Hindawi

Advances in Civil Engineering

Volume 2018, Article ID 2153971, 14 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/2153971

Research Article
Fractal Pattern of Particle Crushing of Granular
Geomaterials during One-Dimensional Compression

Jiru Zhang and Biwen Zhang

School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China

Correspondence should be addressed to Jiru Zhang; zhangjr1964@sohu.com

Received 25 May 2018; Accepted 29 July 2018; Published 25 September 2018

Academic Editor: Yongfeng Deng

Copyright © 2018 Jiru Zhang and Biwen Zhang. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.
This paper focuses on the effect of particle crushing on the behavior of granular geomaterials. Series of high-pressure one-
dimensional compression tests were carried out on a quartz sand-gravel. A detail investigation was performed primarily on the
compression behavior, the evolution of particle-size distribution (PSD), the fractal pattern of the grading curve, and the amount of
particle crushing. It was found that both the yielding state and the state at the maximum compressibility are closely associated with
the evolution of PSD and the fractal pattern of particle crushing. As the vertical stress increases, the fractal characteristic of the
grading curve appears only within the finer part at first, evolves into bifractal within the overall measurable grading curve late, and
translates into monofractal finally. Furthermore, a pair of particle crushing indexes Be1 and Be2 considering different particle size
scales were proposed. The reasonability of using Be1 and Be2 to describe the amount of crushing corresponding to the scale of
particles was discussed. Finally, it was found that the value of the ratio between the volumetric strain and the crushing index Be1 is
constant and independent of the initial particle size and the initial PSD when the vertical stress is larger than the stress at the
maximum compressibility or the coarser part of the grading curve is evolved into fractal.

1. Introduction mechanism involved. Totally, it is important and necessary

Particle crushing (a confluent terminology describing all
types of fragmentation and breakage), which is triggered
when the applied stresses of particles exceed their strength,
essentially generates a new complicated system with smaller
sized and various shaped particles and consequently in-
fluences mechanical properties and behaviors of soils. This
theme appears to play a vitally significant role associated
with several natural disasters, such as landslides, earth-
quakes, debris flows, and surface collapses, and engineering
applications; for instance, how to drive long offshore piles
into bioclastic, calcareous soils or how to choose an ap-
plicable PSD of materials in constructing large earth and
rockfill dams [1–9]. Hence, whatever the behaviors of single
particle compression [10, 11], one-dimensional compression
[12–14], ring shear tests [15–18], plane strain tests [19], or
triaxial tests [6, 20–22], it attracts extensive and special
attention in geotechnical engineering owing to the complex
to improve our understanding of the internal mechanism
between particle crushing and soil behavior from the per-
spective of scientific research and the practical view of
engineering problems.
By means of either laboratory tests or discrete element
modeling [13, 15, 23–34], several studies focused on the
significant role of PSD in the basic constitutive properties of
granular materials, especially in the critical states. Particle
crushing which produces a new PSD depends not only on
the nature of the crushable particle, but also to a relatively
great extent on the surroundings involving the sizes and
shapes of adjacent particles and the force chains exerted to
the focused objective. Although the particle-crushing-
induced complicated system during compression or
shearing depends on manifold factors, such as mineralogies,
morphology, stress-strain state, void ratio, water content,
and test methodologies, but it is consistent with fractal
theory in many cases. Some previous studies confirmed in
2 Advances in Civil Engineering

broad agreement that both the crushing of a single particle 100

and the continuous crushing of granular aggregates result in
an increasing tendency towards a monofractal PSD with
80
a single fractal dimension D [10, 35–39]. Also, the bifractal

Percent finer by weight

behavior of geomaterials during crushing was observed [18].
Consequently, a question which arises is what role particle 60
crushing plays in influencing the fractal behavior, especially
in the development of fractal. This has not been detailed in
studies yet. No researchers so far have examined the re- 40
lationship between the crushing of particles and the varying
fractal characteristics of grading curves, especially at dif-
20
ferent scales. A detailed investigation of particle-crushing-
induced fractal development of grading curves will return us
with a higher cognition of the sensibility of crushing of soils 0
and of the nature of behavior of granular materials. 10000 1000 100 10
According to the data of one-dimensional compression Particle size (μm)
tests on quartz sand-gravel up to 204.8 MPa [39], the present Uniformly graded specimens: Natural graded specimens:
paper examined the effects of particle size and initial PSD on QS1 QS3
the compression and crushing behaviors of granular geo- QS2
materials. In addition, the fractal dimensions of varying
grading curves taking different scales into account were Figure 1: Initial grading curves.
calculated to explore the fractal mechanism of particle
crushing. Due to the fact that particle crushing generally
exists in overall mechanical behaviors of crushable soils,
even though the findings are obtained from one- Piston

dimensional compression tests, it still improves our un-

derstanding of the nature of particle crushing implicated in Dial indicator
the fractal theory and may open the door to the intelligent Dial indicator

