PLATO

Plato, the GRAND FATHER OF PHILOSOPHY, was born in 428-7 B.C., in the early years of
the Peloponnesian War. He was a well-to-do aristocrat, related to various people who were
concerned in the rule of the Thirty Tyrants. He was a young man when Athens was defeated, and
he could attribute the defeat to democracy, which his social position and his family connections
were likely to make him despise. He was a pupil of Socrates, for whom he had a profound
affection and respect. He was impressed and influenced by a number of philosophers. There are a
number of Philosophers who were the sources of Plato’s ideas.

Plato (428-347 B.C.) was twenty-nine years old when Socrates drank the hemlock. He had been
a pupil of Socrates for some time and had followed his trial very closely. The fact that Athens
could condemn its noblest citizen to death did more than make a profound impression on him. It
was to shape the course of his entire philosophic endeavor. To Plato, the death of Socrates was a
striking example of the conflict that can exist between society as it really is and the true or ideal
society. Plato's first deed as a philosopher was to publish Socrates' Apology, an account of his
plea to the large jury.
PYTHAGORAS HERACLITUS PARMENIDES SOCRATES

1. Love for Maths Heraclitus used to say Parmenides said that 1. Morality
“Everything Changes”. nothing changes. 2. Goodness
2. Mysticism Rationality is eternal 3. Justice
+Rationality/ Plato took that idea and and limitless. 4. Virtue
Reasoning he said that everything 5. Courage
changes in the world of Plato adopted that idea 6. The urge to make
3. Priestly Tone senses/ in the sensible in his Philosophy the Society Perfect.
world. There is no saying that there is He wrote
4. Thoughts are permanence in the Higher reality and in “Republic” in which
Superior to world of senses. the world of Higher he explains the
Senses Reality, nothing “Ideal State” and
changes. Higher Reality like Socrates he told
5. Deductive remains the same. On how the ship of the
 Reasoning logical grounds, all state should
change remain function.
illusionary. 7. Virtue= Knowledge
8. Idea of Immortality

PHILOSOPHICAL IDEAS FROM SOCRATES:

1. Phaedo (dialogue of Plato other than Republic, Laws and Apology) adopts the idea from
Socrates’ Philosophy of that of immortality of soul. 
2. Knowledge is equivalent to good or virtue in Plato’s Philosophy aswell since one may notice
that Plato has adopted the idea of Socrates that no man sins wittingly from which it follow
that whoever knows what is good does what is right. Therefore, the knowledge of good
makes a man commit good and virtuous deeds.
3. Socrates was pre-occupied or obsessed with ethical problems i.e. pre-occupation with goods
and he emphasized on courage, justice, respect of laws, morality, etc. He adopted all these
ideas from Socrates and included them in his 2 books:
a. Laws
b. Republic

In “Laws”, he says that if man is left free then due to excessive and over-whelming pain and
pleasure, he will destroy himself and the existence of mankind, since he is ignorant. Certain laws
should be made and enacted, which may control the man so that he and the laws may harness his
pain and pleasures through coercive and punitive measures.

In “Republic”, he told how state should be governed perfectly and can be turned into an Ideal
State. He explains his ideas of what an ideal state would be like and what are the qualities of the
ideal state.

PHILOSOPHICAL IDEAS FROM PARMENIDES:

Higher reality is eternal and timeless and all change that takes place is an illusion. Nothing
changes in the world of higher reality. Since Plato believed that the higher Reality remains the
same, therefore, Saint Augustine said that if Plato had believed in God, then there would not
have been any greater Christian than Plato.

PHILOSOPHICAL IDEAS FROM HERACLITUS:

Heraclitus used to say that everything changes. Plato took that idea and he said that everything
changes in the world of senses/ in the sensible world. There is no permanence in the world of
senses and is always changing. Even the knowledge regarding the sensible world, gained with
the help of senses, varies from person to person.

