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ADVENTURE AND
ECOTOURISM IN
MALAYSIA
Faculty of Forestry
Universiti Putra Malaysia
ADVENTURE AND ECOTOURISM IN MALAYSIA
MANOHAR MARIAPAN
SITI SURIAWATI ISA
NOR AKMAR ABDUL AZIZ
EVELYN LIM AI LIN
KHALID REHMAN HAKEEM
Department of Recreation and Ecotourism

Faculty of Forestry
@Universiti Putra Malaysia, 2015
First edition: 2015
For further inquiry, please contact:
Faculty of Forestry
43400 UPM Serdang
Selangor
Tel: 03-89467171
Fax: 03-89432514
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
permission in writing from the publisher.
Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Adventure and Ecotourism in Malaysia

Manohar, M. .. [et al.] (2015).
ISBN No: 978-967-5526-13-8
Design by: Siti Nur Fathirah Adnan

FOREWORD
Assalamualaikum w.b.t. and salam sejahtera.
“Adventure and Ecotourism” is a relatively new tourism market in Malaysia. This sector has great potential
for expansion particularly in this modern era where people are more concern of living a healthy life style and
being close to nature. For example, ecotourism used to cater to a small niche market. But ecotourism has
grown rapidly over the past 20 years and is now at par with the main stream of the tourism industry. Based
on that notion, the Faculty of Forestry took the initiative to organize the 1st International Conference on
Adventure and Ecotourism (ICAE) 2014 at Mount Jerai, Kedah.
The conference aimed to provide an avenue for academicians, stakeholders, practitioners and the public to
gather under one roof to discuss pertinent issues in the field of adventure and ecotourism. The conference
also aimed to introduce new tourism destination suitable for adventure and ecotourism activities in Malaysia.
Hence, Mount Jerai was chosen as the venue for the conference because it fits the conference’s aim of
introducing new tourism destination for adventure and ecotourism. These efforts are in line with the
establishment of the Department of Recreation and Ecotourism in the Faculty of Forestry, UPM in September
2012 that aims to champion issues related to recreation and ecotourism in Malaysia and the world.
With the successful organizing of the ICAE 2014, I have full confident that the Department of Recreation and
Ecotourism will grow into an important focal reference point for the field of recreation and ecotourism including
adventure tourism in Malaysia and elsewhere. I believe the publication of this e-book will benefit everyone
because it is a compilation of both academic research works and experiences shared by stakeholders. At
present, Malaysia faces a huge gap in obtaining reliable data on adventure and ecotourism topics. Thus,
the publication of this e-book which is among the first of its kind in Malaysia will contribute substantially to
the existing literatures in the field. We commit ourselves to produce more publications in our effort to enrich
the body of knowledge and visitors’ experiences in recreation and ecotourism. We hope the (2nd) Langkawi
International Conference on Adventure and Ecotourism (Langkawi ICAE) 2015 which is the continuation of
our ICAE 2014 will attract more participants and produce more publications from their works.
Congratulations to all authors in this e-book and to all readers. As a last note, we encourage you to join us in
our effort to save our forest and nature for our future generations. Thank you.
“BERILMU BERBAKTI”
Professor Dr. Mohamed Zakaria Hussin

Dean
Faculty of Forestry
PREFACE
The Faculty of Forestry, University Putra Malaysia initiated the First International Conference
on Adventure and Ecotourism 2014 (ICAE 2014) in December 2014 at the Regency Jerai Hill
Resort in Yan, Kedah. The conference was supported by the Kedah state government, Langkawi
Development Authority (LADA) and the Ministry of Tourism and Culture Malaysia. The conference
aimed to promote Malaysia as a unique country with diverse ecotourism destinations, products and
resources that have been preserved for generations. The ICAE held at Mount Jerai, Kedah also
aimed to promote Mount Jerai as a potential adventure and ecotourism destination in the state of
Kedah.
The conference garnered positive support and feedback from its participants. This has motivated the
Faculty of Forestry, UPM to publish the papers presented during the workshop in this e-book. The
e-book consists of 13 papers that covers a wide range of research works in the field of adventure
and ecotourism. Therefore, the e-book is divided into 4 sections to provide you a glimpse into the
adventure and ecotourism industry in Malaysia; the cultural ecotourism industry in Malaysia, the
various research paradigms and behavioural studies.
The Faculty of Forestry, UPM would like to extend our heartfelt gratitude to the Kedah state
government, Langkawi Development Authority (LADA) and Ministry of Tourism and Culture
Malaysia for their support towards the organizing of the conference. We would also like to thank
the presenters and participants of the conference and all those who had supported us in any ways
in making the conference a success.
Manohar Mariapan
Siti Suriawati Isa
Nor Akmar Abdul Aziz
Evelyn Lim Ai Lin
Khalid Rehman Hakeem
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword
Preface
Section 1: Adventure and Ecotourism 1-25

Adventure and Ecotourism in Malaysia
Siti Suriawati Isa, Rashidi Hasbullah and Mohd. Nizam Mohd Nasir

Section 2: Culture in Ecotourism 26-54

Preliminary Study of Malay Traditional Design Authenticity in Malaysian Tourist Accommodation
Facilities
Idham Hadi Md. Nor and Siti Suriawati Isa

Local Food Consumption at Ecotourism Destination
Amirah Alias, Azlizam Aziz, Muhammad Shahrim Abdul Karim and Siti Suriawati Isa

Tourist-Host Interface as Perceived by Local Community at an Ecotourism Destination: A Case
Study on Taman Negara National Park (Kuala Tahan)
Mazni Aznan and Siti Suriawati Isa

Section 3: Ecotourism Research Paradigm 55-117

Outdoor Education: A Path to Greater Group Cohesion
Marzuki Mohd Yassim, Azlizam Aziz, Siti Suriawati Isa and Abdullah bin Mohd.

ECOSERV Model for Assessing Perceived Service Quality in Private Outdoor Recreation
Programs
Mohd Noorazlan Ab. Aziz, Azlizam Aziz, Siti Suriawati Isa and Hafizal Ismail

Instrument for Measuring Visitors’ Satisfaction on the Nature Guide Roles at Taman Negara
Pahang
Mustakim Hashim, Azlizam Aziz and Siti Suriawati Isa

Measuring the Attractiveness of Bukit Nanas Recreation Forest as Ecotourism Destination
Nur Hafizah Idris, Azlizam Aziz and Zaiton Samdin

Promoting Pro-environmental Behaviour in Ecotourism Destination
Zamru Ajuhari, Azlizam Aziz and Hamisah Zaharah Hasan
Section 4:Ecotourism Behavioral Studies 118-153

Parameters that Predict Visitors’ Intention to Perform Active Anti-Littering Behaviour Using Theory
of Planned Behaviour in Shahid Zare Forest Park, Iran
Kambiz Yusofei Talooki, Abdullah Mohamad and Azlizam Aziz

Identifying Relationship between Place Attachment and Environmental Attitudes
Nurul Rusmida Razali, Manohar Mariapan, Nor Akmar Abdul Aziz and Evelyn Lim Ai Lin

Using Interpretive Environmental Education Program to Influence Secondary School Students’
Behaviour Intention towards Conserving Orangutan
Rahmah Mohamed Razali, Manohar Mariapan, Evelyn Lim Ai Lin and Nor Akmar Abdul Aziz

Effects of Crowding on Visitors’ Emotion in Kukup Island National Park
Noor Haslidawati Rosli, Manohar Mariapan, Nor Akmar Abdul Aziz and Evelyn Lim Ai Lin

ADVENTURE AND
ECOTOURISM IN
MALAYSIA
Siti Suriawati Isa1*, Rashidi Hasbullah2 and Mohd Nizam Mohd Nasir3
1
Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor.
2
Ministry of Tourism and Culture Malaysia, No. 2, Tower 1, Jalan P5/6, Presint 5, 62200 Putrajaya.
3
Langkawi Development Authority, Kompleks LADA, Peti Surat 60, Jalan Persiaran Putra, 07000 Langkawi.
*Corresponding author: ssuria4@upm.edu.my
“Tourism Protects, Preserves & Conserves

Mother Nature, Heritage & Culture” (Malaysia’s Tourism Philosophy)
ABSTRACT
The adventure and ecotourism sectors have gained significant attention from the tourism market
these days. Although these sectors can be considered a niche market in Malaysia but they have
been growing steadily for more than a decade. As a result more tourism stakeholders are giving
attention to develop and promote adventure and ecotourism in Malaysia. The two most prominent
stakeholders in Malaysia who are directly involved in these sectors are the Ministry of Tourism
and Culture Malaysia and Langkawi Development Authority. The two stakeholders and Universiti
Putra Malaysia have decided to publish the book on Adventure and Ecotourism in Malaysia to
compile research works related to adventure and ecotourism into a book to serve as a guideline
for academicians and practitioners. It is about time for adventure and ecotourism sectors to be
given due recognition by the tourism industry as it is making an important contribution to the socio
economic aspects. Malaysia has substantial potential in adventure and ecotourism sectors, but
there are many things that should be looked into. Importantly the development of these sectors
should not compromise with the damage they can cause to the environment. Malaysia should be
extra cautious in developing and promoting these sectors in the market. Hence, proper planning
with good policies and law; and enforcement must be implemented by the stakeholders in Malaysia
particularly, involving sensitive area which these sectors are closely related to.
Keywords: Adventure; ecotourism; Malaysia; stakeholders.
1. Introduction to Adventure and Ecotourism
The goal of this chapter is to introduce adventure and ecotourism with special focus on Malaysia in
order to have a better understanding of the present characteristics and policies of this important niche
market segment. This chapter has been divided into five main parts and it particularly discuss on the
background of adventure and ecotourism activities and sectors in Malaysia. Also, the chapter looks
at how the federal government, policy makers and federal government subsidiaries in a destination
approaches the market and promote Malaysia as an adventure and ecotourism destination locally
and internationally. Understanding policy makers from the federal and local government are crucial
and useful to guide other government agencies, destination marketing organisations or destination
1
management organisations, state or national tourism offices, adventure tour operators, gear and
equipment companies and tourism operators in making any decisions. Also, preferences and trends,
such as those outlined in this chapter could impact the design and development of attractive tourism
products and services for this market.
Thirty years ago, ecotourism activities including adventure and nature related tourism activities
were just a niche market in the tourism industry. However, for the past twenty years, ecotourism
activities have been moving towards the mainstream (Christ, 2007). Nowadays, adventure
and ecotourism are two of the most important outdoor recreations in the whole world. Realising
the significant demand for adventure and ecotourism activities, it has attracted academicians,
practitioners and policy makers to organise colloquium, conferences, discussions, seminars and
workshops relating to the topics. This is a worldwide phenomenon as people are getting more
concern about their health and want to lead healthy lifestyle. Nowadays, people are more aware
about the importance of exercising. It is not only limited to indoor exercises at the gym, but the
demand for badminton and futsal is also increasing as some people prefer to do outdoor exercises
because they want to be closer to nature. To some extend some group of people prefer extreme
outdoor exercises and sports during their free time.
However, one must remember that adventure tourism may not be ecotourism and vice versa. In
addition, adventure and ecotourism are also known with other names and have close similarities to
tourism activities such as adventure recreation, cultural/heritage tourism, green travel, multi sport
adventures, nature travel, outdoor recreation and responsible tourism which might create greater
confusion to some (Untamed Path, 2015). Importantly both adventure and ecotourism involved
outdoor activities which are close to the environment substantially whether it is natural or man-made.
Almost every year the tourism industry will introduce new niche market such as cycling tourism,
food tourism or also known as culinary/gourmet tourism, glamping and volunteerism. Some of these
niche tourism markets have the potential of becoming significantly important in the industry like the
development of ecotourism. Malaysia is a country that has abundant natural resources for many
tourism activities and niche markets. Hence, the country has significant potential to become the
market leader in adventure and ecotourism activities. Nonetheless, there are many aspects that
need major improvement from the policy makers and stakeholders to bring Malaysia to the next level
in the adventure and ecotourism market. The competition is getting tougher as many governments
all over the world are promoting adventure and ecotourism as their core tourism products. Countries
such as Australia, Canada, Brazil, Japan, Maldives, Nepal and New Zealand are better known for
being one of the top adventure and ecotourism destinations for many years in the tourism market.
To make sure Malaysia can position herself together with these countries, it is not an easy task
and need major changes from the government and public, but it is possible due to the aplenty and
diverse natural resources that Malaysia has.
For the past few decades, Malaysia has succeeded to position herself among the top 20 most
visited destinations by international tourists. In 2013, Malaysia was ranked at 11th place as the most
visited country or destination by the international tourists (25.7 million). Hence, Malaysia has already
made herself known among the tourists as one of the best tourism locations to visit in the world.
However, her position as an ecotourism destination is not as impressive as the general tourism
destinations. Now it is just a matter of making the country an adventure and ecotourism destination.
There are many things that need to be improved and upgraded in the tourism industry and the
adventure and ecotourism sectors. The government and public need to work closely and support
each other in order to make the adventure and ecotourism activities as one of the most important
tourism niche market in Malaysia. Both parties should sit down together regularly to find the best
way if they have any problems to be solved.
2
2. Related Literature on Adventure Tourism and Ecotourism
To find related literature on adventure tourism and ecotourism is not a major problem. However, to
find reliable data and writings on adventure tourism and ecotourism of Malaysia can be challenging.
Not only data is poorly documented but to gain access to the data can also be another issue. Hence,
this section will discuss on the literatures related to this topic in general and later, it focuses on
Malaysia, based on the accessible related literature.
2.1 Adventure Tourism
Most dictionaries defined adventure tourism as “an unusual experience including some level of risk
and uncertainty”. Many tourism scholars agree that the nature of tourism industry itself is about
delivering good and memorable experience (Pine & Gilmore, 1998; Nielsen, 2004; Isa et al., 2012)
because tourism operators like commercial accommodation, airlines and travel agents demand a
fee from customers for real services, goods or commodities. However, one can argue that while
travelling to another country is often an adventurous experience, it is not necessarily “adventure
travel” because people often perceived risk and some unconventional means of transport as
adventurous. For example, a dug-out canoe journey deep into the Amazon basin with its attendant
difficulties meets this definition but a city tour of Paris that may have some level of uncertainties is
not by definition an adventure travel.
Adventure itself has a distinction between “soft” and “hard” adventures. Soft adventures have
a lower level of risk, greater comfort in accommodations and are less physically rigorous. Hard
adventures often have very basic facilities, higher risk factor and greater physical challenge such
as backpacking or river expeditions. Activities such as a 4x4 exploration, bungee jumping, caving,
mountain climbing, paragliding and rock climbing are examples of hard adventure tourism that are
gaining attention in the market nowadays. Not only these activities provide greater excitement and
risk to the participant but it also provides new knowledge to them.
On one hand, adventure tourism is not a new niche tourism market. On the other hand, it
just gain significant attention especially in this new era particularly among the young urban group.
To define adventure tourism can be challenging because the concept is poorly understood in the
literature. According to Weber (2001), traditionally the definition focuses on adventure recreation
(Hall & Weiler, 1992). As a result, some researchers determined what constitutes it with research
taking place within these limited set parameters. Hence, their research tends to be relatively narrow
focused and is not sufficient to gain a comprehensive understanding of adventure tourism.
Nonetheless, Walle’s (1997) definition that covers the insight model as its basis is the best
definition of adventure tourism. He stated that, it is the quest for insight and knowledge (rather than
risk) that underlies adventure and this is in contrary to the traditional believes of earlier scholars
who said otherwise. He then argues that adventure tourism is essentially viewed as an extension of
adventure/outdoor recreation without the contribution of the tourism aspect being discussed. Since
the intention of this present chapter is to focus on adventure tourism as the niche tourism market
in assisting the management and marketing of adventure tourism; Walle’s (1997) definition will be
used.
3
2.2 Adventure Tourism Activities
Studies by Ewert (1993) and Hall and Weiler (1992) on adventure recreation pursuits as outlined in
Table 1 show two significant observations. Firstly, the traditional prerequisites for adventure, risk and
uncertainty are present. It is also apparent that the quest to gain insight features prominently. Yet,
the absence of specific adventure or outdoor recreation activities is also noticeable. The physical
movement through a variety of hostile environments rather than the participation in a specific activity
poses risks and dangers to the overland tourist. These risks and dangers introduce the element of
uncertainty about the outcome of the journey and affected their travelling behaviour to some extent.
Table 1 Adventure Recreation Pursuits

Activities
Backpacking Kayaking Rogaining
Bicycling Orienteering Sailing
Diving Mountaineering Snowshoeing
Hanggliding Rafting Spelunking
Ballooning Rappelling Trekking
Hiking Rock Climbing Sky Diving
Source: Hall and Weiler (1992)
Secondly, it is evident that most of the countries on the Asian Overland Route (such as
Afghanistan, India, Iran, Nepal, Pakistan and Turkey) are in spatial terms, situated on the periphery
rather than being the core countries (Pearce, 1979). As a result, the popularity of these overland
routes have declined when Iran’s borders closed in 1979. However, the trail gave birth to an industry
which has packaged the globe. Independent travel is fashionable, students’ gap years are becoming
the norm, and guide books on the route was the starting point for the Lonely Planet empire selling in
substantial numbers. This also applies to other important adventure travel circuits, for example the
“Gringo Trail” in Latin America or the “Salt Road” in Africa. Tourist flows linking regions in developed
countries with Third World nations have been noted for various types of tourism. However, for
overland travel the flow of tourists from core countries (in Europe and North America) both to and
through a variety of peripheral countries is of particular importance.
For many years, adventure tourists often originate from Europe and North America. Hence,
many new findings were discovered by the Europeans and North Americans that resulted in their
names (or associated with) being used. There are many examples such as the naming of Mount
Everest in Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India and Nepal. Mount Everest was named after Sir George
Everest, the first surveyor general of India in 1865 (Nelsson, 2011). While Sir Edmund Hillary
received massive and much publicized recognition as the first man to concur Mount Everest in
1953, his Nepalese sherpa Tenzig Norgay who played a major role for the quest did not receive as
much recognition as he deserved. For example, Sir Edmund Hillary a New Zealander was knighted
4
by the Queen of England but Tenziq Norgay was only given the George medal for acts of bravery by
civilians (Silverman, 2013). Nowadays, many people know Hillary as the first man to reach Mount
Everest but only few recognised Tenzig. For the past 15 years or more, Asian tourists have become
more adventurous and many destinations in Asian countries are becoming the focus for adventure
tourism such as Bhutan, China, Nepal, India and Tibet. These destinations are not only suitable for
adventurous activities but is also due to the political instability and the roughness of the destinations.
However, adventure tourism may not be ecotourism although it is closely related to one another. In
addition, ecotourism activists may disagree with some of the adventure tourism activities because
they may bring greater damage and disturbances to the environment. Though ecotourism activities
may also have an impact towards the environment but their impact is insignificant or minimal as
explained by the definition of ecotourism itself which will be explained further in the next section. On
that note, the proposed change in research focus on the subjective adventure experience may both
have theoretical implications and prove profitable to practitioners. Therefore, it should be of interest
to researchers and practitioners alike to engage in more research to further explore the adventure
tourism phenomenon (Weber, 2001) which this book will not cover.
2.3 Ecotourism
Some people argue that ecotourism is not entirely a new concept but rather another term for nature
tourism (Boo, 1990). Some even said that the ecotourism word is perhaps the most over used and
miss used word in the travel industry. As a result, there are many definition of ecotourism in the
literature from many schools of thoughts. However, most scholars use the definition of ecotourism
from the person who first introduced the ecotourism concept in the 1987, that is Ceballos-Lascurain.
He defines it as “travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific
objective of studying, admiring, and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well
as any existing cultural manifestations (both past and present) found in these areas”. From his
definition ecotourism covers a wide range of tourism activities not only relating to nature alone but
also culture relating to the ecotourism destination such as the aborigine or native village people and
local people.
While according to Tickell (1994), ecotourism is ‘travelling to enjoy the world’s amazing diversity
of natural life and human culture without causing damage to either’. Quite similarly, The International
Ecotourism Society (1993) defines ecotourism as ‘responsible travel to natural areas which conserves
the environment and improves the welfare of the local people’. The Ecotourism Australia (1993)
defines it as ‘ecologically sustainable tourism that fosters environmental and cultural understanding,
appreciation and conservation’. According to the Ecotourism Australia (1994), ecotourism is ‘nature-
based tourism that involves education and interpretation of the natural environment and is managed
to be ecologically sustainable’. They recognise that sustainability involves an appropriate return to
the local community. Hence, ecotourism involves these three components or dimensions; nature-
based, environmentally-educated and sustainably-managed (Blamey, 1997).
The definition of ecotourism is still debatable until today and will continue in the literature. What
one person or company calls “eco” another calls “sustainable” or “responsible” and other terms. The
main distinction between these terms is the motives and ethics behind them. Is the environment
being cared for? Is there genuine effort to help the local economies? Are resources being left intact
for future generations? Is the local culture being honoured and valued and not just photographed?
These questions will cut through the semantics and allow us to see what is really being offered.
5
As stated above, it seems that almost everybody claim that they are promoting ecotourism
activities and being eco friendly. There are many activities and development in the tourism industry
worldwide being introduced which claims to be ecotourism friendly such as; culture, green, heritage,
responsible and sustainable tourism. From all the definitions mentioned above, it can be concluded
that the main concept of ecotourism is nature tourism based activities that will not bring or minimises
any damages to the environment. The concept of ecotourism share many similarities with green,
nature, responsible and sustainable tourism. For this chapter, the ecotourism term will be used
rather than the other terms because ecotourism includes all of them.
For more than a decade, tourism activities relating to ecotourism have shown a steady increase
all over the world including Malaysia. The tourism market has been accepting this concept as one
of the most popular niche tourism activities. It is a modern trend worldwide these days particularly
in the developed countries to associate their agencies and organisations to ecotourism activities
or green tourism activities. Many ecotourism tourists are most likely willing to pay higher prices for
environmentally less damaging products (Stabler & Goodall, 1997). Due to that, the ecotourism
market segmentations normally vary according to destination. For example, the high end ecotourism
destinations like Dubai, Greece and Maldives’ main target market are perhaps the higher and middle
income group. While the lower end destinations like Lombok, Indonesia may easily attract the lower
income group. Nevertheless, the lower end ecotourim destinations can also attract the higher and
middle income group. In addition, many ecotourism destination use multiple strategies to attract
all market segmentations to their destination as they have facilities and services that meet the
requirements of the high, middle and low end market. These ecotourism destinations like Bali, Krabi,
Langkawi, Kyoto and Queenstown use mixed marketing strategies to cater for all type of tourist
markets.
The questions whether one destination should attract high end or lower end tourists or also
referred to the backpackers are hard to answer. While high end tourists may not necessarily spend
more as compared to the lower end tourists, this question can only be answered from a thorough
market study. Most often, tourism destinations end up offering faculties and services for all types of
markets like most of the tourism destinations in Malaysia.
2.4 Malaysia Adventure Tourism and Ecotourism
There are a few agencies and ministries involved in the development of Malaysian adventure and
ecotourism. Among the prominent policy makers for Malaysia adventure and ecotourism sectors
are the Ministry of Tourism and Culture Malaysia (MoTC), Ministry of Youth and Sports, Ministry
of Natural Resources and Environment, Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water, Ministry
of Agriculture, Ministry of Rural and Regional Development, Ministry of Finance and Ministry of
International Trade and Industry. However, this section will focus on MoTAC since the ministry looks
after both the nature and ecotourism activities in Malaysia. The discussion on this ministry will be
presented further in this section.
The tourism industry has become the second largest contributor towards Malaysia’s economy
for more than 20 years. With a humble beginning, it grew significantly in the late 1980s. The tourism
industry in Malaysia has gone through many transformations which will be discussed further after
this. Today, the ministry which has significant role in the tourism industry in Malaysia is the Ministry
of Tourism and Culture (MoTC) under its Minister, YB. Dato’ Seri Nazri Aziz. Their realisation about
the importance of adventure and ecotourism to the country started almost at the same time the term
had been coined in the market. As a result, the ministry launched the National Ecotourism Plan in
6
1996 and appointed Hector Ceballos-Lascurain, the founder of the ecotourism term as one of their
advisors. In 2005, the ministry revised the plan to make it more competitive and marketable. This led
to the many new destinations all over Malaysia being promoted as ecotourism destinations such as
the Langkawi island, Taman Negara Pahang, Kinabalu Park and Gua Niah Sarawak. A special case
study on Langkawi island geopark will be presented at the end of this chapter. Langkawi geopark
is special because, it is the first UNESCO status geopark in the region which will be discuss further
later in this section.
Realizing the importance of ecotourism towards Malaysia’s tourism industry, MoTC came up
with the Malaysia National Agenda and Policy on Adventure and Ecotourism as shown in Figure 1.
MoTAC has stated that for the nature adventure sector, they want to establish Malaysia as the pre-
eminent global biodiversity hub; rainforest and marine discovery centres (together with parks and
gardens), introduce new and enhance live biodiversity sites.
NATIONAL KEY ECONOMIC AREAS - TOURISM
MALAYSIA TOURISM TRANSFORMATION PLAN TOWARDS 2020
Affordable Luxury Family Events, Business Nature

(i.e. shopping) Fun Spa & Sports Tourism Adventure
1• Duty-free for wider 4• Develop an 6 • Bid for more 9• Establish 10• Establish Malaysia
as the pre-eminent
range of goods Econature international events Malaysia as a global biodiversity
Integrated Resort leading M.I.C.E. hub
Establish dedicated
BB-KLCC as Straits Riviera Cruise
7 entertainment zones
destination • Rainforest &
Marine Discovery
2premier shopping 5playground for high- Centres (together
district end cruise + urban Target Spa & Sports with parks &
redevelopment of (golf, angling) tourism gardens)
3 new premium
outlets
port landing areas 8 • new and enhanced
live biodiversity
sites
3
11 Connectivity (greater focus on medium connectivity to support growth)
12 Hotels (ensure adequate supply with better mix, better rates)
Enablers (Marketing, Visa, Funding, Human Capital, Tourism Environment)

Tourism with GNI of USD31b
(3x growth) 10
Figure 1 Malaysia National Agenda and Policy on Adventure and Ecotourism

Source: Ministry of Tourism and Culture (2014)
In Malaysia, MoTAC is directly involved in formulating policies relating to the tourism industry
including ecotourism. Nonetheless, other government and non government agencies are also playing
their role either directly or indirectly. The policy makers of Malaysia have several related agenda and
policies in adventure and ecotourism sectors. Some of these policies are directly spelled out but
some are indirectly related to adventure and ecotourism. MoTAC is one of the main ministries that
is directly involved in making policies for the adventure and ecotourism sectors.
7
• Ministry of Tourism and Culture (MoTAC)

