Introduction

I taught Electronic Products as part of the Design Technology syllabus for ten years. During that
time I developed ways of making electronics more accessible to students.

Most electronics manuals over complicate concepts and use language that can make them
difficult to understand.

Through these easy to follow books readers can build up their understanding of electronics using
a systems approach.

Each component is introduced and their function is described in a way that is easy to understand.

The guides will build up to circuit design, simple projects that you can create and we will also
cover some of the mathematical equations used when designing circuits.

We are taking a systems approach, this means that we will break circuits down into inputs,
processes and outputs.

In this part we will focus on INPUT components.

Input components are components such as switches or sensors that trigger an action from the
circuit.

Each component will be described, the circuit symbol will be included and there will also be a
description of the component.

Future guides will include output components, process components, circuit design and project
examples.

If you’re interested in using microcontrollers, I also have an easy to use guide to developing
circuit diagrams, PCB’s and flow charts for the Genie series of microcontrollers from New Wave
Concepts.
Electronic Systems
When designing electronic systems, electrical
engineers start with a block diagram called a
systems diagram.
Systems diagrams help the designers to work out
how the electronic system will work and which
parts need to be connected together.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

This is the part of

the circuit that
receives a signal
from the input
This is the trigger This is the part of
components and
to make the circuit the circuit that
then tells the
do what ever it is does the work,
output
supposed to do. this could be an
components what
This is normally a LED, a motor or a
to do. This could
switch or a sensor. buzzer etc.
be a transistor or
an integrated
circuit, or even a
microcontroller.
Useful terms for Input Components
Digital – Digital input components have only 2 states, either on or
off. Sometime referred to as high or low and sometimes 0 or 1.
Examples of digital components are the PTM switch, the slide switch
and the key switch.

Analogue – Analogue input components are components that are

not binary (just 2 states) Analogue components may return a wide
range of values. Examples of analogue components are the
thermistor and the LDR.

Actuator – The actuator of a switch is the part of the switch that is

moved to change the state of the switch from on to off. This could
be a lever in a toggle switch, a rocker, button or slider, or even a key.

Normally open – A normally open switch is a switch where the

contacts do not normally touch unless actuated.
Normally closed – A normally closed switch is a switch where the
contacts touch unless they are actuated.
Momentary switch– A momentary switch is a switch that only
changes state when pressed or actuated. When the pressure is
released the switch will return to the normal position/ state.

Latching switch– A latching switch is a switch that will remain on

once actuated until the state of the switch is physically changed.

Switch bounce– Switch bounce is caused by electricity arcing

between the contacts of a switch as they come close together. These
arcs are registered as multiple switch presses. Switch bounce is
normally eliminated by introducing a short time delay to the circuit.
 Poles and Throws
Pole – The pole of a switch refers to the number of individual electrically
connected switches that are controlled by a single actuator.

Throw – The throw of a switch refers to the number of separate wiring

paths or parts of the circuit that can be connected by the changing state of
the actuator

SPDT SPST
Single Pole Double Throw Single Pole Single Throw

Pole
Pole

Throw

Throws

DPST DPDT
Double Pole Single Throw Double Pole Double Throw
Poles
Poles

Throws
Throws
 PTM Switch
Push to Make Switch

A push to make switch is a type of momentary switch.

Inside the switch are two contacts. When the actuator is pressed a
conductive strip connects the contacts. When the actuator is
released a spring returns it to it’s original position.
Push to make switches are available in a range of sizes and
packages.

Actuator
Once
actuated the
contacts are
connected

Spring
The spring
will return
the actuator
to the open
position
Contacts
 PTM Switch
Push to Make Switch

Applications
Push to make switches have a wide range of applications. Standard
push to make switches do not latch, but can be used along with a
thyristor to form a latching circuit. They can be also be used to reset
a latching circuit.
Often PTM switches can be used to trigger a process such as a
monostable circuit.

Advantages
PTM switches are relatively low cost and easy to use. They are
available in a range of sizes and allow users to easily interact with a
circuit.

Disadvantages
Some PTM switches can be flimsy and break easily, especially when
exposed to high temperatures. Many are only suitable to be used at
low temperatures.
These switches can suffer from switch bounce as when the contacts
come close together multiple connections may be made within a
short space of time. A circuit may count this as multiple presses of
the switch. A time delay must be introduced in order to eliminate
switch bounce.
 PTB Switch
Push To Break Switch

A push to break switch is a type of momentary switch that is

normally closed. Pressing the actuator opens the switch.
Inside the switch are two contacts, the conductive strip on the
actuator connects these the contacts. When the actuator is
pressed then the conductive strip is disconnected from the
contacts so the switch becomes open or off. A spring returns it to
it’s original position.