interpretation of soil behaviors considering the effect of

crushing.
2. Materials and Test Methods
Tests in this paper were performed on a type of crushable
granular geomaterial which is a mixture of sand and gravel
from the Yangtze River in China. The percent content of
main component is 89.72% of SiO2 by means of X-ray
diffraction experiments. Hence, it is named as quartz sand-
gravel (QS). Before tests, the materials were dry-sieved into
fractions to make various specimens involving uniformly
graded specimens (marked as QS1 and QS2) and natural
graded specimens (marked as QS3). The initial grading
curves of all types of specimens are shown in Figure 1. As
shown in Figure 2, a self-made confined compression device
[37] with a 79.8 mm diameter and 20 mm height cylindrical
specimen was used to reach very high vertical stress up to the
maximum 204.8 MPa. All types of specimens were prepared
by tamping using various energy levels to achieve a similar
value of the initial void ratio e0  0.78 ± 0.03. The use of
organo-silicic oil coating applied to the bottom of the piston
minimized the effect of boundary friction. The dial in-
dicators fixed to the piston were applied to measure com-
pressive deformation of the specimens, where each value was
the average of two measurements. In order to insight the
evolution of PSD during crushing, these one-dimensional
compression tests were terminated at nine vertical stress
levels from 0.8 MPa to 204.8 MPa with one as the constant
loading increment ratio. The details of the initial PSDs of all
Specimen in the
Height=20mm
confined chamber
Diameter=79.8mm
Figure 2: Test device.
types of specimens and parameters of tests are summarized
in Table 1.
After one-dimensional compression tests, the grading
curves of all precrushed specimens were determined by
means of the sieve shaker and the laser particle analyzer. On
one hand, the sieve shaker was used to obtain the first part of
PSD, in which particles are ranged from 74 μm to the largest
particle size, from the part of specimens retaining on the
74 μm sieve pore. On the other hand, the laser particle
analyzer was used to obtain the second part of PSD, in which
particles are ranged from the minimum measurable size
1 μm to 74 μm, from the balance passing through the 74 μm
sieve pore. The data obtained by these two methods were
summed up, and the whole measurable grading curves of the
specimens after tests were calculated. Because the method of
the laser particle analyzer to obtain the corresponding PSD is
based on the equivalent diameter analysis, the accuracy will
not be enough if the shapes of the considered particles are
flake-like or needle-like. Fortunately, according to the shape
factor data of precrushed geomaterials, such as quartz sand
and carbonate sand [40] and the scanning electron micro-
scope (SEM) images of the generated particles after crushing
 Advances in Civil Engineering

TABLE 1: Details of initial PSDs of the specimens and parameters of the tests.