The tourism industry started as a small sector with the formation of the Tourism Development
Corporation (TDC) in 1972, a government subsidiary agency under the former Ministry of Trade
and Industry. After the successful organising of the Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) General
Conference at Putra World Trade Centre in 1986, the Malaysian government realised the potential
contribution of tourism towards the country. They formed the Ministry of Culture, Arts and Tourism
(MoCAT) in 1987 and TDC was moved to MoCAT. Later, TDC was renamed as the Malaysia Tourism
Promotion Board (MTPB) or popularly known as Tourism Malaysia in 1992. Tourism Malaysia
remains as part of the MoTAC’s entity until today. The major role of Tourism Malaysia is to promote
Malaysia domestically and all over the world (Tourism Malaysia, 2015). MoCAT launched the Visit
Malaysia Year (VMY) campaign in 1990 which boosted the industry as one of the most important
economic contributor to the country’s economy. With seven million international tourists arrival that
year, it showed an increment of more than 53 percent as compared to 1989. Many practitioners and
scholars believed that the significant success of the VMY 90’ was an eye opener to the Malaysian
government to pay serious attention to the tourism industry in Malaysia.
Tourism in Malaysia went through many transformation phases since its first establishment. For
the record, culture and tourism used to be a separated entity in the year 2004 through the formation of
the Ministry of Tourism (MTOUR). The tourism industry used to be a standalone ministry in Malaysia
while culture was put under the Ministry of Culture, Arts and Heritage. This has resulted both
culture and tourism moving in different direction and was incomplete without each other. Without
culture, the tourism industry will be meaningless because culture existed first, before tourism and
that cultural tourism or heritage tourism remain as the most important reason for people to travel to
places (Donert & Light, 1996). McKercher et al. (2005) highlighted that the link between tourism and
culture can be fostered to help places become more attractive to tourists, as well as increasing their
competitiveness as locations to live, visit, work and invest. Also, almost all tourism activities involve
culture. Hence, the separation not only made the cultural sector in Malaysia lose its direction, but it
also made it hard for MTOUR to set their tourism policies without including culture in them.
The tourism industry has been using culture as one of their major resources as tourism has been
introduced to create distinctiveness between destinations in a crowded global market place. Top
world tourism destination earners such as China, France, Japan and Spain are well known for their
rich cultural background. Culture has been the main attraction for tourists to visit these destinations.
Malaysia also has been using culture to promote the country’s tourism since the formation of TDC.
As a result, Malaysia’s tourism campaign uses tag lines such as; To Know Malaysia is to Love
Malaysia and Malaysia Truly Asia to directly promote the Malaysian culture as their major marketing
feature. For more information about the close relationship between tourism and culture please refer
to a special report on the Impact of Culture on Tourism published by the Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) in 2009.
Realising the importance of culture and tourism to work closely together, tourism and culture
remarried in 2013 but it remain as the only ministry in Malaysia that does not have a Deputy Minister
like other ministries in Malaysia. Once again culture and tourism were reunited to focus on the same
objectives, mission, policies and vision. MoCAT’s objectives, mission and policies as stated from
their website are;
Vision
To develop Malaysia as a tourism and cultural destination with world class standard and
instil country’s art, culture and heritage among Malaysians.
8
Mission
To lead a competitive tourism and cultural sector and sustainable for social-economy
development.
Objectives
a. To improve art, culture and heritage with the guideline of national cultural policies
towards strengthening country’s unity;
b. To strengthen the synergy and close tie between tourism and cultural actors in making
Malaysia the choice for tourism destination;
c. To improve tourism and cultural sector to increase the country’s economy;
d. To promote the uniqueness of the Malaysian art, culture and heritage as the major
growth of development in tourism and cultural sector in the country and;
e. To prepare human capital with high education, skills, creative and innovative in tourism
and cultural sector.
• Other important ministries in Malaysia

The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE) was formed in 2004 with the combination
of four ministries. The NRE has been playing a significant role in the ecotourism sector in Malaysia
since this sector manages many natural resources, for example; caves, forests, mountains and sea.
MoTAC and NRE have been working closely together in developing and to some extent promoting
the ecotourism sector. Under this ministry, there are two active agencies which are directly involved
with the adventure and ecotourism activities and development in Malaysia. The two agencies are
Department of Forestry Peninsular Malaysia and the Department of Wildlife and National Parks
or better known as PERHILITAN. Both agencies are related directly towards the conservation
and protection of Peninsular Malaysia’s forests, flora and fauna which are important resources for
adventure and ecotourism activities. In addition, PERHILITAN is in charge of organising trainings for
the Malaysian nature guides for them to be awarded with the green batch and to formally legalised
them to guide tourists inside the Malaysian forest (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment,
2015).
While in the East Malaysia, there are state government agencies such as the Sarawak Forest
Department and the Sabah Forestry Department to look after their forests, flora and fauna. These
two agencies also work closely with MoTAC in developing and promoting ecotourism sector in their
states.
Another important ministry that have direct involvement in adventure tourism sector in Malaysia
as mentioned before is the Ministry of Youth and Sports (MYS). This ministry was established
in 1964 even earlier than the establishment of MoTAC. Culture used to be under the ministry’s
jurisdiction from 1972 until 1987 when MoCAT was formed by the government. MYS looks after the
development of youth and sports in Malaysia and since adventure activities are normally associated
to the youngsters, there is a special department called the Department of Youth and Sports. This
department has branches in all states in Malaysia and they look after the outdoor sports and recreation
activities that can be categorised as adventure activities including caving, mountain climbing, rock
climbing, water rafting and tubing.
9
Though, this ministry takes care of adventure and sports activities rather than adventure for
tourism or ecotourism, it is closely related particularly when sports tourism is involved. The sports
tourism sector has been one of Malaysia prime focus. Malaysia has hosted many regional and world
sporting events such as the ASEAN Games, Commonwealth Games 1998, Thomas Cup, Uber
Cup and World Hockey Game. The Ministry of Youth and Sports leads the events and they worked
closely with MoTAC in the organising of these sporting events.
• Non Governmental Organisations (NGO)

The Malaysia Nature Society (MNS) is one of the most active NGO on environmental issues in
Malaysia. MNS was established in 1940 when Malaysia was still known as Malaya and under the
British ruling. It started with a group of society volunteers and now, it has expanded to have 40 full
time staffs. They champion conservation issues in Malaysia and conduct environmental education
programs . MNS is also active in doing research on environment and is directly involved in adventure
and ecotourism activities.
The World Wildlife Fund Malaysia (WWF) is an organisation affiliated with the World Wildlife Fund
international. It was established as a national conservation trust in January 1973. It began with two
staffs and today, they have 200 people working for them throughout Malaysia. Their works include
scientific research of wildlife and important natural habitats; and management of protected areas.
Also, issues of the natural environment, incorporating aspects such as policy work, environmental
education, public awareness and campaigns. WWF Malaysia is another significant NGO that works
closely with the Malaysian government agencies in formulating policies, rules and regulations related
to adventure and ecotourism activities and development.
3. ICAE 2014
In order to promote adventure and ecotourism activities among Malaysians particularly among
scholars, the Department of Recreation and Ecotourism, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra
Malaysia organised the 1st. International Conference on Adventure and Ecotourism (ICAE) 2014
at The Regency Jerai Hill Resort, Yan, Kedah in December 2014. Supported by the Kedah state
government, Langkwai Development Authority (LADA) and Ministry of Tourism and Culture Malaysia,
the conference managed to attract many academicians, policy makers and young researchers to
the conference. The organiser managed to collate many quality research works on adventure and
ecotourism with their special focus on Malaysia, which is hard to find in the existing literatures.
The venue of the conference at Mount Jerai, Kedah is a great ecotourism destination, but has
been under rated by the tourism industry until today. Even the Kedah state government has not
been promoting and marketing the destination as much as they should. Not only Mount Jerai has
the complete package to be the top ecotourism destination in Malaysia, but it has other tourism
attractions to be promoted as well. By being the venue for ICAE 2014, it has been an eye opener to
outsiders on Mount Jerai’s potential to become an adventure and ecotourism destination.
In order to show our continuous commitment to promote adventure and ecotourism in
Malaysia, the organiser of ICAE 2014 has decided to publish a special book based on the research
papers and presentations made during the conference. This book contains a good mixture of articles
from researchers, practitioners and policy makers. It is a good blend as it covers the topic from all
angles and we hope it could be a good guideline and term of reference to adventure and ecotourism
activists, academicians, policymakers and stakeholders.
10
This book will provide knowledge about adventure and ecotourism activities and issues in
Malaysia. Hopefully this book will benefit everyone who reads it particularly the policy makers and
stakeholders in the adventure and ecotourism sectors, particularly the Ministry of Tourism and
Culture, Ministry of Youth and Sport and NGO involved.
4. The Next Agenda
The next agenda for adventure and ecotourism academicians, activists and stakeholders are
challenging. Although there is significant potential for both adventure and ecotourism to expand further
but competition will be stiff among tourism destinations all over the world. Adventure and ecotourism
destinations will face tough competition in the future. Hence, the practitioners and operators must
offer creative products and services in order to attract their customers without compromising the
conservation of resources as shown in Figure 2.
1. Beginning of a Revival 2. Anatomy Adventure & Ecotourism
Figure 2 ICAE 2014 Conclusion and Recommendations
Figure 2 shows the conclusion and recommendations made from the ICAE 2014 papers and poster
presentations. The conclusions can be divided into two parts.
11
4.1 Beginning of Revival
Today’s market show a significant involvement of generation Y who will shape the future tourism
market. Among the characteristics of generation Y is that they have high awareness on technology
and are more adventurous. Adventure and ecotourism sector must cater for generation Y’s needs
and wants if they want to attract this market. They want to stay connected most of the time hence,
internet high speed connectivity is very important to them. Also, generation Y has some influence on
their parents’ decision in choosing a destination for their holiday.
Community empowerment has been the main agenda for many tourism stakeholders nowadays.
Without community engagement and support towards any developments can create substantial
problems. If the community gets involved in the development particularly from the the beginning
(such as the planning stage) the success rate for that project will be higher. Hence, community
involvement and participation in adventure and ecotourism is a must in order to make it successful.
With Jerai’s rich biosphere, it can be an adventure and ecotourism destination in Malaysia.
Mount Jerai has rich biodiversity and culture dated as long as a thousands of years ago. Half of the
mountain that stood more than 2100 meter above the sea level with more than 10 identified caves
used to be under the sea. According to a popular archaeologist for Old Kedah, Saidin (2014) pointed
out that during his team research around Mount Jerai, they found many shells and cockles fossil.
In addition, the mount was previously known as Serai Island which proves that Jerai was an island
before. More research is needed to find out further about this mountain. Until today, there are many
parts of Jerai history that remains unknown due to lack of scientific documentation. Our major source
of reference is only based on stories and myths from the villagers and people in the state. Many local
people believe the mountain has more than 100 caves and some have not been discovered. This
alone can be a great attraction for adventure and ecotourism tourists. Unfortunately, Jerai has been
under rated and is hardly mentioned as a tourism destination in Kedah. It is high time to promote this
mountain particularly in adventure and ecotourism sector because Jerai has significant potential to
attract tourists.
4.2 Anatomy Adventure and Ecotourism
Kedah has the potential of becoming an adventure and ecotourism destination. The state has many
natural resources which need to be developed as tourism attractions. Kedah state government
should conserve their natural resources and culture because these are core for ecotourism activities.
For example, not many people are aware that the Kedah royalty is one of the oldest in the world
and the state has many capital cities before Alor Setar. This should be another big selling point for
the state. Also, there are many historical sites in Kedah that need to be taken care. Some of these
historical sites are in a poor shape (photo 1) such as the Bukit Pinang palace (believed to use honey
to plaster the walls-refer to photo 2) and Puteri Lindungan Bulan palace. However, systematic and
professional documentation should be done in the state.
4.3 Conservation of Resources
The state has many culture, historical sites and natural resources that need to be restored and
conserved. Comparing it to the other states such as Malacca and Perak, the conservation of these
resources particularly the historical and heritage sites in Kedah is poor. In addition, the awareness
12
and education towards its conservation in Kedah is limited. It is important for the state government
and private sector to have a Kedah Conservation Plan that covers all resources in the state and
come up with a complete data and record for future references. From this data and record, it will
be easier to chart what should be done for the state which will also include the enforcement and
policies.
4.4 New Idea for State of Kedah
Kedah needs new ideas to promote herself to tourists. Today, not only international tourists are not
aware of the state even the locals are sceptical about what to do in Kedah. For most outsiders they
know Langkawi Island rather than the state. Whereas Kedah mainland has a lot to offer but the
marketing and promotion of the state need fresh ideas in order to attract more tourists. Currently,
the marketing and promotion used by the state with an expection for Langkawi are old fashion
and traditional. With Kedah located on strategic location - next to Penang and Thailand, attracting
international tourists from these two destinations should be their major goal. Hence, the state must
change the ways they market and promote the state to become more sophisticated and suitable with
the new era.
4.5 Services
Kedahans are known for their friendliness but tourism services are not up to the international standard
(Langkawi is excluded). Cleanliness is something the locals need to work on significantly particularly
their public toilets. Time management is another issue that needs to be improved by those who work
in the tourism industry in the state.
4.6 Creative Products
Creativity and innovation are needed by all sectors to sustain in the market. Natural and man-made
resources alone are no longer enough. Hence, tourism attractions and destinations need to be
more creative and innovative with their products and services (Isa et al., 2012). There are a few
tourism destinations in Kedah (exclude Langkawi) that are creative and innovative but the numbers
are still substantially low. These few places are like Beris Dam Grape Plantation in Sik and Sedim
River Water Wafting in Kulim that offers unique attractions in the state of Kedah. More creative and
innovative tourism operators are needed in the state or else their rich resources are wasted. Thus,
creative tourism should be adopted and implemented by the state government and public sector
to bring in more tourists to the state. For more information about the topic on creativity in Malaysia
tourism, please refer to Isa et al. (2012) article.
13
Photo 1: Kedah Royalty Mausoleum in Langgar
Photo 2: One of Kedah royalty old palaces in Bukit Pinang
4.7 Creative Tourism
In a global environment where tourists demand and expect first hand delightful and memorable
experiences, the tourism sector needs to improve products to ensure they inject some creative
elements to remain competitive and sustainable (Richards & Wilson, 2006; Isa et al., 2012). Smith
(2007) also notes that many countries have limited heritage attractions to develop or promote such
as Dubai, Singapore and South Korea. Therefore, the focus on contemporary, experiential and
creative tourism becomes of pivotal importance. Richards and Raymond (2000) defines creative
tourism as:
14
...tourism which offers visitors the opportunity to develop their creative potential through active
participation in courses and learning experiences which are characteristic of the holiday destination
where they are undertaken.
The term creative tourism demonstrates the relationship between cultural and creative forms of
tourism, and is seen as a means to sustain the competitiveness of cultural tourism products. See
Table 3.
Table 3 The relationship between cultural and creative forms of tourism
Primary Primary
Primary time Primary cultural
consumption learning
focus focus
focus focus
Past & High culture, Product, process

Cultural tourism Passive
present popular culture
Creative
Present Arts, performance Performance Passive
spectacles
Arts, architecture,
Present &
Creative spaces design Atmosphere Interactive
future
Past,
present, Creative Experience, Active skill
Creative tourism
future process co-makership development
Source: Richards and Wilson (2006)
Since the tourism industry deals mostly with intangible products and services, providing great
and memorable experience play a major role towards the success of tourism products and services.
Thus, tourism is considered as part of the experience industries together with the advertising,
computer games, entertainment and media industries or sectors (Nielsen, 2004). According to Pine
and Gilmore (1998), an experience is created when a company deliberately uses services as the
stage, and goods as props, to connect individual customers in a way that creates a memorable
event, and subsequently charges fees. While O’Dell (2005) argues that tourism and the experience
economy are within the same formula as a commodity of tourism, culture is constantly being packaged
and sold to us in terms of such things as difference, otherness, heritage, cultural identity, song,
dance, music and art (see also Bryman, 2004; Baerenholdt et al, 2008). Disney Land and Disney
World in the US are examples of how tourism uses culture and creativity to attract a significant
number of tourists to visit a place, and to provide a unique and distinct experience (Bryman 2004;
Isa et al., 2012).
15
5. Conclusion and Recommendations
In this last section, the conclusion and recommendation of this chapter will be presented according
to the earlier discussions. The first section will discuss about the conclusion and this is followed by
recommendations.
5.1 Conclusion
Tourism is a multifaceted industry with many overlapping laws, policies, rules and regulations.
Malaysia is not alone in facing this dilemma. Nevertheless with the remarry of the culture and tourism
industry under one ministry once again in 2013, some of the overlapping laws, policies, rules and
regulations can be minimised. In Malaysia, not only does the Ministry of Tourism and Culture is directly
involved in the activities and development related to adventure and ecotourism but there are more
than five ministries involved either directly or indirectly. Due to that, sometimes it may cause conflicts
and overlapping of rules and regulations among the ministries. Finger pointing between ministries or
government agencies and non government agencies often arise in Malaysia particularly when a crisis
happens such as the Sabah earthquake particularly on Mount Kinabalu in June 2015. Since Mount
Kinabalu is a famous ecotourism destination in Malaysia, many government and non governmental
agencies were blamed for the incidents. To add further to this conflict, state governments in Malaysia
are the highest authorities on land and state matters. Hence, the final decision on state matters does
not come under the federal government but rather the state government. For example, the Kedah
state government decided to log a huge area of forest at Ulu Muda in 2008 without getting consent
from the Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia and the federal government (WWF Malaysia,
2013). The same thing also happened in Kelantan as many believed deforestation had caused the
“orange flood” in 2014, the worst floods in the Malaysian history particularly in the state of Kelantan.
Deforestation continues to become a major threat in many parts of the country and this will lead to
depletion of ecotourism resources.
On one hand, Malaysia is never short of natural resources for adventure and ecotourism
activities. On the other hand, natural resources alone are not enough. Rich in natural resources is not
a guarantee to a prosperous economy for the country. As Stiglitz (2012) stated, often resource rich
countries like Ghana, Myanmar, Uganda and Tanzania have done even more poorly than countries
without resources. He continues to say that they have grown more slowly and with greater inequality
which is just the opposite of what one would expect. In the case of Malaysia, the country is still far
behind her neighbour Singapore who has limited natural resources and still dependson Malaysia
for their water supply. The major problem for Malaysia is the lack of creativity and innovation – as
shown in stagnant contribution by total factor productivity and education to output growth. Efforts
to innovate and create have been insufficient. The weak track record of domestic innovation in
Malaysia is reflected by the comparatively low number of researchers and lacked of creativity
including in adventure and ecotourism activities and programs. Nonetheless, the government is
trying their level best to overcome these problems by working hand in hand with the local and
international organisations. Malaysians who are successful abroad are invited by the government to
become consultants and motivators for the government in their fields. Famous Malaysians such as
Chef Wan, Jimmy Choo, Mitchelle Yeoh, Nicole David, Punch Gunalan, Zang Toi and Yuna are often
invited to numerous events by the government to motivate other Malaysians to follow their footsteps.
16
No doubt that adventure and ecotourism sectors have fierce competition in the market but,
Malaysia has all the criteria needed in these sectors to become successful. According to the World
Tourism Organisation (WTO) data, Malaysia has maintain as the top 20 most visited countries in
the world for the past 20 years. Hence, it is possible for Malaysia to become a top destination in
adventure and ecotourism. Continuous collaboration between different agencies like what ICAE
2014 did is one of the many ways to reach this goal. Through collaborations with all parties, we can
exchange new ideas and share expertise with each other. Hence, ICAE 2014 managed to gather all
experts in the field of adventure and ecotourism sectors at one place and map the future of these
sectors in Malaysia.
5.2 Recommendations
All agencies need to work non stop together to put Malaysia in the top ten countries as the world
adventure and ecotourism destination. The possibility is there but, there are many aspects that
need significant improvements from the government and the private sector. By working together,
more creative and innovative tourism will be created which will benefit the country particularly in the
adventure and ecotourism sectors. Importantly, when crisis arise everyone has to stay united to find
the best way to solve the problem rather than blaming each other.
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Langkawi: Ecotourism Destination Case Study
I. Langkawi: An Island of Legend
This island which is located in the state of Kedah is an archipelago that has 99 islands during normal
time and 104 islands during low tide. It is also known by many names. Among the popular names
associated with Langkawi are; the Isles of Legends, the Jewel of Kedah and free duty shopping
paradise. There are a few versions of stories on how Langkawi got its name. One of the mostly
quoted stories is that the name Langkawi originates from the name of a big size eagle found on the
island which is.the “Brahminy Kite” or fondly known as “Lang Merah” among the locals and/or in the
Malay Kedah dialect (Naturally Langkawi, 2015).
Another unique fact about this island is that it is the brain child of the former and longest serving
Malaysia Prime Minister, Tun Mahathir Mohamad. He is also recognised as the Architect of Modern
Langkawi who initiated the move to transform the island into a popular tourism destination in Malaysia
among domestic and international tourists. During the premiership of Tun, the island received a few
special treatments as compared to other islands in Malaysia. Not only was the island presented with
the first free duty-free island status in Malaysia in 1987, a special government federal agency known
as Langkawi Development Authority (LADA) that reports directly to Ministry of Finance Malaysia
(MOF) was also established. This agency was established on March 15, 1990 to plan, promote and
implement Langkawi’s development plans. LADA has been playing a significant role towards the
development of the island and most of it are related to the tourism industry. The agency remains
as one of the most prominent government bodies in the country known for its patron leadership,
working hard in developing Langkawi to be a world class tourism destination. Thus, many people
have mistaken LADA to be under the state government or MoTC rather than under MOF (Mohd.
Nassir, 2014).
II. Langkawi Development Authority (LADA)
Headed by a Chief Executive Officer (CEO) that is appointed by the Ministry of Finance (MOF),they
report directly to their head quarters in Putrajaya. At present, Tan Sri Khalid Ramli is the CEO of
LADA. There are eight departments under LADA. The Geopark and Conservation Department is
one of the departments directly involved in the tourism industry in Langkawi. In developing the
island, LADA has been implementing sustainable tourism development in making sure that the
natural beauty of Langkawi remains.
The current Prime Minister, Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak has launched a tourism blueprint
action plan through the Eleventh Malaysian Plan in 2011. The action plan was designed to boost
Naturally Langkawi as a global top 10 islands and eco adventure destination by the year 2015
(Economic Planning Unit, 2012). In his speech, Dato’ Seri Najib stated;
“Langkawi holds a special place in the hearts of many Malaysians and tourists from across
the world. Since its initial development in the late 1980s, it has transformed into a popular
tourist destination, culminating in Langkawi being awarded Geopark status by UNESCO in
2007. This Blueprint will further propel Langkawi into the ranks of a leading global island
destination.”
20
With their new tag line being “Naturally Langkawi”, it shows the commitment of the Malaysian
government and LADA towards nature and ecotourism. It also aims to enhance the first United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) endorsed Geopark in Southeast
Asia that is located in Kilim, Langkawi. Also, the aspiration is for Naturally Langkawi to rise as a
prime destination where stunning beaches, untouched enclaves, nature sanctuaries, rich traditional
cultures and warm hospitality unravel the best of island living and offer an unforgettable gateway as
shown in Figure 1.
To develop Langkawi Geopark on the platform of Eco Tourism in

VISION making sure the island become among the top 10 island and eco-
destination in the world.
LANGKAWI
GEOPARK
DEVELOPMENT
CONCEPT
Figure 1: Langkawi Geopark Development Concept

Source: LADA (2014).
Figure 1 shows that Langkawi is trying to position the Geopark as the top 10 ecotourism island
destination in the world through seven niche tourism activities such as creative tourism, edu-tourism,
experiential tourism, geo-tourism, green tourism, nautical tourism and responsible tourism. In order to
reach the target, Langkawi is working closely with many government and non government agencies
in and outside Malaysia. Today, Langkawi Geopark has managed to attract a significant number of
tourists every year.
III. Langkawi Geopark
Langkawi Geopark is also known as Kilim Karst Geoforest Park. It is the first UNESCO Geopark
status awarded in this region in 2007. The formation of the island geopark is a result of various
processes and the prolonged weathering process that took place on the oldest limestone in the
country known as the Setul Fomation. It was formed when the Langkawi land was brought to the
21
surface around 220 million years ago (Naturally Langkawi, 2015). Langkawi geopark covers a wide
area of islands all around Langkawi but it normally covers around the Kilim Karst area which is
approximately 100 square kilometers and is only reachable using water transportation. Tourists can
take a half a day or eight hours boat ride from the Kilim jetty to visit the geopark. Sometimes, it is
also called island hoping where tourists are taken to at least five to seven islands around Langkawi
such as Fossil Island, Hidden Cave, Rat Island and the Pregnant Maiden Lake. A tour guide will lead
the group of tourists to provide them with information on the history and details about the places they
visit. These places featured rich geodiversity with landscapes that consists of nearly vertical karstic
hills with pinnacles of various shapes and sizes; mangrove forests, flora and fauna, and together
with the diverse local cultures, legends and myths. Further information about Langkawi Geopark is
shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Facts of Langkawi Geopark

The status of UNESCO Geopark has help to promote the island worldwide. Since, UNESCO is a
reputable international organization under the United Nation (UN), the market have high confident
with the award status given to tourism destinations.
IV. Global Geoparks Networks
In order to obtain the UNESCO Geopark status, the park needs to meet six criterias as shown in
Figure 3. Every two years, UNESCO will appoint two experts to evaluate the park in making sure that
every UNESCO Geopark maintains their standard. Failing to comply with the requirements set by
UNESCO, a yellow flag status will be given as an indication on the need for the geopark to improve
22
according to the experts’ suggestions within the next four years. If the UNESCO experts are not
satisfied with the geopark’s improvement efforts after four years, they risk of loosing the UNESCO
Geopark status. Hence, the status is not permanent and/or a live time award given by UNESCO.
According to UNESCO (2015), the Global Geopark is a unified area with geological heritage
of international significance and it is used to promote awareness of key issues facing the societies
in this world. Apart from being a tourism attraction, many geoparks help to promote awareness of
geological hazards, including volcanoes, earthquakes and tsunamis. It also helps in the preparation
of disaster mitigation strategies among local communities as geoparks hold past records of climate
changes that help us understand the present climate changes. This would help us in making
decisions of adopting the best practice approach to utilising renewable energy and employing
the best standards of “green tourism” or ecotourism. In addition, geoparks also inform about the
sustainable use and need for natural resources, whether they are mined, quarried or harnessed
from the surrounding environment. At the same time, it promotes respect for the environment and
the integrity of the landscape. Importantly, geoparks are not a legislative designation though the key
heritage sites within a geopark should be protected under local, regional or national legislation as
deemed appropriate.
Until 2014, Global Geoparks Network under the UNESCO has 32 countries as members.
These countries are Austria, Brazil, Canada, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France,
Germany, Poland, Greece, Hungary, Slovakia. Indonesia, Ireland, Republic of, Northern Ireland,
Italy, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Morocco, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia,
Slovenia-Austria, Spain, Turkey, United Kingdom, Uruguay and Vietnam. From the lists of countries,
China has the most UNESCO Geoparks with a total of 31 all over the country. It was reported
by UNESCO that the number of geoparks is increasing every year due to the realisation on the
important contribution of geoparks not only towards the tourism industry but in other sectors as
well. Due to that, Malaysia is also thinking of applying a geopark status for at least another two
destinations in Sarawak (Parochial, 2012). Nonetheless, to get and maintain a UNESCO Geopark
status requires huge amount of money. For example LADA have spent more than RM38 million
specifically for Langkawi Geopark in addition to other budgets obtained for tourism and general
infrastructure (Bhatt, 2014).
23
GLOBAL GEOPARKS NETWORK

UNESCO CRITERIAS
CONSERVATION GLOBAL
& PROTECTION NETWORKING
EDUCATION SAIZ & SETTING
SOCIO- MANAGEMENT
ECONOMIC & LOCAL
DEVELOPMENT INVOLVEMENT
Figure 3: Global Geoparks Network UNESCO Criterias

V. Conclusion
Langkawi Island will maintain its position as one of the top tourism destinations in Malaysia among
the locals. However, the way forward for the island now is to attract more international tourists
to the island. This is not an easy task especially with great competition from other popular island
destinations in Malaysia such as Sipadan, Tioman and Pangkor. In addition, Langkawi has to face
other international popular island destinations such as Bali, Krabi and Phuket. To ensure Langkawi
position herself in the top 10 tourism destination in the world, it needs something attractive and
unique to sell in the market. What the island is offering at the moment is still lacking in uniqueness
and some parts of Langkawi are found to imitate Phuket and Bali. Perhaps Langkawi Geopark can
be the unique attraction for Langkawi because not many islands in the world and region has that.
Hence, Langkawi Geopark’s uniqueness should be the centre point for promotion in the market.
24
References
Blueprint Pelancongan Langkawi (Langkawi Tourism Blueprint). Retrieved from http://www.epu.gov.

my/en/blueprint-pelancongan-langkawi-2011-2015. (Accesssed on 12 May 2015).
Economic Planning Unit (2012) Blueprint Pelancngan Langkawi. (Accessed on 5 April 2015). http://
www.epu.gov.my/en/blueprint-pelancongan-langkawi-2011-2015).
Mohd Nassir MN (2014) Langkawi Geopark. Guest speaker at International Conference on Adventure
and Ecotourism 2014. Acting Manager, Geopark and Conservation Department, Langkawi
Development Authority.
Parochial S (2012) Sarawak Works to Gain UNESCO Geopark Status for Kuching. Retrieved from
https://parochialsarawakian.wordpress.com/2012/03/24/sarawak-works-to-gain-unesco-
geopark-status-kuching/. (Accessed on 06 June 2015).
Naturally Langkawi (2015) About Langkawi. Retrieved from http://naturallylangkawi.my/EN/Home.
(Accessed on 31 May 2015).
Bhatt H (2014) RM 38 Million set aside to strengthen Langkawi’s Geopark status. Retrieved from
http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/malaysia/article/rm38-million-set-aside-to-strengthen-
langkawis-geopark-status#sthash.Mlc7BvPS.dpuf. (Accessed on 18 May 2015).
United Nation Education Socio-Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) (2015) Earth Sciences. Retrieved
from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/earth-sciences/global-
geoparks/. (Accessed form 19 April 2015).
25
CULTURE IN
ECOTOURISM
CULTURE IN ECOTOURISM
PRELIMINARY STUDY OF MALAY TRADITIONAL DESIGN AUTHENTICITY