Actuator
Once actuated
the contacts
are
Switch disconnected
normally
Closed

The spring
Spring will return
the actuator
to the closed
position
Contacts
 PTB Switch
Push To Break Switch

Applications
Push to break switches have a wide range of applications. Standard
push to break switches do not latch. They are used in a similar way
to push to make switches, however they can be used to break a
connection in the circuit. When used with microcontrollers you will
need to program your chip to respond to 0 rather than 1.

Advantages
PTB switches are relatively low cost and easy to use. They are
available in a range of sizes and allow users to easily interact with a
circuit.

Disadvantages
Some PTB switches can be flimsy and break easily, especially when
exposed to high temperatures. Many are only suitable to be used at
low temperatures.
These switches can suffer from switch bounce as when the contacts
come close together multiple connections may be made within a
short space of time. A circuit may count this as multiple presses of
the switch. A time delay must be introduced in order to eliminate
switch bounce.
 Slide Switch

Slide switches are a useful mechanical, latching, digital switches.

They are available in a range of sizes and number of throws. The
one shown is a double pole, double throw.
Slide switches are relatively simple in their design. The slider has a
contact connected to it. In one position the poles are connected to
the throws on one side, in the alternative position the poles are
connected to the throws on the other side.

Actuator
Contacts
connect the
pole and the
throw

Throw Throw
Pole
 Slide Switch

Applications
Push to make switches have a wide range of applications. Standard
push to make switches do not latch, but can be used along with a
thyristor to form a latching circuit. They can be also be used to
reset a latching circuit.
Often PTM switches can be used to trigger a process such as a
monostable circuit.

Advantages
The slide switch is hard wearing and versatile. The simple
mechanical design of the switch makes the switch robust. The
switch shown is low cost. The pole is the middle pin meaning that if
the user wishes to use it as an SPST then the middle pin and one
other should be used.
Slide switches are available in a range of sizes and styles.

Disadvantages
Because the pins are close together short circuiting can be a
problem, especially if heat shrink is not used.
 Toggle Switch

Toggle switches are available as SPST, SPDT and DPDT. They have a
toggle as an actuator that can be flicked from one position to the
next. As the actuator is moved it forces the connector to connect
the throw on the right to connect to the pole of the switch.

Actuator

Connector

Pole

Throws
 Toggle Switch

Applications
Toggle switches are very useful and can be used as an overall on/off
switch for various devices. They can also be used to set the function
of a circuit as they are available as DPDT.
Toggle switches can be used as light switches, in engines for
speedboats and a wide range of other applications.

Advantages
The switches are simple to use and hard wearing. They are available
in a wide range of sizes, types and number of poles.
Toggle switches are very simple, manually actuated switches. The
user is able to easily observe the position of the toggle.

Disadvantages
The toggle used to actuate the switch is quite bulky and many
modern applications require more aesthetically pleasing, neater
solutions.
 Micro-switch

A micro switch is a type of momentary switch that has an arm or

actuator that allows the switch to be turned on with very little
pressure.
The micro-switch has 3 pins making it a single pole/ double throw
switch. Inside the switch is a spring that is normally connected to
the end “normally closed” pin. The spring flexes when pressed by
the actuator and connects to the middle “normally open” pin.

Spring
Actuator

Common Normally Normally Open

Closed Contact Contact
 Micro-switch

Applications
Micro switches are used in applications where they are needed to
sense a small movement, this could be something as simple as
detecting if a printer tray has been pushed into place properly,
detecting paper jams in photocopiers, they can even sense coins in
vending machines.

Advantages
Micro switches reliably switch state with a small amount of
movement. They are durable and low cost. They normally include
screw holes to make fitting easy. There are a range of different pin
layouts and actuator styles available making them suitable for a
wide range of applications.

Disadvantages
Micro switches can be effected by switch bounce and therefore
need de-bounce built into the circuit to protect it.
In some of the lower cost micro switches the actuator may become
bent out of shape over time.
 Tilt Switch

A tilt switch is a type of switch that can be used to detect

movement. Inside the sealed container are two contacts and a
conductive material that is liquid at room temperature. When the
switch is tilted so the contacts are facing downwards the
conductive liquid falls to the bottom of the sealed container
connecting the two contacts and turning the switch on. Originally
mercury was used in tilt switches, however they now more often
use a non-mercury substitute.

