Circulatory System

Comparison of 2 types of circulation

Open Circulation Closed circulation

- Usually low-pressure system - Usually high-pressure system

- Sustained pressure possible
- Blood conveyed directly to organs
- Less readily-regulated blood
distribution
- Blood return to heart often slow
- High pressure requires high
peripheral resistance
- High pressure sustained between
heartbeats
- Blood conveyed directly to organs
- Well-regulated blood distribution
- Rapid return of blood to the heart

Major function = transport of gases, nutrients, waste products, hormones, heat, & various other materials in the
body

Components == consist of heart, blood vessels and circulatory fluid (blood or hemolymph)

Heart = a muscular pump (cardiac muscle)

= heart types in animals may be categorized as:
1. Neurogenic
2. Myogenic
= contains a pacemaker to regulate rate but rate can also be influenced by the regulators
by modulating factors such as:
a. Nervous control
b. Hormones
c. Intrinsic factors = affect cardiac functions without mediation of nerves and hormones
(ex. Effect of muscle stretch in Frank Starling relation)
Related terms :
Inotropism = refers to the vigor of muscle contraction
Chronotropism = refers to the state of the heartbeat rate

Cardiac output
= volume of blood pumped by the heart into the arterial system per unit time
= heart rate X stroke volume

NOTE: The immune properties of the circulatory system are discussed in

TheImmuneSystem.pdf document.

Study questions:
(1) Compare the development of the amphibian heart versus that of an avian or a
mammalian heart. (Refer to Figs. 14-14 and 14-15 of Kent and Carr).
(2) Name the valves of the mammalian heart and describe their function/s.
Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrate Hearts:
Fishes
Single-circuit heart with 4
chambers:
- sinus venosus
- atrium is a thin-walled
muscular sac
- ventricle (w/ thick,
muscular walls)
- conus arteriosus leads into
the ventral aorta (Teleosts
have a muscular extension of
the ventral aorta called the
bulbus arteriosus)
Lungfish and Amniotes
amphibians
Modifications are correlated with the - Heart consists of 2 atria & 2
presence of lungs : ventricles &, except in adult
- Partial or complete partition within birds & mammals, a sinus
atrium (complete in anurans and some venosus
urodeles) - Complete interatrial septum
- Partial interventricular septum - Complete interventricular
(lungfish) or ventricular trabeculae septum only in crocodilians,
(amphibians) to maintain separation of birds, & mammals; partial
oxygenated & unoxygenated blood septum in other amniotes
- Formation of a spiral valve in the
conus arteriosus of many dipnoans and
amphibians.
- Shortening of ventral aorta, which
helps ensure that the oxygenated &
unoxygenated blook kept separate in
the heart moves directly into the
appropriate vessels
Figure 1. Heart contraction as a result
of impulses conduced from the cardiac
nodes and through through nervous
pathways.
THE BLOOD VESSELS and LYMPHATIC CIRCULATION

I. Arteries
 carry blood away from the heart
 have muscular, elastic walls
 terminate in capillary beds via arterioles
 arterial system functions as a pressure reservoir

Arterial channels supply most tissues with oxygenated blood (but carry deoxygenated blood to respiratory
organs). In the basic vertebrate pattern:
1. the ventral aorta emerges from heart & passes forward beneath the pharynx
2. the dorsal aorta (paired above the pharynx) passes caudally above the digestive tract
3. six pairs of aortic arches connect the ventral aorta with the dorsal aortas

Table 1. Features of the aortic arches of fishes

Cartilaginous fish Teleosts Lungfish

 Ventral aorta extends forward below pharynx &  Just about the The pulmonary artery
connects developing aortic arches. The first pair of same changes as in branches off the 6th
arches develop first. elasmobranches aortic arch and supplies
 Segments of first pair are lost & remaining convert 6 pairs of the swim bladder (in the
sections become efferent pseudobranchial arteries embryonic aortic same way that tetrapod
 Other pairs of arches (2 to 6) give rise to arches into afferent lungs are supplied)
pretrmatic & posttrematic arteries & efferent branchial
 Arches 2 to 6 become occluded; dorsal segments arteries
become efferent branchial arteries & ventral  Arches 1 & 2
segments become afferent branchial arteries are usually lost
 Capillary beds develop within nine demibranchs
Result: Blood entering an aortic arch from ventral
aorta must pass through gill capillaries before
proceeding to dorsal aorta

Aortic arches of tetrapods:

Tetrapod embryos have 6 pairs of aortic arches:
 the 1st & 2nd arches are temporary & not found in adults
 the 3rd aortic arches & the paired dorsal aortas anterior to arch 3 are called the internal carotid
arteries
 the 4th aortic arches are called the systemic arches
 the 5th aortic arch is usually lost
 the pulmonary arteries branch off the 6th arches & supply blood to the lungs
Table 2. Further modifications of tetrapod arches:
Amphibians
Most terrestrial urodeles have 4
pairs of arches; aquatic urodeles
typically have 3 pairs (III, IV, & VI)
Anurans have 4 arches early in
development (larval stage); arch VI
develops a pulmonary artery (to
lungs) while arches III, IV, & V
supply larval gills. At
metamorphosis:
 aortic arch 5 is lost
 the dorsal aorta between
arches 3 & 4 is lost, so blood
entering arch 3 (carotid arch)
goes to the head
 a segment (ductus
arteriosus) of arch 6 is lost so
blood entering this arch goes to
the skin & lungs
 aortic arch 4 (systemic arch)
on each side continue to the
dorsal aorta & distributes blood
to the rest of the body
 Oxygenated blood from the
left atrium & deoxygenated blood
from the right are largely kept
separate in the ventricle by
ventricular trabeculae and the
apiral valve in the conus
arteriosus
Study questions:
(3) Refer to figure 14-19 in Kent and Carr and compare the blood in the adult aortic arches among
representative craniates shown.
(4) What is the role of the Foramen of Panizza in the crocodilian circulatory system?
(5) Describe some of the somatic and visceral branches of the dorsal aorta and the respective
structures they supply.
Repiles Birds and Mammals
3 aortic arches in adults (III, IV, & There is no mixing of
VI) oxygenated &
Ventral aorta without spiral valve unoxygenated blood
but truncus arteriosus is split into because of a
3 separate passages(2 aortic complete interventricular
trunks & a pulmonary trunk ) septum and division of
 Pulmonary trunk emerges ventral aorta into 2 trunks:
from the right ventricle &  Pulmonary trunk
connects with 6th aortic arches that takes blood to
(deoxygenated blood from right the lungs
atrium goes to lungs)  Aortic trunk that
 One aortic trunk comes out of takes blood to the
left ventricle & carries rest of the body
oxygenated blood to the right
4th aortic arch & to carotid Result of modifications:
arches; the other aortic trunk All blood returning to right
appears to come out of right side of heart goes to the
ventricle & leads to left 4th lungs; blood returning from
aortic arch. lungs to the left side of
In turtles, snakes, & lizards, the heart goes to systemic
interventricular septum is circulation.
incomplete where right & left
systemic arches (4th) leave the
ventricle & trabeculae in that
region of the heart form a ‘pocket’
called the cavum venosum.
Oxygenated blood from the left
ventricle is directed into cavum
venosum, which leads to the 2
systemic arches. As a result, both
the left & right systemic arches
receive oxygenated blood.
In crocodilians, the ventricular
septum is complete but a narrow
channel called the Foramen of
Panizza connects the base of the
right & left systemic trunks
II. Veins
 carry blood back to the heart
 have less muscular walls than arteries but the walls are very elastic
 venous system functions as the capacitance reservoir
 In early vertebrate embryos, venous channels conform to a single basic pattern. As
development proceeds, these channels are modified by deletion of some vessels & addition of
others. The primary venous pathways include: cardinals, renal portal, lateral abdominal.
hepatic portal, coronary and pulmonary.

Table 3. The venous channels in sharks:

Venous stream Description

Cardinal stream sinus venosus receives all blood returning to heart. Most blood
enters sinus venosus via Common Cardinals. Blood from head is
collected by Anterior Cardinals. Postcardinals receive renal veins &
empty into Common Cardinals
Renal portal stream Early in development, some blood from caudal vein continues
forward as Subintestinal (drains digestive system); this connection
is then lost. During development, afferent renal veins (from old
postcardinals) invade kidneys, & old postcardinals near top of
kidneys are lost; all blood from tail must now enter kidney
capillaries.

Lateral abdominal The L.A. vein starts at pelvic fin (where it receives iliac vein) &
stream passes along lateral body wall; receives brachial vein, then turns,
becomes Subclavian vein, & enters Common Cardinal vein.

Hepatic portal stream These are among the first vessels to appear in vertebrate embryos
and sinuses are Vitelline veins (from yolk sac to heart). One vitelline vein joins
with embryonic subintestinal vein (that drains digestive system) &
becomes the Hepatic Portal System. Between the liver & sinus
venosus, two vitelline veins are known as Hepatic sinuses.