PHILOSOPHICAL IDEAS FROM PYTHAGORAS:

He learnt the other worldliness from Pythagoras. The element of religiosity in his philosophy
comes from Pythagoras. He even had a priestly tone in which he gave some commandments
aswell. He had a respect and love for Mathematics, just like Pythagoras had. His philosophy
shows an intermingling of intellect and mysticism.

COMPARISON BETWEEN ALLAMA IQBAL AND PLATO

Plato used to say that everything changes in the sensual world and that there is no permanence in
the world of senses. But, this change is just limited to the sensual world and in the world of
higher reality, there is no change.

Whereas, Allama Iqbal gave the concept of change which leads to evolution, progressiveness,
and advancement. He said that everything keeps on evolving and man keeps on progressing with
change of time.

Briefly, we can establish that Plato was concerned with the relationship between what is eternal
and immutable, on the one hand, and what "flows," on the other. (Just like the pre-Socratics, in
fact.) We've seen how the Sophists and Socrates turned their attention from questions of natural
philosophy to problems related to man and society. And yet in one sense, even Socrates and the
Sophists were preoccupied with the relationship between the eternal and immutable, and the
"flowing." They were interested in the problem as it related to human morals and society's ideals
or virtues. Very briefly, the Sophists thought that perceptions of what was right or wrong varied
from one city-state to another, and from one generation to the next. So right and wrong was
something that "flowed." This was totally unacceptable to Socrates. He believed in the existence
of eternal and absolute rules for what was right or wrong. By using our common sense, we can
all arrive at these immutable norms, since human reason is in fact eternal and immutable.

Then along comes Plato. He is concerned with both what is eternal and immutable in nature and
what is eternal and immutable as regards morals and society. To Plato, these two problems were
one and the same. He tried to grasp a "reality" that was eternal and immutable. Plato came to the
conclusion that there must be a reality behind the "material world." He called this reality the
world of ideas; it contained the eternal and immutable "patterns" behind the various phenomena
we come across in nature. This remarkable view is known as Plato's theory of ideas. This is,
however, something of great importance in Plato's doctrine which is not traceable to his
predecessors. The theory of "ideas" or "forms" is partly logical, partly metaphysical. The logical
part has to do with the meaning of general words. According to the metaphysical part of the
doctrine, the word means a certain ideal created by God and is unique.

PLATO’S MYTH OF THE CAVE

Imagine some people living in an underground cave. They sit with their backs to the mouth of
the cave with their hands and feet bound in such a way that they can only look at the back wall of
the cave. Behind them is a high wall, and behind that wall pass human-like creatures, holding up
various figures above the top of the wall. Because there is a fire behind these figures, they cast
flickering shadows on the back wall of the cave. So the only thing the cave dwellers can see is
this shadow play. They have been sitting in this position since they were born, so they think
these shadows are all there are. Imagine now that one of the cave dwellers manages to free
himself from his bonds. The first thing he asks himself is where all these shadows on the cave
wall come from. What do you think happens when he turns around and sees the figures being
held up above the wall? To begin with he is dazzled by the sharp sunlight. He is also dazzled by
the clarity of the figures because until now he has only seen their shadow. If he manages to climb
over the wall and get past the fire into the world outside, he will be even more dazzled. But after
rubbing his eyes he will be struck by the beauty of everything. For the first time he will see
colors and clear shapes. He will see the real animals and flowers that the cave shadows were only
poor reflections of. But even now he will ask himself where all the animals and flowers come
from. Then he will see the sun in the sky, and realize that this is what gives life to these flowers
and animals, just as the fire made the shadows visible. The joyful cave dweller could now have
gone skipping away into the countryside, delighting in his new-found freedom. But instead he
thinks of all the others who are still down in the cave. He goes back. Once there, he tries to
convince the cave dwellers that the shadows on the cave wall are but flickering reflections of
"real" things. But they don't believe him. They point to the cave wall and say that what they see
is all there is. Finally they kill him.