Once tilted the liquid falls to

the bottom of the switch,
connecting the two contacts
Contacts and therefore turning in the
switch
Contacts
disconnected so
switch is off

Conductive liquid
 Tilt Switch

Applications
Tilt switches can be used in vending machines and gambling
machines in order to detect tampering and rocking. Tilt switches
can also be found in alarm systems to detect tampering.

Advantages
Tilt switches are low cost and easy to use. They detect tilting and
vibration and they do not produce a spark when activated. The
contacts are sealed so are not subject to oxidisation.

Disadvantages
Operating times can be fairly slow. Mercury switches are hazardous
due to the toxic nature of mercury.
.
 Magnetic Reed Switch

A magnetic reed switch is used along with a magnet in a separate

casing.
The reed switch cased within the plastic housing has two contacts
that are normally separated. When a magnet comes into close
proximity with the reed switch then the contacts come together
forcing the switch into the ON position.
Magnetic reed switches are available in both normally open and
normally closed options.

Plastic Casing

Contacts

Flying Leads
Glass housing

Contacts touch due to Magnetic Actuator

proximity of Magnet
 Magnetic Reed Switch

Applications
Magnetic reed switches can be used to sense the position of doors,
windows, laptop lids , printers, safety covers of machinery and
other moving parts of electrical items. They can be used to act as a
sensor in alarm systems.

Advantages
Magnetic reed switches are relatively low cost and hard wearing
and reliable with a long life expectancy. The simplicity of their
design makes it easy to use these switches in a variety of
applications. They are not effected by static and work well with a
variety of loads.

Disadvantages
Magnetic reed switches can be effected by strong magnetic fields
from unwanted sources. The reed switch takes several milliseconds
to respond, which may be ineffective for some high speed
applications. If used in machines that suffer from vibration then the
switch may exhibit switch bounce.
 Rotary Switch

A rotary switch has multiple positions and

contacts positioned around a rotational spindle
allowing the user to select the required option by
turning the spindle. To ensure that the spindle
stops in the required position a spring loaded
ball bearing is used to “click” the switch into the
correct position.
Most rotary switches have a “common” pin and a
separate pin for each of the available positions.

As the spindle rotates so

Shorting does the shorting contact,
Common
contact
Contact connecting to a different pin
as it does.
The longer, common contact
is always in contact with the
central contact.
The common contact will be
connected to the negative
power rail.
Whichever pin is connected
to the shorting contact is the
one that will be on.
 Rotary Switch

Applications
Rotary switches are useful in circuits that have numerous functions
such as a multi-meter, music player and various medical
equipment. They can also be used in fans to adjust the speed.

Advantages
Rotary switches allow the user to easily switch between multiple
circuits or functions. They are mechanically operated and relatively
robust.

Disadvantages
The number of pins and switch positions can make the installation
of these switches confusing for some users.
 Key Switch

A key switch is a digital input component actuated by turning a key.

Key switches are available in a range of styles, sizes, pin layouts and
number of positions. Some key switches have removable switches,
where others only allow the key to be removed in one position.
Some key switches are essentially rotary switches with a key as the
actuator.

Example of
inside a key
switch
 Key Switch

Applications
Key switches have a variety of uses, normally they are used in
applications that requires circuits to be turned on and off securely,
they can be used to deactivate alarm systems and even in the
ignition of a car.
Key switches are also used on machinery that requires the user to
be fully competent, such as a band saw.

Advantages
Key switches are normally fairly easy to install and are available in a
wide range of sizes and types. Key switches vary greatly in price and
quality making them suitable for a wide range of applications
where secure switching is required. Often keys are numbered with
replacement keys being available from the supplier

Disadvantages
If the user loses the key it may render the product unusable, unless
the user made a note of the key number. If the casing for the key
switch is unsecure then it may be possible to short circuit the
switch by touching the two pins together.
 LDR - Light Dependent Resistor

An LDR or Light Dependent Resistor is a component whose

resistance changes depending upon the amount of light.
In darkness the LDR has very high resistance, but as tis exposed to
brighter light then the resistance falls quickly.
Often the LDR is used as part of a potential divider to switch on
outputs in darkness.
Resistance

Light Intensity

In bright light the resistance is low so

the LED can light up.
When the light level falls slightly the
resistance rises significantly so the
LED can’t light up.

When used in a
potential divider
with a transistor
the LDR can be
used to switch on
the output when
it is dark.
 LDR - Light Dependent Resistor

Applications
LDRs can be used to switch on lights automatically when it is dark.
They can be used along with LED’s to detect objects passing
between the two components such as sensing a coin dropping into
a money box etc.

Advantages
LDR’s are relatively low cost making them suitable for use in school
projects. They are available in a range of sizes and are relatively
easy to use.
LDRs operate at low voltages.

