditions such as surface ponding,
exposure to surface runoff and spray, aggressive agents,
regular wetting, condensation etc. These aspects include
factors such as cladding to structure dry, or ponding due to
poor detailing etc.

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Cl. 14.3.1. Classification of exposure conditions Compare with IRC: 21

(Table 14.1) • Severe exposure – Marine environment; alternate
Sl. No. Environment Exposure conditions
wetting and drying due to sea spray; alternate
i) Moderate Concrete dry or permanently wet, concrete
continuously under water.
wetting and drying combined with freezing;
ii) Severe Wet, rarely dry, humid (relative humidity > 70 buried in soil (having corrosive effect);
percent), completely submerged in sea
water below mid-tide level, concrete • New Classification –
exposed to coastal environment,
ü Moderate – no carbonation, no chloride,
iii) Very severe Moderate humidity (relative humidity 50 to 70
percent), concrete exposed to air-borne ü Severe – no/some carbonation, some chloride,
chloride in marine environment, freezing
conditions while wet, ü Very severe – carbonation, chlorides,
iv) Extreme Cyclic wet and dry, concrete exposed to tidal,
splash and spray zones in sea, concrete in
ü Extreme – Chloride build-up, aggressive soils,
direct contact with aggressive sub- aggressive chemicals.
soil/ground water, concrete in contact with
aggressive chemicals.
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Cl. 14.3.2. Durability Provisions Basic strategy against corrosion

Mix proportions and cover thickness
(20 mm MSA, 100 years service life) • In Clause 14.3.2.1 protection against corrosion of steel is achieved by
suitable combination of water/cement ratio and cover thickness.
Exposure Concrete mix properties Minimum • Low permeability of concrete is a pre-requisite for durability. Greater
Condition Cover, impermeability is achieved primarily by the control of water/cement
Maximum Minimum Minimum ratio and selection of the cement type.
mm
water/ cement grade of • Cover is more important from the consideration of corrosion of steel
in concrete. The cover thickness should at least be equal to the
cement content, concrete distance of likely chloride ingress by diffusion over a time period
ratio kg/m3 equal to the design service life. Chloride diffusion coefficient in
Moderate 0.45 340 M25 40 concrete depends upon the water/cement ratio and the cement type;
it is lower for blended cements, and the lower the water/cement
ratio.
Severe 0.45 360 M30 45
• It is possible to select combinations of the water cement ratio and
Very Severe 0.40 380 M40 50 cover thickness to achieve the objective.
• Models for prediction of service life of concrete adopt the concept of
Extreme 0.35 400 M45 75 age-dependent ‘effective diffusion coefficient’.

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Chloride diffusion coefficient (D);

Decreases with age of concrete,
Fick’s second law of diffusion
Is lower, lower the water-binder ratio,
X
Is lower for blended cements and mineral admixtures.
CX = CS [1 – erf -------------]
Life 365 v2.2 Service Life Prediction Software helps in calculating D
2 √ (D.t)

Effect of silica
D at 28 days vrs. w/b
fume

Application of Fick’s law to chloride ingress in concrete.

Decay in D with time, m = 0.2 + 0.4 (% FA/50 + % SG/70).
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Measure for impermeability RCPT Test

• To emphasise the need of adequate impermeability,
‘Acceptance Criteria’ for concrete (Clause 18.6.7) prescribes
Rapid Chloride Ion Permeability test (ASTM C1202).
• The following upper limits for RCPT values at 56 days are
suggested for different exposure conditions;
Severe – 1500 Coulombs,
Very severe – 1200 Coulombs, and
Extreme – 800 Coulombs.

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Limits of chloride content Cl.12.3.2, Limits of crack width

(Table 12.1)
Values specified in Cl.14.3.2.3 Internationally accepted values
are; are;
Exposure Reinforced and prestressed Prestressed members
Type Acid soluble
condition members with with bonded
chloride by mass of
cement Chloride (% by Risk of unbounded tendons tendons
wt of cement) corrosion Quasi-permanent load Frequent load
Prestressed 0.10 percent ˂ 0.4 Negligible
Concrete combination combination
0.4 to 1.0 Possible Moderate 0.3 mm 0.2 mm
RCC (in severe, 0.20 percent
very severe and
1.0 to 2.0 Probable Severe 0.3 mm and 0.2 mm
extreme
exposure) ˃ 2.0 Certain Very severe and 0.2 mm 0.2 mm
RCC in moderate 0.30 percent extreme
exposure