What Plato was illustrating in the Myth of the Cave is the philosopher's road from shadowy
images to the true ideas behind all natural phenomena. He was probably also thinking of
Socrates, whom the "cave dwellers" killed because he disturbed their conventional ideas and
tried to light the way to true insight. The Myth of the Cave illustrates Socrates' courage and his
sense of pedagogic responsibility. Plato's point was that the relationship between the darkness of
the cave and the world beyond corresponds to the relationship between the forms of the natural
world and the world of ideas. Not that he meant that the natural world is dark and dreary, but that
it is dark and dreary in comparison with the clarity of ideas. A picture of a beautiful landscape is
not dark and dreary either. But it is only a picture. The Myth of the Cave is found in Plato's
dialogue the Republic. In this dialogue Plato also presents a picture of the "ideal state," that is to
say an imaginary, ideal, or what we would call a Utopian, state.
REPUBLIC

It’s the most famous book of all the Western Philosophers. In it Plato presents a Utopian concept
of an Ideal State and how should an ideal state function. According to him, it is a best imaginable
state.

“Republic”, the book or the dialogue, comprises of 3 sections and in each section, he presents a
different idea.

1. Idea of Philosopher King

2. Definition of Philosopher
3. Various kinds of Constitutions
 A. IDEA OF PHILOSOPHER KING
The ruler should be an ideal. The Philosopher king is a combination of Idealism and power.
Idealism is an attribute of a Philosopher and power is key element of King’s life. Therefore,
“Philosopher King” embraces these two characteristics. Since the king is a philosopher by
nature, so being wise and having faculty of reasoning or intellectual capacity, Plato believes that
the wisdom would make a ruler govern the state in a perfect manner and make it an ideal,
utopian state.

B. DEFINITION OF PHILOSOPHER

After explaining who the ruler should be in order to run and administer the state in a better
fashion or in an ideal way, Plato has defined what a Philosopher is and what are his attributes.
Philosopher is a wise person who is moderate, has love for Geometry, is just, gentle, has
fondness of learning, is disciplined, should have a harmonious mind (i.e. not a confused or
rebellious mind. it should be a peaceful one), and should have a very good memory.

C. VARIOUS KINDS OF CONSTITUTIONS

Before explaining what the citizens of an ideal state would be like, he first explains what sort of
a state would an Ideal state be like because it is easier to look at large than looking an individual
first. He explains 4 types of Constitutions, along their merits and demerits, which would define
the nature of the state and along that he gives his preference for the best kind of Constitution.

1. Monarchy
2. Military Rule/ Timocracy
3. Democracy
4. Oligarchy

These Constitutions, according to Plato would be based on either of the 3 things and they are
even associated with body organs:
1. Reason- (Brain)
2. Spirit- (Heart)
3. Human Appetites- (Stomach)
A. REASON: According to Plato, the best Constitution comes from REASON and he says
MONARCHY or PHILOSOPHER KING evolves from reasoning and is the best constitution or
form of government. Monarchy’s worst form is Tyranny. Tyranny lacks a Philosopher king. The
Tyrant lacks a faculty of reasoning and wisdom therefore Monarchy’s worst form is Tyranny. He
has associated Monarchy with Brain because being a Philosopher, the Philosopher king is
making the maximum use of his brain.
B. SPIRIT: According to Plato, there are some high spirited people and they belong to
MILITARY. Miltary Rule is therefore the rule of high spirited people. He even called Military
rule “Timocracy” and HEART represents them.

C. HUMAN APPETITES: The governments both Democracy and Oligarchy are associated
with the Human Appetites and are worst forms of governments. He refers them worst because
they are based on hunger and lust and represents STOMACH. In Democracy, according to him,
people do not remain moderate and there is a lust of freedom which ultimately results in Anarchy
and chaos. He thought democracy to be wrong and corrupt because he observed that democracy
of Athens was such a system which removed the intellectuals and the good from the society,
including Socrates. There was probably a class bias aswell. He himself belonged to the
Aristocratic and rich class so probably he did not like the rule of the poor class.