Initial PSD (%) Specimen Initial void Specific

Vertical stress level
Specimen dimension ratio weight
Geomaterials
number 5000∼2000 2000∼1000 1000∼500 500∼250 250∼100 100∼74 D×H
e0 Gs σ V (MPa)
(μm) (μm) (μm) (μm) (μm) (μm) (mm × mm)
QS1 100 0 0 0 0 0
Quartz sand and 0, 0.8, 1.6, 3.2, 6.4, 12.8, 25.6, 51.2,
QS2 0 60 40 0 0 0 79.8 × 20 0.78 ± 0.03 2.67
gravel (QS) 102.4, 204.8
QS3 34.2 33.3 22.3 9.4 0.3 0.5
3
4 Advances in Civil Engineering
[41], the ratios between the 3D of the created particles by
crushing are not much different. Hence, it is reasonable to
guarantee the validity of using the laser particle analyzer to
describe that part of PSD. It is also shown that the ratios
between the 3D of most particles generated from crushing,
whose sizes are smaller than 74 μm, are similar.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. One-Dimensional Compression Behavior. The data
points in Figure 3 show the decreasing tendency of the void
ratio e with increasing logarithm of vertical stress σ V for all
types of specimens. The continuous reduction of the value of
the void ratio e is mainly due to successive particle crushing
and rearrangement. With almost the identical initial void
ratio e0, the reduction of the value of the void ratio e is largest
for QS1, intermediate for QS2, and lowest for QS3 at the
same vertical stress levels. The reasonable interpretation of
the above observation is as following [14, 36]. The crushing
strength of the larger particle is lower because there are more
interior flaws in it. Hence, QS1 with larger particle sizes
produces more crushing and rearrangement for uniformly
graded specimens. Meanwhile, the natural graded specimen
QS3 is well graded comparing to the uniformly graded
specimens. The particles in QS3 are protected by more
surrounding contact points. Hence, the probability of the
particle crushing of QS3 is lower and less void ratio pro-
duced by crushing is used for particle rearrangement.
On the other hand, as shown in Figure 3, we are obliged
to select the smooth B-spline to describe e versus log σ V
relationship with unimportant error within the maximum
testing load because the decreasing tendency above is ac-
tually a continuous process. According to [14], two states on
the one-dimensional compression are defined. One is the
yielding state which corresponds to the state when the
curvature of the relation between the void ratio e and the
logarithmic of the vertical stress σ V is maximum. Another is
the state at the maximum compressibility, which corre-
sponds to the state when the compression index Cc is
maximum. Hence, in Figure 3, the yielding states are marked
as the hollow legends and the states at the maximum
compressibility are marked as the semihollow legends for all
types of the specimens. The stress σ Vy corresponds to the
stress at the yielding state, and the stress σ Vc corresponds to
the stress at the state when the compression index Cc is
maximum. With respect to these two indexes σ Vy and σ Vc,
three situations can be observed from Figure 3: (i) for
uniformly graded specimens, the specimen QS1 with larger
particle size has higher σ Vy and σ Vc; (ii) both σ Vy and σ Vc of
uniformly graded specimens QS1 and QS2 are lower than
those of the natural graded specimen QS3; and (iii) for
a given specimen, σ Vc is higher than σ Vy. The first situation
manifests that specimens with smaller particle size are more
difficult to yield and are more difficult to show the maximum
compressibility for uniformly graded specimens. Analo-
gously, the second situation indicates that uniformly graded
specimens are easier to yield and are easier to show the
maximum compressibility comparing with well-graded spec-
imens. Hence, the yield state and the state at the maximum
0.8
0.6
Void ratio, e
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 500
Vertical stress, σv (MPa)
Specimean no. QS1 QS2 QS3
Test data
B-spline
Yield point
Point at Ccmax
σVy (MPa) 4.9 14.0 37.9
σVc (MPa) 9.9 20.3 54.9
Figure 3: Relationship between e and σ V.
compressibility depend not only on the nature of particles but
also on the packing of multitudinous particles. The last situ-
ation expresses that the state at the maximum compressibility is
always after the yielding state. It also implied that the gradient
in the e-log σ V relationship increases after yielding and then
gradually decreases to a relative steady value after showing the
maximum compressibility, combining with the shapes of the
B-splines in Figure 3.
Figure 4 shows the relationship between the vertical
strain or the volumetric strain εV (in the one-dimensional
compression tests of this paper, the vertical strain is identical
with the volumetric strain because of the constant cross
section of the specimen) and the vertical stress σ V. It can be
observed that the value of εV increases rapidly at relative
small stress levels, then increases less rapidly after the
vertical stress σ V passes beyond σ Vc, and gradually ap-
proaches stabilization at relative high stress levels for all
types of specimens. The implications of the yielding state and
the state at the maximum compressibility are further in-
vestigated in the following part.
3.2. Evolution of PSD. The grading curves of all the speci-
mens after one-dimensional compression tests terminated at
each preset vertical stress level are plotted in Figure 5, with
semilogarithmic coordinates on the left pictures and double-
logarithmic coordinates on the right pictures. Meanwhile, it
is assumed that the grading curve at the preset stress level
which is closest to σ Vy or σ Vc can be approximately regarded
as the grading curve at the stress equal to σ Vy or σ Vc, re-
spectively, with unimportant error. The dashed dotted line is
the referenced ultimate fractal grading curve with a fractal
Advances in Civil Engineering
0 sometimes does not adequately describe the fractal char-
Vertical strain or volumetric strain, εV (%)
10
20
30
40
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
Vertical stress, σV (MPa)
QS1
QS2
QS3
Figure 4: Relationship between εV and σ V.
dimension D  2.6 [23]. Examination of Figure 5 shows
a similarity for all types of specimens that the proportion of
particles finer than 74 μm increases markedly as the vertical
stress σ V increases; however, part of the largest particles of
initial specimens still exist even at the maximum vertical
stress level. In the semilogarithmic coordinates of Figure 5,
the curve gradually rises up and the degree of concave
upward of the curve gradually decreases, in particular, after
the vertical stress σ V exceeds σ Vy. It indicates that the
degree of crushing increases markedly after yielding.
Meanwhile, in the double-logarithmic coordinates of
Figure 5, the curve is gradually transformed into ap-
proximately a straight line, especially after the vertical
stress σ V exceeds a definite extent to σ Vc. It indicates that
the grading curve is gradually equipped with fractal
characteristic, especially after the specimen shows the
maximum compressibility. Therefore, it may be reasonable
to regard σ Vc as a transition point of the grading curve to be
equipped with the fractal characteristic. In a similar
fashion, it should be noted that when the vertical stress σ V
passes σ Vy, the shape of the grading curve within the
particle size interval finer than 74 μm becomes a straight
line, which indicates that the finer part of the grading curve
may be previously equipped with fractal characteristic.
Hence, we can deduct that σ Vy can at least be regarded as
another transition point to be equipped with fractal
characteristic within the finer part of the grading curve.
Also, the reasonability of the above deductions is verified in
the next part.
3.3. Fractal Pattern. A simplex fractal dimension is usually
used to describe the PSD of soil, and this fractal parameter
can be used as a constant in models of soil-water charac-
teristic curves (SWCCs) or particle crushing [33, 42–47].
However, according to the data in this paper and other
relevant literatures [18, 48], a simplex fractal dimension
5
acteristics of the whole PSD. The evolution pattern of fractals
requires further study.
By assuming the referenced particle size as d, the largest
particle size as dM, the mass of particles finer than d as M
(δ < d), and the total mass of a specimen as MT, if there is
a linear relationship between log(d/dM) and log[M
(δ < d)/MT] with a slope k, we can deem that the grading
curve is fractal with the fractal dimension D  3 – k. The
results of linear fitting between lg[M(δ < d)/MT] and lg
(d/dM) are shown in Figure 6. The left pictures of Figure 6
regard particle size intervals which are finer than 74 μm and
coarser than 74 μm as fitting intervals, respectively. And the
middle pictures of Figure 6 regard the whole measurable
200 225 particle size interval as the only fitting interval. Actually, not
all the grading curves after tests are equipped with fractal
characteristics. Hence, we are obliged to assume a value of
determination coefficients R2 of linear fitting as a trans-
formation point to make a decision that whether or not the
fractal of the grading curve is relative strict. By examination
of the right pictures of Figure 6, which show the histograms
of determination coefficients R2 of these three aforemen-
tioned linear fittings at each stress level, the value of R2 equal
to 0.98 may be a plausible and relative high value to rep-
resent this transformation point. Therefore, in the left and
middle pictures in Figure 6, fitting lines having relative high
significance level with R2 > 0.98 are presented by the solid
lines, and those having relative low significance level with
R2 < 0.98 are presented by the dashed lines. In addition, the
values of the fractal dimensions of the fitting lines are labeled
beside with D1 for those when d is coarser than 74 μm, D2 for
those when d is finer than 74 μm, and D for those of the
whole measurable size interval.
The detailed examination of the left and right pictures of
Figure 6 shows that the fractal characteristic of the finer
particle size interval is not relatively strict when the vertical
stress σ V is lower than σ Vy for all types of specimens.
However, the fractal characteristic of the above part is
relatively strict when the vertical stress σ V is greater than σ Vy.
Nevertheless, the similar result of the coarser particle size
interval appears when the vertical stress σ V is greater than
σ Vc. The narration above at least implies that the fractal
characteristic previously appears on the finer particle size
interval after yielding and subsequently appears on the
coarser interval after the specimen shows the maximum
compressibility. By means of the middle and right pictures of
Figure 6, the whole measurable grading curves of all types of
specimens are equipped with monofractal characteristic only
when the vertical stress σ V exceeds a certain degree to σ Vc.
Hence, three particle size regions should be differentiated. In
the first region ranged between 1 μm and an uncertain size
which may be finer than 74 μm, the grading curve is fractal
when the vertical stress σ V passes through σ Vy. In the second
region ranged between the largest particle size and another
uncertain size which may be coarser than 74 μm, the grading
curve is fractal when the vertical stress σ V passes through
σ Vc. And the third region ranged between these two un-
certain sizes represents a transition region from the fractal
characteristic in the coarser region to that in the finer region.
6 Advances in Civil Engineering