So, the values in IRC 112 are conservative 27 28

Two other parameters in Table 14.2 Notes under Table 14.2

• Minimum cement content - Minimum cement content specified is to
ensure adequate workability of concrete. For a given water-cement
ratio, a given cement content corresponds to a particular water
content, which may result in high, medium or low workability. An
appropriate value has to be chosen keeping in view the placing
conditions, cover thickness, and concentration of reinforcement.
• Minimum grade of concrete - Compressive strength of concrete alone
does not guarantee durability under service conditions. The values of
minimum strength grade are those which can be generally expected
with the corresponding water cement ratio and with the cements or
binders available in India. So, the minimum strength grade specified is
an indirect control on the durability parameters.
• Minimum cover shown above can be reduced
by 5 mm in case of factory – made precast
concrete elements, high performance concrete,
use of stainless steel reinforcement, or
controlled permeability formwork.
• When more than one of the above measures
are adopted, total reduction in cover thickness
shall not exceed 10 mm.
• For design service life of 50 years or less, the
minimum cover can be reduced by 5 mm.

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Cl. 14.4 – Additional provisions Stainless steel reinforcement

• 14.4.1. Corrosion of reinforcement
Ø Use of galvanized reinforcement or reinforcement with
• Stainless steel reinforcement is now permitted,
fusion-bonded epoxy coating (see Cl.18.2.3.1 and in line with practice in some countries for
18.2.3.2). concrete structures exposed to very severe
Ø Use of surface coatings to the concrete to inhibit the service conditions. Since there is no Indian
ingress of chlorides or carbon dioxide. Such coatings need
periodic replacement. Standard (IS) specification for stainless steel as
Ø Use of waterproofing membrane over the bridge deck. concrete reinforcement, provisions of British
Ø Use of controlled permeability formwork (CPF) liners, Standard BS: 6744: 2001 shall apply (see Cl.
Ø Application of cathodic protection to the structure. 18.2.3.3).
Ø Use of stainless steel reinforcement (see Cl.18.2.3.3).

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Controlled Permeability Formwork (CPF)

Controlled Permeability Formwork (CPF) liners
are made from fine polypropylene fibres
assembled in such a way as to create a sheet
with a large number of fine pores of
controlled size, with appropriate porosity and
permeable to water and air.

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Vibrator Example – Bridge in coastal environment,

CPF liner Impermeable
Formwork
• Hot, high humidity, airborne chlorides,
Rebar
• Chloride concentration ≈ 0.4 percent by weight of
cement (Kandivali site, ICJ, May 2015, p 51-58)
Air
• SEVERE condition of exposure,
• For ‘severe’ category, w/b = 0.45, 45 mm cover,
Direction of
water/air • 30% fly ash used to obtain 1500 Coulombs RCPT value.
movements

• Cs = 0.40 %, Cx = 0.20 % by wt. of cement (IRC: 112).

Convert these to by wt. of concrete,
Water
• Cs = 0.066%, Cx = 0.033% by wt. of concrete.
Water collection /

Blowhole formation • RCC circular pier, 1500 mmΦ x 20 m high,

Depth of • Calculated service life (Life-365 model) > 100 yr.
Effect design w/c ratio +