IN MALAYSIAN TOURIST ACCOMMODATION FACILITIES
Idham Hadi Md. Nor and Siti Suriawati Isa*
Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Among the contributing elements that make up significant economic achievement in the tourism
industry is the strategy taken by stakeholders and market players to utilize the unique cultural
heritage of Malaysia. Many tourism based facilities and activities in Malaysia have undergone this
strategic change of approach to be more competitive. Even though this resource has been an
exceptional attraction to tourists, it is still under utilized by the majority stakeholders and market
players. This paper discusses the importance of the Malay traditional design authenticity adopted
by the Malaysian tourist accommodation facilities. The study collects data by analyzing secondary
data and conducting personal interviews with experts in the field. An initial overall evaluation of this
study found that the facility which utilizes the Malay traditional designs in its complex provides more
added-value to tourists’ experiences.
Keywords: Authenticity; culture; Malay; traditional design.
1. Introduction
The tourism industry in the last ten years has been a competitive contributor to the national domestic
income of Malaysia, contributing RM 60.6 billion in the year 2012 compared to RM 25.78 in the year
2002 (Ng, 2012) Among the contributing elements that made up this economic achievement is the
strategy taken by stakeholders and market players to utilize the unique cultural heritage of Malaysia.
Many tourism based facilities and activities in Malaysia have undergone this strategic change of
approach to be more competitive. Even though this resource has been an exceptional attraction
to the tourists, it is still under utilised by the majority of stakeholders and market players (The Star
online, 2010). With the direction set by the Government and the related institutions in promoting the
further expansion and strengthening of the specific economic sector, this particular resource has the
potential of being developed further to optimize its utility to generate income for the country.
2. Authenticity in Tourism
One of the cultural aspects that have always been in scrutiny from the tourism point of view is its
authenticity. This is mainly due to the fact that in any form of tourism, tourists’ experiences are
the main focus of trading and when experience is deliberate in this particular context, the issue
26
of authenticity will come to surface (Xie, 2001). It is especially more so when the experience of
multitude unique culture is highly regarded by visitors from any destination.
Discussions of tourists’ experience have been going on for fifty years when Daniel Boorstin,
an American historian, triggered a discussion concerning the way tourism had overcome the true
experience of travel and tourist consumed pseudo-event (Boorstin,1992). It was a concept that was
created in order to describe the synthetic novelties tailored to fit consumers’ expectations.
It is further deliberated that tourists, in the plural, enjoy these pseudo-events in their travel
experience which was appended and they enjoy the aesthetics in any events, staged or not, and buy
beautiful images, not any (Barretto, 2013). This assertion of tourists’ desire has been fundamentally
discoursed in a vision of tourism where a destination is “cosmetically decorated” to create a specific
authentic or suitable atmosphere (MacCannel, 1999).
These discussions state the overall need of authenticity as an important element of tourism. It
can be concluded that authenticity is the foundation to all the attraction, not only in cultural tourism,
but also any tourism experiences. This simple conclusion can trace its origins back to the fulfillment
of the new consumer behaviour.
The new consumer behaviour in tourism can be characterized by a few major determinants. First
is the multi-culturalisation. This is the acceptance and consumption of the other cultures, leading
to a change in everyday life, cultures and/or cultural dimensions in the form of acculturation of new
forms of everyday life (Lord, 1999).
Secondly, it is the acceptance of the new information and communication technologies in many
spheres of our lives. This includes the presentation and interpretation of culture in its various forms
of expression.
The third major determinant is the worldwide movement away from the solidarity-based
behaviour, replacing the individualism and individualistic behaviour with individuals wanting to exert
more control with respect to decisions concerning them. This includes being in charge with regard
to all travel related decisions included in the destination value chain.
Ultimately, the compounding of the twin strengths of the accumulated travel experience from the
past, plus an aging implies that today’s travelling public are more quality conscientious and they
‘travel smart’ - at the same time wanting options and/or combinations of old and young, traditional
and modern, active and passive, authentic and derived goods and services including cultural goods
and/or cultural meetings.
This takes around a shorter average stay of visitors that implies that the travel intensity has
to increase and the visits have to be more effective. This combined force leads to the desire of
having a travel experience which is personalized and personally perceived as authentic (Weiermair
& Pikkemaat, 2004).
Through these discussions, it can be imperatively stated that the primary factor that comes
into play to determine the authenticity of experience must come from a type of visual stimulus first,
because the main tourism consumption is image oriented. This stimulus would then be processed
through a complex visual perception that appeals to the combination of sensory grasp with a pattern
of understanding derived from imaginative faculties and other styles of intuitive or pre-logical
knowledge.
Thus, the focus of this study on the Malay Traditional Design Authenticity came to the fore. It
would play a crucial role in evoking associations, perceptions, emotions which in turn constitute an
integral part of the tourist experience.
27
2.1. Malay Traditional Design

Malay Traditional Design is an evolutionary form of design that has its influence mainly from the Malay
people’s lifestyle. The traditional principles of the design are very much related to the knowledge
gained over several generations (Yusoff et al, 2001). Even though its form may vary greatly, but
the basic fundamental similarity exists due to the influences that’s taken into effect in shaping the
concept of the design basis (Wan Abidin, 1981).
Scholars agree that the traditional design form can be identified through several aspects that are
inherent physical elements in the design. These elements can be sorted into five distinct categories.
The first category is the structural members. This is the basic elements that form the basic
foundation of the design that is to be built. These would include:
i. Tiang Seri
ii. Tiang Tongkat
iii. Rasuk
iv. Kasau Lintang
v. Kasau Jantan
vi. Kasau Betina
vii. Bandul
viii. Jenang
ix. Belebas
x. Tetupai
xi. Alang Panjang
xii. Alang Pendek
xiii. Gelegar
xiv. Tunjuk Langit
xv. Gegulung
Photo 1: Tiang Tongkat
28
The second category is the non-structural members of the design. These would be:
i. Dinding
ii. Tingkap
iii. Pintu
iv. Bumbung
v. Tangga
vi. Tebar Layar
Photo 2:Tingkap with decorative elements.
Next are the aesthetic and decorative elements. There are at least 16 decorative elements that
can be identified in the Malay Traditional Design (Abd Rashid et al., 2007). These elements are
distributed throughout the whole design accompanying the main structural members and the non-
structural members of the design. These would include:
i. Tunjuk Langit
ii. Sisik Naga
iii. Sulur Bayung
iv. Kepala Cicak
v. Ande-ande
vi. Peles
vii. Tiang Gantung
viii. Dinding Bertindih Kasih
ix. Dinding Janda Berhias
x. Dinding Kelarai
xi. Sesiku Keluang
xii. Kekisi
xiii. Pintu Gerbang
xiv. Kepala Pintu Gerbang
xv. Gerbang Pintu
xvi. Kepala Pintu
xvii. Kepala Tingkap
xviii. Gerbang Tingkap
xix. Pagar Musang
29
Photo 3: Pagar Musang
The fourth category is the spatial composition and organization. The spatial composition and
organization is highly dependent on the function that is streamlined by certain aspect of relations
and the rules of the Malay Culture. It can be identified with four realms which is the intimate realm,
private realm, public realm and the in-between realms. These realms would be encompassed within
the internal and the external spatial function of the design.
Photo 4: Private realm that is encompassed within the

internal spatial function of the Rumah Ibu.
Lastly is the material and construction technology. Materials and construction technology used in
the Malay Traditional Design reflects the relationship of the design with the elements and nature of
the environment surrounding the landscape of the Malays. The materials used would be of an easy
access for procurement purposes and have lasting qualities that are needed to accommodate the
needs of the design (Nasir Abdul Halim, 1984).
3. Objectives
The main objective of this study is to assess the extent of the authenticity of the main elements of the
Malay Traditional Design including the spatial composition and aesthetics that are commonly used
within the tourism industry, specifically in the tourist accommodation facility, and the effectiveness of
its portrayal to its specific cultural identity of the particular tourist destination. The second objective
concerns the analyses on the influence of authenticity in attracting tourists to the accommodation
facility.
30
4. Methodology
This study utilises a combination of quantitative and qualitative research method because of the
dynamics involved with the subject of study. The main reason for this combined approach is mainly
due to the fact that firstly, research method to study thoughts, philosophy and culture is constantly
evolving and changing and its design is highly dependent on the nature of the subject of study.
Secondly, the nature of this transdisciplinary study involves varied quantitative values and contents
with multiple forms of qualitative data (Creswell, 1998).
This combined approach is also used for its capability to accommodate the complex process of
data analysis that requires the sorting of and cross referencing large amount of data and reducing it
to a more streamlined “construct-oriented” approach to serve as a basis of evidence to substantiate
claims of the study (Taylor & Wallace, 2007).
5. Data Collection
The process of data collection involved three distinct phases. The first phase consisted of the
acquisition and study of archival materials with a series of interviews to provide the study with the
primary and secondary source of data that would be used as a foundation framework in which
the second and third phase will be based upon. These materials included the past and current
researches and literature on Malay Architecture and Spatial Design, plans, drawings, diagrams and
other visual documentation concerning Malay Traditional Design. The interviews were conducted on
a focus group comprising culture experts, traditional art experts and professionals, design experts
and professionals; and tourism expert and professionals.
The second phase of data collection involves field work consisting of visual documentation of the
selected case study sites and interviews with the sites’ stakeholders and visitors. Photographs and
video recordings provided the study with a tacit and solid visual proof while the interviews were used
as a baseline comparison subject.
The final phase integrates the process of participant observations and direct observations on the
selected sites. It involves two stages of observation, one as the ‘outsider’ observer and the other as
the ‘insider’ observer. This provides the study an in-depth picture of the subject matter.
6. Study Sites
The sites that have been determined in the study were Pangkor Island Beach Resort (PIBR), Teluk
Dalam Resort (TDR), Kampung Tok Senik Resort (KTSR), Tanjong Jara Resort (TJR), Pangkor Laut
Resort (PLR), The Aryani Resort (TAR), Pura Tanjung Sabtu (PTS) and Bon Ton Resort (BTR).
31
Photo 5: Pangkor Island Beach Resort

The Pangkor Island Beach Resort is located in Pulau Pangkor, the tourist island of the state
of Perak Darul Ridzuan. It is a refurbished 258 room resort that includes private villa, the premier
Ocean Wing, Pacific Wing and Garden Wing. It is sited at one end of the bay along the tropical
jungle slope. The study is focused on the villa cluster, which consists of twelve timber building units
of exclusive Malay-style architecture.
The Teluk Dalam Resort on Pangkor Island is a set of 140 individual wooden chalets and
bungalows. The resort features a spatial composition and organisation similar to that of the Malay
village. The chalet units incorporate influences of Malay Traditional Design elements.
Photo 6: Kampung Tok Senik Resort
Kampung Tok Senik Resort in Langkawi Island is a facility built with a sense of Malay traditional
environment and architecture. The rustic chalets are an amalgam of traditional and modern
architecture.
32
Photo 7: Tanjong Jara Resort
Tanjong Jara Resort is located in the bay of Dungun in the state of Terengganu Darul Iman. The
resort was designed to reflect the elegance of the 17th century East Coast Malay palaces. It was
initially built to enhance the beauty of Terengganu traditional Malay architecture.
Another Pangkor Island resort, the Pangkor Laut Resort is an exclusive resort island of private
property. It comprises of Sea Villas, located on the sea, and the Garden Villas which is nestled in the
park. The resort utilizes the Malay Traditional Design throughout its facility.
Photo 8: The Aryani Resort
The Aryani Resort of Terengganu layouts was based on the refined elegance of the Malay
Sultans’ palaces. The collaboration of traditional architecture paired with accents of modern design
makes this resort an architecture marvel by itself.
33
Photo 9: Pura Tanjung Sabtu
Pura Tanjung Sabtu is a unique traditional Malay residential complex situated in the
countryside of Terengganu. It is made of a few types of Malay traditional buildings which is ‘Rumah
Sungai Rengas’, ‘Rumah Nesan Empat’ and ‘Rumah Rhu Dua’. It is a private retreat where one may
experience the elegance of a princely estate.
Photo 10: The Bon Ton Resort
The Bon Ton Resort was built within the compounds of a 100-year-old coconut plantation in
Langkawi Island, Kedah Darul Aman. It is a resort complex made out from old Malay buildings and
arranged beautifully amid a calming and serene environment.
34
7. Findings and Discussions
The tourist accommodation facilities in the study have been rated according to the star standard
ratings used internationally. Table 1 explains the ratings of these facilities.
Table 1 Accommodation Facility Star Ratings
The study found that facilities that features the Malay Traditional Design are mostly 3-starred
and above in the ratings.
Preliminary findings showed that all of the accommodation facility incorporates at least a
minimum level of application of the Malay Traditional Design in the design of the facilities. The more
prominent utilization of the authentic traditional design can be seen in the more affluent facilities,
namely the Aryani Resort, Pura Tanjung Sabtu and Bon Ton Resort. The traditional design elements
were less portrayed in facilities with lower ratings.
Table 2 shows the extent of decorative elements that have been utilised by the respective
facilities on its buildings’ non-structural member. The study has grouped the application intensity
into three categories, extensive usage and portrayal (Ex), moderate usage and portrayal (Md) and
limited usage and portrayal (Ld) based on secondary data. The decorative element usage has been
measured based on the usage of specific decorative elements which have been identified specific
in this study.
35
Table 2 Intensity of Decorative Element Usage on Nonstructural Member of Tourist

Accommodation Facility
The spatial design of these facilities and its relative to traditional design used is as reflected in
Table 3. The spatial design, composition and organisation of these facilities are compared to the
design relation and the rules of the traditional design. The extensive usage of spatial design that
correspond with the traditional spatial design is marked (Ex), moderate usage with (Md) while the
limited usage is marked (Ld).
36
Table 3 Corresponding Usage of Malay Traditional Spatial Design in

Tourist Accommodation Facility
It is noted that all of the study sites utilises the relation and rules of the Malay Traditional Design.
The overall design, composition and organization might be dissimilar from one site to the other,
but in the concept and context form of design; it is very similar to one another. This similarity is
repeatedly being emphasised throughout the complexes.
Even though spatial usage of these facilities uses the same traditional approach and method,
other corresponding element that is taken into consideration for authenticity separates them from
one another.
The Pangkor Island Beach Resort, Teluk Dalam Resort and Kampung Tok Senik Resort are
seen to lack in authenticity. This is due to the usage of modern materials and methods to substitute
the specific traditional elements. Pangkor Laut Resort and Tanjong Jara Resort are facilities that
are able to represent authenticity of the Malay Traditional Design in a modern way. These facilities
37
were able to blend modern and traditional methods and materials seamlessly and effortlessly. While
Aryani Resort, Pura Tanjung Sabtu and Bon Ton Resort retain its authenticity to the fullest not only
by conserving the traditional elements, but also revitalising them with additions that match with the
specific elements that constitute its authenticity.
This study approves one standpoint that has been discussed intensively by many scholars, that
incorporating authentic cultural design would yield better returns. The study sites not only presented
Malay Traditional Design as a form of just simply adding aesthetics to a specific facility, but it also
acts as a prime mover in its effort to be recognized as a better institution.
The utilisation of the Malay Traditional Design or lack thereof may be associated with the concept
inception and physical construction of the facilities. The facilities that are seen to incorporate more
of these traditional designs exploit the conservation and reuse of old Malay buildings, whereas
the facilities that lack traditional design are mostly newly built facilities that uses a contemporary
approach in amalgamating the modern and traditional design.
Through these preliminary findings, new research aspects have emerged that would prove to
be of remarkable significance to the overall current research. These aspects concern mainly on the
effects on the locals related to the case studies, success in utilising traditional Malay design as an
attraction thus providing these institutions with an intangible economic resource. Thus, a minor and
brief observational study was conducted in localities within the surroundings and the neighbouring
area of these institutions.
These areas included the localities of Pantai Cenang in Langkawi; Cabang Tiga, Batu Buruk,
Rantau Abang and Marang of Terengganu and Lumut with Sitiawan of Perak.
It is noted that through the preliminary observation, these institutions have become the precursor
for other new similar establishments and developments by the locals situated surrounding or nearby
the same locality to adapt and integrate Malay Traditional Design into its physical and visual fabric.
The nuance towards traditional design also has changed for the better in many of these new facilities
stakeholders.
The locals have also been influenced by these aspects of the economic situation. It has been
observed that more locals are now keen to conserve the traditional Malay design houses and
structures that they own for they see the potential for it to generate a considerable amount of income.
These changes are prominent, especially in the East Coast Peninsular where traditional houses,
especially old traditional houses, have been in demand for not only connoisseurs and enthusiasts
of design but also the general public. They are willing to pay for the experience and would prefer
the ambience and charisma these magnificent buildings exude rather than the modern stereotype
accommodations.
8. Conclusion
On an initial overall evaluation, it is found that facility which utilizes more Malay Traditional Design
in its complex has more added-value to the tourist. This can be seen as the more prominent the
expressions of the traditional design; the higher the rating is for a particular facility. It also generates
a substantial revenue and income for the stakeholders of the specific facility.
38
This implies that the authenticity of a represented culture is a strong driving force that can mobilize
the needs of tourists to have the penchant for the experience unique to its specific locality. This need
can be translated into a demand in which the supply Malaysia can provide for.
Although authenticity of culture or any subset aspects of culture does generate a certain interest
in tourist, the understanding of the methods and approach to harness these resources are still
lacking in Malaysia. Most tourism stakeholders and industry players lack the initiative and effort to
fully mobilize and promote culture as authentic as it can be.
Nevertheless, with the efforts of the existing industry players that have foreseen and produced
tourism products based on culture authenticity they would path the way and play a key and pivotal
role in changing this topography of tourism supply in Malaysia.
References
Abd Rashid, Mohd Sabrizaa and Che Amat Sufian(2007) Analysis of the Aesthetical Elements of the
Traditional Malay Architecture of Malaysia. UiTM:Perak.
Be More Innovative and Creative, Industry Players Told. The Star Online. [Online] The Star, 2010.
[Cited: 23 December 2013.] http://www.thestar.com.my/story.aspx?file=%2f2010%2f3%2f22.
Boorstin DJ (1992) The Image: A Guide to Psuedo-Events in America. Vintage
Books: New York.
Barretto M (2013) Aesthetics and Tourism. PASOS: Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural
11(3):79-81.
Cresswell JW (1998) Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design. Sage Publications: California.
Lord GD (1999) The Power of Cultural Tourism. Keynote Presentation at the Wisconsin Heritage
Tourism Conference. Lac du Flambeau, Wisconsin. September, 1999.
MacCannel D (1999) The Tourist: A New Theory of The Leisure Class. University of California:
Berkeley.
Nasir Abdul Halim (1984) Pengenalan Rumah Tradisional Melayu Semenanjung Malaysia. Darul
Fikir: KualaLumpur
Ng YY (2012) World Report Ministry of Tourism. Ministry of Tourism Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur.
Taylor PC and Wallace J (2007) Qualitative Research in Postmodern Times. Springer: Dordrecht.
Yusoff SR, Abd Rashid MS and Abd Kadir R (2001) The Role of Resort in Promoting Traditional
Malay Architecture and Heritage Awareness Among Tourist in Malaysia. Arte-Polis International
Conference on Creative Collaboration and the Making of Place.
Wan Abidin WB (1981) The Malay House, Rationale and Change. Massachusetts Institute of
Technology: Massachusetts.
Weiermair K and Pikkemaat B (2004) Qualitatszeichen im Tourismus: Vermarktung und Wahrnehmung
von Leistungen. Erich Schmidt Verlag GmbH: Berlin.
Xie PF (2001) Authenticating Cultural Tourism: Folk Villages in Hainan, China University of Waterloo:
Ontario.
39
LOCAL FOOD CONSUMPTION AT ECOTOURISM DESTINATION
Amirah Alias1, Azlizam Aziz1*, Muhammad Shahrim Abdul Karim2,

and Siti Suriawati Isa1
1
Department of Recreation and Ecotourism, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
2
Department of Food Service and Management, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
*Corresponding author: azlizam@upm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Local food availability in an ecotourism destination is not only to fulfil the basic needs of nourishing
tourists. Despite the existence of food related personality traits which are food neophobic and food
neophilic among consumers, local food can become the utmost important aspect of the quality of
the tourists’ experience; as a primary or partial motive for visitation and as a multiplier effect which
provides gastronomic route that benefits not only to tourists but also the local community. Recent
research has found that besides the environmental quality of a destination, good local food also has
an effect on tourists’ satisfaction and experience. Many aspects are put into consideration when
a tourist chooses a destination, among them is the type of local food available at the destination.
Although it may not be the primary motivation, but it occupies a substantial role as a partial
motivation for visitation. Finally, local food not only serve to provide nourishment, but also acts
as a medium for tourists to understand the local community and its culture via the gastronomic
route. This provides other different type of attractions such as the historical sites besides the natural
landscapes. Therefore, this paper discusses the food related personality traits among the tourists
and the benefits that local food provides to both the local community and tourists in ecotourism
destinations in both domestically and globally.
Keywords: Benefit of local food; ecotourism; food personality traits; local food in a destination.
1. Introduction
The concept of ecotourism emerged throughout the 1980’s and 1990’s resulting in various definitions
by numerous ecotourism associations around the globe. However, these definitions share the same
fundamentals. The concept of ecotourism, which is regarded as tourism and recreation of nature base
activities, is committed to conserve the environment so that it will be sustainable. The fundamental of
ecotourism was defined by Ceballos-Lascurain (1996) as “environmentally responsible, enlightening
travel and visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas in order to enjoy and appreciate nature
(and any accompanying cultural features both past and present) that promotes conservation, has
low visitor impact, and provides beneficially active socioeconomic involvement of local populations”.
40
The activities typically occur at natural areas and should contribute to the conservation or
preservation of not only the natural areas but also the local cultures. Such activities promote
appreciation towards the diversity in both the area and the local community. Thus, the activities carried
out are to improve local communities’ welfare by boosting their economic and social development.
One of the ecotourism dimensions that are listed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
of the United Nations is the economic dimension of ecotourism. In this dimension, ecotourism
related jobs are often in the products and services sectors that involve various stakeholders ranging
from area managers to local communities. Among the products and services available is food and
beverages. The present study focuses on the local food and local food consumption that occurs at
national parks and in any other protected areas.
2. Literature Review
The definition of local food varies. It is defined as food products and beverages with the distance
between the production and consumption is at its minimum. Therefore, the perception of local food is
often considered as small scale, but according to the Farm Act 2008 in the United States, a product
is considered locally or regionally produced if the end point of the product is purchased within 400
miles (643 km) from its origin or within the state boundaries (Martinez et al., 2010). Another definition
of local food in the tourism context is food and drinks that are locally grown and produced; or is a
local specialty that bears the image of the local heritage (Sánchez-Cañizares & López-Guzmán,
2011).
Generally, the benefit of local food consumption is that it helps to preserve the small farms and
sustain rural communities as the money spent remains in the local community. It also minimizes
food miles thus cutting down fossil fuel consumption and reduces air pollution. In return, buyers also
gain benefits from buying local food where the consumption is associated with healthier food choice
and better insight of the food’s path by talking to people who grew or made the food (Brain, 2012).
Evidently, the kind of food and drinks that are produced locally and available at a destination has
been recognised to have implications not only to the local economy, but also to the local culture and
ensuring the environmental sustainability of the tourism destinations. This would in turn benefit both
the hosts and guests (Sims, 2009). The table below are the lists of examples of prior studies that are
related to the benefit of local food in tourism destinations.
Table 1 Examples of Prior Studies Related To the Benefits of Local Food in Tourism Destinations
Authors Findings
Adeyinka-Ojo and Khoo- The slow food event at Bario in Sarawak, Malaysia has the
Lattimore (2013) potential of becoming a high yielding tourism destination with
the cooperation between the community, organizational and
other tourism stakeholders.
Pratt (2013) Growing foods locally in Fiji island do not only minimize food
miles, but also decrease leakage of the local economy while
preserving the quality food tradition.
41
Hjalager and Johansen Environmental and economic sustainability with food production,
(2012) services in protected area represents economic possibilities
and provide higher food production and service quality which
lead to exciting food experience.
Everett and Slocum (2013) Selling local food to tourists to support local sustainability
agendas which are the traditional industries, job development,
rural economies, encouraging social justice and diversifying
agriculture is endorsed by the U.K government bodies.
Sims (2009) Promoting iconic local food that can draw new tourists to a
destination. Such image can be linked to traditional ‘landscapes’
of farming methods that tourists can experience.
Choo and Tazim (2009) The preliminary research in the local organic farm study shows
definite parallels between tourism practice and ecotourism
principle which is sustainable for the environment and the local
community.
Telfar and Wall (1996) Encouraging the use of local food by the tourism industry can
reduce conflict in the direction of symbiosis between local
economic linkages and tourism destination
In spite food consumption contributing a significant proportion of visitors’ spending capacity

throughout their visits, from the tourism literature standing point, food related issue which refers
specifically to visitors’ food experience is often addressed at the bottom of the list in the visitor
evaluation to a specific destination. For example, a survey conducted in 2005 at the Brecon Beacons
National Park in Wales found that 81% of the visitors wanted to try local food and were willing to pay
a higher price to experience the food–base activity and interpretation.
It further elaborated that food experience in protected area is not always consumed on the
spot but also taken home from the activity, for example foraging for food such as nuts, mushrooms,
berries, herbs and fruits could enhance visitors’ food experience (Hjalager & Johansen, 2012). This
finding shows that food can be a prominent product that differentiates one’s destination to another
if it is marketed strategically. Food interpretation also serves as a form of education and information
to food neophobic tourists. Food neophobia is a food related personality trait that refers to those
who are reluctant to try new and novel food (Pliner & Hobden, 1992). Food neophobic tourists could
hinder the usage of local food if they are not exposed to unfamiliar food. This could stunt the initiative
of using local food as a tourism product at a destination. Providing information to this type of tourists
can reduce their anxiety towards unfamiliar local foods.
42
Other than being a product to market the destination, local food can be the key factor in
determining destination selection and affect the overall enjoyment of the trip (Henderson et al 2012).
As the demand in higher quality services increases, it is an opportunity for the destination marketers
and service providers to explore the potential of promoting local food in the destination to provide
tourists a novelty experience. Besides that, local food could also balance the visual bias of landscape
to the body sense, that involves the sensescapes, for example smellscapes and tablescapes which
John Urry mentioned in the second edition of the Tourist Gaze (Quan and Wang, 2004).
This example can be found in the examination of tourists’ online reviews from the western
guests with regards to food related experience in Zimbabwe, particularly in the Victoria Falls. The
study found that food consumption experience is mostly regarded as a peak experience. Not merely
just as an extension of daily routine, tourists recall their experience with food memories while touring
the nature (Mkono at al., 2013).Kocevski and Risteski (2012) mentioned that food plays an important
role or the key factor in deciding the choice of accommodation in a destination. The types of foods
available also affect tourists’ motivation in choosing a destination(Cohen & Avieli, 2004). It is found
in a number of studies that tourists’ interests in and preferences for food affect their destination
choice (Mak et al., 2012).
Therefore, it is important to emphasize on the local food available in promoting a destination
since it can be an added value to the destination, for instance as a cultural base activity. Hence,
the interpretation of local food could serve as a gastronomy route for the visitor to participate.
For example, three out of ten foreign tourists visit Bario, Sarawak for the food event besides the
ecotourism activities (Adeyinka-Ojo & Khoo-Lattimore, 2013). One of the tourists commented that
after knowing the slow food event in Bario, he extended his stay. Furthermore, several studies had
shown that local food provides cultural understanding and entertainment that not only fulfils the
cultural motivator factor but also provides togetherness among tourists and between tourists and the
hosts (Kivela & Crotts, 2006).
Though the motivation is not primary but it also occupies a substantial role as a secondary
or partial motivation in choosing destination since the pursuit for smellscapes and tastescapes in
food had driven tourists to visit a destination where food is an attribute perceive as an attraction
to a destination besides its climate, accommodation and appealing scenery (Atinah et al., 2010).
Hence, this is a good selling point for Malaysia to sell itself as a gastronomy destination that can
complement the ecotourism industry. This is so because the ethnic diversity creates a melting pot
for culinary heritage which includes food that becomes an invaluable part of the tourists’ experience
who seek for taste of fusion.The variety of local food in Malaysia can be seen in the examples below.
Char Kuew Teow Ketupat
43
Food Festival in Bario, Sarawak Jeruk buah (assorted local pickle fruits)
Source: Tourism Malaysia, Sarawak Tourism (2014)
In the economic dimension, the stakeholders that take place vary from operators to natural
area management and local communities. The expanded definition of ecotourism incorporated the
ideas of profit linkage and the sustainability development of local communities of which encourage
local employment and small business development that ensure the traditional lifestyle and community
values is respected. The ecotourism related jobs contribute to the economy activities whereby the
food and beverages could help to reduce the leaks of money in a region if it is produced and
prepared locally. Therefore, local food could greatly retain the money and later gives direct and
indirect impacts on the economy of the local community. In the island of Vorovoro in the north-east of
Fiji Island, a project called “Tribewanted” aims to have minimal impacts on the environment from the
ecotourism activity which includes food supplies. Therefore, this results to locally sourcing of food
as much as possible and subsequently decreases the leakage in the local economic (Pratt, 2013).
This was supported that by promoting usage of local food in tourism destinations it reduces conflict
in direction of symbiosis between local economic linkages and tourism destination (Telfer & Wall,
1996). Other than reducing leakage among the local community, Everett and Aitchison (2010) stated
that the level of interest in local food correlated with the level of retention and development of region
identity, the enhancement of environmental awareness and sustainability which increase the social
and cultural benefits and conservation of traditional heritage that includes skills and way of life.
3. Conclusion
Yet, like any of the activities in ecotourism destination, food related activity such as foraging for
food has its negative impacts if it is over exploited. Therefore, it is crucial that protective measures
are firmly imposed in order to ensure not only the area is protected for the sake of the visitors’
experience but also the wellbeing of local community. Examples of protective measurements such
as trail planning; guided tourism and interpretation would benefit wildlife, the plant stocks and the
commercial food provider (Hjalager & Johansen, 2012). The preventives measurements also ensure
that local ownership is secure since the production is in smaller scale without the intervention from
bigger corporations. The government bodies as well as other agencies involved must cooperate
for the sake of the sustainability of the environment and local community wellbeing as well as the
tourism industry.
44
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45
TOURIST-HOST INTERFACE AS PERCEIVED BY LOCAL COMMUNITY AT