74 μm 74 μm
100 100
Fractal grading (D = 2.6)

80
10
Percent finer by weight

60
1
40
Fractal grading (D = 2.6)
0.1
20

0 0.01
10000 1000 100 10 1 10000 1000 100 10 1
Particle size (μm)

Initial grading 6.4 MPa (σVy ≈ 4.9 MPa) 51.2 MPa

0.8 MPa 12.8 MPa (σVc ≈ 9.9 MPa) 102.4 MPa
1.6 MPa 25.6 MPa 204.8 MPa
3.2 MPa
(a)
74 μm 74 μm
100 100
Fractal grading (D = 2.6)

80
10
Percent finer by weight

60
1
40
Fractal grading (D = 2.6)

0.1
20

0 0.01
10000 1000 100 10 1 10000 1000 100 10 1
Particle size (μm)

Initial grading 6.4 MPa 51.2 MPa

0.8 MPa 12.8 MPa (σVy ≈ 14.0 MPa) 102.4 MPa
1.6 MPa 25.6 MPa (σVc ≈ 20.3 MPa) 204.8 MPa
3.2 MPa

(b)
74 μm 74 μm
100 100
Fractal grading (D = 2.6)
80
10
Percent finer by weight

60
1
40

Fractal grading (D = 2.6) 0.1

20

0 0.01
10000 1000 100 10 1 10000 1000 100 10 1
Particle size (μm)

Initial grading 6.4 MPa 51.2 MPa (σVc ≈ 54.9 MPa)

0.8 MPa 12.8 MPa 102.4 MPa
1.6 MPa 25.6 MPa (σVy ≈ 37.9 MPa) 204.8 MPa
3.2 MPa

(c)

Figure 5: Grading curves after tests terminated at each preset stress level for (a) QS1, (b) QS2, and (c) QS3.
Advances in Civil Engineering 7

Fractal with high significance level

d < 74μm d > 74 μm
0 0 1.00
2.445 0.99
2.393 0.98 0.98
D1 = 2.314 0.96
–1 –1 0.94

Determination coefficient
0.92

2
of linear fitting, R
1.224 0.90
lg[M(δ < d)/MT]

–2 D2 = 2.385 1.180 –2 D = 2.429 0.88

2.365 1.238 2.373 0.86
2.322 2.187 2.305 0.84
–3 2.311 1.742 –3 2.229 0.82
2.315 2.162 0.80
2.009
2.311 0.78
–4 –4 2.053 1.224 0.76
1.790 0.74
1.426 1.241
0.72
–5 –5 0.70
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 0.8 1.6 3.2 6.4 12.8 25.6 51.2 102.4 204.8
lg(d/dM) Vertical stress, σV (MPa)

2
1 ~ 74μm σVy ≈ 4.9 MPa
0.8 MPa 6.4 MPa (σVy ≈ 4.9 MPa) 51.2 MPa Linear fit (R ≥ 0.98)
2 74 ~ 5000μm σVc ≈ 9.9 MPa
1.6 MPa 12.8 MPa (σVc ≈ 9.9 MPa) 102.4 MPa Linear fit (R < 0.98)
1 ~ 5000μm
3.2 MPa 25.6 MPa 204.8 MPa