-
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Cl.14.4.2. Sulphate attack
• The main reactions are of Ca, Na, or Mg sulphates on
calcium aluminate (C3A) phase and Ca (OH)2 in hydrated
cement,
• Volumes of reaction products are greater than the volume
of the reactants, thus resulting in expansion and spalling.
• The essential solution is in having cement with lower C3A
content – as in sulphate resistant Portland cement (IS:
12330). Use of blended cements (PPC or PSC) or mineral
admixtures reduces the OPC component and thereby the
amount of C3A available. Consumption of calcium
hydroxide by pozzolanic reaction also helps.
• Details are in Table 14.4 of the Code.
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Cl.14.4.4 Frost Attack
• Protecting the concrete from saturation.
• Abrasion of concrete surfaces may occur due to
• Using an air-entrained concrete mix. The small
bubbles of entrained air within the matrix can
provide pressure relief. The minimum amount of
entrained air should be 3.5 percent for 20 mm
size aggregate, and greater for smaller sizes. Air-
entraining admixture should conform to IS: 9103.
• For members in contact with water having high velocity
• Using high-strength concrete, with compressive
strength of 45 MPa or more; w/c ratio < 0.45.
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Conclusions
• IRC : 112 – 2011 places due emphasis on durability of
concrete constructions for the design service life of 100
years .
• Significant departures from the earlier versions are;
ü Blended cements like Portland pozzolana cement and
Portland slag cement, and mineral admixtures like fly ash,
granulated blast furnace slag and silica fume are
permitted to be used.
ü Maximum cement content is lowered to 450 kg/m3.
ü The classification of service environments are in four
categories; moderate, severe, very severe and extreme; in
increasing order of likelihood of chloride-induced
corrosion and carbonation-induced corrosion.
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01-12-2016
Cl.14.4.3 Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)
• Use of aggregates which have been found to perform
satisfactorily in practice.
• Use of non-reactive aggregate from alternate sources,
• Use of low-alkali OPC having total alkali content not more
than 0.6 percent (Na2O equivalent),
• Use of fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag or
silica fume as part replacement of low alkali OPC; fly ash
content should be at least 20 percent or slag content at
least 50 percent.
• Measures to reduce the degree of saturation of concrete
during service such as use of impermeable membranes.
• Limiting the cement content of the concrete mix and
thereby limiting total alkali content in the concrete mix.
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Abrasion
movement of boulders, sand or gravel suspended in
turbulent water, or air-borne sand particles. Resistance
to abrasion can be obtained by using higher-strength
concrete and abrasion-resistant aggregates. Resistance
is also markedly improved by good curing of surfaces
likely to be exposed to abrasive action.
of flow and carrying abrasive bed material, concrete of
grade M50 or higher may be necessary.
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Conclusions – contd.
ü Basic provisions are against chloride- and carbonation
induced corrosion of steel in terms of adequate cover
depth and impermeability of concrete.
ü Provisions for other mechanisms of deterioration are
through appropriate choice of cements, mineral
admixtures and chemical admixtures, besides w/b ratio.
ü Strength of concrete is delinked from the requirements of
durability. Strength to be chosen from structural design.
ü Acceptance criteria for concrete include RCPT tests.
ü Special protection in the form of stainless steel
reinforcement and controlled permeability formwork are
envisaged.
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The need (Cl. 18.8.1)

• Concrete is made with ingredients with inherent variability.
• The operations of production, placement, compaction and curing of
concrete under site conditions can also cause variability.
• Notwithstanding such variability, it is necessary to ensure that
Quality Control, Workmanship concrete is obtained with reasonable amount of consistency in its
characteristics, for which, appropriate systems should be in place.
• All site operations should be carried out with adequate proficiency.
• The properties of ingredients and the resultant concrete should be
monitored diligently as per an appropriate plan of testing.

QA Measures (Cl. 18.8.2) QA Plan (Cl. 18.8.2)

• Quality assurance in construction activity relates to
ü proper design,
ü use of adequate materials and components to be supplied by the
producers,
ü proper workmanship in the execution of works by the contractor, and
ü proper care during the use of structure including periodic inspection
and timely maintenance and repair by the owner.
• Quality assurance measures are both technical and
organizational.
• The Quality Assurance Plan shall identify the key elements
necessary to provide fitness of the structure and the means
by which they are to be provided and measured.
• Each party involved in the realization of a project should
establish and implement a Quality Assurance Plan for its role
in the project. Supplier’s and subcontractors’ activities shall
be covered in the plan.
• The individual Quality Assurance Plans shall fit into the overall
Quality Assurance Plan of the project.
• QA plan shall define the tasks and responsibilities of all
persons involved, adequate control and checking procedures,
and the organization and maintaining adequate
documentation of the construction process and its results.
IRC : SP: 47-1988 lay down the requirements for Road Bridges.

Types of cement permitted

Materials of Construction
Ø Cements,
§ Mineral admixtures – fly
ash, slag, silica fume,
§ Chemical admixtures,
Ø Aggregate
Ø Water,
Ø Steel – Rebars,
Prestressing.
(Cl. 18.4.1)
• OPC 43 grade – IS: 269,
• OPC 53 grade – IS: 269,
• Rapid hardening Portland cement – IS: 8041,
• Sulphate resistant Portland cement – IS: 12230,
• Low heat Portland cement – IS: 12260,
• Portland Pozzolana cement – IS: 1489 -Part I,
• Portland slag cement – IS: 455.