AN ECOTOURISM DESTINATION: A CASE STUDY ON TAMAN NEGARA
NATIONAL PARK (KUALA TAHAN)
Mazni Aznan and Siti Suriawati Isa*

Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The Taman Negara National Park is located within three states in Peninsular Malaysia - Pahang,
Kelantan and Terengganu and it is one of the ecotourism destinations in Malaysia. The local
community involvement, especially those who reside in Kuala Tahan, Pahang experience various
impacts on its economy, environment and socio-culture because of tourism activities. The tourist-
host interface is a reference to the Irridex Model as introduced by Doxey (1975) and how it relates to
Tourism Area Life Cycle as designed by Butler (1980). By identifying the actual benefits and expected
benefits as perceived by the local community, this study will be useful in developing programs that
minimize frictions between tourists and the local community, and in formulating plans that would
gain community support of tourist ventures. The goal of the study is to help the authorities plan and
carry out informed decisions on local community development to sustain the ecotourism industry in
the area.
Keywords: Local community; Taman Negara National Park; tourist-host interface.
1. Introduction
There are numerous definitions of ecotourism around the world. Most of the international ecotourism
organizations define ecotourism as travelling to natural areas that preserve the environment and
improves the well being of local communities. In other words, ecotourism is a service sector activity
that is both nature-based and sustainable. Within these components, there are both benefits and
costs. Weaver and Lawton (2002) and Bidin et al. (2013) provided views on ecotourism sustainability
and the principles and practices of ecotourism that should be managed within the considerations
of ecological, economic and social-cultural sustainability. They also highlighted that the measure of
sustainability in the case of ecotourism focuses on the fundamentals of ecotourism, which includes
conserving the natural and cultural aspects of the area, bringing benefits to local communities,
socio-cultural impacts, and the environmental management of ecotourism operations (Vereczi et al.,
2007).
The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) stressed that ecotourism is part of conservation
activity that offers economic incentives and helps to protect nature and culture. Ecotourism is
also a useful mechanism to fight poverty and achieve sustainable development. Thus, ecotourism
empowers the local community.
Andereck et al. (2005) stressed that the world’s economy and population depend on the
tourism industry and the viability of this activity. This industry is actually a comprehensive interrelation
among different industries and sectors such as accommodation, transportation, guiding and food
and beverages (F&B). It offers job opportunities which lead to improvement in the quality of life.
46
In Malaysia, ecotourism has been promoted as one of the fastest growing industries in the
service sector. The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) reported in 2010, that Malaysia was
the second most visited country in Asia, after China. The government has put so much effort in
promoting Malaysia throughout the world by organizing ‘Visit Malaysia Year’ as its annual event. This
is to highlight Malaysia’s natural elements that include the pristine forests and clear blue waters; the
sun, sea and sand (3S) tourism; the diverse cultures and traditions as well as one of the popular
destinations in Asia.
2.1. Taman Negara National Park
Back in 1925, an area in Pahang was gazetted by the British colony covering over 1,300 square
kilometres and it is known as Gunung Tahan Game Reserve. Fourteen years later, the Sultan of
Pahang, Terengganu and Kelantan named it as King George V National Park. Since 1957, the name
Taman Negara has been adopted and is used till today. The park has become Malaysia’s premier
and largest national park in the country. The Taman Negara National Park is a totally protected
area that straddles the borders of Terengganu, Kelantan and Pahang in Peninsular Malaysia and is
known as one of the world’s oldest tropical rainforests.
In the Ecotourism Master Plan (1996), the government identified 10 sites (from a list of 52
sites) as highly potential to be developed as premiere ecotourism sites in the country. The Taman
Negara National Park (TNNP) is one of the sites identified. TNNP is one of the several well known
ecotourism destinations in Malaysia for its rich natural resources and uniqueness. It is unique for
being the first established national park in the country. Its vast natural resources and rich ecosystem
include one of the oldest rainforest still standing in the world, a pristine network of rivers and
topographical features which include the highest peak in Peninsular Malaysia. These provide a
variety of recreation experiences to different groups of visitors to the park. Besides, the cultural and
historical richness of this hinterland, which blends the old and contemporary values, it also provide
additional dimension to its attractiveness. As in any other destination, ecotourism activities in the
park have been known to bring impacts on the community.
Since the introduction of ecotourism activities, involvement of the local residents in the area
have been active - directly participating in various tourism-related businesses such as providing food
and beverages, accommodation, transportation and guiding services. A study on this involvement,
especially in terms of tourist-residents interaction would reveal the economy, environment and socio-
culture impacts in the area.
2.2. Local Community Involvement
Fong et al. (2014) defined community involvement as the involvement of the residents in the daily
activities within the communities that they live in. Their participation is crucial for a sustainable
management of tourism in their area (Zhang & Lei, 2012). Another definition states that community
is an existing or potential network of individuals, groups and organizations that share or have the
potential of sharing common concerns, interest and goals (Mohd Bakri et al., 2014). It is not a
solitary process and it has to be dealt between two or more parties that have their own position to
achieve certain goals.
Local people will have the opportunity to build their confidence, competency and skills to
cooperate when they get involved. The process of working together can create a sense of belonging
in the community. Tourism development will be more successful when the local communities are
47
involved as their perception and attitudes are important for the decision makers to achieve sustainable
rural tourism (Eshliki & Kaboudi, 2012). This is supported by Nzama (2008) who found that there is
a strong link between community involvement in tourism development and their perception towards
the growth of the tourism industry. Through the tourism activities, local communities obtain benefit
from the economic, physical and social aspects. Indirectly, this will increase the standard of living.
Burns and Sancho (2003) stated that the involvement of the local community in the tourism
development process is a matter that appears naturally because people feel they are part of the
tourism product. The involvement of local communities in the tourism industry can be seen in various
forms. Furthermore, Mathieson and Wall (1982) support earlier statement by the state that the
community itself acts as a symbolic key to the sustainability industry of tourism. According to them,
all residents will participate in this sector indirectly, without them realizing it. Context of community
involvement can be identified by their action on the program development of the surrounding area
(Mohd Bakri et al., 2014).
3. Problem Statements
Faulkner and Tideswell (1997) highlighted that new tourism destinations emerge rapidly these days,
but with increasing intensity of tourist activities at many established destinations throughout the
world, more and more local communities are experiencing the impacts of this growth. Even though
tourism activities contribute positively to the local community, it can also create negative impacts
on their quality of life. Few examples of the impacts are crowding, traffic and parking problems,
increased crime, and increased cost of living, friction between tourists and residents, and changes
in residents’ way of life (Ap and Crompton, 1998; McCool and Martin, 1994 as cited in Andereck et
al., 2005).
Doxey (1975) had proposed the Irritation Index or simply known as Irridex to examine the
growing possible and very negative impacts of tourism on destination regions. Irridex essentially
measures the evolution of the relationship between tourists and the locals. Doxey’s Irridex suggests
that, by a certain period as locals become more intimidated by visitors, the number of visitors will
eventually stop growing and may actually decrease. There are few recent studies that used the
Irridex Model to measure residents’ attitude (Vargas-Sánchez et al., 2014) and host perceptions
(Diedrich & Garcia-Buades, 2009; Sahrpley, 2014).
Taman Negara National Park has been established close to 75 years and the local people
(aborigines and Malays) have witnessed vast changes especially in the development of tourism.
There are few villages around TNNP but the local community of Kampung Tahan is the nearest
and experienced the direct impacts of tourism. Kampung Tahan has been involved in ecotourism
activities and gained numerous costs and benefits because of this development.
Lindberg et al. (1997) explained that as a concept, ecotourism began to enter a period of global
maturity in the mid 1990s. Those who call themselves ecotourism products will face challenges. In
recent years, there is a growing recognition of the importance of taking into account the views of
the local community if the industry is to be sustainable in the long term (Doxey, 1975; Belisle &
Hoy, 1980; Maddox, 1985; Ap & Crompton, 1998; Williams & Lawson, 2001). As noted earlier by
Belisle and Hoy (1980), perception and attitude studies of local community residents might reveal
discrepancies of perceived impact.
In order to create or develop new product or tourism destination, one has to consider the
involvement in decision making by the local community. As mentioned earlier, the local community
will be the first to receive the cost and benefit from the actions. In the case of TNNP, will development
of new products that utilizes the ecotourism concepts have an impact on TNNP, especially in terms
of sustainability?
48
4. Definition of Terms
Tourism Goeldner and Ritchie (2003) define tourism as the process of activities
and interactions from various groups of people that create relationships
such as among tourists, tourism supplier, host governments, host
communities, and surrounding environments that are involved in
attracting and hosting visitors. In this study, tourism is considered as
activities that serve the visitors to the area in order to fulfil their travel
needs.
Perceived Tourism Tourism impact refers to the changes that result from tourism activity of
Impacts development (Fridgen, 1991). Therefore, the word ‘perceived tourism
impacts’ in this study describes what people believe as changes in their
locality due to tourism activity. This concept is represented by three
constructs - ‘environmental impact’, ‘economic impact’ and ‘socio-cultural
impacts’ and is measured by using attitude statements based on 5-point
Likert-like scale.
Local Community This term refers to the residents of tourism destinations who have contact
with tourists (Fridgen, 1991). Therefore, those who reside permanently
in the Kuala Tahan area (i.e. villages in the park and peripheral area),
regardless of their length of residency are considered as local residents.
5. Theoretical Framework
Butler’s (1980) had created a model of destination area lifestyle to describe the changes in
the numbers and types of tourist over a period of time which is related to the changes in tourism
development also known as ‘growth-peak-decline’ cyclic. This cycle explained the evolution of
destinations in six different stages. Each stage is different in terms of the characteristics of the
destination, the consequences of tourism, and the attitude of the local people. This lifestyle allows
us to study the history of the destination, identify the causes of a positive or negative change and
determine the effect of these changes on the destination’s transition. Gursoy et al. (2010) mentioned
that according to this model, socio cultural impacts of tourism will be stagnant.
Whereas Doxey’s (1975) Irridex Model suggest that there are a series of stages that residents
may pass through and respond to tourism. This includes euphoria, apathy, irritation and antagonism,
as a continued experience to the negative impacts that is reflected by the intensifying annoyance
(Fredline et al., 2004). This model considers the connection between tourists and the locals. He also
suggests that, over time, as locals become more strongly against the visitors, the number of visitors
will not grow and may actually decline.
The model also supports the claim that as destination evolves; the presence of tourists
becomes a source of constant tension in the community (antagonism). The process by which it
occurs is summarized in Table 1.
49
Table 1: Destination responses to tourism based on Butler’s Destination Area Lifecycle and
Doxey’s Irridex Model
Likely Level of
stage(s) irritation
Destination responses to tourism
(Butler, (Doxey’s,
1980) 1975)
Exploration • Some locals may feel uncomfortable with new Euphoria
tourists.
• Sense of excitement and anticipation.
• Informal contact with tourists.
• No specific tourist facilities, use of local amenities,
thus high interactions with the locals.
• Slight number of visitors.
• Visitors try to blend in with the local community.
• Restricted business-related activity in tourism.
• Local community accepts tourism.
Involvement • Locals contribute to develop tourism in the area, by Euphoria
providing facilities.
• Some locals may begin to provide facilities to
visitors.
• High levels and formal contact with tourists.
Development • Well-defined tourist market area. Annoyance
• More proper connection with tourists, and realize it
is a source of income.
• Decline in local involvement and control of
development.
• Some locals may feel left out by the presence of
foreign tourism businesses and investment.
• Visitors number increase.
• Tourists are taken for granted.
• The interaction between tourists and the local
community is more formalised.
50
Consolidation • Locals may grow tired of the development and Irritation

increasing tourist numbers.
• The number of tourists is larger than the permanent
residents.
• Most of the local economic activities are based on
tourism.
• The number of tourists increases drastically.
• Increased external business operators.
• Increased struggle to supply between tourists and
residents.
Stagnation • Locals do not favour tourism and tourists anymore Antagonism
in the area, because of overcrowding
• Irritations are expressed verbally and physically.
Decline • The area is not capable to strive with the latest Antagonism
attractions and will experience a decreased in the
number of visitors.
• Will be a day visit or weekend trips, visitors will not
spend more time in the area.
• Open hostile from locals.
• Attempts to limit damage and tourism flows.
Rejuvenation • May occur when there is a complete change in the
attractions on which tourism in the area is based.
6. Past Studies
The growth of the tourism industry has been and is still a major contributor to the economy in most
countries in the world. This industry has created numerous jobs in both large and small communities.
However, Mathieson and Wall (1982) explained that there are criteria associated with the impacts
made by tourism such as the volume and characteristics of the tourist and the resources. The
characteristics of the tourists, including their length of stay, activity, mode of transport, and travel
arrangement. The character of the resources includes its natural features, level of development,
political and social structure are important because it determines the degree of its robustness to
tourism and its development. Interest on the impact of tourism contributes vastly to the amount
of previous research on this topic. Ko and Stewart (2002) stressed that a number of studies in
recent years have examined residents’ perceptions of the impact of tourism development on their
community and it continues to be an important issue.
When it comes to tourism development, most of the people will look at it as a business opportunity
and so, tourism development is often justified based on economic benefits. Other aspects such as
social, cultural, or environmental destruction are challenging but not prioritize. These statements
agreed with the previous researches and it generally concludes that people who benefit from tourism
perceive less social and environmental impacts of tourism and have more favourable attitudes
towards additional tourism development (Perdue et al., 1987). However, Sheldon and Abenoja (2001)
mentioned that on several occasions, tourism development becomes a disadvantage to the host
51
communities. Over time, the tourism industry can change the host communities’ social, economic,
and environmental well-being from good to bad. This could happen where irritation occurs between
tourists and hosts.
Andereck and Vogt (2000) explained that tourism research varies from time to time. Since
1960s, more research are conducted on the positive aspects of tourism but in the 1970s, more focus
have been given to the negative aspects. In 1990, researches focus more on observing the balance
systematic view, also known as community level research. As mentioned earlier, in the 1990s,
tourism development reached its maturity. It is important to have the literature that supports the host
communities to achieve positive tourism development in a community (Kuvan & Akan, 2005). Many
researches on local community attitude toward tourism have been conducted over the past years
such as Perdue et al. (1987); Andereck and Vogt (2000); and Andereck et al. (2005). Generally, local
communities find that the negative aspects in tourism development is not a critical issue such as
traffic (Perdue et al., 1990; King et al., 1991; McCool & Martin 1994; Andereck et al., 2005;), crime
(Mok et al., 1991; Andereck et al., 2005) and litter (Andereck et al., 2005). However, Andereck et
al. (2005) mentioned the one exception to the generally positive attitudes toward tourism was the
study conducted by Johnson et al. (1994) which found residents in three communities disagree that
tourism had positive impacts and they agreed that it had negative impacts, too.
In other research, Archer et al. (2005) mentioned that the two groups of people received
benefits and costs of tourism. They are the tourists and the host themselves. If one is to understand
the impact of tourism on residents, the interrelationships between various elements in the system
must be studied. By studying the interaction between these two relationships, a clearer picture of the
underlying nature of resident opinion is possible (Williams & Lawson, 2001).
7. Conclusion
The impact made by tourism depends on both the volume and profile characteristics of the tourists
(including their length of stay, activity, mode of transport, and travel arrangement). Doxey’s (1975)
Irridex model suggest that residents’ responses to tourism may pass through a series of stages
including euphoria, apathy, irritation and antagonism, as continued exposure to intensifying negative
impacts is reflected by increasing annoyance (Fredline et al., 2002). In the context of the tourist-host
interface perceived by local communities in Taman Negara National Park, the interactions between
tourist-host are so called ‘seasonal’ and does not occur throughout the year. It is a simple equation
that when many tourists arrive at the local community, those involved as tourism operators will
receive more income. The locals manage most of the businesses so; they have the empowerment
to control the activities.
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54
ECOTOURISM
RESEARCH PARADIGM
ECOTOURISM RESEARCH PARADIGM
OUTDOOR EDUCATION: A PATH TO GREATER GROUP COHESION
Mazuki Mohd Yasim¹, Azlizam Aziz², Siti Suriawati Isa²and Abdullah bin Mohd.²
1
Department of Exercise Science, Faculty of Sports Science and Coaching, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 35900
Tanjong Malim, Perak, Malaysia.
²Department of Recreation and Ecotourism, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia.
Abstract
Outdoor education is a form of learning process that is conducted either in the outdoor or indoor
settings, which involves challenging or adventure activities as a medium to foster individual personal
and social growth. Literatures have suggested that outdoor education camp is beneficial to the
personal and social development as it generates positive results in group cohesion which is a critical
component to the experience of outdoor education programs. At present, numerous existing research
and writings have recommended for the improvement of group cohesion. This paper provides an
explanation on the roles of outdoor education in developing greater group cohesion and identifies
theoretical roots and practical knowledge that are most effective based on the results on group
cohesion.
Keyword: Outdoor education; group cohesion; camping; personal and social development.
1. Introduction
Outdoor education is a form of education that benefits the overall aspects of an individual, which
includes individual’s academic, physical, emotional, social and psychological wellbeing. Typically,
the objectives of outdoor education are improving group cohesion, leadership skills, improving
problem-solving skills, self-conceptualization, increasing trust, and improving communication
(O’Bannon, 2000; Williams et al., 2003; Shivers-Blackwell, 2004). In other words, the emphasis on
interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships are frequently considered to be the primary focus of
outdoor education (Priest & Gass, 2005; Zink & Boyes, 2006).
One of the most popular programs in outdoor education is outdoor education camp. The
main goal of these camps is to focus on personal and social development, environmental education
and adventure education (Orford, 1973; Law, 1998; Neill, 2003a). A review on literatures related
to personal and social development benefits have suggested that outdoor education camp may
generate positive results in group cohesion (Gass, 1987; O’Bannon, 2000; Boyle, 2002; Gass et
al., 2003; Chang & Bordia, 2006; Eys et al., 2008; Mazuki, 2010; Jaffry, 2012; Malcarne, 2012).
Therefore, these programs are typically expected to increase the level of interpersonal relationship
and gain group cohesion (Galloway, 2000; Gass et al., 2003). However, there is confusion among
55
educators on the possible outcome of outdoor education camp in increasing group cohesiveness
regardless of other extraneous factors. It was further suggested that in order to achieve this outcome
(group cohesion), there must be a shift in the way outdoor education is commonly practiced, including
here in Malaysia.
Therefore, this paper provides an overview of theories underpinning thoughts on group
cohesion approach in outdoor education. The paper also provides practical knowledge of best
practices in implementing outdoor camp programs.
2. Outdoor Education
The field of outdoor education is diverse and complex with a plethora of terms and definitions. The
term outdoor education is widely used to refer to a variety of planned activities organised in an
outdoor environment for many purposes (Neill, 2008). The variation of outdoor education definitions
exist due to cultural, philosophy and local condition that influence conceptualizations, interpretations
and the understanding of the concept (Brookes, 2006). Although outdoor education is accepted
as one of the most popular educational methods, there is still controversy over the semantic and
definition of outdoor education (Bunting, 2006).
2.1 Semantic and Definitions
The literature contains diverse definitions and descriptions of cohesion. These provide a clear
indication that different researchers interpret cohesion differently. Close to half a century ago,
outdoor education was defined as ‘education in, about and for the outdoors’ (Donaldson & Donaldson,
1958). ‘Education in the outdoors’ refers to the use of outdoor environment as a learning source and
setting to enrich the formal education process. ‘Education about the outdoors’ refers to outdoor
education as a teaching method, where it provides first hand learning experiences through direct
interactions between the individual, society and nature. Finally ‘education for the outdoors’ refers to
outdoor education as a medium to cultivate environmental responsibility and protection.
However, as we move into the late 1980s, Priest (1986) redefined the term outdoor education
in a wider context. Since then, the definition has become the most popular definition of outdoor
education among researchers. Priest has proposed the definition of outdoor education as:
“…an experiential process of learning by doing, which takes place primarily through exposure
to the out of doors. In outdoor education the emphasis to the subject of learning is placed on
relationships, relationships concerning people and natural resources”.
In this definition, Priest highlights outdoor education as an experiential learning process which
occurs either in the outdoors or indoors for the purpose of promoting lifelong learning process. He
also emphasized that the focus of the subject matter in outdoor education is more on interpersonal
and natural resources.
However, in recent years, the definition of outdoor education has been widely interpreted
based on one’s understanding on the meaning of outdoor education. For instance, Neill (2003b)
defined outdoor education as “when small groups of people participate in an organized adventurous
activities in natural settings and primarily use themselves as the resource for solving problems”.
56
However, in interpreting the meaning of outdoor education, Hammerman et al. (2001) proposed
outdoor education as “a contemporary curriculum development that is sometimes difficult to define.
It is a rather vague and nebulous educational concept”, and it has been applied in various ways from
a visit to a national museum to white water kayaking.
Based on the above definitions provided, there is evident of conceptual differences between
researchers. As education in, about and for the outdoors, outdoor education was also defined as;
(a) an experiential learning process (Priest, 1986) ; (b) method of learning (Lund, 2004); (c) the
resources for problem solving (Neill, 2003b; Neill, 2008) and; (d) a method for teaching and learning
(Hammerman et al., 2001). All these definitions and personal views have made the process of
defining outdoor education far more complicated (Hammerman et al., 2001).
In order to minimize the definitional debates, several researchers have proposed that outdoor
education should not be defined in shallow terms because it has evolved and formed many new
branches such as adventure education, environmental education, adventure based learning, ecology
education, and education outside the classroom (Gilbertson et al., 2006). These researchers have
proposed that outdoor education is best defined in broader terms as it is influenced by current
practices and social constructs. Thus, definitions can and should evolve and transform across time,
space and culture (Neill, 2008).
2.2 Philosophy
Some of the important commonalities in the philosophies of outdoor education is to assist individuals
to gain greater appreciation of nature and their relationship to it (Aspenson, 2010); the focus of personal
development through interactions with others, and responsible use of the natural environment (Pryor
et al., 2005). Ford (1986) explained that outdoor education comprised of interrelationships of nature
and human beings. It encompasses attitudes for caring, skills for utilizing resources and pursuing
leisure activities.
Priest (1986) took a step further by stating that learning in outdoor education is a matter of
many relationships: interpersonal, intrapersonal, ecosystemic and ekistic; relationships with and
between other people and ourselves, and relationships between people and the environment.
Summarizing these two schools of thought, outdoor education is thought to be a lifelong learning
experience affecting relationships with others, self and the natural world.
2.3 The Focus of Outdoor Education
Law (1998) has proposed that outdoor education should comprised of a blend of three foci: (1)
personal and social development; (2) outdoor pursuits and adventure education; and (3) environmental
education and studies. These three foci are presented in Figure 1.
57
Figure 1: Outdoor Education Focus Model
Personal and social development concentrates on enhancing the holistic potential of human
beings and group. It also teaches the notion of responsibility, respecting others, self-confidence and
the sense of success. The aim of this focus is to promote holistic individual development through
affective, behavioral and cognitive domains. Adventure based learning, problem solving, and team-
building activities are among the popular activities in this focus (Warren et al., 1995).
Outdoor pursuits or adventure education presents a combination of risk, challenges and
outdoor skills used to generate active learning experiences among students. Kurt Hahn, the founder
of the Outward Bound (OB) movement, had promoted this idea. He proposed that a combination
of risk, fun, and the sense of success and failure could generate active participation, promote self-
awareness and enhance learning experiences (Gilbertson et al., 2006). All these motivate students
to do their best to succeed, and at the same time enhance their learning experiences. Rock climbing,
kayaking, high ropes challenges and sailing are among the activities (Bunting, 2006).
Through the environmental education focus, outdoor education is seen as a medium to enhance
environmental attitude (Md Amin et al., 2010). The idea of environmental education focus is to give
awareness and show the importance of the natural environment. It is proposed that through this
focus, outdoor education activities might develop and enhance human-nature relationships, leading
to ecocentric environmental worldviews, and supporting cooperation to care for the environment
(Thomas & Thomas, 2000).
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3. Group Cohesion
Researchers have defined cohesion in a variety of ways. Cohesion, which is used synonymously in
the media with terms such as teamwork, team unity, closeness, and camaraderie, has been used
extensively (Carron et al., 2007). The term ‘group cohesion’ has also been used to indicate higher
levels of interpersonal acceptance, mutual support and trust among group members (Bisson, 1997).
On the other hand, the willingness of members to remain in a group also can be reflected as group
cohesion (Stroud, 2006).
Since 1950, several definitions of group cohesion have been proposed (Weinberg & Gould,
2007). Rubin et al. (2009) defined group cohesion as a “collection of interacting individuals who have
some degree of reciprocal influence over one another”. In earlier definition Festinger et al. (1950)
as cited in Murphy (2001) viewed cohesion as, “the total field of forces which act upon members to
remain in the group”. However, based on these definitions, it can be simplified that cohesion mainly
addresses how a team handles outside pressures and still pursues its goals (Murphy, 2001).
As suggested by Carron et al. (1998), their definition seems to be more comprehensive. They
defined cohesion as “a dynamic process which is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick
together and remain united in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives and for the satisfaction of
member affective needs”. Under this definition, group cohesion is built through common goals and
objectives (Albert, 2002).
4. Nurturing Group Cohesion through Outdoor Education Camping
Outdoor education is claimed to provide open-ended, dynamic and various activities and risks which
are assumed to enrich the learning processes and developing of social competence (Greenfield,
2004). It also has the potential to accelerate change in personal and social development through its
setting and process (Sheard & Golby, 2006). Researchers have listed outdoor education camping
as a powerful medium for the teaching and learning process; as well as acting as social agent of
change (Alien-Craig & Miller, 2007). It has been traditionally stereotyped as a masculine playing
field (Huberstone & Lynch, 1991) and is also found to be linked with enhancement in personal and
social development; adventure experience and environmental education (Moore & Russell, 2002;
Lynch, 2011).
Dunlap and Heffernan (1975), explains, there is a positive relationship between participation
in outdoor education camping with group cohesion, and the power of the relationship varies,
depending on the types of camping activities. Studies conducted by Teisl and O’Brien (2000) found
that participation in outdoor education camp can provide significant positive impact on group
cohesion. The findings were in tandem to the findings of Dunlap and Heffernan (1975).
However, this change is dependent on a few factors discovered by the participants during
the following outdoor education camp (Bustam et al., 2003). These factors act as catalyst and
medium to connect it to group cohesion (Carron, 1982; Tarrant & Green, 1999). According to the
group cohesion model developed by Carron, he stated that there are a few factors that influence
group cohesion. His statement is supported by other researchers which demanded there are other
considerations that determine the availability of cohesion in such group. Therefore, to further inspire
and enlighten educators, the next discussion will provide explanations and suggestions regarding
the theoretical and practical knowledge of group cohesion in outdoor education.
59
5. Theoretical Root
Numerous researchers have discussed critically the consideration of the outdoor education theory
and model, particularly in the light of this shift towards a better group cohesion (Dion, 2000; Carron
et al., 2005; Salas et al., 2007) with each providing it from different perspectives. Among of the
most popular models that relate to group cohesion in the outdoor education field are Tuckman’s
Group Development Model (Tuckman, 1965), Outward Bound Educational Process Model (Walsh &
Golins, 1976) and the Group Cohesion Model (Carron et al., 1985).
Tuckman’s Group Development Model posits that, group has predictable developmental
phases with different level of morale (functioning) (Tuckman & Jensen, 1977). However, Tuckman’s
phases of group development applies to relatively small groups (3 to 12 people) and that it is not
entirely clear how group cohesion would evolve in larger groups. Furthermore, it appears that
group processes do not evolve as linearly as Tuckman describes because they tend to evolve more
cyclically. And sometimes it is unclear regarding the Tuckman stages of group development when a
team proceeds to the next stage within the stages of group development (Bonebright, 2010).
Hence, it is easier to cope with the Outward Bound Educational Process Model and Carron’s
Group Cohesion Model as it appears to provide a clearer perspective for new researcher. For instance,
Carron’s Group Cohesion Model is a multidimensional model that incorporates many factors that
influence group cohesion. Consequently, based on the multidimensional model, Carron developed
an instrument (Group Environmental Questionnaire) that is frequently used by many researchers to
measure group cohesion in many fields including outdoor education. Meanwhile, Outward Bound
Educational Process Model appears to be an important model in the development of understanding
the outdoor education process as it was the first model to list the program elements (Walsh & Golins,
1976; McKenzie, 2003) and serve as a foundation for the teaching and learning process which are
embedded in the outdoor education camp (Soares, 2010).
Therefore, based on the justification and it’s close relation to the issue, discussion in this
paper focuses on the Outward Bound Educational Process Model (Walsh & Golins, 1976) and
Group Cohesion Model (Carron, 1982), which is predominant in this field and has been tested and
validated in previous outdoor education studies (see O’Bannon, 2000; Page, 2009; Belton, 2010;
Soares, 2010; Clausen, 2012) and studies on group cohesion in outdoor programs (McKenzie, 2000,
2003; Sibthorp, 2003). The Outward Bound Educational Process Model serves as a foundation for
the teaching and learning process which are embedded in the outdoor education camp while the
Group Cohesion Model serve as a foundation for group cohesion process (e.g. McAvoy et al., 1996;
Murphy, 2001; Boyle, 2002; Soares, 2010; Jenkins & Alderman, 2011; Jaffry et al., 2012; Malcarne,
2012; Muhammad Norazizuddin, 2013).
5.1 Outward Bound Educational Process Model
OB Educational Process Model or also known as Walsh and Golins Model has been developed
by Walsh and Golins (Walsh & Golins, 1976) based on the Experiential Learning Theory (Dewey,
1938). This model has been particularly important in the development of an understanding of
outdoor education process (McKenzie, 2003) and provides the theoretical basis for most of such
programs (Ewert & McAvoy, 2000). The model has also been proven to be effective in enhancing
group cohesion (Mazuki, 2010).
60
According to the model (Figure 2), seven elements, and “transfer”, were identified and
considered to be replicable to other programs. The model suggests that in order to get better group
cohesion, the “learner is placed in a unique physical environment and in a unique social environment.
Given a characteristic set of problem-solving tasks and creating a state of adaptive dissonance to
which the learner adapts by gaining mastery, the learner then reorganizes the meaning and direction
of the learner’s life experience” (Walsh & Golins, 1976)
Figure 2: Outward Bound Educational Process Mode
In short, the unique physical setting from which the learner (as part a of a unique social
setting) goes through a series of physical and mental challenges and is subject to feedback from
the instructor/leader and/or other individuals in the group; and the personal reflection of outdoor
education experiences may provide a mechanism for change. As a consequence, the learner may
experience a set of values, behaviors, and attitudes that are different from before the outdoor
education experience (Ewert & McAvoy, 2000).
61
5.2 Group Cohesion Model
Group Cohesion Model developed by Carron (1982) evolved from three major assumptions. The first
assumption was established from research on social cognitions which they believe the perception of
individual group members can be used in order to assess group (Kenny & Lavoie, 1985; Bandura,
1986; Schlenker, 1975 cited in Carron et al., 2002).
Theoreticians in the group dynamic literatures has emphasized on the need to distinguish
between group and individual (Carron et al., 2002). Therefore, based on the foundation, Carron
(1982) has concluded that, the second assumption is the social cognitive each individual in the
group hold. Group cohesiveness are related to the group as a totality and to the manner in which
the group satisfies personal needs and objectives (Carron et al., 2002).
Another branch that contributed to the third assumption is that theoretician in group cohesions
literature have also highlighted the importance of differentiating between the task oriented and
socially oriented concerns of group and their members. Thus, Carron’s third assumption is that
there are two fundamental focus to a group member’s perception which task orientation and social
orientation represent motivation toward group objectives and motivation toward maintaining social
relationship (Carron et al., 2002).
According to Carron’s Conceptual Model of Group Cohesion (Figure 3), there are basic idea
on certain factors that lead to or determine team cohesion, and certain consequences associated
with having or not having team cohesion (Cox, 2007). The model outlined that four major antecedents
influence the development of team cohesion: a) personal factor; b) leadership factor; c) environmental
factor; and, d) group factor (Carron et al., 1985).
Based on the three assumptions, Carron (1982) advanced a model of factors that were thought
to influence perception of cohesion. The factors were classified as environment factors, personal
factors, leadership factors and group factors. In a recent development, Carron et al., (2005) have
outlined a linear model comprised of inputs, throughputs and outputs (see Figure 3).
Figure 3: Group Cohesion Model
62
Inputs include personal attributes (e.g. age, personality), leadership (instructor-participant