Oligarchy is the rule of a few rich and there is lust and hunger for wealth. He says that their love
for wealth makes them turn away from the proper path.

Plato even tells how one form of system of governance can transform into another. He
explains in Republic that Monarchy is best but it gets worst when it takes the shape of tyranny. It
may happen that the Monarch was a very good ruler and a Philosopher King but after his death,
his son (who is brought up in a rich environment and is totaled spoiled and corrupt) inherits
power as part of hereditary power politics, and become the next ruler. He is devoid of wisdom
and is unable to control the people and becomes and authoritarian, dictator or a tyrant. So
according to Plato, tyranny comes as a result of the death of a good philosopher King or
Monarchy.

If there is no Monarchy, then Oligarchy is preferable. But it happens that Oligarchy is appetite of
wealth and if 6-7 aristocrats are running political system then the corruption would be very high
in them because each would be trying to accumulate maximum wealth. Therefore, poor class
would turn against them and the lust for freedom highly increases amongst them. Thus, the
ordinary people form and bring about a revolution against Oligarchs, which is inevitable in such
a scenario. Democracy is enforced. This is also the worst form of Government. The strong lust of
freedom stops at nothing and when it gets out of control then total anarchy and disorder spreads
in the state. Therefore, democracy is worst form of government.

Plato even gives the idea of PROMOTION and DEMOTION. It means that if the king’s son is
capable of ruling then he should become a monarch but if he is corrupt and would turn out to be
a tyrant, then he should be removed and demoted. Even then Plato thinks that being a monarch’s
son, there are increased chances that his son would have good manners and a good character and
conduct since he is brought up in a good environment and is provided with good standard
education. But even if he turns out to be corrupt, then any other person should be given a chance
to become a monarch. Although Plato has introduced very rigid system of classes, but still he has
left some margin of exception by introducing this system of Promotion and Demotion.

THREE CLASSES OF PEOPLE

1. Guardians
2. Soldiers
3. Ordinary Masses (Manual Workers/ Artisans/ Labour Class)
Plato has also associated these classes with the metals Gold, Silver and Brass, to indicate the
value of the individuals belonging to that specific class.

A. GUARDIAN: The people belonging to the Guardian class are the best according to him.
They are made up of Gold. Plato’s argument is that since they themselves are made up of gold,
thus they do not need Gold. They are fit for political power. Their reasoning is strongest and they
are sharpest therefore, Brain is symbolically representing this class. Citizens belonging to this
class are least/ fewest in number.Plato has laid huge emphasis on the Guardian class since they
are the ruling class and he wants the rulers to be perfect to administer the state perfectly and in
an ideal manner. He has for this reason given a lot of Commandments especially regarding the
Guardian. He forbids them from spending life luxuriously and they should live in small houses,
focusing least on their appetites (for instance, he directed them to eat roasted meat without any
sauces.)
B. SOLDIERS: They are made of Silver. Republic would be such an Ideal State in which
Gold and Silver are banned because Soldiers are made up of Silver and they do not need of any
Silver for themselves. Plato wanted that the Guardians (the ruling class) should be above
military. These are High Spirited people. Guardians take major decisions and then soldiers are
under them.

C. ORDINARY MASSES (MANUAL WORKERS/ ARTISANS / LABOUR CLASS):

They are made up of Brass. They are represented by Stomach and are the people of appetite.
Plato says that even if a great man emerges from this class then he has a right to become a part of
Guardians and if anyone from Guradian class is not suitable for being a Monarch king, then he
can be demoted from Guardian Class.

Many people say that India’s cast system is similar to rigid class system of Plato. Plato has made
3 rigid classes and has divided the society in these classes. He has given a rigid social order.

STATE VISUALIZED AS AN INDIVIDUAL

Plato has considered or visualized the ideal state to be like an individual with Monarchy
representing the Brain, Military symbolized by heart, and Oligarchy and Democracy represented
by Stomach.

