The Conscious and Unconscious Mind

Many of us have experienced what is commonly referred to as a

Freudian Slip. These misstatements are believed to reveal
underlying, unconscious thoughts or feelings. Consider this example:

James has just started a new relationship with a woman he met at

school. While talking to her one afternoon, he accidentally calls her by
his ex-girlfriend's name.

If you were in this situation, how would you explain this mistake? Many
of us might blame the slip on distraction or describe it as a simple
accident. However, a psychoanalytic theorist might tell you that this is
much more than a random accident. The psychoanalytic view holds
that there are inner forces outside of your awareness that are directing
your behavior. For example, a psychoanalyst might say that James
misspoke due to unresolved feelings for his ex or perhaps because of
misgivings about his new relationship.

The founder of psychoanalytic theory was Sigmund Freud. While his

theories were considered shocking at the time and continue to create
debate and controversy, his work had a profound influence on a
number of disciplines, including psychology, sociology, anthropology,
literature, and art.

The term psychoanalysis is used to refer to many aspects of Freud’s

work and research, including Freudian therapy and the research
methodology he used to develop his theories. Freud relied heavily
upon his observations and case studies of his patients when he formed
his theory of personality development.

Before we can understand Freud's theory of personality, we must first

understand his view of how the mind is organized.

According to Freud, the mind can be divided into two main parts:

1. The conscious mind includes everything that we are aware of.

This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and
talk about rationally. A part of this includes our memory, which is
not always part of consciousness but can be retrieved easily at
 any time and brought into our awareness. Freud called this
ordinary memory the preconscious1.

2. The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges,

and memories that outside of our conscious awareness. Most of
the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant,
such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. According to Freud,
the unconscious continues to influence our behavior and
experience, even though we are unaware of these underlying
influences.

The Structural Model of Personality

The Id

The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.

This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes of the
instinctive and primitive behaviors. According to Freud, the id is the
source of all psychic energy, making it the primary component of
personality.

The id is driven by the pleasure principle2, which strives for immediate

gratification of all desires, wants, and needs. If these needs are not
satisfied immediately, the result is a state anxiety or tension. For
example, an increase in hunger or thirst should produce an immediate
attempt to eat or drink. The id is very important early in life, because it
ensures that an infants needs are met. If the infant is hungry or
uncomfortable, he or she will cry until the demands of the id are met.

However, immediately satisfying these needs is not always realistic or

even possible. If we were ruled entirely by the pleasure principle, we
might find ourselves grabbing things we want out of other people's
hands to satisfy our own cravings. This sort of behavior would be both
disruptive and socially unacceptable. According to Freud, the id tries to
resolve the tension created by the pleasure principle through the

1
Definition: In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the preconscious mind
is part of the conscious mind and includes our memory. These memories are not
conscious, but we can retrieve them to conscious awareness at any time.
2
Definition: In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the pleasure principle is
the driving force of the id that seeks immediate gratification of all needs, wants, and
urges. In other words, the pleasure principle strives to fulfill our most basic and
primitive urges, including hunger, thirst, anger, and sex. When these needs are not
met, the result is a state of anxiety or tension.
primary process3, which involves forming a mental image of the
desired object as a way of satisfying the need.

The Ego

The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing

with reality. According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and
ensures that the impulses of the id can be expressed in a manner
acceptable in the real world. The ego functions in both the conscious,
preconscious, and unconscious mind.

The ego operates based on the reality principle4, which strives to

satisfy the id's desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways. The
reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before
deciding to act upon or abandon impulses. In many cases, the id's
impulses can be satisfied through a process of delayed gratification--
the ego will eventually allow the behavior, but only in the appropriate
time and place.

The ego also discharges tension created by unmet impulses through

the secondary process, in which the ego tries to find an object in the
real world that matches the mental image created by the id's primary
process.

The Superego

The last component of personality to develop is the superego. The

superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized
moral standards and ideals that we acquire from both parents and
society--our sense of right and wrong. The superego provides
guidelines for making judgments. According to Freud, the superego
begins to emerge at around age five.