(a)
Fractal with high significance level
d < 74μm d > 74 μm
0 0 1.00
2.360 0.99
2.281 0.98 0.98
D1 = 2.134 0.96
–1 –1 0.94

Determination coefficient
0.92

2
of linear fitting, R
0.90
lg[M(δ < d)/MT]

D2 = 2.361 1.854 D = 2.358

–2 1.511 –2 0.88
2.360 2.313 0.86
2.303 2.219 0.84
0.926
–3 2.290 –3 0.82
2.090
2.315 0.80
0.553 (0.551) 1.975 0.78
–4 2.273 2.015 –4 0.76
0.920 0.74
1.719 1.064 0.72
–5 –5 0.70
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 0.8 1.6 3.2 6.4 12.8 25.6 51.2 102.4 204.8
lg(d/dM) Vertical stress, σV (MPa)

1.6 MPa 25.6 MPa (σVc ≈ 20.3 MPa) 204.8 MPa 1 ~ 74 μm σVy ≈ 14.0 MPa
2 74 ~ 2000 μm σVc ≈ 20.3 MPa
3.2 MPa 51.2 MPa Linear fit (R ≥ 0.98)
2
6.4 MPa 102.4 MPa Linear fit (R < 0.98) 1 ~ 2000 μm
12.8 MPa (σVy ≈ 14.0 MPa)

(b)
Fractal with high significance level
d < 74μm d > 74 μm
0 0 1.00
2.486 0.99
2.370 0.98 0.98
D1 = 2.240 0.96
–1 –1 0.94
Determination coefficient

1.833 0.92
2
lg[M(δ < d)/MT]

0.90
of linear fitting, R

1.784
–2 1.567 –2 D = 2.396 0.88
D2 = 2.320
2.329 2.329 0.86
2.326 2.268 1.337 0.84
–3 2.307 1.360 (1.337) –3 0.82
2.346 1.682 2.093 0.80
1.542
2.376 2.042 0.78
1.239
–4 –4 1.953 0.76
0.74
0.72
–5 –5 0.70
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 0.8 1.6 3.2 6.4 12.8 25.6 51.2 102.4 204.8
lg(d/dM) Vertical stress, σV (MPa)

2
1 ~ 74μm σVy ≈ 37.9 MPa
0.8 MPa 6.4 MPa 51.2 MPa (σVc ≈ 54.9 MPa) Linear fit (R ≥ 0.98)
2 74 ~ 2000μm σVc ≈ 54.9 MPa
1.6 MPa 12.8 MPa 102.4 MPa Linear fit (R < 0.98)
1 ~ 2000 μm
3.2 MPa 25.6 MPa (σVy ≈ 37.9 MPa) 204.8 MPa

(c)

Figure 6: Linear fitting between lg[M(δ < d)/MT] and lg(d/dM) with the left picture regarding particle size finer than 74 μm and coarser than
74 μm as a fitting range, respectively, with the middle picture regarding the whole measurable particle size interval as the only fitting range,
and with the right picture expressing the histograms of determination coefficients R2 of these three linear fittings at each preset vertical stress
level for (a) QS1, (b) QS2, and (c) QS3.

The existence of this transition region makes the problem region in which the values of fractal dimensions exceed 2.29
extremely complicated. In order to simplify the analysis, the are shown to be strictly self-similar, and those of the coarser
existence of this transition region is disregarded, and the region in which the values of fractal dimensions exceed 1.85
transition particle size between the two fractal regions is are shown to be strictly self-similar. Therefore, the values of
assumed to be 74 μm. In addition, as shown in Figures 7(a) 2.29 and 1.85 can be considered as the lower limits of the
and 7(b), despite the different initial PSDs and particle sizes fractal dimensions corresponding to the finer and coarser
between all types of specimens, the PSD data of the finer regions, respectively. In a similar fashion, the value of 2.16
8 Advances in Civil Engineering

2.6 2.6 Strict fractal

2
2.4 2.4 (R > 0.98)
2.29
2.2 2.2
Strict fractal Unstrict fractal
2
2.0 (R2 > 0.98) 2.0 (R > 0.98)
D1 1.8 1.85 D2 1.8
Unstrict fractal
1.6 2
(R > 0.98) 1.6
1.4 1.4
1.2 1.2
1.0 1.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Vertical stress, σV (MPa) Vertical stress, σV (MPa)

2 2
R < 0.98 R > 0.98 R2 < 0.98 R2 > 0.98
QS1 QS1
QS2 QS2
QS3 QS3

(a) (b)
2.6
2.4 Strict fractal
(R2 > 0.98)
2.2 2.16
2.0 Unstrict fractal
2
(R > 0.98)
D 1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Vertical stress, σV (MPa)

R2 < 0.98 R2 > 0.98

QS1
QS2
QS3

(c)

Figure 7: Relationship between vertical stress σ V and fractal dimensions (a) D1, (b) D2, and (c) D.