IDEA OF JUSTICE

There are several points to be noted about Plato's definition

First, it makes it possible to have inequalities of power and privilege without injustice. The
guardians are to have all the power, because they are the wisest members of the community;
injustice would only occur, on Plato's definition, if there were men in the other classes who were
wiser than some of the guardians. That is why Plato provides for promotion and degradation of
citizens, although he thinks that the double advantage of birth and education will, in most cases,
make the children of guardians superior to the children of others. If there were a more exact
science of government, and more certainty of men following its precepts, there would be much to
be said for Plato's system. No one thinks it unjust to put the best men into a But in matters of
government it is difficult to know who has the most skill, and very far from certain that a
politician will use his skill in the public interest rather than in his own or in that of his class or
party or creed.

The next point is that Plato's definition of "justice" presupposes a State organized either on
traditional lines, or, like his own, so as to realize, in its totality, some ethical ideal. Plato says:
“Don’t be a busy body. Mind your own business”

Justice means minding your own business. Justice means “state organized on traditional lines.
Guardians should only do the function of Guardians and should not interfere in the works other
classes. No one should interfere in other person’s business. Everything needs to be done
remaining moderate and not going to the extremes. Only then would a balance, order, peace,
justice would remain in an Ideal State.

HOW SHOULD THE GUARDIANS BE EDUCATED?

Plato’s Commandments focus more on the Guardians as compared to the other classes because
he wants them to be perfect. There are specific ways, according to him, how Guardians should be
educated and trained so that they are enabled to perfectly or ideally run the state and make it an
Idea State. Their education has to be in 2 parts:

1. They need to be taught Music because Music promotes harmony of mind. No new organs
of music and tunes should be played, and a specific sort of music should be listened. The Music
needs to have a specific decorum and once the Guardians are taught Music, that decorum would
be instrumental in creating decorum in their lives as well. Everything that has to do with
literature, culture, music would be significant in making the Guardians gentle-men.
2. They should be taught Gymnastics and physical training should be very rigorous.
3. Discipline needs to be taught to the Guardians. It would create seriousness of character,
decorum, gravity and courage and would help them remain moderate and just by not interfering
in others’ lives.
PURPOSES OF CITY STATES:

1. Good of the whole: The first purpose of the city states would be, according to Plato, to
consider what is good for the whole of the population. The city states would work for the welfare
of the people, would take decisions which would in the greater good of everyone. His goal was
not happiness but the good of the whole. In this it does not matter if individuals or any class is
unhappy because the decisions may make them unhappy but would be in the favour of the
collective whole.

2. Both wealth and poverty are harmful for the state: Everyone should have health, food
and clothes, education, health facilities. Abundant wealth would deviate the people from their
responsibilities and would create a lust for more money therefore Plato condemns people from
having wealth. He even prohibited the Guardians and the Soldiers from having Gold and Silver
because he thought that the Republic would be such a state where these should be banned.

3. Like Men should live with Like women: According to Plato, not only men have classes,
but the women even have classes. He believed on gender equality. There are philosopher men
and philosopher women. There are Guardians in men and women. There are both men and
women in Soldier class, etc. Guardian women should live with the Guardian men and only they
should be allowed to have children. There is biological bias in Plato’s ideas. The state would rare
them and no one would know who is whose child. Guardian men and women ought not be
disturbed so that they may run the state affairs in a perfect and ideal manner. There should be
other class of women belonging to the Artisan class who should take care and feed the children
of Guardians. Bertrand Russel says this was the time the idea of a state- run Nursery emerged.

4. Plato’s system is very authoritarian and strongly controlled one.

5. Republics would easily find allies: If Republics want to go to war, then it would easily
find allies, because the people from republics would not need its share in spoils of victory.
6. Communist state: In his philosophy, the element of Communism is very prominent and
the idea of a communist state first emerged in his philosophy. He was against private property
beyond what is necessary.