There are two parts of the superego:

1. The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for good
behaviors. These behaviors include those which are approved of

3
Definition: In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the primary process
works to resolve tension created by the pleasure principle. Rather than act on
dangerous or unacceptable urges, the id forms a mental image of a desired object to
substitute for an urge in order to diffuse tension and anxiety.
4
Definition: In Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality, the reality principle
strives to satisfy the id's desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways. The reality
principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon or
abandon an impulse.
 by parental and other authority figures. Obeying these rules
leads to feelings of pride, value, and accomplishment.

2. The conscience includes information about things that are

viewed as bad by parents and society. These behaviors are often
forbidden and lead to bad consequences, punishments, or
feelings of guilt and remorse.

The superego acts to perfect and civilize our behavior. It works to

suppress all unacceptable urges of the id and struggles to make the
ego act upon idealistic standards rather that upon realistic principles.
The superego is present in the conscious, preconscious, and
unconscious.

The Interaction of the Id, Ego, and Superego

With so many competing forces, it is easy to see how conflict might

arise between the id, ego, and superego. Freud used the term ego
strength5 to refer to the ego's ability to function despite these dueling
forces. A person with good ego strength is able to effectively manage
these pressures, while those with too much or too little ego strength
can become too unyielding or too disrupting.

According to Freud, the key to a healthy personality is a balance

between the id, the ego, and the superego.

What is Psychosexual Development?

According to Sigmund Freud, personality is mostly established by the

age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality
development and continue to influence behavior later in life.

Freud's theory of psychosexual development is one of the best known,

but also one of the most controversial. Freud believed that personality
develops through a series of childhood stages during which the
pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain
erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido6, was described
as the driving force behind behavior.
5
Definition: In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, ego strength is the
ability of the ego to effectively deal with the demands of the id, the superego, and
reality. Those with little ego strength may feel torn between these competing
demands, while those with too much ego strength can become too unyielding and
rigid. Ego strength helps us maintain emotional stability and cope with internal and
external stress.
If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a
healthy personality. If certain issues are not resolved at the
appropriate stage, fixation can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on
an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the
individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. For example, a person who
is fixated at the oral stage may be over-dependent on others and may
seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.

The Oral Stage

During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs
through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially
important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives
pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as
tasting and sucking. Because the infant is entirely dependent upon
caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the infant also
develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.

The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child

must become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this
stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with
dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with
drinking, eating, smoking, or nail biting.

The Anal Stage

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the
libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major
conflict at this stage is toilet training--the child has to learn to control
his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of
accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in

which parents approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and
rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive
outcomes and help children feel capable and productive. Freud
believed that positive experiences during this stage served as the
basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.

However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that
children need during this stage. Some parents' instead punish, ridicule,
or shame a child for accidents. According to Freud, inappropriate

6
A term used by in psychoanalytic theory to describe the energy created by the
survival and sexual instincts. According to Sigmund Freud, the libido is part of the id
and is the driving force of all behavior.
parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents take an
approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive
personality could develop in which the individual has a messy,
wasteful, or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin
toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive
personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid,
and obsessive.

The Phallic Stage

During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the
genitals. Children also discover the differences between males and
females. Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a
rival for the mother’s affections. The Oedipus complex7 describes these
feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the
father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the
father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.

The term Electra complex8 has been used to described a similar set of
feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls
instead experience penis envy.

Eventually, the child realizes begins to identify with the same-sex

parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls,
however, Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved and
that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage. Psychologists
such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both inaccurate
and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men
experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to
children.

The Latent Period

During the latent period, the libido interests are suppressed. The
development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm.
The stage begins around the time that children enter into school and

7
Definition: A term used by Freud in his theory of psychosexual stages of
development to describe a boy's feelings of desire for his mother and jealously and
anger towards his father. According to Freud, the boy wishes to possess his mother
and replace his father, who he views as a rival for his mother's affections. The
Oedipal complex occurs in the phallic stage of psychosexual development. The term
was named after the character in Sophocles' Oedipus Rex who accidentally kills his
father and marries his mother.
8
Definition: A psychoanalytic term used to describe a girl’s romantic feelings
toward her father and anger towards her mother.
become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other
interests.