Disadvantages
LDR’s are fairly inaccurate. Their response to changes in lighting
conditions can be slightly delayed.
A potential divider and a transistor are required in many
applications of this component.
 Membrane Switch

A membrane switch is a momentary switch, or more often a range

of momentary switches made up of layers of material. The surface
layer of a membrane switch is known as the graphic interface, there
is also a layer including a circuit printed from copper, silver or
graphite in order to make it conductive, the switches are
embedded into a 3rd layer with conductive material covering their
surface. When the switch is pressed the two conductive parts come
into contact making an electrical connection.
 Membrane Switch

Applications
Membrane switches have a wide range of applications, including
keypads for alarm systems, TV remote controls, laptop keyboards
and controls for microwaves.

Advantages
Membrane switches can be customised to suit the needs of the
client. They are easy to keep clean as the units are sealed with no
moving parts that are open to the elements, this also protects the
switches from water damage. Membrane switches can be printed
digitally making them easily customisable. Due to the slim layout of
membrane switches they take up a minimum amount of space
within the product.

Disadvantages
Some membrane switches do not flex when pressed so unless they
have backlit LEDs some users may not be certain that the switch
press has been recognised.
 Phototransistor

A phototransistor is a component that

responds to light.
As with a normal transistor, the
phototransistor exhibits gain or current
amplification when exposed to light and
infrared light.
They can be used as light sensors or as
infrared sensors. It is important to read the
data sheet for the phototransistor that you
are using as some may respond to a
different range of the light spectrum,
including Infrared.

In this circuit the bulb will light up in dark conditions and

turn off in light conditions. Changing the size of the resistor
can alter the sensitivity of the circuit.

Transistor

Phototransistor
 Phototransistor

Applications
Phototransistors can be used to detect changes in infrared light.
They can detect a coin dropping into a money box etc. as when the
path from the IR LED to the phototransistor is blocked then the
current and/ or voltage of the phototransistor will change.
Phototransistors are also used within opto-isolators to
communicate between high and low voltage circuits.

Advantages
Phototransistors produce higher current than photodiodes. They
are relatively low cost and often packaged in the same way as an
LED.
They respond very quickly to changes in light conditions.
Some phototransistors will respond only to infrared light, this
means that they are not effected by changes in the external lighting
conditions.

Disadvantages
Phototransistors can be effected by surges in electricity and
electromagnetic energy
 Thermistor (NTC)

A thermistor is a type of resistor that is effected by changes on

temperature. Thermistors are available with a Negative
Temperature Coefficient, (NTC) in which the resistance decreases as
the temperature rises, or with a Positive Temperature Coefficient
(PTC) in which the resistance increases as the temperature
increases.

NTC Thermistors are

made of semiconducting
material. As the
temperature increases
the material becomes
more conductive allowing
more current to flow.

NTC Thermistor
Resistance

Temperature
 Thermistor (NTC)

Applications
The most obvious application for an NTC thermistor is as a
temperature sensor in incubators, car engines and as sensors for
thermostatically controlled heating. When in use NTC thermistors
produce heat that can then further reduce the resistance. This
effect is exploited in inrush current limiters. These devices initially
have high resistance, but as the temperature rises due to the
electrical current then the resistance falls allowing more current to
flow.

Advantages
NTC thermistors are small and stable. They last a long time and are
relatively low cost. They can offer greater accuracy than
thermocouples.

Disadvantages
Thermistors have a limited temperature range at which they
respond, normally around-90° to 130°C.
The as a current passes through a thermistor this generates heat,
effecting the change in resistance due to heat. Because the
resistance changes are non linear, this must be compensated for
when developing circuits.
 Thermistor
c (PTC)

A thermistor is a type of resistor that is effected by changes on

temperature. Thermistors are available with a Negative
Temperature Coefficient, (NTC) in which the resistance decreases as
the temperature rises, or with a Positive Temperature Coefficient
(PTC) in which the resistance increases as the temperature
increases.

PTC Thermistors are made from

doped polycrystalline. Resistance
suddenly rises once a critical
temperature is reached.

PTC Thermistor
Resistance

Temperature
 Thermistor (PTC)

Application
PTC Thermistors can be used to switch off circuits when they reach
a certain temperature, examples being kettles that switch off once
they reach boiling point of hairdryers that switch off when they
become too hot.
The self heating aspect can also be exploited making them useful in
timing circuits as they will switch once they reach a certain
temperature.

Advantages
PTC thermistors can be used to switch off circuits if they overheat.
PTC thermistors are also useful .
PTC thermistors are low cost.