relationship), nature of the environment (e.g. geographic) and the group (e.g. group size). The
inputs are believed to influence the throughputs which comprised of group cohesion. Finally, the
throughputs lead to the outputs which categorized into either individual or team outcomes (Carron
et al., 2005).
6. Practical Issue
Outdoor education is always seen as a promising practice that can help educators and participants
to produce the expected learning outcomes. However, many previous studies have reported
inconsistent findings in achieving group cohesion in outdoor education (Landers & Leuschen, 1974;
Brown, 2000; Murphy, 2001; Dexel et al., 2010). It could be due to improper and lack of management
on the program design and facilitation, individual need, variation in development, and member’s
unique characteristics. (Priest & Gass, 2005; Thomas, 2005).
6.1 Program Design and Facilitation
In outdoor education, the scope of teaching and learning is prepared and designed by personnels or
educators which use natural environment, adventure activity and direct experience as a medium of
learning process (Mohd Taib & Norlena, 2014). In designing outdoor education program, it is advised
to begin a lesson with a basic activity and gradually switch to more complex lessons (Stenger, 2001).
Schoel et al. (1988) state that the need and desire with regard to differences in individual participants
should be taken into account in order to obtain better effect. Furthermore, implementation of outdoor
education program must be reliant on the goals and objectives of the program. Goal setting for each
program might be different depending on the target group and program module. Locke and Latham
(2000) supported the opinion and stated that goals serve a directive function which direct attention
and effort towards goal-relevant activities and away from goal-irrelevant activities. Therefore, it can
be generalized that the sequence and arrangement of activities with regard to the elements of
challenge (gradually increase) have a close relationship with the goal achievement of each program.
However, it is important to note that the role of facilitator also contribute to the success of
each program. Cooper (1997) warns critics to be careful when evaluating the program’s potential
activities “the educational potential lies not in activity per se but in the way how it is introduced
and facilitated”. Schwarz (2005) supported the idea and addressed that by improving its processes
and structures, facilitator may increase group’s effectiveness. Schwarz explained the facilitator as
an expert in the process and who knows their role well must help the group to improve better. So
it is important for outdoor educators to manage the different facilitation roles and understand the
theories and values that underpinning their practice (Thomas, 2008).
6.2 Individual Need
The function of groups in most situations is heavily influenced by the three-way interaction of the
needs of individuals, the need to complete the task or activity, and the needs of the group as a whole
(Anonymous, 2011). Outdoor educator should have the ability to focus its attention on the group as
well as the activities; the person as well as the task. They should carefully influence the group to
63
work together towards their goals, while at the same time facilitating the progress of each individual
along the path of enjoyment, satisfaction and personal growth (Thomas, 2010). Participant may
have objectives separated from the group demand consideration. Therefore, it is a need to merge
the above needs together in order to make the forces interact in a manner that it is capable to
achieve the highest degree of success (Priest & Gass, 2005).
6.3 Variation in Development
Groups progress at different rates of development and direction. For example, due to individual
differences among participants, there exist different achievement among members in the group
(Robertson, 2005). The variation in the development often makes the different individual outcomes
important (Priest & Gass, 2005). However, the over-simplification of today’s ways of adaptation to
students’ differences in abilities and other characteristics have resulted many difficulties (Bar-Yam et
al., 2002). Therefore, as an outdoor educator it is vital to recognize group members that can regress
as well as advance through the stages.
6.4 Member’s Unique Characteristics
Every group is made up of unique individuals with their own perspectives on how to do things
(Tuckman & Jensen, 1977). Members’ unique characteristic such as age, gender, ethnic, previous
experience as well as cognitive level will influence the group development (Malcarne, 2012). Thus,
adjustment on program design of outdoor education needs to be taken into consideration as it
involves other aspects including appropriateness of facilitation method for the group or particular
population (Priest & Gass, 2005).
7. Conclusion
This paper has attempted to discuss and suggest the knowledge base of improving group cohesion
through outdoor education in terms of two interweaving features: theoretical knowledge (or model)
and practical knowledge. In particular, this paper has urged for clear understanding of Outward
Bound Educational Process Model and Group Cohesion Model as well as practical knowledge that
might generate the development of group cohesion in outdoor education program. It is hoped that
this paper will make this complex issue accessible to outdoor education practitioners, students,
service users and carers in ways that encourage their contribution to the debate on what constitutes
group cohesion. As an educator, it is vital to know and understand about theoretical notion that
underpins in outdoor education program. The understanding as well as application of theoretical and
practical knowledge will help educator to enhance the quality of the program and thus achieve the
goals without a doubt. Therefore, it requires a shift in the way outdoor education camp are designed
and implemented. It also requires a change in the types of knowledge, experience and skills outdoor
educator may be required to develop.
64
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69
ECOSERV MODEL FOR ASSESSING PERCEIVED SERVICE QUALITY IN PRIVATE

OUTDOOR RECREATION PROGRAMS
Mohd Noorazlan Ab. Aziz1, Azlizam Aziz2*, Siti Suriawati Isa2 and Hafizal Ismail2
1
Faculty of Sports Science and Recreation, University Technology MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor,
Malaysia.
2
Department of Recreation and Ecotourism, Faculty of Forestry, University Putra Malaysia,43400, UPM Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia.
*
Corresponding author: azlizam@upm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
This paper aim to evaluate the applicability of the ECOSERV model in assessing the perceived service
quality in outdoor recreation programs, based on participants’ satisfaction. Outdoor recreation has
been widely acknowledged to contribute towards the sustainability of natural resources. Ecotourism
is a very marketable segment in the tourism industry in Malaysia. This pilot study involved thirty three
(N=33) undergraduate students from University Technology MARA Shah Alam, who had participated
in four (4) days outdoor recreation program at Teratak River View (TRV), Tanjung Malim, Perak. The
outdoor recreation activities organized during the program include Ice Breaking, Energizer Games,
Camp Craft, Water Confidence, Water Tubing, Abseiling, Orienteering, Trekking, and Basic Survival.
The study employed the modified ECOSERV instrument which was originally developed by Khan
in 2003. Analyses were carried out on 30 attributes that were categorized into six dimensions to
measure the service quality expectations and perceptions. Two sets of data were collected: the
first was collected before the respondents participate in the programs to measure their service
quality expectations while the second was collected after the respondents completed the program,
to measure their service quality perception. Self-administered questionnaires were handed out to
the registered respondents and collected back upon completion. The six dimensions identified in the
questionnaire showed medium to high reliability, ranging from α=0.65 to α=0.92, which is consistent
with the range of reliability in the original ECOSERV model that ranged from α=0.86 to α=0.98.
Results showed that this ECOSERV model is a reliable tool as the alpha reliability value is above
0.65. The ECOSERV model could be used as an assessment tool to evaluate the level of service
quality in outdoor recreation programs toward outdoor recreation operators. This assessment would
provide valuable information to service providers to upgrade the service quality based on the six
dimensions in ECOSERV that are most important to customers or participants. The results also
indicate the factors that determine participants’ satisfaction in outdoor settings.
Keywords: Service Quality; expectation; perception; outdoor recreation operator; ECOSERV.
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1. Introduction
Outdoor recreation has a significant impact on the society as it brings positive benefits to individuals,
family members, community and the country. Engaging in outdoor recreation activities promote
lifelong physical, emotional and spiritual well-being. Positive outcomes for physical, emotional and
spiritual well - being can be enhanced when more time is spend in the outdoors in nature (Holmes,
2007). Naturally human beings always feel close to nature and seek for any positive form of recreation
that is directly related to the natural environment. Therefore, many outdoor recreation activities have
been conducted during one’s free time at any fields of outdoor space to gain intrinsic value which
involves interaction between participants and elements of nature at its surrounding (Mwandla, 2004).
To date, outdoor recreation activities are widely organized and received substantial support all over
the world as a medium to gain positive satisfaction during leisure. An outdoor recreation activity has
become the modern lifestyle particularly in developed and developing countries like Malaysia.
It is notable that outdoor recreation operators in Malaysia consist of three main players
which are the public (government), non-profit governmental organizations (NGO’s) and private
outdoor recreation operators. The three players share the same objectives of capturing the interest,
commitment and enthusiasm of society through outdoor recreation activities. Even though they
share the same objectives, the focus of the public (government) and NGOs are more towards
fulfilling society’s desire to achieve healthy life style. However, the private operators focus more of
making profit. According to Md. Amin et al. (2011), due to the lack of outdoor recreation programs
offered by the public operators and NGOs, the society in general is more interested and keen to
employ private outdoor recreation operators to run outdoor recreation programs.Though the price
to be paid is higher but societies prefer to hire private operators, particularly in terms of the service
quality offered.
1.1 Service Quality
Service quality in outdoor recreation is vital as the impact would influence the participation of
customers in the programs organized. This study is based on the theoretical framework of service
quality model (SERVQUAL) which was proposed by Parasuraman et al. (1985). However, because
service quality is intangible in terms of performance of the service provider; it is difficult to measure
certain service value that is delivered to customer. Moreover, performance is not an object which
the values are difficult to sum, measure, inventories and test (Berry 1980; Lovelock 1981). Besides,
there is limited empirical evidence to support service quality in outdoor recreation activities in the
literature. According to Kouthouris and Alexandris (2005), research on the applicability of service
quality models in outdoor settings is still limited. Therefore, to overcome the issue and determine the
conservation elements of nature to suit the tangible and intangible dimension as evaluated by tourist,
Khan (2003) modified the SERVQUAL model and adapted it into the ecotourists’ quality expectations
framework (ECOSERV). There are some changes and adaptations made to the original SERVQUAL
model to construct the ECOSERV model. The changes have been made on the dimensions where
one dimension has been added to the tangibles dimension named as ecotangibles. The other five
dimensions remained the same. For that reason, ECOSERV model consists of six service quality
dimensions which are ecotangibles, tangibles, assurance, reliability, responsiveness, and empathy.
71
These six ECOSERV dimensions are incorporated into the Oliver’s (1997) expectancy
disconfirmation with performance model. This theory is based on the synthesis of theoretical and
empirical work on how customers hold an expectation and perception to determine service quality
levels regarding the service that had being received. Therefore in this context, it is also crucial to
review the expectancy disconfirmation theory and several existing hypothesis associated with the
theory. According to Oliver (1997), Expectancy disconfirmation theory emphasises on how customers
form a judgement about certain products or services based on their prior expectation. Customers
make a satisfaction judgement as a comparative referent after experiencing the actual service
performance. Therefore, prior expectation and actual performance are related to form a judgement
for satisfaction in service quality. Supporting this concept, expectancy disconfirmation can be defined
as the gap between expectation and actual performance (Yi, 1990; Erevelles & Leavitt, 1992; Oliver,
1997). It is important to understand that the disconfirmation of expectation has two possibilities
which are positive and negative. Positive disconfirmation occurs when performance of the service
providers exceed the expectation of the customers. Whereas, negative disconfirmation occurs when
the performance falls short of customers’ expectation when they received the actual performance
of the service. Previous researchers have agreed that this theory is applicable to determine the
satisfaction level of customers on performance. Supporting this idea, expectancy disconfirmation
with performance model applicable in both experimental and field studies of a variety of products
and services have proven as determinant of customer satisfaction (Cardozo, 1965; Churchill &
Suprenant, 1982; Bearden & Teel, 1983; Oliver & DeSarbo, 1988; Tse & Wilton, 1988; Anderson &
Sullivan, 1993).
1.2 ECOSERV

The modification of the SERVQUAL model to ECOSERV model by Khan (2003) is an alternative method
to evaluate service quality of a service in the tourism context which in the meantime also determines
the element of conservation towards nature. This effort was made as awareness of ecotourists differ
from the mass tourists in term of their behaviour, education, motivation, participation and purpose
of visiting a place. Therefore, Khan and Su (2003) proposed the ECOSERV model as an indicator
to be used to measure service quality specifically in natural areas such as ecoutourism destination.
Based on the ECOSERV instrument, thirty (30) attributes were gathered and shufflled into six (6)
service quality dimensions that was developed as questionnaire statements. The six (6) dimensions
of ECOSERV were categorised as ecotangible, tangible, reliability, responsiveness, assurance and
empathy. Ecotangibles refer to the physical facilities and equipment that are safe and appropriate to
the environment. Tangibles refer to material and appearance of the personnel that reflect the local
influence. Reliability refers to the ability of employees or staffs to perform the promised services
dependably and accurately. Responsiveness refers to the willingness of employees or staffs to
help customers and provide prompt services. Assurance refers to the knowledge and courtesy of
the employees and their ability to convey trust and confidence, and provide necessary information.
The last dimension is empathy. This dimension refers to the caring, individualized attention the firm
provides to its customers.
72
2. Purpose of Study
This study aims to evaluate the applicability of the ECOSERV model in assessing perceived
service quality towards private outdoor recreation operator in outdoor recreation program, based on
participants’ satisfaction. Therefore, a pilot survey was conducted to test the suitability and readability
of the questions presented.
3. Methodology
This study was conducted at TRV in Tanjung Malim, Perak. The resort is located between the states
of Perak and Selangor and traversed by the Bernam River. Its major attractions include outdoor
recreation activities such tubing, river crossing, white water kayaking, obstacles course, flying fox,
abseiling, mountain biking, paintball, jungle trekking, night walk, and survival course.
Field survey of this study was conducted by using conveniently sampled on-site interception
method. The sampling is based on the non-probability method where it is regularly used to get a rough
estimate result during preliminary research without needing much cost or time to select a random
sample (Saunders et al., 2003). The questionnaire was self-administered upon registration at the
resort office. The survey was conducted on September 2014. Participants who were participating in
the outdoor recreation activities at the time of the survey were considered as the target population.
The questionnaire was made available in both English and Malay language. In total, 33 sets of
questionnaires were returned and used for data analysis. As Guest et al., (2006) and Creswell
(2007) have suggested, that for a study that focuses on understanding the commonalities within a
fairly homogeneous group, a sample size of between 25 to 30 may well serve the purpose.
The survey is a closed-ended questionnaire that was designed to evaluate the applicability
of ECOSERV in assessing the service quality of private outdoor recreation operators in outdoor
recreation program. The survey questionnaire consisted of four (4) parts. The first part of the
questionnaire requested for respondents’ demographic information that includes gender, age,
origin, educational level and occupation. The second part contained questions on respondents’
expectations towards participating in the outdoor recreation program at the resort. The third part
consist of questions pertaining to respondents’ perceptions of their experience in outdoor recreation
program at the resort. The last part contains questions about respondents’ overall satisfaction towards
the outdoor recreation program at the resort. In this study, the ECOSERV instrument was modified
by incorporating all thirty items from the six (6) major service dimensions (ecotangibles, tangibles,
assurance, reliability, responsiveness and empathy) into the questionnaire. The expectations and
perceptions of respondents were measured using a 5-point Likert scale-(1) poor, (2) fair, (3) good, (4)
very good, (5) excellent. The fourth part contained six additional questions to determine respondents’
overall level of satisfaction that was measured based on 5-point Likert scale-(1) strongly disagree,
(2) disagree, (3) unsure, (4) agree, (5) strongly agree.
The SPSS version 20.0 was used to analyse and interpret data. Reliability analyses based
on the Cronbach’s alpha value was used to assess the reliability of the instrument, which was
represented by the Cronbach’s alpha value. Descriptive statistics such as frequency and percentage
was used to analyse respondents’ socio demographic characteristics.
73
4. Results
The demographic data of respondents is summarized in Table 1. Majority of the respondents (63.6%)
were male while female covered of 36.4%. The respondents were mostly between the ages of 18-24
years old. About 97 % of the respondents were single and 3.0% were married. All of the respondents
were Malaysian. The highest level of education is diploma (100.0%). This can be easily understood
as all of them are full time undergraduate students.
Table 1: Respondents’ Socio- demographic Characteristics
Demographic Characteristic Frequency (N= 33) Percentage (%)
Gender
Male 21 63.6
Female 12 36.4
Age
18-24 years old 32 97.0
25-34 years old 1 3.0
35-44 years old 0 0.0
45-54 years old 0 0.0
55 and above 0 0.0
Marital Status
Single 32 97.0
Married 1 3.0
Origin
Malaysian 33 100.0
Singaporean 0 0.0
Others Asian Country 0 0.0
European 0 0.0
Education 0 0.0
Secondary 33 100.0
Diploma 0 0.0
Bachelor 0 0.0
Masters 0 0.0
PhD
Occupation
Student 33 100.0
Unemployed 0 0.0
Self- employed 0 0.0
Housewife 0 0.0
0 0.0
Private Sector
Government Sector 0 0.0
Retiree 0 0.0
74
The Cronbach’s Alpha reliability test was conducted to determine the reliability of the data
collected. The results are summarized in Table 2 and Table 3. The produced Cronbach’s Alpha
values were found to be internally reliable as the values exceeded the minimum standard value
(α=0.65) as suggested by Chua (2013).
As shown in Table 2, the value of Cronbach’s Alpha for service quality expectations was
calculated to check the reliability of the instrument. Results as shown in Table 2 indicated that the
value range for each dimension were from α = 0.65 to α = 0.83.
Table 2: Reliability Analysis of Dimensions for Service Quality Expectation
As shown in Table 3, the value of Cronbach’s Alpha for service quality perceptions was
calculated to check the reliability of the instrument. Results showed in Table 3 indicate that the value
for each dimension range from α = 0.74 to α = 0.92.
Table 3: Reliability Analysis of Dimensions for Service Quality Perceptions
As shown in Table 4, the value of Cronbach’s Alpha for the overall service quality satisfaction
was calculated to check the reliability of the instrument. Results as shown in Table 4 indicate that the
values for each items range from α = 0.69 to α = 0.80.
75
Table 4: Reliability Analysis for Service Quality Overall Satisfaction items
Coefficient
Items N No. of Items
Alpha
I am satisfied with the services 33 1 .80
provided by this outdoor
recreation operator
I believe I did the right thing 33 1 .79
to participate in this outdoor
recreation program
I am happy about my decision 33 1 .78
recreation program
I will be back to use this 33 1 .75
outdoor recreation operator
services again
I will recommend to others to 33 1 .74
use this outdoor recreation
operator services
I am satisfied with my decision 33 1 .69
recreation program
5. Discussion
The respondents involved were mostly male (63.6%) students between the ages of 18 to 24 years
old (97.0%). Most were single (97.0%) and all respondents were Malaysians. All of the respondents
were pursuing a Diploma education from a local university (100.0%) and are full time students
(100.0%).
Based on the results obtained in this exploratory study, the overall Cronbach alpha values
for each dimension of ECOSERV were consistent to the original version of ECOSERV modified
by Khan (2003). The outlined for each item in every dimensions for expectation had relatively high
reliability alpha coefficients emphaty α=0.83, assurance α=0.82, reliability α=0.78, responsiveness
α=0.77, tangible α=0.77 and ecotangible α=0.65. The alpha values for perceptions were slightly
higher as compared to the expectation alpha values. The alpha values reported for perceptions
were tangible α=0.92, reliability α=0.85, responsiveness α=0.85, emphaty α=0.84, ecotangible
α=0.81 and assurance α=0.74.
76
The purpose of this study was to test the suitability and readability of the questions presented.
From the results of the study, the questionnaire was then modified and improved to eliminate any
ambiguous statements based on the respond and recommendations of the respondents. Reliability
test is focused on the internal consistency of the questionnaire and the direction of the study.
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient helps to assure the conformity for every dimension’s critical items
(Tzeng & Chang, 2011). According to Chua (2013), the alpha value of 0.65 to 0.95 is satisfactory
because low alpha coefficient (alpha<0.65) shows that the ability of the items in the research
instrument to measure the concept (or the variable) is low. On the other hand, an alpha value which
is too high (alpha>0.95) means all items are similar or overlap with one another, and the use of items
that overlap are not encouraged.
6. Conclusion
Findings for the overall alpha values were satisfactory as the alpha value shows high reliability
value. The items can be concluded as clear and easy for the respondents to understand. The results
found throughout this study are consistent with research regarding ecotourists’ quality expectation.
The six dimensions identified in the questionnaire showed medium to high reliability results, ranging
from α=0.65 to α=0.92, which were consistent with the range of reliability in the original ECOSERV
reliability test by Khan (2003).
This ECOSERV instrument could be used as an assessment tool to evaluate the level of
service quality in outdoor recreation programs towards outdoor recreation operators. This assessment
would provide valuable information for service providers to upgrade the service quality based on
the six dimensions in ECOSERV that are of most concerned by customers, participants or tourists.
These results also indicate the factors that determine satisfaction in outdoor settings. Supporting this
findings, Abas Said et al. (2009) suggested the outcome of service quality study in recreation can
potentially be used by national park management authorities to address problems regarding service
quality. Moreover, in the study of an evaluation of service quality from visitors’ perspectives reveal
that a research study in future with larger sample size and better representation of the population
would definitely provide greater knowledge and understanding (Abas Said et al., 2013).
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78
INSTRUMENT FOR MEASURING VISITORS` SATISFACTION ON THE NATURE

GUIDE ROLES AT TAMAN NEGARA PAHANG
Mustakim Hashim1, Azlizam Aziz2 and Siti Suriawati Isa2