The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is

still present, but it is directed into other areas such as intellectual
pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the
development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.

The Genital Stage

During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual
develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. Where in earlier
stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare
of others grows during this stage. If the other stages have been
completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced,
warm, and caring. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance
between the various life areas.

Evaluating Freud’s Psychosexual Stage Theory

• The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with

little mention of female psychosexual development.
• His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as
the libido are impossible to measure, and therefore cannot be
tested. The research that has been conducted tends to discredit
Freud's theory.
• Future predictions are too vague. How can we know that a
current behavior was caused specifically by a childhood
experience? The length of time between the cause and the effect
is too long to assume that there is a relationship between the
two variables.
• Freud's theory is based upon case studies and not empirical
research. Also, Freud based his theory on the recollections of his
adult patients, not on actual observation and study of children.

Defense Mechanisms and Ego Anxiety

In Sigmund Freud's topographical model of personality, the ego is the
aspect of personality that deals with reality. While doing this, the ego
also has to cope with the conflicting demands of the id and the
superego. The id seeks to fulfill all wants, needs, and impulses while
the superego tries to get the ego to act in an idealistic and moral
manner.
What happens when the ego cannot deal with the demands of our
desires, the constraints of reality, and our own moral standards?
According to Freud, anxiety is an unpleasant inner state that people
seek to avoid. Anxiety acts as a signal to the ego that things are not
going right.

Frued identified three types of anxiety:

1. Neurotic anxiety is the unconscious worry that we will lose

control of the id's urges, resulting in punishment for
inappropriate behavior.

2. Reality anxiety is fear of real-world events. The cause of this

anxiety is usually easily identified. For example, a person might
fear receiving a dog bite when they are near a menacing dog.
The most common way of reducing this anxiety is to avoid the
threatening object.
3. Moral anxiety involves a fear of violating our own moral
principles.

In order to deal with this anxiety, Freud believed that defense

mechanisms helped shield the ego from the conflicts created by
the id, superego, and reality.

What is a Defense Mechanism?

Defense Mechanisms

Because of anxiety provoking demands created by the id, superego,

and reality, the ego has developed a number of defense mechanisms
to cope with anxiety. Although we may knowingly use these
mechanisms, in many cases these defenses occur unconsciously and
work to distort reality.

While all defense mechanisms can be unhealthy, they can also be

adaptive and allow us to function normally. The greatest problems
arise when defense mechanisms are overused in order to avoid dealing
with problems.
There are a number of defense mechanisms that have been described
by researchers. Sigmund Freud's daughter, Anna Freud described ten
different defense mechanisms used by the ego.

Follow the links below to read more about each type of defense
mechanism as well as other defense mechanisms described by
psychologists.

Denial, Repression, and Suppression

Denial

Denial is probably one of the best known defense mechanisms, used

often to describe those who seem unable to face reality or admit and
obvious truth (i.e. "He's in denial."). Denial is an outright refusal to
admit or recognize that something has occurred or is currently
occurring. Drug addicts or alcoholics often deny that they have a
problem, while victims of traumatic events may deny that the event
ever occurred.

Denials functions to protect the ego from things that the individual
cannot cope with. While this may save us from anxiety or pain, denial
also requires a substantial investment of energy. Because of this, other
defenses are also used to keep these unacceptable feelings from
consciousness.

Repression

Repression is another well-known defense mechanism. Repression

acts to keep information out of conscious awareness. However, these
memories don't just disappear; they continue to influence our
behavior. For example, a person who has repressed memories of abuse
suffered as a child may later have difficulty forming relationships.

Sometimes we do this consciously by forcing the unwanted information

out of our awareness, which is known as suppression, but it is usually
believed to occur unconsciously.

Displacement and Sublimation

Displacement

If you have ever had a bad day at work, then gone home and taken out
your frustration on family and friends, you have experienced the ego
defense mechanism of displacement. Displacement involves taking
out our frustrations, feelings, and impulses on people or objects that
are less threatening. Displaced aggression is a common example of
this defense mechanism. Rather than express our anger in ways that
could lead to negative consequences (like arguing with our boss), we
instead express our anger towards a person or object that poses no
threat (such as our spouses, children, or pets).