can be considered as the lower limit of the fractal dimension
for the whole measurable PSD, as shown in Figure 7(c).
In general, during one-dimensional compression, when
the vertical stress σ V is between σ Vy and σ Vc, the fractal
characteristic exists only in the finer interval of the grading
curve, in which particle sizes are finer than 74 μm. Sub-
sequently, the bifractal characteristic exists in the whole
measurable grading curve when the vertical stress σ V is
immediately larger than σ Vc. And 74 μm should be the
transition particle size point between the different fractal
characteristics of the finer and coarser intervals. Finally, the
whole measurable grading curve is monofractal when the
vertical stress exceeds a certain degree to σ Vc. The evolution
of the fractal characteristic above consists of the fractal
pattern during one-dimensional compression.
3.4. Particle Crushing. Based on the different PSDs before
and after crushing, some scholars put forward series of
quantitative indexes to represent the degree of particle
crushing. As a whole, those indexes may be divided into two
principal groups: one is based on the change of one or several
characteristic particle sizes before and after crushing, such as
B10, B15, and BM as depicted in Figure 8 [1, 3, 49]. The other
one is based on the relative change of the whole PSD before
and after crushing, which are primarily represented by Br
and Be proposed by Hardin [50] and Einav [51], respectively,
as depicted in Figure 9. The difference between Br and Be lies
in the assumption of the ultimate state of particle crushing.
Hardin [50] assumed that particle crushing eventually
formed a uniform distribution system with particle sizes less
than 74 μm. However, Einav [51] assumed that the ultimate
distribution was a monofractal distribution with scale in-
variance or self-similarity. It should be noted that most
properties of soil may depend on the overall PSDs, such as
void ratio, volumetric strain, constitutive relation, and
critical state. Actually, particle crushing is not an active
process like gravity, which is always fully active and forever
produces its total effect, but can be denoted by a passive
quantity which can be measured by the relative distance to
its ultimate state indicating the elimination of possibility for
any further crushing. From this point of view, particle
crushing, which resembles internal friction and cohesion of
soils, has to be mobilized by external conditions until the
potential of crushing approaches zero. Therefore, comparing
with the indexes of the first group which depend on just one
or several characteristic particle sizes, Br and Be chosen in
this study may be more appropriate for representing the
amount of crushing not only owing to their clear concepts
and clearly defined assumptions but also due to considering
the changes of distribution in almost overall particle size
range.
On the other hand, with the above fractal pattern of
particle crushing in mind, it is advisable to separate the
Advances in Civil Engineering 9

100
Marsal [1]: n
a1 b1
80 BM = |b1 – a1| + |b2 – a2| + ... + |bn – an| = ∑|bj – aj|
j=1
Percent finer by weight

a2 b2 Lade et al. [3]:

60 f i
B10 = 1 – d10/d10

a3 b3
40 Lee and Farhoomand [49]:
i f
a4 b4 B15 = d15/d15

20 a5...an b5...bn
15
10
0 i i f f
10000 1000 d15 d10 d15 d10 10 1
Particle size (µm)
Initial grading
After loading
Figure 8: Definitions of the particle crushing indexes BM [1], B10 [3], and B15 [49].

100
Hardin [50]:
(i) Total breakage Bt = = Area3
74µm (ii) Breakage potential Bp = + + = Area1+2+3
80
(iii) Relative breakage Br = Bt/Bp = Area3/Area1+2+3
Percent finer by weight

Area1 Einav [51]:

60
(i) Total breakage Bt′ = + = Area3+5
(ii) Breakage potential Bp′ = + + + = Area2+3+4+5
40 (iii) Relative breakage Be = Bt′/Bp′ = Area3+5/Area2+3+4+5

Area2 Divided into two parts

20 Area4
For particles coarser than 74 µm, For particles finer than 74 µm,
Area3 ′ =
(i) Bt1 = Area3 (i) Bt2
′ = = Area5
Area5
0 (ii) Bp1
′ = + = Area2+3 (ii) Bp2
′ = + = Area4+5
10000 1000 100 10 1
Particle size (µm) (iii) Be1 = ′ /B′ =
Bt1 p1 Area3/Area2+3 (iii) Be2 = Bt2
′ /B′ = Area /Area
p2 5 4+5
Initial grading
After loading
Ultimate grading
Figure 9: Definitions of the particle crushing indexes Br [50] and Be [51] and the division of Be.