7. Friends and family should have everything in common even women and children.
Aristotle highly criticized him for this.

8. State’s women would be raring the children of the Guardians and the children would not
recognize their original parents. Therefore, Plato commanded that the children should respect
their elders since they would not know who his/ her parents are.

9. It would even be a function of the State to kill all such children who would be having any
ailment or disease because there would not place for such a kid in an ideal government.

ETERNAL GOOD

Only Rulers understand the eternal good. Only rulers know what is eternal good and only they
can provide the good to the state. The Best statesman or the best ruler- Philosopher King would
be able to understand and provide eternal good to the state. If there would be any ruler devoid of
wisdom and understanding of eternal good then he or she would not be a good ruler and would
not be able to run the state in a good manner. The state would become an ideal state only when
the ruler would know what is good. State would copy a Heavenly model because near Plato, an
ideal State exists in Heaven The purpose is to build an ideal state in the world copying the one
which exists in the Heaven. Republic is an ideal Heavenly model. He said it would only be
possible to copy it by having a good statesman who understands good. Thus Monarchy
(Philosopher King) is the best form of Constitution. He is trying to combine the idea of Power
with moral discipline and idealism. If a Good statesman has power then he would be able to
differentiate between the good and the bad. Without this moral discipline, the ruler may corrupt
the state. This is what makes him a good Statesman but Plato even said that education and leisure
are essential too to make a good ruler and wise decisions. A statesman needs to receive a certain
kind of education comprising morality, ethics, gymnastics, geometry, etc to understand the
eternal good to make the state perfect Heavenly state. Education, therefore, is centre of Plato’s
Republic. Plato divided the society in classes so that specific class has just to focus on its own
descrided responsibilities. Guardians would be able to make good and wise decisions and
policies only when they will have a little free time to ponder on them. Therefore, Plato wrote
that Leisure is essential to wisdom.

Plato condemned coups. If one class interfered in another class’ responsibilities then the states
would become corrupt. Everyone should do their own work and should not bring coups.

OTHER COMMANDMENTS FOR GUARDIANS:

Guardian women should live with the Guardian men and only they should be allowed to have
children since only the best people should have children. There is biological bias in Plato’s ideas.
The state would rare them and no one would know who is whose child. Guardian men and
women ought not be disturbed so that they may run the state affairs in a perfect and ideal
manner.

He tells what sort of stories should be told to the children of the Guardians. He says never read
them “Odysee of Homer” because in this book wrong ideas and concepts are associated with
gods. He believed that god is only the author of good things and evil never comes from gods. He
believed that only stories with good morals of virtues should be narrated. The stories full of
passion and courage should be narrated so that the children draws influence and become
passionate and courageous. The mothers, those rearing the Guardian children, should tell them
that slavery is worse than death and it is better to die fighting with high- spirits and passionately
in battle. Plato even commands those women to never tell the stories of weeping and crying men because
Plato thought that men should never be given permission to cry whatever may be the circumstances.
Moderation and temperance should be taught in the stories. The stories narrated should never show the
wicked win at the end and that the wicked people must be unhappy and the good should always be happy
at the end. This would make the children prefer to do good and virtuous deeds always.

Plato believed that the poets were not good people and should be condemned because they may elevate
your emotions and make you happy and whenever they want, they may make anybody sentimental and
emotional. Therefore, he wrote that the poets should be banned. Just one type of poets would be allowed-
the one wh helps in maintaining order and discipline of the state and the one who tries to form an
exemplary character. The rhythm of the poetry should be like a drum beat so that it may create courage.

BERTRAND RUSSEL’S CRITICISM

On Plato’s Political philosophy, Bertrand Russel criticizes him and questions what can his
political ideas really achieve?

1. All his state is going to achieve is skill of war

2. People would get enough to eat but democrats would not like it.
3. Democrats would even not like an authoritarian state
4. This kind of state would not produce any great science, art, etc because of rigidity of
thought.