Sublimation

Sublimation is a defense mechanism that allows us to act out

unacceptable impulses by converting these behaviors into a more
acceptable form. For example, a person experiencing extreme anger
might take up kick boxing as a means of venting frustration. Freud
believed that sublimation was a sign of maturity that allows people to
function normally in socially acceptable ways.

Projection and Intellectualization

Projection

Projection is a defense mechanism that involves taking our own

unacceptable qualities or feelings and ascribing them to other people.
For example, if you have a strong dislike for someone, you might
instead believe that he or she does not like you. Projection functions to
allow the expression of the desire or impulse, but in a way that the ego
cannot recognize, therefore reducing anxiety.

Intellectualization

Intellectualization works to reduce anxiety by thinking about events

in a cold, clinical way. This defense mechanism allows us to avoid
thinking about the stressful, emotional aspect of the situation and
focus only on the intellectual component. For example, a person who
has just been diagnosed with a terminal illness might focus on learning
everything about the disease in order to avoid distress and remain
distant from the reality of the situation.

When confronted by stressful events, people sometimes abandon

coping strategies and revert to patterns of behavior used earlier in
development. Anna Freud called this defense mechanism regression,
suggesting that people act out behaviors from the stage of
psychosexual development in which they are fixated. For example, an
individual fixated at an earlier developmental stage might cry or sulk
upon hearing unpleasant news.

Behaviors associated with regression can vary greatly depending upon

which stage the person is fixated at:

• An individual fixated at the oral stage might begin eating or

smoking excessively, or might become very verbally aggressive.
• A fixation at the anal stage might result in excessive tidiness or
messiness.

Rationalization
Rationalization is a defense mechanism that involves explaining an
unacceptable behavior or feeling in a rational or logical manner,
avoiding the true explanation for the behavior. For example, a person
who is turned down for a date might rationalize the situation by saying
they weren't attracted to the other person anyway, or a student who
blames a poor exam score on the instructor rather than his or her lack
of preparation.

Rationalization not only prevents anxiety, it may also protect self-

esteem and self-concept. When confronted by success or failure,
people tend to attribute achievement to their own qualities and skills
while failures are blamed on other people or outside forces.

Regression
When confronted by stressful events, people sometimes abandon
coping strategies and revert to patterns of behavior used earlier in
development. Anna Freud called this defense mechanism regression,
suggesting that people act out behaviors from the stage of
psychosexual development in which they are fixated. For example, an
individual fixated at an earlier developmental stage might cry or sulk
upon hearing unpleasant news.

Behaviors associated with regression can vary greatly depending upon

which stage the person is fixated at:

• An individual fixated at the oral stage might begin eating or

smoking excessively, or might become very verbally aggressive.
• A fixation at the anal stage might result in excessive tidiness or
messiness.
Reaction Formation
Reaction formation reduces anxiety by taking up the opposite
feeling, impulse, or behavior. An example of reaction formation would
be treating someone you strongly dislike in an excessively friendly
manner in order to hide your true feelings. Why do people behave this
way? According to Freud, they are using reaction formation as a
defense mechanism to hide their true feelings by behaving in the exact
opposite manner.

Other Defense Mechanisms

Since Freud first described the original defense mechanisms, other
researchers have continued to describe other methods of reducing
anxiety. Some of these defense mechanisms include:

• Acting out - The individual copes with stress by engaging in

actions rather than reflecting upon internal feelings.
• Affiliation - Involves turning to other people for support.
• Aim inhibition - The individual accepts a modified form of their
original goal (i.e. becoming a high school basketball coach rather
than a professional athlete.)
• Altruism - Satisfying internal needs through helping others.
• Avoidance - Refusing to deal with or encounter unpleasant
objects or situations.
• Compensation - Overachieving in one area to compensate for
failures in another.
• Humor - Pointing out the funny or ironic aspects of a situation.
• Passive-aggression - Indirectly expressing anger.

While defense mechanisms are often thought of as negative reactions,

some of these defenses can be helpful. For example, utilizing humor to
overcome a stressful, anxiety-provoking situation can actually be an
adaptive defense mechanism.