relative breakage Be proposed by Einav [51] into two parts Figure 10 shows the relationship between vertical stress
considering different scales. These different scales are the σ V and Be1 or Be2. For all types of specimens, as the vertical
two ranges of the overall measurable PSD corresponding stress σ V increases, both of the values of Be1 and Be2 increase
to the aforementioned bifractal characteristic. To achieve rapidly, when the vertical stress σ V is smaller than σ Vc. Then,
this objective, as defined in Figure 9, the total potential when the vertical stress σ V is larger than σ Vc, both of the
breakage Bp′ is divided into two parts Bp1 ′ and Bp2′ to values of Be1 and Be2 gradually approach a relatively steady
represent the corresponding potential breakage whose state. However, the increasing rate of Be2 is obviously faster
particle sizes are ranged coarser and finer than 74 μm, than that of Be1. This is because the value of Be1 is closer to
respectively. And the total breakage B′t is also di- unity than that of Be2, such as the values of Be1 at the
vided into two parts Bt1′ and B′t2 to represent the corre- maximum vertical stress 204.8 MPa for QS1 and QS2 are
sponding total breakage whose particle sizes are ranged even 0.84 and 0.78, respectively, but the values of Be2 at that
coarser and finer than 74 μm, respectively. Then, defining state for QS1 and QS2 are merely 0.46 and 0.35, respectively.
B e1 � Bt1′ /Bp1
′ to represent the relative breakage of parti- It implies that the breakage potential in the scale of particles
cles coarser than 74 μm and defining B e2 � Bt2′ /Bp2 ′ to larger than 74 μm is not much left; however, the breakage
represent the relative breakage of particles finer than potential in the scale of particles finer than 74 μm is still a lot
74 μm. The aim of this division is to apply the divided at that state. Hence, the probability of crushing in the finer
indexes to investigate the amounts of crushing in dif- scale is higher. This difference also implies the reasonability
ferent particle scales. of the division of Be. Comparing to the natural graded
10
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Be1, Be2
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 50 100 150 200
Vertical stress, σV (MPa)
QS1 QS2 QS3
Be1
Be2
Be1(σVy)
Be1(σVc)
Be2(σVy)
Be2(σVc)
Figure 10: Relationship between σ V and Be1 or Be2.
specimen QS3, this increasing tendency of the value of Be1 is
more significant for the uniformly graded specimens QS1
and QS2. This is because that the cushioning effect of
surrounding contacts of coarser particles in the natural
graded specimen QS3 is more significant; therefore, the
higher degree of particle crushing of the coarser particles is
induced in the uniformly graded specimens QS1 and QS2.
As shown in Figure 9, with respect to Br and Be1, the value of
Bt is equal to that of B′t1, and the value of Bp is equal to the
sum of Bp1 ′ and Area1. Hence, the difference between the
values of Br and Be1 is only due to the difference between
their denominators. With respect to Be and Be1, although the
value of Bp′ is larger than that of Bp1
′ by Bp2
′ , the value of B′t2 is
mostly only a very small fraction of the value of B′t. The
difference between the values of Be and Be1 is also due to the
difference between their denominators with not much im-
portant error. Hence, the variation tendencies of Be and Br
in Figure 11, which show the relationship between the
vertical stress σ V and Be or Br, are similar to those of Be1 in
Figure 10.
Hence, we can deduce that, at an extremely large vertical
stress, the coarser part of the uniformly graded specimens is
faster than the finer part to reach the ultimate state of particle
crushing, although this deduction can only be executed by
mental operations due to the limitation of laboratory tests. In
addition, the effect of the increasing vertical stress σ V on the
evolution of Be and Br should be identical with that on the
evolution of Be1; hence, these three crushing indexes Be, Br,
and Be1 are reasonable for describing the amount of crushing
in which particles are coarser than 74 μm with unimportant
error, but the most accurate index should be Be1.
Nevertheless, as shown in Figure 10, the increasing
tendency of the value of B e2 in the uniformly graded
Advances in Civil Engineering
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Br, Be
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Vertical stress, σV (MPa)
QS1 QS2 QS3
Be
Br
Be(σVy)
Be(σVc)
Br(σVy)
Br(σVc)
Figure 11: Relationship between σ V and Be or Br.
specimens QS1 and QS2 is less rapid than that in the
natural graded specimen QS3. This may be resulted from
that the average number of contact points of finer particles
in QS3 is less than those in QS1 and QS2, and the contact
cushioning effect exceeds the crushing strength effect on
particle crushing. Hence, the probabilities of crushing of
the finer “parent” particles (i.e., the finer particles which
have not been crushed) and the finer and finer particles
produced by previous rounds of particle crushing in QS3
are higher than the probabilities of crushing of those in QS1
and QS2. In addition, the pronounced different increasing
tendencies between Be2 and Be1 represent that the rea-
sonable index of particle crushing for describing the cor-
responding relative breakage, in which particles are finer
than 74 μm, should be Be2 which is essentially different
from Be, Be1, and Br.
Figure 12 shows the relationship between the verti-
cal stress σ V and the ratio εV/Be1 or εV/Be2. Meanwhile,
Figure 13 shows the relationship between the vertical stress
σ V and the ratio εV/Be or εV/Br. From ring shear tests [15]
and triaxial tests [16], the phenomenon that the value of
εV/Br has been constant is observed almost at the critical
state of soils. However, from Figures 12 and 13, it can be
observed that both the values of εV/Be1 and εV/Be are al-
ready constant, respectively, after the vertical stress σ V
exceeds σ Vc. The values of the constants of εV/Be1 and εV/Be
are 0.391 and 0.461, respectively. From the previous part of
this paper, when the vertical stress σ V is larger than σ Vc, it
marks that the coarser part of PSD, in which particles are
larger than 74 μm, is fractal. Hence, it indicates that the
coarser part of PSD is equipped with the fractal charac-
teristic can be regarded as a token of that the values of
εV/Be1 and εV/Be are constant. On the other hand, the values
Advances in Civil Engineering 11

3.0

2.5

2.0

εV/Be1, εV/Be2
1.5

1.0
0.736
0.5
0.391

0.0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225
Vertical stress, σV (MPa)
εV/Be1 εV/Be2
QS1
QS2
QS3
Figure 12: Relationship between σ V and εV/Be1 or εV/Be2.