1
Faculty of Sport Science and Recreation, Universiti Teknologi Mara, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia.
2
Department of Recreation and Ecotourism, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, UPM Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia.
* Corresponding author: azlizam@upm.edu.my
Abstract
This paper aims to evaluate the applicability of the revised Modern Tour Guide (MTG) Model in
assessing visitors’ satisfaction at Taman Negara Pahang (TNP). The study involved visitors’ (N =
50) to the TNP who had participated in various activities such as Canopy Walkway, Rapid Shooting,
Visiting Orang Asli Settlement and Night Walk. The roles of nature guide in the MTG model include
instrumental, social, instructional, communicative, motivator, environmental interpreter, promoter and
philanthropy. The pilot study was conducted at TNP involving visitors to the park, age between 18 to
45 years old. The Cronbach`s alpha reliability value for ‘expectation’ is 0.95 and ‘performance’ is 0.96,
indicating high reliability of the instrument. A group of panel expert formed among the academicians
and the industry practitioners also checked the validity of the instrument. The developed instrument
is a reliable tool to evaluate visitors’ satisfaction towards the roles of nature guide at national parks.
The assessment would provide valuable information to understand and possibly upgrade services
in the ecotourism industry.
Keywords: Taman Negara Pahang; nature guide; satisfaction.
1. Introduction
Ecotourism has been acknowledged to have positive benefits on initiatives to protect resources at
natural areas as it provides economic incentives in exchange for conserving and enhancing bio
cultural resources (Lindberg & Johnson, 1994). This is evident in most of the popular ecotourism
destinations in Malaysia, in particular the Taman Negara Pahang (TNP). The park was originally
gazetted under the colonial British government in 1925 as a wildlife sanctuary, named Gunung
Tahan Game Reserve. It initially covered 1,300 square kilometres (500m2) of forested land (Azlizam
et al., 2012). After Malaysia gained its independence in 1957, the park was renamed to Taman
Negara National Park and the park was extended to cover over 4,343 square kilometres (1,676 m2,
about six times the size of Singapore) of land area that straddles between the states of Pahang,
Terengganu and Kelantan (Shantha & Ali, 2013). Taman Negara National Park has four entrances
which are the Kuala Tahan (in Pahang), Merapoh and Kuala Koh (in Kelantan) and Tanjung Mentong
(in Terengganu). Kuala Tahan, the oldest entrance to the national park was selected as the study
site since it is regarded as the most visited ecotourism site in the country.
79
In order to improve the wellbeing of local residents, the park management opened Kuala Tahan
National Park for ecotourism activities in the early 1990s. Since then, ecotourism activities in Taman
Negara Pahang provided work opportunities to the locals, who worked as boat operators, restaurant
operators, nature guides, lodge providers and other services. It is interesting to note that many of
the existing nature guides at the park had started young – some as early as 16 years old. The roles
of nature guides in TNP are becoming more important as the government are acknowledging its
successes. Besides that, nature guides also serve a variety of other functions. As mentioned by
Peake et. al. (2009), nature guides are the best person to deliver conservation messages. Nature
guides are also in the best position to ensure the sustainability of the ecotourism destination (Hu
& Wall, 2012). This is because they are the front liners that meet visitors on a daily basis (Haig &
McIntyre, 2002; El-Sharkawy, 2007; Huang et al., 2010). They communicate and treat visitors as part
of their job routine. Carcinelli-Filho (2013) stated that guides act as protectors and trustees to the
visitors’ safety. In addition, Gelbman and Maoz (2012) stated that guides are mediator that introduce
local culture to the visitors. They also play important roles in influencing the level of satisfaction
among tourists from their tour experience (McDonnell, 2001). Although the important roles that are
being played by the nature guides are quite obvious, a pertinent question remains; what are the
specific roles that must be performed by the nature guides?
Satisfaction is the fulfilment of one`s wishes, expectations and needs. In the service industry, there
are various definitions for customers’ satisfaction but the easiest way to understand it is when the
customer’s expectation of the services being offered or provided matches his/her perception of the
actual services (Parasuraman et al., 1985). Therefore, it is important to study customers’ satisfaction
in order to know how well the organizations or individuals perform (Latu & Everett, 2000). Arabatzis
and Grigoroudis (2010) stated that it is the most reliable information for performance evaluation.
More importantly, the organizations can identify future actions and improvement of the programs
based on the end users’ views which are the customers.
Based on the literature, nature guides have multi-faceted roles that must be performed.
Cohen’s (1985) model for the roles of modern tour guide (MTG) proposed two spheres for tour
guides. The two spheres are leadership and mediatory which includes four sub-roles of guiding.
The two orientations of the model are “outer-directed” and “inner-directed”. “Outer-directed” role has
instrumental and interactional elements, whereas “inner-directed” has social and communicative
elements. The instrumental roles are closely related to the responsibility to carry out their job in
ensuring the tour’s success. There are few points to consider in these roles which among them
is direction; where guides need to set the route and destination of the trip. If the route is open for
choice, the guides know where the object of the interest is to be found. The guides also have access
not only to the geographical area but also the socially organized territory. They provide access to
this area and at the same time are responsible towards tourists’ behaviour to ensure they do not
cause damage and/or interfere the ongoing activities. The guides also need to ensure the safety
of tourists and the efficiency of the trip. This might include keeping the schedule on time, duration
of the stay at certain stop and the movement of the parties involved. The interactional role refers
to the role of guides to mediate the visitors and the local community at the tourism sites, institution
and the facilities visited. The guides also act as visitors’ representative to the local community and
80
at the same time becomes the local community`s representative to the tourist. The guides need to
organize the trip which includes the arrangement of the services and the amenities such as meals,
overnight stays as well as emergency services, if needed.
The social role involves a few elements such as facilitating relationship, entertaining tourists
during the tour, encouraging cohesion and morale among them. The guides are also responsible
for preventing any tension in the group but to manage it if it occurs. They also need to promote
social integration among the group members. For the communicative role, they have to convey and
disseminate information and knowledge to the tourists. Being selective among the guides is important
to ensure the success of the trip. Usually, the guides need to point out the subject of interest in the
trip and sometimes they can be manipulative too, showing tourists what they can or cannot see.
The guides need to disseminate exact and accurate information to the tourists. Interpretation is vital
as the guides not only know how to mediate the local culture to the visiting parties but they need to
know the culture of the visitors.
Cohen’s model was then extended by the work of Weiler and Davis (1993) which added
the resource management sphere. They believe that intolerable ecological and social damage
can be prevented if guides perform these roles effectively without compromising on the quality of
experience to the tourists. The sphere includes two more important roles which are the motivator
and environmental interpreter. The motivator’s role is to influence the modification of visitors’
behaviour and impact to the site while visiting the site, where as an environmental interpreter’s
role is to cultivate thoughtful and appreciation towards environmental issues to promote long term
responsible behaviour.
Another study by Pereira and Mykletun (2012) added an economy sphere to the model.
The role in this sphere suggested that tour guides should promote the local products, as well as
helping tourists to buy and engage in their services. For philanthropy, it promotes tourists’ charitable
behaviour of supporting the conservation programme at the places involved. Pereira and Mykletun
(2012) added this sphere to the model to accomplish the principles of sustainability. The three main
components of sustainable tourism which have been added in the earlier model of MTG are social
in Cohen (1985), environmental in Weiler and Davis (1993) and the economy component by Pereira
and Mykletun (2012).
MTG model is suitable in this study because it is frequently cited as a foundation to examining
the roles of guides (Weiler & Davis, 1993; Haig & McIntyre, 2002; Randall & Rollins, 2009). This
model focuses specifically on the roles of guides when providing their services. This paper was
prepared to discuss the development of an instrument to determine satisfaction towards the roles of
nature guides at Taman Negara Pahang.
3. Methodology
The instrument for this study was developed with reference to previous work by Randall and Rollins
(2009). It was adopted and adapted with further reference to Cohen`s (1985) Model of Modern Tour
Guide. Cohen`s model was actually extended and refined by Weiler and Davis (1993) and Pereira
& Mykletun (2012). In the present study, an expert panel comprising of academicians from the local
university and industry practitioners was employed to examine the validity and applicability of the
proposed instrument. The questionnaires were divided into 4 sections which are the demographic
information of respondents, current trip characteristic, expectation and real performance on the
roles of the nature guides.
81
Data was collected at TNP at Kuala Tahan in July 2014. Kuala Tahan has been chosen as the
study site because of its popularity as compared to other entry points (Azlizam et al., 2012). Since
it was first established, the accessibility to the park has improved. Visitors are no longer required to
endure three hour boat-ride along the Tembeling River as a tarred road from the town of Temerloh
to Kuala Tahan has been established in 1994. Economic benefits to the villagers are apparent
since the land route was established. The land route also encouraged the improvement of tourism
facilities and accommodation in the park and its vicinity. Many locally-run lodge businesses emerged
providing various options to the visitors of their preferred type of accommodation.
A purposive sampling was used in this study to intercept respondents who visited TNP and
used the services of licensed nature guides. SPSS Statistic program version 19.0 was used to analyze
and interpret the data. Reliability analysis was used to assess the reliability of the instruments, which
was represented by the Cronbach’s alpha value. Descriptive statistics such as frequencies, means
and standard deviation were used to describe the data.
4. Results
Respondents’ demographic information is summarized in Table 1. Majority of the respondents (60%)

were male while female made up 40% of them. The respondents were mostly Malaysians with
more than 44% of the respondents between the ages of 28-43 years old. The highest level of
education completed was tertiary education which includes college and university graduates (56%
of respondents).
Table 1: Respondents’ Demographic Information
82
Table 2 represents respondents’ trip characteristics. Most of the respondents (50%) agreed
that they were responsible in making the decision to travel to TNP. When asked on the type of
transportation used, most of the respondents travelled to the park using rented vehicles (42%).
Some of them knew TNP through word of mouth (36%) while others from travel guides & brochures
(24%) and the internet (14%). Considering the remote location of the park, it is not surprising that
majority of the respondents indicated that they usually stayed overnight in the park with their most
favorable choice of accommodation being the chalet (76%).
Table 2: Respondents’ Trip characteristics
The Cronbach’s Alpha value was calculated to check on the reliability of the instrument. Results
as shown in Table 3 indicated that the value range for each item were from α=0.60 to α=0.92 for
expectation and from α=0.62 to α=0.92 for the real performance. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability
value for expectation was 0.95 and real performance was 0.96, which indicated that the items scale
had very good reliability. The instrument is reliable in examining satisfaction towards the role of nature
guides. The communicative roles were the only role that was questionable (α=0.60 for expectation
and 0.62 for performance) as suggested by Chua (2011), the minimum of acceptable alpha value
for internal consistency is 0.65.
83
Table 3: Reliability Analysis of Each Role
The means and standard deviation are as shown in Table 4. For expectation, the highest roles that
visitors expect was ‘Environmental Interpreter’ with a mean score of m= 5.85. This was followed by
‘Motivator of Responsible Behavior’ (m=5.66), ‘Communicative’ (m=5.46), ‘Instrumental’ (m=5.43),
‘Instructional’ (m= 5.36), ‘Social’ (m= 5.35), ‘Philanthropy’ (m=4.80), and lastly ‘Promoter’ (m=4.80).
For performance, the highest roles for performance was ‘Instrumental’ with a mean score of m=6.03.
This was followed by ‘Environmental Interpreter’ (m=5.90), ‘Instructional’ (m=5.79), ‘Social’ (m=5.75),
‘Communicative’ (m=5.58), ‘Motivator of Responsible Behavior’ (m=5.54), ‘Philanthropy’ (m=5.51),
and lastly ‘Promoter’ (m=4.37). This showed that visitors’ main emphasis is more on interpretation of
nature while visiting the TNP. Furthermore, the respondents agreed that the nature guides are good
enough to influence the visitors during their trips.
Table 4: Means and Standard Deviation for the important of each role
84
5. Discussion
The aim of this study was to examine the reliability and validity of a proposed instrument for measuring
visitors’ satisfaction towards the roles of nature guides at TNP. From the results, eight roles were
listed that represented the roles of nature guides. It was derived from the Cohen (1985), extended
by Weiler and Davis (1993) and Pereira and Mykletun (2012). The instrument had indicated high
reliability based on Cronbach’s alpha value which scored the highest at α= 0.95 for expectation and
α= 0.96 for performance. Only the communicative role result that was rated by the visitors were
questionable (α=0.60 for expectation and 0.62 for performance). This situation may result from the
unclearly worded statement or the meaning may have been difficult for the visitors to understand
(Chua, 2011). So, modification and restatement of items will be done.
The mean score for expectation showed six roles proposed by Cohen (1985), the additional
roles as extended by Weiler and Davis (1993) were rated with mean values greater than 5. This
preliminary findings show that the support for each roles as proposed by Weiler and Davis (1993) is
similar to Haig and McIntyre (2000) and Randall & Rollins’ studies. This leaves the economy sphere
proposed by Pereira and Mykletun (2012) quite low with a value below than 5. This situation may
result from visitors visiting TNP without much expectation, specifically to the role of nature guides.
The highest expectation was the role of environmental interpreter with m= 5.85. Visitors expect to
be exposed to nature as much as they could. The questions in this section included awareness
and appreciation of nature, knowledge and understanding of the park and connection and impact
between species in the park. The performance of the guides were all highly rated with an exception
of one (promoter <5). The highest performance rated by visitors was the instrumental role. This role
includes the set up of the trip pace, discussing on the hazards and advises on wearing appropriate
gear. This is because the guides are well trained and very experienced in the area.
6. Conclusion
From the study, it can be concluded that the instrument is a reliable instrument to measure the roles
of nature guides at TNP. The instrument will prevent confusion on the roles of nature guides and their
relationship to visitors’ satisfaction. This instrument focuses on the role of the guides themselves
instead of studying on the overall experience at TNP. This study contributes to the original work of
Randall and Rollins (2009) by developing more items in measuring the roles of nature guides which
they had done on the Cohen (1985) Model of Modern Tour Guide and extended by Weiler and Davis
(1993). Furthermore, this study also incorporates Pereira and Mykletun (2012) latest work, where
they added the economy sphere to the model and develop individual attributes on the role of nature
guides.
85
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86
MEASURING THE ATTRACTIVENESS OF BUKIT NANAS RECREATION

FOREST AS ECOTOURISM DESTINATIONS
Nur Hafizah Idris, Azlizam Aziz* and Zaiton Samdin
Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang-43400, Selangor, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
As noted in the newly introduced National Key Economic Area, ecotourism has been identified by
the government as an important niche area for Malaysian tourism, with the intention to differentiate it
from other competing destinations in the region. Conventionally, ecotourism products are developed
based on the existing cultural and natural attractions. In Malaysia, recreational forests have the
potential of being developed and marketed as ecotourism destinations since these forests are
endowed with many attributes of tourism attractions, including beautiful scenery, fresh-flowing rivers
and waterfalls as well as diverse flora and fauna. There are currently a total of 124 recreational
forests in Peninsular Malaysia, which have received visitors, mostly local visitors and handful
foreigners. Thus, the principal purpose of this paper is to 1) discuss the challenges and potentials
for transforming recreational forests in Peninsular Malaysia as viable ecotourism destinations and
2) to evaluate the relative importance of existing attributes in attracting tourist to visit recreational
forests. Several factors are noted as potentially capable of influencing future visits to recreational
forests and these factors include the vast and diversity of natural resources, proximity to major cities
where the captured tourism market are situated and the availability of facilities.
Keywords: Recreational forest; tourism market; ecotourism destination; Bukit Nanas Recreational
Forest.
1. Introduction
As a rapidly developing country, Malaysia has recognized the importance of having a healthy lifestyle
to go alongside with positive economic growth. Realizing such need, in 1978, the government, through
the Forestry Department of Peninsular Malaysia gazetted several forest reserves for recreational
purposes (Azlin, 1999). This type of forest is often described as an area with quiet surrounding, rich
in flora and fauna and with water features like rivers and waterfalls. These features are frequently
cited as major attractive characteristic for visitation (World Wide Fund for Nature Malaysia, 1996). A
review on research literature for the last 10 years revealed that many studies have been conducted
on the recreational forests in Malaysia. For example, Zimmerman (2002) evaluated visitor’s needs
for facilities in Sungai Tekala Recreational Forest. Afriezul (2004) studied on visitor’s awareness
towards conservation of recreational forest. In contrast, a research conducted by Kwan (2006)
focused on visitor’s perception on recreational use impacts on soil and vegetation in Ulu Bendul
Recreational Forest.
87
Despite the recent interests to study recreational forest, there is an absence of research that
evaluates how foreign visitors’ perceive recreational forests as ecotourism destination. From the
statistics of visitors to Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest, we can see that the number of visitors from
outside the country (5278 individuals) is higher than the number of local visitors (1092 individuals)
(Forest Department of Peninsular Malaysia, 2012). It has proven that recreational forest can attract
foreign visitors as much as national parks and perhaps, generate more income to the country through
the ecotourism industry.
In order to deliver or offer recreational forests as future ecotourism destinations, marketing
planners must first understand the potential market better (Boluglu & Uysal, 1996). As such, baseline
information is needed, that is including how such products (destination e.g. recreational forest) are
being perceived by the market (visitors e.g. foreign tourist). However, most of these forests lack a
pool of competent personnel to carryout tasks necessary to receive visitors, lack of maintenance of
current facilities, lack of structured programming of ecotourism activities and the non-existence of
concerted efforts to properly develop recreational forests as an ecotourism destination. Once such
issues are addressed, recreational forests can help to diversify and add a unique dimension into our
ecotourism appeal.
1.2 Attractiveness of destination
Lew (1987) had noted that, “without attractions, there would be no tourism and without tourism, there
would be no tourist attractions”. Attractions are the key to tourism growth. They provide motivation
for visits and represent the core product of the ‘experience’ at one place. They provide economic
value by increasing the average spends of visitor (Tasmania Parks and Wildlife Services, 1999).
Meanwhile Mayo and Jarvis (1981) defined attractiveness as “perceived ability of the destination to
deliver individual benefits”.
In addition, Jin et al. (2012) defined attractiveness as “an experience in which the supplier
binds together different products and services”. This suggests that the acting manager should
provide facilities or services that are suitable to the different needs of the visitors. Attractiveness of
destination has a great effect on determining destination choice, satisfaction, intensions to revisit
and positive perception of opinion leaders (Becken & Simmons, 2002; Teller & Reutterer, 2008; Lee
et al., 2010).
As discussed above, one place can be an attraction when the place is able to provide services
to meet the diverse visitors’ needs. Managers and administers should take this challenge to improve
their place attraction. Cracolici and Nijkamp (2008) examined the relative attractiveness of some
ecotourism destinations based on visitor’s perception of the holiday destination. They concluded
that, “destination areas are challenged to offer a balanced package of those tourist services which
all together shape an appealing multidimensional profile for a tourist area”. Ryan and Saward (2004)
evaluated the motives and attributes of visitors who came to the Hamilton Zoo at New Zealand. They
believe that motives and appropriate attributes can influence the reason to visiting zoo and this is one
of the methods to measuring place attractiveness. It was also explained by Lee et al. (2010), where
they proposed that the attractiveness of a destination has a tremendous influence on determining a
person’s destination of choice, expectation of satisfaction, intention to revisit, perception of benefits
and motivation, positive perception of opinion leaders, the amount of money spent and the duration
of stay. In other words, attractiveness of the destination is always influenced by visitors’ demands.
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MacCannell (1976) explained that, “there are three components to be considered as attraction
that is (1) tourist, (2) a site to be viewed and (3) a maker to be an image which makes the site
significant. Thus, attraction in its widest context would not only include the historic sites, amusement
parks, and spectacular scenery, which are normally associated with the words, but also the services
and facilities which cater to the daily needs of tourists”. Attractiveness of destination does not only
depend on the uniqueness of the place. It must be in conformity with the requirements of the visitor.
However, different background of the visitors raises all kinds of requirements (Fodness, 1994).
Therefore, studies on attractiveness are important to find out what are consumers’ demands. The
present study is to examine what is required by foreign visitors that visit the recreational forests in
Malaysia as it has the potential of becoming one of ecotourism destinations.
1.3 Recreational forest as ecotourism destination
There are numerous conceptual definitions of ecotourism. Each of them tried to identify ecotourism
based on their understanding. Ziffer (1989) stated that ecotourism is a “form of tourism inspired
primarily by the natural history of an area, including its indigenous cultures”. Boo (1991), defined
ecotourism as a “nature tourism that contributes to conservation, through generating funds for
protected areas, creating employment opportunities for local communities and offering environmental
education”. Forest Tasmania (1994) defined ecotourism as “nature-based tourism that is focused
on the provision of learning opportunities while providing local and regional benefits, demonstrating
environmental, social, cultural and economic sustainability”. A comparison of these definitions
indicated that ecotourism tends to have nature, conservation, environmental education and economic
sustainability. As mentioned by Diamantis (2004), ecotourism has three main components that
are natural-based, educational and sustainable management. Sustainable management includes
economic, social, cultural and ethical issues (Diamantis, 2004). Hence, ecotourism play an important
role for nature-based education and conservation. These had made ecotourism differ from other
tourism. From all the explanations, we can conclude that one thing that distinguishes ecotourism
from tourism is that ecotourism gives potential positive contribution to the conservation of the natural
environment (Buckley, 2009).
According to Smit and Pascut (2009), recreational forests were made available to the public
because it contributes to the “satisfaction of recreation, relaxation and resting necessities; practicing
sports, studying the vegetation and fauna” and so on. In the Guidelines for Recreational Forest
Reserves (World Wide Fund for Malaysia, 1998), they explained, “in Malaysia, recreational forests
are typically small areas (a few forest compartments) near the edge of forest reserves, near to
road access and with a stream or waterfall”. The Forest Department of Negeri Sembilan (2010)
commented that recreational forests play an important role in nature tourism or ecotourism sector
in line with the development and improvement of people’s living standards. To fulfill the needs of
local people and the world community at large, the department has been able to design, build
and maintain sustainable recreational forests with leisure and facilities. Developments in forest
recreational facilities have been able to attract local and foreign visitors as well as developing
industries related to ecotourism and make the forest as an amenity that is attractive to tourist in the
country and abroad.
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1.4 Study objectives
The primary objective of the study is to evaluate the attractiveness of recreational forest in Malaysia
(Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest) as an ecotourism destination as perceived by foreign visitors
at the area. In measuring attractiveness, the measurements used were based on the attributes
taken from the study by Lee et al. (2010), which derived a framework of hierarchy of determinants
for attractiveness of recreational forests. They noted that four major dimensions contribute to the
overall attractiveness of forest recreation area which is tourist attraction, accessibility, amenities and
complementary services.
2. Methodology
2.1 Study site
Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest which is situated in the heart of the Malaysian capital Kuala Lumpur
was chosen for this research. Since the stated objective of this study was to examine the perception
of foreign tourists on recreational forest, the selection of this study site was deemed necessary in
order to get the targeted sample size of the respondents. This oldest forest reserve in Peninsular
Malaysia is currently the only lowland dipterocarp forest in Kuala Lumpur and was formerly known
as the Bukit Weld Forest Reserve (Forest Department of Peninsular Malaysia, 2012). Apart from
functioning as an amenity forest, this forest is also classified as both Education and Research
Forest, with three nature trails available in this forest, namely the Arboretum Trail, Penarahan Trail
and Jelutong Trail (Forest Department of Peninsular Malaysia, 2012).
2.2 Sample and sampling technique
This study utilized the stratified-systematic sampling technique in choosing visitors at the study site
to participate in this study. Stratified sampling uses a pre-determined time frame when collecting the
data and systematic sampling was used in choosing every k-respondent entering the recreational
forest. Data were collected at two different times which was in the morning (9.00 am-12.00 pm) and
in the afternoon (2.00 pm-7.00 pm) for six days during the week. The survey was conducted over
four months from May-August 2012 at three main entrances which were the Wariseni Gallery, Eco-
park’s and Convent High School. A total of 107 international visitors in the forest were intercepted as
respondents and data gathered were subsequently used for analysis and presented in this paper.
2.3 Questionnaire
The study utilizes the quantitative method by using survey questionnaire as a study instrument. It
consisted of 20 attributes based on the framework as previously introduced by Lee et al. (2010).
The questionnaire contains 40 statements to assess foreign visitors’ attitude based on a 5-point
Likert Scale which presented a set of attractiveness statements. There were two set of questions
with the first set to evaluate the importance of the attribute(s) in influencing the decision to visit the
recreational forest. The second set was used to evaluate the availability of the attribute at recreational
forest. Each set consisted of 20 statements. Foreign visitors were asked to express their degree of
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agreement or disagreement based on the five-point scale. Each degree of agreement was given
a numerical value from one to five, where 1 represents strongly disagree, 2 represents disagree,
3 represents neutral, 4 represents agree and 5 represents strongly agree. Thus, a total numerical
value can be calculated from all the responses. The statements from each section were intentionally
arranged without following the order of those sections. The purpose of this was to make sure foreign
visitors read and respond to each of the statements carefully and discreetly, and not answering them
as a whole.
Another part of the questionnaire was to gather information of foreign visitor’s socio-
demographic data which consisted of gender, type of citizen, age, occupation, income and educational
level. Some of the questions were open-ended and some were close-ended. Close-ended questions
saved subjects’ time to response and it eases the process of data entry and analysis. The open-
ended questions allowed the foreign visitors to follow up the questionnaire with more details to their
answer. Even though the open-ended questions were more difficult to be tabulated and analyzed,
but they often provide valuable information.
2.4 Data analysis
Index analysis or mean analysis was used to determine visitors’ level of satisfaction on how much
Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest has been able to offer its attractions. It was one of the analyses
that have always been used in destination attractiveness study (Pike, 2002). The mean analyses
of visitors’ satisfaction towards the twenty statements of attribute were answered after they have
experienced the attractions in the forest to represent the level of awareness.
The average index for the twenty statements of attribute was measured by multiplying the intensity
(Si) of individual statements to the number of persons who had the same intensity (Xi). Total from
multiplying the Si and Xi is divided by the total number of sample (N). By totaling the index for each
statement and dividing the number of statements, the average index is obtained. This is shown in a
general formula as below for each statement:
IA = ∑Si.Xi
∑ N
Where;
IA = Index for statement
Si = Intensity of persons taking discreet values
Xi = Number of person having intensity preference Si
N = Number of respondents
The overall index of attractiveness is measured with the formula shown below for an overall
statement:
I oa = ∑(Ia1+Ia2+Ia3+……Ia20)
N
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Where;
Ioa = Overall Index Attractiveness
Ia1= Index attractiveness for the attribute of available number 1
N= Number of attributes
3. Results and discussion
The results show foreign visitors’ responses towards the attributes that may attract them to come to
Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest. Respondents (foreign visitors) were provided with twenty important
attributes that provides information on the most important and least important attribute in attracting
foreign visitor to the recreational forest.
Table 1 reports the percentage of foreign visitor’s choice in determining the importance of
each attributes. This percentage was based on the number of foreign visitors assigning to the value
of 5, which carried the strongest (strongly importance) value to each of the twenty attributes.
Table 1. Percentage of the important attribute as chosen by foreign visitor in visiting Bukit Nanas
Recreational Forest
Percentage of foreign visitor (n=107)
Attribute 1 2 3 4 5
Environment view 0 1.9 19.6 43 35.5
Flora/plant/tree 0 2.8 25.2 42.1 29.9
Fauna/wildlife/insect 0.9 8.4 28 31.8 30.8
Special event 24.3 35.5 25.2 11.2 3.7
Historical element 8.4 18.7 32.7 30.8 9.3
Public transportation 10.3 13.1 32.7 25.2 18.7
Access road 10.3 12.1 31.8 29.9 15.9
Water resource 7.5 15.9 33.6 29.9 13.1
Adventure activity 4.7 16.8 26.2 35.5 16.8
Safety 4.7 4.7 28 28 34.6
Food and beverage 9.3 17.8 38.3 19.6 15
Camping site 23.4 22.4 35.5 11.2 7.5
Barbecue facility 27.1 29.9 29 8.4 5.6
Chalet 34.6 26.2 27.1 5.6 6.5
Hostel 29.9 22.4 25.2 11.2 11.2
Prayer room 44.9 17.8 18.7 4.7 14
Toilet/restroom 5.6 10.3 23.4 37.4 23.4
Natural trails 0.9 3.7 22.4 38.3 34.6
Interpretation signage 8.4 9.3 26.2 29 27.1
Guided program 19.6 15.9 37.4 14 13.1
Notes: 1= mostly not important, 2 = not important, 3 = neutral, 4 = important, 5 = strongly important
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The percentage of important attributes that attract visitors as chosen by foreign visitors in
visiting Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest is as shown in Table 1. Based on the result, the environment
view attribute attained the highest percentage (35.5%). Both the safety and nature trails attributes
came in the second highest (34.6%) and followed by fauna as the third most important attribute
(30.8%). The least important attribute chosen by foreign visitors were the special event attribute
(3.7%). Meanwhile, barbecue facility received the second lowest percentage (5.6%) and followed
by chalet (6.5%). These results show that special event was the least important attribute, followed
by barbecue facility and chalet.
The reason why the environment view attribute was chosen as the most important attribute is
because Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest is the only forest reserve in Kuala Lumpur. Foreign visitors
visit the forest for one thing, to have a good environment view instead of other urban activities such
as shopping and city sightseeing (Sharifah, 2012). In contrast, the special event attribute is not really
important as one of the recreational forest attraction. Foreign visitors believe that the increasing
number of special event conducted will destroy the beauty of the forest, because of the crowding
effect and cleanliness (Azlin, 1999).
As mentioned in the last paragraph, the environment view was the most important attribute.
In measuring the availability attribute in Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest, the same method was
used. Table 2 reports the percentage of foreign visitor’s choice in determining the attribute that is
available at this recreational forest. This percentage is based on how many foreign visitors assigned
the value 5, which carried the strongest value to each of the twenty attributes.
Table 2. Percentage of the availability of attributes at Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest

Percentage of foreign visitor (n=107)
Attribute 1 2 3 4 5
Environment view 0.9 2.8 20.6 39.3 36.4
Flora/plant/tree 0 2.8 22.4 34.6 40.2
Fauna/wildlife/insect 1.9 5.6 26.2 37.4 29
Special event 18.7 22.4 45.8 9.3 3.7
Historical element 13.1 14 41.1 26.2 5.6
Public transportation 5.6 7.5 33.6 34.6 18.7
Access road 1.9 7.5 34.6 39.3 16.8
Water resource 5.6 11.2 39.3 25.2 18.7
Adventure activity 8.4 13.1 35.5 24.3 18.7
Safety 1.9 6.5 41.1 29.9 20.6
Food and beverage 10.3 20.6 45.8 14 9.3
Camping site 13.1 15.9 45.8 14 9.3
Barbecue facility 15 17.8 48.6 13.1 5.6
Chalet 15.9 16.8 53.3 10.3 3.7
Hostel 16.8 17.8 52.3 8.4 4.7
Prayer room 17.8 15 49.5 9.3 8.4
Toilet/restroom 2.8 6.5 31.8 43.9 15
Natural trails 0.9 2.8 23.4 34.6 38.3
Interpretation signage 2.8 9.3 31.8 29.9 26.2
Guided program 12.1 9.3 51.4 18.7 8.4
Notes: 1= mostly not available, 2 = not available, 3 = neutral, 4 = available, 5 = strongly available
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Results in Table 2 shows that the highest percentage for the most available attribute was
flora (40.2%), followed by natural trails (38.3%) and environment view (36.4%). The least available
attraction is special event and chalet (3.7%), followed by hostel (4.7%) and historical element and
barbecue facility (5.6%).
Paleng (2013) commented that Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest has a rich variety of flora
which includes rare herbs, creepers, ferns, climbers, giant bamboo grasses and huge tropical tree
species. Generally, foreign visitors visit this forest for this reason, to see diversity of plants. For
this reason, visitors agreed that the flora attribute is the most available attribute at this recreational
forest. Compared to the special event attribute, Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest is lacking in this
aspect. The forest caters special events for children and high school students and is not available
for foreign visitors (e.g. camping, conservation program).
The index scores for the important attractions that influence foreign visitors’ decision to
visit Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest are shown in Table 3. The result in table 3 show that the
environment view attribute has been perceived as the most important attraction in foreign visitor’s
travel decision with a score of 4.12. Natural trails appeared as the second most important attraction
to foreign visitor’s travelling decision with a score of 4.02, followed by flora with a score of 3.99.
Chalet seems to be the least important attraction in foreign visitor’s travelling decision with a score
of 2.23 and followed by prayer room with the score 2.25.
Many foreign visitors who visited Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest were attracted to its
panoramic view as the environment view became the most important attraction in making their
decision to visit the forest. The score for natural trails was also as important as environment view
as natural trails are also the main attraction at recreational forest. Chalet is the least important
attraction at Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest. This can be understood as this recreational forest
does not provide any chalet, but was open for camping purposes for those who decide to stay there.
Table 4 show the index score for the available attraction in foreign visitors’ travelling decision
to Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest. Based on the result in table 4, flora attribute has been perceived
as the most available attraction to foreign visitors’ travelling decision with a score of 4.12. Environment
view and natural trails appeared as the second most available attraction to foreign visitors’ travel
decision with a score of 4.07. Chalet is the least available attraction to foreign visitors’ travel decision
with a score of 2.55 and special event with the score of 2.57.
From the observations, foreign visitors visit Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest because of the
varieties of flora they have read and heard of this forest. That was one of the reasons for their visit.
Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest also has a mini Herbal Park, which is a park that showcases many
rare herbs around the world. This is the reason why flora attribute was selected as the most available
attraction. From the previous paragraph, chalet at Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest is recognized as
the least important attraction. Similarly, this attribute was also chosen by foreign visitors as the least
available attraction in the forest. Most of the foreign visitors to Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest used
tourist guides, and that means that there is limited time spent at this recreational forest.
From the previous results, there are not many differences between important attractions and
availability attractions. In comparing these two measures, table 5 shows the differences between
important attractions and available attractions.
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Table 3. Index score for important attribute in travel decision of foreign visitor to visit Bukit Nanas Recreational Forests, Kuala Lumpur
Attribute 1 s1x1 2 s2x2 3 s3x3 4 s4x4 5 s5x5 TSiXi SiXi/107

Environment view 0 0 2 4 21 63 46 184 38 190 441 4.12
Flora/plant/tree 0 0 3 6 27 81 45 180 32 160 427 3.99
Fauna/wildlife/insect 1 1 9 18 30 90 34 136 33 1655 410 3.83
Special event 26 26 38 76 27 81 12 48 4 20 251 2.35
Historical element 9 9 20 40 35 105 33 132 10 50 336 3.14
Public transportation 11 11 14 28 35 105 27 108 20 100 352 3.29
Access road 11 11 13 26 34 102 32 128 17 85 352 3.29
Water resource 8 8 17 34 36 108 32 128 14 70 348 3.25
Adventure activity 5 5 18 36 28 84 38 152 18 90 367 3.43
Safety 5 5 5 10 30 90 30 120 37 185 410 3.83
Food and beverage 10 10 19 38 41 123 21 84 16 80 335 3.13
Camping site 25 25 24 48 38 114 12 48 8 40 275 2.57
Barbecue facility 29 29 32 64 31 93 9 36 6 30 252 2.36
Chalet 37 37 28 56 29 87 6 24 7 35 239 2.23
Hostel 32 32 24 48 27 81 12 48 12 60 269 2.51
Prayer room 48 48 19 38 20 60 5 20 15 75 241 2.25
Toilet/restroom 6 6 11 22 25 75 40 160 25 125 388 3.63
Natural trails 1 1 4 8 24 72 41 164 37 185 430 4.02
Interpretation signage 9 9 10 20 28 84 31 124 29 145 382 3.57
Guided program 21 21 17 34 40 120 15 60 14 70 305 2.85
Notes: 1= strongly not important; 2= not important; 3= neutral; 4= important; 5= strongly important
Si= Intensity of persons taking discreet values
Xi= Number of person having intensity preference Si
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Table 4. Index score for available attribute in travel decision of foreign visitor to visit Bukit Nanas Recreational Forests, Kuala Lumpur
Attribute 1 s1x1 2 s2x2 3 s3x3 4 s4x4 5 s5x5 TSiXi SiXi/107

Environment view 1 1 3 6 22 66 42 168 39 195 436 4.07
Flora/plant/tree 0 0 3 6 24 72 37 148 43 215 441 4.12
Fauna/wildlife/insect 2 2 6 12 28 84 40 160 31 155 413 3.86
Special event 20 20 24 48 49 147 10 40 4 20 275 2.57
Historical element 14 14 15 30 44 132 28 112 6 30 318 2.97
Public transportation 6 6 8 16 36 108 37 148 20 100 378 3.53
Access road 2 2 8 16 37 111 42 168 18 90 387 3.62
Water resource 6 6 12 24 42 126 27 108 20 100 364 3.4
Adventure activity 9 9 14 28 38 114 26 104 20 100 355 3.32
Safety 2 2 7 14 44 132 32 128 22 110 386 3.61
Food and beverage 11 11 22 44 49 147 15 60 10 50 312 2.92
Camping site 14 14 17 34 49 147 18 72 9 45 312 2.92
Barbecue facility 16 16 19 38 52 156 14 56 6 30 296 2.77
Chalet 17 17 18 36 57 156 11 44 4 20 273 2.55
Hostel 18 18 19 38 56 168 9 36 5 25 285 2.66
Prayer room 19 19 16 32 53 159 10 40 9 45 295 2.76
Toilet/restroom 3 3 7 14 34 102 47 188 16 80 387 3.62
Natural trails 1 1 3 6 25 75 37 148 41 205 435 4.07
Interpretation signage 3 3 10 20 34 102 32 128 28 140 393 3.67
Guided program 13 13 10 20 55 165 20 80 9 45 323 3.02
Notes: 1= strongly not available; 2= not available; 3= neutral; 4= available; 5= most available
Si = Intensity of persons taking discreet values
Xi = Number of person having intensity preference Si
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Table 5. Difference between Important Attraction and Available Attraction
Attribute Important Available

Environment view 4.12 4.07
Flora/plant/tree 3.99 4.12
Fauna/wildlife/insect 3.83 3.86
Special event 2.35 2.57
Historical element 3.14 2.97
Public transportation 3.29 3.53
Access road 3.29 3.61
Water resource 3.25 3.4
Adventure activity 3.43 3.31
Safety 3.83 3.61
Food and beverage 3.13 2.92
Camping site 2.57 2.92
Barbecue facility 2.36 2.77
Chalet 2.23 2.69
Hostel 2.51 2.66
Prayer room 2.25 2.76
Toilet/restroom 3.63 3.62
Natural trails 4.02 4.07
Interpretation signage 3.57 3.67
Guided program 2.85 3.02
Flora attribute (4.12) was perceived as the most available attraction in this recreational forest,
followed by environment view and natural trails which attained the same value (4.07) (see Table 5).
The least available attraction was the chalet (2.55) as Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest does not
provide chalet accommodation for visitors. Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest has many nature trails
that have scenic views of flora and fauna. The differences between the trails are the length and the
ground surface of the trails. The trails only take a few hours to walk (Forest Department Peninsular
Malaysia, 2012). These factors could be the reason why the environment view and nature trails was
the most available attraction.
From the index score that compares between the important and the available attractions,
the score showed not much differences. However, based on the ranking, environment view was the
most important attraction to visitors’ travelling decision and is the second most available resource in
Bukit Nanas Recreational Forest. Conversely, the flora attributes which was the third most important
attraction to visitors’ travel decision became the most available attraction in this recreational forest.
97
4. Conclusion
Understanding visitors’ perception and evaluation on attractions of recreational forest can be one of
the solutions to solving some issues. By using the results and recommendation from this research, the
administrator and manager can identify the weaknesses and try to upgrade the forest. Determining
the important attribute can also be the best way in developing the forest.
Such information is vital to managers to provide them with the directions for future improvement
of the recreational forests as a place for relaxation and to provide meaningful visit. The study has
found that special event was the least available attributes at the recreational forests. As such,
future plan should be made to make our forest more attractive by designing major events without
compromising the integrity of the resources. Events like rainforest musical festival or forest challenge
could help to increase the visibility of these forests for the international market.
Although recreational forest was not the main choice of destination among foreign visitor
and ecotourists, these forests have the potential of becoming an important ecotourism destination.
In order to market our recreational forests, marketing agencies have to understand the potential
market including how such products (recreational forests) are being perceived by the market (foreign
visitors). Despite these results, the study managed to gather some valuable information pertaining to
the perception of foreign tourists on the availability of attributes at the recreational forests. Similarly,
the foreign tourists have also had indicated the most and least important aspects or attributes in their
decision to visit the forests.
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PROMOTING PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOUR IN ECOTOURISM

DESTINATION
1 1,*
Zamru Ajuhari , Azlizam Aziz and Hamisah Zaharah Hasan 2
1
Department of Recreation and Ecotourism, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor,
Malaysia.
2
Department of Communication, Faculty of Modern Language and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400,
Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Promoting pro-environmental behavior in ecotourism areas is important to manage conflicts in

ecotourism destination, particularly those of human and natural resource conflicts as the degradation
of the environment in these areas are strongly affected by visitors’ depreciative behaviors. Therefore,
this paper reviews the contributions and potentials of environmental psychology in promoting pro-
environmental behaviour; the use of models and theories to explain the formation of pro-environmental
behaviours and intervention strategies that can be adopted to promote environmental behaviours.
Results showed that promoting pro-environmental behaviour in ecotourism areas is more effective
when it is systematically planned. In doing so, one must first determine the depreciative behaviour
that needs to be changed. Hence, identifying the factors and barriers underlying a depreciative
behaviour is crucial to plan for the right intervention to change the depreciative behaviour to pro-
environmental action. This paper aims to facilitate researchers in the development of effective
decision making process in managing conflicts of ecotourism products or resources management.
Keywords: Ecotourism; intervention strategies; pro-environmental behaviours.
1. Introduction
1.1. Ecotourism Resources and Pro-Environmental Behaviour
Almost 27 years ago, Hector Ceballos Lascurain (1987) published one of the earliest definitions
of ecotourism and it was the only sustainable tourism development definition that focuses on the
importance of minimizing human impact on the environment (Warren & Taylor, 1994). Ecotourism is
not just about travelling to different or unusual natural and wild environment, but it also focuses on
environmental education that proved to be beneficial to nature conservation and the welfare of local
residences (Boo, 1990; Björk, 2000; Webb, 2002; Weaver & Lawton, 2007). Ecotourism destinations
are often associated with protected areas and national parks where it have been, and is still being
established all over the world for the purpose of conservation of the biodiversity for the current and
future generations (Shoo & Songorwa, 2013). However, the true practices of ecotourism cannot
be succeeded without visitors’ positive involvement at ecotourism destinations since many of the
common threats to the ecotourism resources are rooted back to visitors’ depreciative behaviours
100
(Gössling & Schumacher, 2010). For example, in some places, visitors were illegally collecting flora
and fauna (Kim et al., 2011), disturbing wildlife (Chen, 2011), polluting (Logar, 2010), overcrowding
(Dickinson & Robbins, 2008), carving on trees and the creation of a large web of interconnecting
visitors’ trail (D’Antonio et al., 2012).
In Malaysia, researchers have reported several cases related to visitors’ depreciative behaviours
such as stealing turtle eggs and fauna (Lee & Leong, 2003), vandalism, unpleasant noise at the
campsite, shortcutting (Hafizal, 2008), and solid waste pollutions (Hong & Chan, 2010) at ecotourism
destinations such as at Penang National Park . These problems have the potential of causing harm
towards the health of others at the ecotourism areas. For example, a series of Leptospirosis cases
have been reported at five Malaysian Recreational Forest (The Star Newspaper, 2010). Leptospirosis
occurred due to poor cleanliness and sanitation; poor maintenance of facilities and improper waste
disposal, inappropriate visitors’ behaviours in recreational areas that have attracted animals such as
rodents and increase the risk of contaminations (Ministry of Health Malaysia, 2011).
Furthermore, visitors’ depreciative behaviours also have the potential of affecting visitors’
satisfaction (Reisinger & Turner, 2003) and quality of experience while spending their time in the
ecotourism areas (Kao et al., 2008). As a consequence, the feeling of dissatisfaction and low
quality of experience can affect visitors’ destination loyalty and image of the ecotourism destination.
Therefore, adopting and encouraging pro-environmental behaviour at ecotourism destinations are
crucial to maintain the quality and authenticity of the ecotourism destination so that it is still relevant
in the future. Therefore, this paper reviews studies that focus on the social-psychological constructs
of pro-environmental behaviours.
2. Pro-environmental Behaviour
Pro-environmental behaviour is also known as ecological behaviour (Axelrod & Lehman, 1993;
Kaiser et al., 1999;), environmentally responsible behaviour (Chiu et al., 2014), environmental
significant behaviour (Hedlund-de Witt et al., 2014), environment-protective behaviour (Cone &
Hayes, 1980; Geller, 1995), sustainable behaviour (Marinho et al., 2014), environmentally friendly
behaviour (Lokhorst et al., 2013), and conservation behaviour (Jacobs & Harms, 2014). Generally,
pro-environmental behaviour can be defined as the types of behaviour that contribute minimal
impacts towards the environment. It is associated with appreciative actions that promote benefits to
the environment through protective practises that provide the least impacts to the resources (Iwata,
2001). Pro-environmental behaviour can manifest itself into political actions, recycling, education,
green consumption and community activism (Thapa, 2010). Pro-environmental behaviour is
reflected in individuals’ concern for the environment, knowledge and commitment by which it is
associated with knowledge of issues, knowledge of action strategies, verbal commitment, locus of
control, and sense of responsibility to perform the behaviours (Hines et al., 1987; Cottrell & Graefe
1997; Chui et al., 2014). In the context of ecotourism destination, pro-environmental behaviour is
viewed as mutual understanding of the impacts of one’s behaviours and abiding by the norms of
the ecotourism destinations (Puhakka, 2011). Beside that, the manifestation of pro-environmental
behaviour in ecotourism destination is the result of the consequence of environmental attitudes and
influenced by the behavioural norms of the ecotourism destination (Kang & Moscardo, 2006; Chiu et
al., 2014). Table 1 show several definitions of pro-environmental behaviours that have been defined
by several authors.
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Table 1: Definition of Pro-environmental behaviours
Authors Definitions
Stern (2000) Pro-environmental behaviours are behaviours that

minimally change the availability of materials or energy
from the environment or alter the structure and dynamics
of ecosystems or the biosphere.
Kollmuss and Pro-environmental behaviours as behaviour that
Agyeman (2002) consciously seeks to minimize the negative impact both
on natural and human-made environment.
Bamberg and Möser Pro-environmental behaviour as a mixture of self-interest
(2007) (to pursue a strategy that minimizes one’s own health risk)
and concern for other people, the next generation, other
species and the whole ecosystems.
Steg and Vlek (2009) Pro-environmental behaviour is the kind of behaviour
that minimizes the impacts or even brings benefits the
environment.
Krajhanzl (2010) Pro-environmental behaviour is a protective way
of environmental behaviour or a tribute to healthy
environments.
Osbaldiston & Schott Pro-environmental behaviour is the type of behaviour that
(2012) is comparatively better for the environment.
2.1. Promoting pro-environmental behaviour in ecotourism destination
As discussed earlier, the current state of ecotourism destinations are affected by visitors’ depreciative
behaviours that have been reported in the ecotourism areas including Malaysia. Promoting pro-
environmental behaviour requires continuous intervention process. Intervention is defined as the
process of influencing individuals’ decisions and behaviours (Saunders et al., 2006). In the context
of this paper, intervention is viewed as the process of influencing visitors’ undesired behaviours
towards behaviour that is compliant with the management objectives. Intervention for the depreciative
behaviour requires an approach that is tailor-made to the setting and its users. Effective interventions
utilize the theoretically-informed behavioural change strategies rather than employing the ad hoc
approaches (Dombrowski et al., 2012). Intervention for the desired behaviour needs to address
the specific barriers to the desired behaviours that operates in the ecotourism setting. Literatures
in the behavioural intervention strategies states that, the process of intervention starts with the
identification of problem behaviour.
102
Generally, there are two types of visitors in the ecotourism destination: Complier and Non-
complier (Ham et al., 2009). Visitors who perform the behaviour according to the management
objective is called the Complier. In contrast, visitors performing behaviour that is not in line with the
management objectives is known as Non-complier. Thus, problematic behaviour refers to behaviour
that is performed by the Non-compliers and these are the people that managers needs to prioritize
in the development of management plans. The process of identifying problem behaviour can be
conducted through careful observation at the specific location, consistency, timing, and frequency.
The problem behaviour is then influenced by the formation of the intervention strategies towards
the targeted behaviour or desired behaviour. Targeted or desired behaviours refer to the condition
where visitors’ behaviour are influenced to be in line with the management objectives such as staying
on designated tracks or practicing low impact camping techniques or not performing depreciative
behaviours such as feeding wildlife and littering. Figure 1 show the process of promoting pro-
environmental behaviour in the ecotourism destination.
Figure 1: Process of promoting pro-environmental behaviour

Source: Pawson & Tiller (1997); Ham et al. (2009); and Steg & Vlek (2009);
Michie & Abraham (2004); Kok et al. (2011); Akerlof & Kennedy (2013)
The second process in promoting pro-environmental behaviour at ecotourism destinations is

to examine the factors contributing to the desired behaviour. This can be done by determining the
underlying factors of the desired behaviours in which is explained in the model and theories of human
behaviours. By understanding the factors (reasons) contributing to the performance of the desired
behaviour, intervention can be designed by using these factors and targeting it towards the Non-
compliers in the ecotourism destinations. Third, is the selection of intervention that is appropriate
and finally, evaluating the effectiveness of the intervention used to promote pro-environmental
behaviour.
103
2.2. Four selected frameworks in analysing pro-environmental behaviour
Dietz et al. (1998) and Oreg and Katz-Gerro (2006) stated that literature on pro-environmental
behaviours can be divided into two categories: (1) the focus on social demographic factors (Dietz et
al., 1998) and (2) focus on social-psychological construct (Jones & Dunlap, 1992). However, Boldero
(1995); Oreg and Kat-Gerro (2006); Newman and Fernandes (2015) and Han (2015) stated that,
studies focusing on social psychological constructs such as beliefs, values, and attitudes have been
more successful in predicting pro-environmental behaviours. According to Park and Ha (2014), the
literature of pro-environmental behaviour can be divided into two dimensions: pro-social motivation
and rational choice. Researchers who viewed pro-environmental behaviour as pro-social motivation
relied on the application of Norm-activation Model (NAM) by Schwartz (1977) (refer figure 2) and
Value Belief Norm Theory (VBN) by Stern (2000) (refer figure 3). Researchers who viewed pro-
environmental behaviour as a rational choice often used Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) by Ajzen
(1991) (refer figure 4) which is the extension of the Theory of Reason Action (TRA) by Fishbein and
Ajzen (1975) and; Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) (refer figure 5). The four models and theories are the
most prominent frameworks in explaining pro-environmental behaviours (Sopha, 2011). Studies that
confirmed pro-environmental behaviours as pro-social behaviours are well documented (Guagnano
et al., 1995; Thφgersen, 1999; Van der Werff & Steg, 2015; Chen, 2015; Wynveen & Sutton, 2015).
On the other hand, studies that confirmed pro-environmental behaviours are the result of the self
interest motive are also known (Bamberg et al., 2003; De Groot & Steg, 2009; Joung & Park-Poaps,
2013). Therefore, the TPB, TRA, NAM, and VBN theories have been selected as the theoretical
foundations in explaining pro-environmental behaviours in this paper.
2.3. Pro-social motivation of environmental behaviour
NAM was developed by Schwartz (1977) based on social altruistic behaviours or pro-social behaviours
that is associated with morality. Pro-social behaviours can be defined as actions that benefit others,
such as volunteering in any social works, sharing, helping or cooperating (Aronson et al., 2005;
De Groot & Steg, 2009). The NAM model stated that, in order for a person to act environmentally,
one must first be aware of the negative consequences of one’s action towards others or the things
that one values. The awareness of the consequences will influence the feelings of responsibility
(ascribed responsibility) for the negative consequences of one’s action and activates the personal
norms or moral obligations to act towards pro environment. In the NAM model, personal norm is the
most important predictor for pro-environmental behaviour where high personal norm will increase the
likelihood of a person to perform pro-environmental behaviour. Since its inception, NAM has been
found to be successful in explaining various pro-environmental behaviours such as conservation of
energy (van der Werff & Steg, 2015), desicion making (Han et al., 2015), water conservation (Van
Der Lindern, 2015), recycling (Guagnano et al., 1995), travel mode choice (Hunecke et al., 2001),
willingness to pay for the protection of environment (Guagnano et al., 1995; Guagnano, 2001) and
pro-environmental behaviours (Nordlund & Garvill, 2002; Schultz et al., 2005; Onwezen et al., 2013).
104
Figure 2: Norms Activation Model (NAM).

Source: De Groot and Steg (2009)
The VBN theory of pro-environmental behaviour is developed based on the extension of Norm
activation model (NAM) of altruistic behaviour (Stern et al., 1995; Schwartz, 1977; Stern et al., 1999;
Stern, 2000), Universal Value Structure (Schwartz, 1992) and New Ecological Paradigm (Dunlap et
al., 2000).
Figure 3: VBN theory of pro-environmental behaviour model.

Source: Stern et al. (2000)
105
VBN is a theory that is specifically designed to explain the formation of pro-environmental

behaviour. It is based on the premise that pro-environmental behaviour requires a person to suppress
egoistic prone to benefit the collective interest (Steg et al., 2005). It is because, pro-environmental
behaviour require someone to sacrifice their own interest for the greater good of the people (i.e
environmental quality). The difference between VBN and NAM is the addition of value orientation
and ecological world view in the formation of pro-environmental behaviour. It is said that people with
a strong value orientation that is beyond their own’s interest has a greater tendency to engage in
pro-environmental behaviour.
Value orientation is defined as a cognitive representation of abstract goals (e.g., world peace)
and abstract means of behaviour (e.g., being helpful) that vary in the desirability of importance
(Hansla, 2011). According to Rohan (2000), value orientation works similar to needs, desires
and goals where it is a function of motivational construct that guide one’s behaviour. But unlike
needs, desires and goals, value orientation is said to be transcended beyond situations (Rokeach,
1973; Schwartz, 1992; Hansla, 2011). In the VBN model, value orientations are divided into three
categories which are egoistic (the states that people try to maximize individual outcome), altruristic
(concern for the welfare of other human beings) and biospheric (ecocentric or concern for the non-
human species or biosphere). Since value orientations do not strongly affect behaviour (Steg et al.,
2005), value orientation is transcribed into general altruistic environmental beliefs (ecological world
view, awareness of consequences and ascribed responsibility to act) in which influencing personal
norm can activate pro-environmental behaviour. Ecology world view is defined as the general
environmental concern usually measured using the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP).
Awareness of consequences is defined as the awareness of the adverse consequences to others
or the environment and the ascribed responsibility as the states of the people thinking that they can
adverse these consequences. These beliefs (ecological world view, awareness of consequences
and ascribed responsibility to act) have been measured as general environmental beliefs that lead
to several inconsistent results. Some studies (van Riper & Kyle, 2014; Angeles, 2014; Chen, 2015)
were successful in explaining and predicting pro-environmental behaviour when general beliefs were
included in their studies. However, studies by Snelgar (2006); Jansson et al. (2011) and Wynveen
and Sutton (2015) found that general environmental beliefs were not consistent with the variables in
VBN. This has contributed to the conclusion that general beliefs do not strongly effect behaviour and
has led to the measurement of specific beliefs in the measurement of pro-environmental behaviour
(Steg et al., 2005; Hansla et al., 2008; Hansla, 2011;). This implies that, the predictive power of
VBN in predicting and explaining pro-environmental behaviour can be enhanced if beliefs and
personal norms are measured on a specific behaviour. The application of VBN in pro-environmental
behaviour literature can be seen in various studies and disciplines and are successful in predicting
pro-environmental behaviour.
2.4. The rationality of pro-environmental behaviour
The second stream of pro-environmental behaviour theories relies on the self-interest motives; TPB
is based on the more hedonistic model of human beings (Ajzen, 1991; Bamberg & Mӧser, 2007).
TPB is the extension of TRA.
106
Figure 4: Theory of Planned Behaviour