Disadvantages
PTC thermistors are designed to be used for specific applications
such as circuit protection and choosing the correct PTC thermistor
can be problematic for the amateur electronics enthusiast.
 Key-Pad

Rather than being a series of separate

switches, keypads normally work on a matrix
as represented by the diagram below.
The 4 output pins are normally connected to
the outputs of a microcontroller and the
input pins are connected to the input pins of
the microcontroller.
The keypad works by very quickly turning the
outputs on and off in sequence. At the same
time the microcontroller checks the inputs to
see if any of the switches have been pressed.
The microcontroller knows which switch has
been pressed because this corresponds to
the output pin that is turned on when the
input signal is received.
been pressed.

Example:- If button 5 is
pressed then Input 2
will go high, but only
when Output 2 is high.
The microcontroller will
know that button 5 has
been pressed.
 Key-Pad

Applications
Key-pads have a wide range of security applications, from alarm
systems to safes.

Advantages
Key-Pads are a good way of securing belongings. They do not
require keys that can be lost and a code of any length can be
created to deactivate the system. They are available in a range of
sizes, types and price options.

Disadvantages
Programming keypads can be difficult for less experienced users.
The Key-pad also ties up 7 pins of the microcontroller, limiting the
pins available for other components.
 Ultrasonic Range Finder

Ultrasonic Range finders are made up of a speaker and a

microphone. The speaker emits a high frequency, inaudible
soundwave. The microphone detects the returning
soundwave when it bounces off near by objects. The system
can determine how far away an object is by measuring the
time it takes for the sound wave to return.

Time taken for the sound wave to

return determines the distance
Microphone
receives
sound wave

Speaker emits
sound wave

Sound wave
Object
 Ultrasonic Range Finder

Applications
Ultrasonic range finders are incredibly useful in robotics. They can
be used in automated vehicles to detect the distance of objects and
therefore avoid them. They can also be used in electronic point of
sale displays to detect the presence of a potential customer. They
can also be used to detect cars at parking barriers.

Advantages
Ultrasonic range finders can detect distances with a reasonable
amount of accuracy. Some ultrasonic range finders are on the
market from around £15 making them good value for money.

Disadvantages
Items that are made of fabric may be more difficult to detect as
the sound waves may be absorbed by the material. Items at 45° to
the sound wave may not be detected as the sound wave may not
be bounced back to the microphone. Ultrasonic range finders
detect the distance of items, however they are unable to
differentiate one object from another.
 Piezo Sensor

Piezoelectric material changes shape when electric current is

passed through it. This effect can be exploited in order to produce
sound waves. In addition to this effect, when the piezoelectric
material is deformed it produced electrical current. This effect can
be exploited in order to detect vibration , pressure or movement.

When physical force is

exerted upon the material
the voltmeter reads the
electricity produced.

Volt Meter
 Piezo Sensor

Applications
Piezoelectric sensors can be used in timing applications such as
watches etc. Piezoelectric can also be used in microphones, musical
pickups. Piezoelectric sensors are also used in the combustion
engine to measure combustion.

Advantages
Piezoelectric sensors are not effected by electromagnetism or
radiation. Some piezos are stable at high temperatures.
Piezo sensors produce their own electrical current so can be used
without any additional power supply, providing the process
component is sensitive enough to detect small changes.

Disadvantages
The piezo detects changes in pressure. If the piezo is under
constant pressure then no changes will be recognised. The
electricity produced by the piezo is very low. This may not be
enough to be detected by the process component and some
circuits will require an additional power supply.
 Potentiometer

Potentiomers can be used as variable resistors. They have 3 pins,

the middle pin is known as the wiper as this is the adjustable part.
As the spindle is rotated the wiper moves along the resistive
material altering the resistance between the wiper and the end pin.

Sliding
contact

Carbon
Track

As the spindle is
rotated the sliding
contact is also
rotated around the Spindle
resistive carbon
track. The resistance
between the contact
and the wiper
depends upon the
position of the wiper
and sliding contact. Connection Wiper Connection
 Potentiometer

Applications
Potentiometers are often used to control volume on audio
applications. They can also be used to control dimmer switches.
Their variable nature makes potentiometers suitable for use in
timing circuits in order to alter the time delay, or in light or heat
sensing circuits in order to adjust the switching point.

Advantages
Potentiometers are easy to use and understand.
The cost of potentiometers is relatively low. Potentiometers are
useful for making small adjustments.

Disadvantages
As the wiper moves along the resistive track it can wear over time.
This is an analogue component and increments are not exact.
.