Cl. 4.2. ,Cl. 18.1. – All materials shall conform to relevant IS

Standard Specifications.

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Mineral Admixtures
(CL. 18.4.3)
• Fly ash (IS: 3812 – Part I), [20 – 35 %]
• Granulated slag (IS: 12089), [40 – 70%]
• Silica fume (IS: 15388)
Can be used in two modes –
• As blended cements like PPC, PSC manufactured
in cement plants, or
• As part replacement of OPC added in concrete
mixer.
Control of Aggregate and Water
[Cl. 18.8.3(2)]
• The grading of aggregate should be controlled by obtaining the
coarse aggregate in different sizes and blending them in the right
proportions when required, the different sizes being stocked in
separate stock-piles.
• The grading of coarse and fine aggregate should be checked as
frequently as possible to ensure that the specified grading is
maintained.
• Determination of moisture contents in both fine and coarse
aggregates shall be made as frequently as possible, being
determined according to weather conditions.
• The amount of the added water shall be adjusted to compensate for
any observed variations in the moisture contents.
Precast Girder Bridge segment
01-12-2016
Measures for ‘Good’ quality control,
as per IS: 456-2000 (Table 8)
• Proper storage of cement,
• Weigh batching of all materials,
• Controlled addition of water,
• Regular checking of all materials,
aggregate grading and moisture content,
• Periodical checking of workability and
strength.
Placing concrete
• The permissible free fall of concrete may not
exceed 1.5 meters and under no
circumstances; shall it be more than 2 meters.
• When free fall of larger height is involved, self
compacting concrete having adequate fluidity,
cohesiveness and viscosity shall be used.
• When concrete is to be deposited by means of
tremie, the lower end of the vertical pipe shall
always be inserted sufficiently deep into the
concrete which has been placed previously
but has not set.
Self – Compacting Concrete (SCC)
• A concrete that is able to flow and fill every
part and corner of formwork, even in the
presence of dense reinforcement, purely by
means of its own weight and without the
need for any vibration or other type of
compaction.
• There should be no segregation during
pouring of the concrete and its flow.
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Where is SCC required Water 158 kg

Cement 470 kg

• Where reinforcement is very congested, Cement

F A 100 kg Fly Ash
• Where access to allow vibration is not available, SF
Fine Agg. S F 33 kg
• Complicated geometry of the formwork, 777 kg
C.Agg

• Where pouring is possible only from a single Fine Agg

Water
point,
• Where speedy placement is required, C. Agg. 20 mm 842 kg

• Other advantages are – no noise, no finish Quantities per m3 of concrete

required.
Mix Design for M60 Self Compacting Concrete – Signature Bridge, Delhi
28-days comp. strength – 74.4 MPa

Curing [Cl. 18.8.4(4)] Temperature of fresh concrete

• Minimum 14 days after placing;
• Moist curing,
• Liquid membrane curing, to be stripped off later.
• Steam curing for pre-cast units, to be followed
by moist curing.
• Care in selection of steam-curing cycle,
maximum temperature ≤ 70 C.
[Cl. 18.8.5(1)]
• Temperature of concrete at the time of placement
shall not be more than 30 degrees C.
• For high performance concrete, the temperature
at the time of placement shall not exceed 25
degrees C.
• If concreting is to be done at ambient
temperatures exceeding these limits, steps shall be
taken to sufficiently lower the temperature of
ingredients of concrete below the ambient.

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Means of lowering Temperature of Most common tests are

Fresh Concrete (Cl. 18.8.5.(1))
• Use of chilled mixing water,
• Use of crushed ice or ice flakes as part of
mixing water,
• Shading stockpiles of aggregates from
direct rays of sun.
• Sprinkling stockpiles of coarse aggregate
with water and keeping them moist,
Note – More details are available in IS: 7861
(part I) Cube tests for compressive strength
Slump test for workabilty

Tests on concrete
[Cl. 18.5.4(1)]
• Samples from fresh concrete shall be taken as per IS
1199 and tested for workability.
• Cubes shall be made, cured and tested for
compressive strength at 28 days in accordance with
IS 516.
• Tests for compressive strength at earlier ages when
required.
• Other tests like density, chloride content, flexural
strength or tests for durability (RCPT), as specified in
QA plan.

Concept of Characteristic strength

Thank
Thank
You
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