3.0

2.5

2.0
εV/Be, εV/Br

1.5

1.124
1.0

0.5 0.461

0.0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225
Vertical stress, σV (MPa)
εV/Be εV/Br
QS1
QS2
QS3
Figure 13: Relationship between σ V and εV/Be or εV/Br.

of εV/Be2 and εV/Br also have a tendency to be constant as
the vertical stress σ V increases; however, the prominence of
this tendency is far inferior to that for the values of εV/Be1
and εV/Be. With respect to εV/Be1 and εV/Be, the constants
for both are determined by the average of the ordinates of
data points, which are all at a state after the maximum
compressibility, as shown in Figures 12 and 13. The rele-
vant statistical parameters are summarized in Table 2. It can
be found that the square deviation of the values of εV/Be1 is
very small and equal to 0.00287 which is even slightly lower
than that of εV/Be. Hence, comparing to εV/Be, the more
appropriate physical quantity to represent the physical
phenomenon that the ratio of the volumetric strain to the
relative breakage is a constant should be εV/Be1. Hence,
during one-dimensional compression, once the coarser
part of PSD has been reached to fractal or the vertical stress
σ V has been larger than σ Vc, the prediction of the relative
breakage can be accomplished by means of the measurable
volumetric strain εV and the constant of the value of εV/Be1
obtained from tests.
4. Conclusion
To clarify the influence of particle crushing on the behavior
of granular geomaterials, a series of one-dimensional
compression tests were conducted on quartz sand-gravel
up to 204.8 MPa. The detailed investigations were mainly on
the compression behavior, the evolution of PSD, the fractal
pattern of grading curve, and the degree of particle crushing.
The major findings can be drawn as follows.
As the vertical stress increases, both the yielding state
and the state at the maximum compressibility of uniformly
12 Advances in Civil Engineering

Table 2: Statistical parameters of the values of εV/Be1 and εV/Be for all types of specimens when σ V ≥ σ Vc.
εV/Be1 εV/Be
Vertical stress,
σ V (MPa) QS1 QS2 QS3 QS1 QS2 QS3
(σ Vc ≈ 9.9 MPa) (σ Vc ≈ 20.3 MPa) (σ Vc ≈ 54.9 MPa) (σ Vc ≈ 9.9 MPa) (σ Vc ≈ 20.3 MPa) (σ Vc ≈ 54.9 MPa)
12.8 0.50349 — — 0.6019 — —
25.6 0.41932 0.30881 — 0.49532 0.40419 —
51.2 0.42075 0.33716 0.38471 0.4859 0.42325 0.46193
102.4 0.42174 0.35402 0.3502 0.47581 0.42814 0.41262
204.8 0.4594 0.37241 0.35382 0.5031 0.43703 0.39979
Mean value — 0.39049 — — 0.46075 —
Square
— 0.00287 — — 0.00300 —
deviation

graded specimens are easier to be reached than those of the
well-graded specimens. For uniformly graded specimens,
the smaller the particle sizes are, the more difficult these two
states are to be reached. For a given specimen, the yielding
state is always previous to the state at the maximum
compressibility. In addition, these two states are closely
associated with the evolution of PSD and the fractal pattern
of particle crushing.
During one-dimensional compression, the evolution of
PSD induced by particle crushing is described as follows: for
each type of specimens, the finer part, in which particles are
finer than 74 μm, of the grading curve tends to be ap-
proximately a straight line after the yielding state in the
double-logarithmic coordinates. However, the coarser part,
in which particles are coarser than 74 μm, of the grading
curve tends to be approximately another straight line after
the state at the maximum compressibility. The whole
grading curve tends to be a straight line when the vertical
stress exceeds a definite extent to the stress at the maximum
compressibility state.
On one-dimensional compression, the fractal pattern of
particle crushing is described as follows: the fractal first
appears on the finer part of a grading curve after the yielding
state. Then the bifractal appears on the whole grading curve
with 74 μm as the transition particle size, which is utilized to
distinguish the different fractal characteristics between the
finer and coarser parts, after the state at the maximum
compressibility. Finally, the entire grading curve evolves into
monofractal when the vertical stress exceeds a certain degree
to the stress at the maximum compressibility. In addition,
the values of 2.29, 1.85, and 2.16 are considered as the lower
limits of the fractal dimensions for the finer, the coarser, and
the whole parts of a grading curve, respectively.
With the fractal pattern of particle crushing in mind,
a pair of crushing indexes Be1 and Be2 by means of the
division of the relative breakage Be are proposed for rep-
resenting the relative breakages of particles coarser than
74 μm and finer than 74 μm, respectively. The division of the
relative breakage Be is reasonable due to the relatively large
difference between the values of Be1 and Be2 during crushing.
Either that the vertical stress is larger than the stress at
the maximum compressibility or that the coarser part of PSD
is evolved into fractal can be regarded as a token of the
physical phenomenon that the ratio between the volumetric
strain and the relative breakage is a constant. Hence, the
prediction of the relative breakage can be accomplished by
means of the volumetric strain and the constant which are
available from one-dimensional compression tests.
Data Availability
The data used to support the findings of this study are
available from the corresponding author upon request.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgments
The National Natural Science Foundation Funded Project of
China (Grant no. 41272334) and Fundamental Research
Fund for the Central Universities of China (Grant no. 2014-
yb-019) are gratefully acknowledged.
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