Venous channels in other fishes are much like those of sharks except:
 Cyclostomes have no renal portals
 In most bony fishes the lateral abdominals are absent & the pelvic fins are drained by
postcardinals
 Early embryonic venous channels of tetrapods are very similar to those of embryonic sharks. Changes
during development are given in the following table.
Table 4. Venous channels in tetrapods.
Venous channels Description
Cardinal veins Embryonic tetrapods have posterior cardinals, anterior cardinals, & common
and precavae cardinals (Common cardinals in tetrapods are called PRECAVAE; anterior
cardinals are called INTERNAL JUGULAR VEINS.)
In urodeles: posterior cardinals persist between caudal vein & common
cardinals in adults
In anurans, most reptiles, & birds: posterior cardinals are lost anterior to
kidneys
In mammals: right posterior cardinal persists (azygos); part of left posterior
cardinal persists (hemiazygos)
Some mammals (cats & humans) lose the left precava; the left brachiocephalic
carries blood from left side to right precava (sometimes called SUPERIOR
VENA CAVA).
Postcava Both posterior cardinals begin to develop in embryos, but only one persists &
becomes the POSTCAVA. The Postcava passes directly through the liver (sort
of an ‘expressway’ for blood from kidneys & the posterior part of the body to
the heart). The Postcava is sometimes called the INFERIOR VENA CAVA. In
crocodilians, birds, & mammals, veins from hindlimbs connect directly to
Postcava.
Abdominal Early tetrapod embryos - paired lateral veins (like lateral abdominals of
stream sharks) begin in caudal body wall near hind limbs, continue cranially, receive
veins from forelimbs, & empty into cardinal veins or sinus venosus. As
development continues:
In amphibians: 2 abdominal veins fuse at midventral line & form VENTRAL
ABDOMINAL VEIN. Blood in this vessel goes into liver capillaries &
abdominals anterior to liver are lost (so abdominal stream no longer drains
anterior limbs).
In reptiles: 2 lateral abdominals do not fuse but still terminate in liver
capillaries (so do not drain anterior limbs; see diagram below).
Birds retain none of their embryonic abdominal stream as adults
Mammals also have no abdominal stream in adults
Reanl portal Amphibians & some reptiles: acquires a tributary (external iliac vein; not
system homologous to mammalian external iliac) which carries some blood from the
hind limbs to the renal portal vein. This channel provides an alternate route
from the hind limbs to the heart.
Crocodilians & birds: Some blood passing from hind limbs to the renal portal
by-passes kidney capillaries, going straight through the kidneys to the
postcava
Mammals - renal portal system not present in adults
Hepatic portal Similar in all vertebrates; drains stomach, pancreas, intestine, & spleen &
system terminates in capillaries of liver

Pulmonary veins Carry blood from lungs to left atrium in lungfish & tetrapods
Circulation in the mammallian fetus:

In a developing fetus, blood obtains oxygen (& gives up carbon dioxide) via the placenta,
not the lungs. As a result, blood flow must largely bypass the lungs so that oxygentated blood
can get to other developing tissues. Getting oxygenated blood from the placenta back to the
heart & out to the body as quickly and efficiently as possible involves a series of vessels &
openings found only in a mammalian fetus:
1. Blood (with oxygen & nutrients acquired in placenta) passes into umbilical vein
2. Blood largely bypasses the liver via the ductus venosus
3. Blood returns to the heart & enters right atrium, but much of the blood then
bypasses the right ventricle & enters the left atrium via the foramen ovale
4. Blood that does enter the right ventricle largely bypasses the pulmonary circulation
via the ductus arteriosus

Study questions:
(6) Describe the major changes occurring with the mammalian circulation at birth.
(7) Provide text captions (detailed and in complete sentences) to each of the slide images
in the Circulation 01.rar file.

III.Capillaries
 have very thin walls (endothelium only)
 are the site of exchange between the blood and body cells in the microcirculatory
beds (where they are joined to the arterial system by arterioles and to the venuous system
by venules)

Figure 2. A microcirculatory bed.

The Starling-Landis theory states that the blood tends to lose volume in the initial segments of
systemic blood capillaries but regain it in the finals segments. However, the overall effect is
often a net loss of fluid which tends to be deposited at the intercellular spaces (to be later
picked up by the lymphatic circulation).
 Figure 3. The collective cross-sectional area of all of the capillaries of the body greatly
exceed that of the largest vessel. The linear velocity of fluid flow must be low in them for the
blood to remain long enough for exchange with tissues.

IV. Lymphatic system == found in all vertebrates; components include:

1. Lymph vessels
 found in most soft tissues of the body & begin as blind-end lymph capillaries that
collect interstitial fluid
 valves present (in birds & mammals) that prevent backflow
 empty into one or more veins (e.g., caudal, iliac, subclavian, & posterior cardinal)

2. Lymph nodes -- located along lymph vessels; contain lots of lymphocytes and
macrophages

3. Lymph hearts -- consist of pulsating smooth muscle that propels lymph fluid through
lymph vessels; found in fish, amphibians, & reptiles

4. Lymphoid masses and/or lymph organs -- these include:

- Spleen
- Thymus
- Bursa of Fabricius
- Peyer’s patches
- Tonsils and adenoids