Source: Ajzen (1991); Ajzen (2011)
According to the theory, behavioural intentions are the most proximal predictor of behaviour.
Intentions (behaviour intentions) are presumed to confine the motivational factors that guide
behaviour. Intention represents the extend of individuals’ willingness to try and make an effort o
perform behaviour. It means that, strong or high individuals’ intention to perform one particular
behaviour will result in stronger and higher chances of performing the said behaviour. According
to Ajzen (2011), the realization of a behavioural intention is dependent on the individuals’ volitional
of control in the decision making process as to whether to perform or not the behaviour. The
performance of behaviour depends on several factors such as skills, money, time and cooperation
of others (Ajzen, 1985; Ajzen, 1991) and these factors represent individuals’ actual control over the
behaviour. Therefore, if an individual has the resources, opportunities, and intends to perform the
behaviour, the individual should have succeeded in doing so. TPB posits that behavioural intention
are preceded by (a) the extent to which an individual hold a favourable attitude towards the behaviour
(attitude towards behaviour), (b) perceived expectations that is relevant to other people (social
pressure) and willingness to comply with that expectation (subjective norms) and (c) to the extent
individuals have the opportunity and ability to perform the behaviour (perceived behavioural control).
Attitude towards behaviour refers to the performance of a behaviour that is valued either positively
or negatively. Attitude is the summation of behavioural beliefs about a behaviour that is activated
in certain situation. Beliefs refer to the expectations that certain behaviours have its consequences
(result in certain outcome) and the evaluation of that consequence would result in attitude towards
a behaviour that is valued either positively or negatively.
Subjective norms refer to perceived social pressure in performing or not the behaviour. It is
determined by normative beliefs that are perceived behavioural expectation of important referent
individual or group. Normative beliefs are determined by the motivation of an individual to comply
with the referent individual or group. For example, if littering is a common behaviour because it
107
is performed by every visitors or group of visitors at the ecotourism destination, new visitors will
have the likelihood to perform such behaviour because it is considered as an accepted behaviour
by visitors to that ecotourism destination. Perceived behavioural control refes to an individual’s
perception on the ability to perform the behaviour. Perceived behavioural control is determined by
control beliefs that are beliefs about the presence of factors that may support or prevent performance
of the behaviour.
3. Intervention Strategies in Promoting Pro-environmental Behaviour
Intervention can be defined as an act of interfering or making modification where it comes or

occur between two times or events. In the ecotourism context, intervention is an act that is used to
influence visitors’ depreciative actions towards pro-environmental behaviour that is consistent with
the conservation value in ecotoursm destination all over the world. The term ‘influence’ during the
intervention refers to the process of changing, reinforcing, and creating new behaviour that is in
line with the management objective of the ecotourism destinations. Following Skinner (1938; 1953;
1974) and reviews by Oskamp (2000); Geller (2001); Monroe (2003); Lehman and Geller (2005) and
Steg and Vlek (2009), the ABC (Antecedent-Behaviour-Consequences) Model is one of the effective
intervention techniques that is widely used in the behavioural intervention process. According to
Brandell (2010) and Miltenberger (2012), antecedent refers to the stimuli that activate the behaviour
while consequences refer to something that follows the behaviours.
Based on the ABC model, the intervention strategies in influencing behaviour can be categorized
as an antecedent and consequences strategies for behavioural change (Skinner, 1987; Thompson
& Stoutmeyer, 1991; Cialdini, 2001; Geller, 2002; Monroe, 2003; Gertrude, 2011). Steg and Vlek
(2009) called it as informational and structural strategies while Ham et al., (2009) categorized it as
‘carrot’ or indirect and ‘stick’ or direct strategies. Antecedent strategies are used to influence the
factors that anticipate the behaviour. It can increase the awareness, apprise the choice of options,
and annunciate the probability of positive and negative consequences. Consequences strategies are
aimed at changing the consequences following the behaviour. Table 3 below show the antecedent
and consequences intervention strategies that can be used in influencing behaviour
Table 3 Antecedent and Consequences Intervention Strategies
Antecedent strategies Consequences strategies

Information and education Feedback
Prompting (verbal or written) Rewards and Penalties
Commitment
Modeling and demonstrations
Environmental design
Source: Skinner (1987); Thompson and Stoutmeyer (1992); Cialdini (2001); Geller (2002);
Monroe (2003); Steg and Vlek (2009); Gertrude (2011)
108
3.1 Antecedent and consequences of intervention strategies
Information, education, prompt, and persuasive communication are antecedent intervention

strategies that can be used to increase visitors’ knowledge, awareness, perception, motivation,
and norm which will increase the likelihood for visitors to perform the desired behaviour. Besides
that, the use of information, education, prompt and persuasive communication allows visitors make
volitional behaviour choices of control in the ecotourism site. Volitional of control is a key advantage
to be applied because it allows better experiential freedom for the visitors (Curtis et al., 2010). It has
been found to be more compatible with leisure activities which is the major product in ecotourism
destination (Marrion & Reid, 2007). Moreover, the use of prompt and persuasive communication
has been found to be effective in changing behaviour (Steg & Vlek, 2009). Geller (2002) stated that
prompt is effective, especially when the target behaviour is easy to perform, has clearly defined
message, and is displayed close to the place where the target behaviour can be performed.
As we discussed earlier, NAM and VBN theory of pro-environmental behaviour suggested that
norms are moral obligation that is the proximal predicator of behaviour. Moreover, TPB suggested
that behavioural intention is determined by the subjective norms which refer to the perceived social
pressure in performing or not performing a behaviour. In relation to that, Schultz (1999) and Winter
and Koger (2004) stated that social norms are one of the factors that has become barriers to pro-
environmental behaviours and it occur when visitors perceived that depreciative behaviours as
socially accepted. For example, visitors may build a camp fire when they see other visitors build
it because they perceived it as acceptable to do so although camp fire is strictly prohibited in the
area. In addition, past visitors may illegally mark the trail either on the trail surface or on tree, and
when new visitors see it, they may think that it is acceptable to do so and this will increase the
probability for that depreciative behaviour to happen again. Thus, Schultz et al. (2007) and Burn
and Winter (2008) suggested that modeling and demonstration are one of the strategies that can be
adopted in managing social norms barriers. It involves demonstrating pro-environmental behaviours
by using public figures or role models to the visitors via presentation. Cialdini (2001) stressed that
when an individual made a commitment to perform a behaviour, there is a high possibility for that
individual to perform the intended behaviour. For example, Burn (1991) and Cobern et al. (1995)
noted that at one Wilderness Park, visitors were asked to sign a pledge to stick to the practice
that is in line with the management objectives before a permit is issued. Although commitment
strategy may be time consuming, manager of the ecotourism site can use commitment strategy that
is catered for peers or members of certain organization or club members (Burn, 1991; Cobern et al.,
1995). Moreover, eliciting implementation intention is also effective in promoting pro-environmental
behaviour (Bamberg, 2002; Jakobsson et al., 2002; Gärling & Schuitema, 2007) where individuals
are asked about their intention and plan their intention in performing pro-environmental behaviours.
Environmental design is the strategy involved in the introduction of devices or object that allows the
pro-environmental behaviour to be more convenient.
Skinner (1987) stated that the consequence intervention strategies are the primary determinant
of behaviour. In fact, according to Lehman and Geller (2005), antecedent strategies are best
implemented by announcing the availability of consequences associated with pro-environmental
behaviour. Other than that, consequence intervention strategies can be implemented when
it is difficult for an individual to act pro-environmentally because of the external barriers to pro-
environmental actions. Therefore the intervention in which condition of the behavioural choices are
109
made is needed to increase the opportunities for individuals to act pro-environmentally (O’lander &
Thøgerson, 1995; Stern et al., 1999; Van Raaij, 2002 Steg & Vlek, 2009). Rewards and penalty is
the consequence strategies that aim to reward individuals who perform pro-environmental actions
and “punish” those who acts vice versa. According to Geller (2002), reward is effective in promoting
pro-environmental behaviour because it is associated with positive effects and attitudes that support
behavioural changes. Feedback strategy refers to the situation where visitors’ pro-environmental
behaviours or depreciative behaviours are announced at the park. For example, in one ecotourism
destination, the statistic or number of cases that are correlated with depreciative behaviours can be
announced in the area where it can increase the likelihood of behaviour change corresponding with
the consequences.
3.2 Evaluation of intervention
Evaluation of intervention is important to determine the effectiveness of the selected intervention

implemented through the process of intervention. Intervention is a continuous process where it
has to be evaluated from time to time to ensure it is truly effective in promoting pro-environmental
behaviours. Promoting long-term pro-environmental behaviours have been the central problem for
many behaviourists, management of the ecotourism destination and protected area and thus it
captures the importance of continuous evaluation of the selected intervention (Lehman & Geller,
2005). Moreover, pro-environmental behaviours that are implemented for short period of time will
increase the potential for people to turn to their old behaviours and habits (Dwyer et al., 1993)
while doing activities at the ecotourism site. Other than that, the evaluation of the implemented
intervention must come with strong experimental research design that can reveal the effectiveness
of the intervention (Steg & Vlek, 2009). Ham et al. (2009) provided the process of the implementation
of intervention that is shown at figure 4 below.
Figure 5: Protected area planning cycle

Source: Ham et al. (2009)
110
4. Conclusion
Promoting pro-environmental behaviours in ecotourism areas are more effective when it is

systematically planned. In doing so, one must first determine the depreciative behaviours that needs to
be changed. Besides that, identification of the factors and barriers underlying depreciative behaviours
is crucial in order to plan for the strategies of the intervention to change depreciative behaviours
towards pro-environmental actions. Evaluation of the intervention effects must be continuous to
promote long-term behavioural change. Other than that, continuous intervention is needed because
it is important to determine the type of behaviours and the condition where the intervention is most
effective in promoting pro-environmental behaviour. Furthermore, combining intervention strategies
also offer promising result in promoting pro-environmental behaviours. For examples, providing
information and education alone hardly resulted in behavioural change (Hungerford & Volk, 1990;
Stern, 2000; Kollmuss & Ageyman, 2002; Schultz, 2002; Steg & Vlek, 2009). Thus, it is encouraged
that information and education are used with other intervention strategies where it has been found to
be effective in changing behaviour (Thompson & Staoutmeyer, 1991; Staats et al., 2000; Lehman &
Geller, 2005). Other than that, intervention need to highlight the environmental psychological factors
in encouraging pro-environmental behaviours (Barr, 2003; Cornelissen et al., 2008) where the use of
social norms and the exertion of social pressures are strongly correlated with success (Barr, 2003).
Moreover, reward intervention strategies are only effective for a short period of time (Geller, 2002).
Thus, combining rewards with other intervention strategies may increase the potential for promoting
pro-environmental behaviours. Moloney et al. (2010) on the other hand found that intervention that
combined infrastructure approach with education, training, and community-based intervention is
more likely to be more profound and have longer lasting effect on behaviour. In order to increase
the effectiveness of the intervention, Dwyer et al. (1993) suggested that, one must pay attention to
behaviour that is easier to perform or maintain. Besides that, evaluation of the appropriate length and
design is needed so that factors which can increase the response maintenance, can be determined.
Lastly, it has been suggested that it is important to design interventions that can be implemented
indefinitely.
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ECOTOURISM
BEHAVIORAL STUDIES
ECOTOURISM BEHAVIORAL STUDIES
PARAMETERS THAT PREDICT VISITORS’ INTENTION TO PERFORM ACTIVE

ANTI-LITTERING BEHAVIOUR USING THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOUR IN
SHAHID ZARE FOREST PARK, IRAN
Kambiz Yousefi Talooki, Abdullah bin Mohd and Azlizam Aziz*

Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor.
ABSTRACT
People are more prepared to face their daily activities when they get relief and respite from the
natural environment as a source of refinement and pleasure. However, they may leave traces in the
environment that will lead to degradation of recreation resources. Recreation resources managers’
present solution to confront these problems has been limited to short term initiatives. This study
identifies the underlying variables such as attitude, subjective norm (SN) and perceived behavioural
control (PCB) to design better management approaches that are adequate to achieve long term
behavioural change. Questionnaires based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) were
distributed to 550 visitors in the ShahidZare Forest Park (SZFP) in Iran to determine the relationship
between their attitude, subjective norm (SN), and perceived behavioural control (PBC) and their
intention to perform active anti-littering behaviour. This study also determined the contribution of the
independent variables to the variance of the dependent variable. The study revealed that perceived
behavioural control is the most effective variable [β = 0.50, p < 0.01] to predict visitors’ intention to
perform active anti-littering behaviour, followed by subjective norm [β = 0.31, p < 0.01] and attitude
[β = 0.13, p < 0.01], respectively. In general, it can be concluded that, TPB is an appropriate theory
to predict intention of forest park’s visitors to perform active anti-littering behaviour. Thus, this theory
can assist managers in designing messages that addressed individuals’ beliefs about their PBC,
SN, and attitude toward active anti-littering behaviour.
Keywords: Active anti-littering behavioural intention; attitude; subjective norm; perceived behavioural
control
1. Introduction
1.1. Background
With the development and mechanization of industry, people have more time to enjoy leisure activities.
Consequently, the number of people interested to visit recreational sites such as forest parks are
increasing (Martin, 1981). Depreciative behaviours can be classified into several dimensions such
as vandalism, abuse of rules and regulations, violation, crime, littering, conflict, and etc. The impact
of depreciative behaviours on visitors are considered important for two reasons. Firstly, recreation
and tourism (especially nature-based and ecotourism) are both reliant on the environment and the
ongoing quality of the environment (Mathieson & Wall, 1982; Harris & Leiper, 1995; Markwell &
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Weiler, 1998; Buckley, 1999 ). In the environment with degraded natural quality, the experience of
the visitor is also sullied, and the ability of these sites to attract visitors diminishes (Hillery et al., 2001;
Pigram, 1980). Hence, the protection of natural areas from disorder and depreciative behaviour is
vital for the sustainability of tourism and nature recreation industry. The other reason as to why
environmental impact is an important issue is because of the high volume and concentration of
visitors in areas that are particularly unique or fragile (Wall, 1994; Weaver et al., 2000). In addition,
an impact that is considered insignificant in one area may have a serious impact to sensitive and
fragile sites (Cohen, 1978; Newsome et al, 2002).
Littering as an undesirable behaviour can cause social and environmental problems. It
is perceived as untidy by most people and can be harmful to the health of humans and wildlife.
Littering is the casual act of wrongly discarding of waste and it can be considered as one of the
most neglected and visible types of environmental degradation. It is considered as a type of disorder
and can be destructive to human health and wildlife (Finnie, 1973; Hansmann & Scholz, 2003). It
is worth noting that researchers must be able to distinguish between litter and littering behaviour.
Litter refers to the discarded materials spread in the particular context. Litter can range from small
objects such as cigarette butts to large objects like abandoned vehicles (Arafat et al., 2007; Schultz
et al., 2011). Littering behaviour can be classified into active and passive behaviour depending on
the latency between producing litters in a specific context and leaving that area. As an example, for
those camping in recreation areas, a delay can be noticed between their litter production and the
moment they leave the camp side (i.e., passive littering). Whereas, for those involved in activities on
the trail, the time interval between the litter production and leaving the area is very short (i.e. active
littering). Another difference is that passive littering can be observed by others in comparison to
active littering. It means that individuals who throw their rubbish while doing exercise on the trail can
be easily observed by others whereas littering behaviour by those camping in recreation areas for a
certain duration are less observable by others. Additionally, a sense of ownership can lead to greater
tendency to litter among those camping in recreation areas. The time interval when individuals camp
in a particular context and leave the camp side may lead to littering behaviour due to memory lapse
of their litter production (Sibley & Liu, 2003). Forest parks in the north of Iran play an important
role in attracting visitors and recreationists. Forest parks such as Sisangan and Saeidi Ashtiani
Noor attract around two million visitors annually. Visitors arrival at these parks exceed their carrying
capacity and caused soil erosion, soil compaction, littering problems, user conflicts and vandalism
(Salahvarzi, 2011). In Mazandaran Province’s forest parks, for years, littering has been the major
concern among visitors and the management. The concerns were attributed to the presence of large
number of domestic and international visitors and recreationists resulting in substantial amount of
littering (Salahvarzi, 2011). Based on the interviews with several on-site park officers and through
personal observation at the park, it was noted that littering and other depreciative behaviours are
quite prevalent in ShahidZare Forest Park.
1.2 Problem Statement
Many research works have focused on the management to mitigate littering problem in the forest
park. But the majority of these approaches was restricted to alter overt behaviour. The underlying
values, attitudes, and beliefs of the visitors required for long-term behaviour change related to the
problem was ignored (Ham, 1992; Roggenbuck, 1992; Moore, 1995; Manning, 2003). Government
organizations and agencies inevitably have spent a lot of money annually to deal with the littering
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problems in the Iranian forest parks. Thus, finding a new approach would be very useful for long-term
behavioural change. There are a few variables that can contribute to changing littering behaviour in
the Forest Parks (i.e. attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control) which needs to
be explored and identified. According to the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991), attitude
is the degree to which an individual has a favourable or unfavourable estimation or judgment of the
behaviour in question. On the other hand, subjective norm is the social pressure to perform or not to
perform the behaviour. The perceived ease or difficulty to act upon the behaviour can be considered
as perceived behavioural control which is supposed to reflect previous experiences, anticipated
impediments and obstacles.
This study was conducted to determine the relationship between attitudes, subjective norm,
and perceived behavioural control of ShahidZare forest park visitors towards active anti-littering
behaviour as independent variables and their active anti-littering behavioural intention as dependent
variable. Three research questions (RQ) were designed to achieve the goal of the study.
RQ 1: Is there any significant relationship between attitude (instrumental and affective) of ShahidZare
Forest Parks’ visitors towards their active anti-littering behaviour and their active anti-littering
behavioural intention?
RQ 2: Is there any significant relationship between subjective norm (in-group and out-group) of
ShahidZare Forest Parks’ visitors towards their active anti-littering behaviour and their active anti-
littering behavioural intention?
RQ 3 Is there any significant relationship between perceived behavioural control (controllability and
self-efficacy) of ShahidZare Forest Parks’ visitors towards their active anti-littering behaviour and
their active anti-littering behavioural intention?
Based on the research questions, the goal of this study was to determine whether the attitude,
subjective norm and perceived behavioural control of ShahidZare forest park visitors toward active
anti-littering behaviour as independent variables contribute to the prediction of their intention to
perform active anti-littering behaviour during their time exercising in ShahidZare Forest Park. Three
research objectives (RO) were developed to answer the study’s research questions.
RO 1: To determine the relationship between attitude (instrumental and affective) of ShahidZare
behavioural intention.
RO 2: To determine the relationship between subjective norm (in-group and out-group) of ShahidZare
behavioural intention.
RO 3: To determine the relationship between perceived behavioural control (controllability and self-
efficacy) of ShahidZare Forest Parks’ visitors towards their active anti-littering behaviour and their
active anti-littering behavioural intention.
1.3 Significance of the Study
This study demonstrates the factors which stabilize the effect of environmental intervention such as
an interpretative intervention on anti-littering behavioural intention. The finding of this research is
expected to assist Iranian forest park managers to design better and effective messages that take into
consideration the underlying values, attitudes, and beliefs. The findings of this study will also shed
light to the involved parties, such as the Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization;
Iran Touring & Tourism Investment Co ITTI and Department of Environment to consider the effective
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factors that can enhance management strategies to counter littering problem in the Iranian forest
parks. The findings of the study may also provide social researchers and students some features of
pro-environmental approaches to counter littering behaviour.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Study design
Due to the large population size, this research utilized a descriptive study in a survey design method.
The survey research that utilizes direct observation is the best method for a descriptive study of a large
population size. An accurate sampling reflects characteristics of the large population. In addition,
survey is the best way for measuring attitudes and orientations in a large population (Babbie, 2007).
2.2 Setting
This study was conducted in a selected forest park in Mazandaran province called ShahidZare
Forest Park. This park is located at 45o 7’ 52” longitude and 2o 32’ 36” latitude, three kilometres east
of Sari city and Tajan river; one kilometre south of Sari-Behshahr road, and at the side of ShahidZare
Burn Injury Hospital of Sari. The park area is 70 hectare. The park is adjacent to the forested
hills of the Alborz Mountains, which makes it very beautiful and adds impressive perspectives to
this forest park. Furthermore, this park provides a number of facilities and equipment for day and
overnight users. The proximity of the park to the Sari-Behshahr highway is also used as a main
connecting road between the religious city of Mashhad and many other cities, including Tehran.
This has contributed to a huge number of people using this park as a resting area during their trips,
besides visitation from the local users and people from the city of Sari. ShahidZarre Forest Park was
established in 1980. At present, ShahidZarre Forest Park is managed by a private company and has
a high number of visitors annually.
2.3 Sampling Procedure
The approach used in conducting this research involved two steps. Firstly, the list of forest park
in Mazandaran province was obtained from the Department of Natural Resources and Watershed
Management of Mazandaran Province. There were eight forest parks in the list which are: ShahidZare
Forest Park, Saeidi Ashtiani Forest Park, Mirza Kouchak Khan Forest Park, Emamzadeh Abdullah
Forest Park, Telar Forest Park, SiSangan Forest Park, Chalous Forest Park, and SiSara Forest Park.
All of them have relatively similar conditions in terms of quality and quantity of facilities, amount of
visitors and littering problems. Thus, ShahidZare forest park was chosen through the simple random
sampling approach from the mentioned list.
The second step involved the researcher distributing the questionnaires to the visitors at
the ShahidZare forest park that was conducted using conveniet sampling. A total of five hundred
fifty (550) self-reported survey packets that consisted of a cover letter from the researcher and a
questionnaire were distributed personally to consenting respondents. In the cover letter, it provided
respondents with detailed instruction on how to answer the questionnaire. Therefore, they did not
require assistance in completing the questionnaire. The cover letter also informed the respondents
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on the purpose of the study which was to learn how individuals felt about certain environmental
related issues. The expression of anonymity was included in the cover letter of the questionnaire.
Respondents did not have any relationship with one another. Hence, none of the respondents were
influenced by other forest park visitors while they were answering the questionnaires.
Prior to the actual data collection, permission was sought by the researcher from the Manager
of the ShahidZarre Forest Park to conduct the study in their forest park. Data collection lasted for
one month. It began on the first of May 2011 and a total of 550 questionnaires were distributed
among the visitors on four weekends. The age histogram of Iran is like a triangle; with 15 to 40 years
old forming the lower base (74 %) of the population. On weekdays, most of the Iranian population
go to school and work. Therefore the number of visitors to the forest park on weekdays was very
low. The small number of visitors on weekdays could not give a good sample and estimation. Out
of the 550 visitors who were surveyed, 450 respondents answered their questionnaires. From this
total, 50 questionnaires were unusable, leaving a total of 400 responses, thus a valid response was
approximately 88.8%. As stated by Babbie (2007), a response rate between 60% to 70% is good
and adequate for analysis and reporting a study.
2.4 Data analysis
Data analysis included descriptive statistics, correlation to examine the relationship among variables
of the study and multiple linear regression analysis to test for the joint and independent influence
of the predictors on the criterion variable. Multiple regression analysis is appropriate when a single
dependent variable is hypothesized to have relationships with two or more independent variables
(Siegel, 2003; Kline, 2005; Howell, 2007). Prior to examining the research objectives, the research
indices (i.e., behavioural intention, attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control)
were subjected to the normality test using One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Based on One-
Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (p-value of 0.0001), attitude, subjective norm, and perceived
behavioural control were normal. Also the skewness and kurtosis of the variables were between -1
and +1 which shows normality of the data. Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) was used for quantitative
measure of the multicollinearity in an ordinary least squares regression analysis and provides an
index that measures how much the variance (the square of the estimate’s standard deviation) of an
estimated regression coefficient is increased because of collinearity (Samprit et al., 2006). Based
on the result of the VIF, it was learned that there is no effect of multicollinearity among independent
variables. Table 1 shows that the VIF values related to the independent variables were less than 5.
Table 1: Multiple regression coefficients for IVs
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3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Correlation analysis
The first objective of this research was to determine the relationship between attitude of the forest
parks’ visitors towards performing active anti-littering behaviour and their intention to perform active
anti-littering behaviour during the time they exercise at the ShahidZare forest park. According to
Cohen’s (1988) guide to interpretation of the strength of correlation coefficient, it can be observed
that attitude has a low positive relationship with intention to perform active anti-littering behaviour
[r=0.17, p<0.01] (Table 2). This finding indicates that as visitors’ attitude towards performing active
anti-littering behaviour was favourable; their intention to perform within the time they were exercising
in the forest park would increase.
This finding fulfils the first research objective stated in this study. The feasible explanation that
could be drawn from the low relationship between attitude and intention is that majority of ShahidZare
Forest Park’s visitors in the sample might be under normative control as the behaviour of the study
(performance of active anti-littering behaviour) is voluntary in the Iranian Forest Park and support
from important others (subjective norm) are required. As stated by Trafimow and Finlay (2001),
the possible reason for the primacy of attitude in predicting intention to perform behaviour is that
subjective norm are usually viewed as less important to predict the proportion of the variance in
behavioural intention although it has shown to be a significant predictor. In other words, despite the
primacy of attitudes in predicting intentions to perform most behaviour, subjective norms typically
account for a small, but significant, proportion of variance in intentions. Another reason that could
be effective in low relationship between attitude and intention was the incompatibility error that
might occur in the study. The measures of attitude and intention to perform anti-littering behaviour
during the time visitors were inside the forest park failed to correspond to the target, action, context
and time (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). This would decrease the size of correlations. However, as the
sample size of the study was quite large (400 respondents), a small correlation was said to be still
statistically significant (Baker, 1999). In spite of low relationship between attitude and intention to
perform active anti-littering behaviour, the majority of the forest park visitors showed positive attitude
towards performing active anti-littering behaviour. Based on the means rankings, it is noticeable that
visitors emphasised on the usefulness and profitableness of target behaviour, which represents the
instrumental attitude. However, forest park visitors tend to emphasise on bad and unpleasant target
behaviour, representing affective attitude.
The second objective of this study looked into the relationship between subjective norm of the
forest park visitors towards performing active anti-littering behaviour and their intention to perform
active anti-littering behaviour when exercising in the ShahidZare forest park trail. Result revealed
that there was significant relationship between subjective norm and the intention to perform active
anti-littering behaviour [r=0.59, p<0.01]. The result suggest that the more support they receive from
others, the more likely are visitors’ intention to perform active anti-littering behaviour. Subjective in-
group norm had higher correlation [r=0.55, p<0.01] than the subjective out-of-group norm [r=0.47,
p<0.01] with active anti-littering behavioural intention. Results showed that the highest relationship
belonged to subjective norm.
Based on the frequency rankings, the respondents reported that their families were the most
important people who would ask them to perform the behaviour and also think that they should
perform active anti-littering behaviour. Most of the visitors in the current study visit the forest park
123
with their families. In the Iranian culture, family play an important role. Therefore, it is expected that
respondents of this study who visited the forest park would be more affected by their families’ idea
on performing active anti-littering behaviour as compared to the forest parks’ employees and other
visitors. The second most important person that the visitors rank was the forest park’s employee who
is a representative of the out-of-group subjective norm. According to Blake and Davis (1964), there
are three kinds of sanction, which are formal sanction imposed by agents to meet an organization
or agency’s principles, informal sanction imposed by other persons, and self-sanction imposed by
one’s own self. Therefore, the possible reason why forest park visitors ranked forest park’s employee
as the second most important person is probably because of the employees’ authority for formal
sanction.
Finally, the respondents of this study identified other visitors in the forest park as the least
important person as reflected in the frequency rankings. The plausible reason is with regards to
the sanction classification of Blake and Davis (1964). According to the sanction classification, other
visitors in the forest park could be classified among those people whose reward of a smile and
approving nod, a sympathetic silence, or a spoken praise, or the punishments of a contemptuous
glance, a derisive laugh, or a spoken rebuke is considerable.
The third objective of this study was to determine the relationship between the perceived
behavioural control of the forest park visitors towards performing active anti-littering behaviour and
their intention to perform active anti-littering behaviour when exercising in the ShahidZare forest
park’s trail. The correlation coefficient was highly significant [r = 0.69, p < 0.01] (Table 2). Moreover,
the correlation between controllability and intention to perform active anti-littering behaviour was r =
0.58, (p < 0.01). Based on the controllability, it was assumable that in the trail, visitors encountered
limitation to carry their rubbish while exercising in the trail. The results showed that the more forest
park visitors believed that they could control the resources or opportunities, the more they intended
to perform active anti-littering behaviour. This study found that visitors perceived themselves as
having a moderate control over performing active anti-littering behaviour. Self-efficacy was another
component of the perceived behavioural control. Results revealed that there was a strong correlation
between self-efficacy and intention to perform active anti-littering behaviour. The correlations was
r = 0.56(p < 0.01) between self-efficacy and intention. More than half of the respondents reported
a moderate to high self-efficacy. They strongly agreed with the following two statements a) “I am
confident that I can carry my rubbish when I exercise (jugging, running) on the trail inside a forest
park” and b) “For me to carry my rubbish when I exercise (jugging, running) on the trail inside a
forest park is easy.” This implied that visitors’ confidence on their ability to succeed in a task would
help them to develop constructive beliefs and assumption and enact performance of active anti-
littering behaviour.
Table 2: Correlation Analysis: Relationship Between all Variables

r Frequency P
Active Attitude .17** 400 0.01
Active subjective norm .59** 400 0.001
Active perceived behavioural control .69** 400 0.001
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
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3.2. Hypotheses testing
Multiple linear regression analysis were performed to determine the contribution of each predictor
variables entered in the equation in relation to the dependent variables. The efficacy of TPB in
predicting active anti-littering behavioural intention was examined. Attitude, subjective norm and
perceived behavioural control were entered as independent variables to test TPB. The R-square, F
value and p value of the predictor variables are shown as in Table 3. Attitude, subjective norm, and
perceived behavioural control contribute about 54% of the variance in intention to perform active
anti-littering behaviour (R2 = 0.54).
Table 3: Multiple linear regression coefficients for active group

Adjusted R
Model IVs R R2 F p
Square
Attitude
Model I Subjective norm
0.74 0.55 0.54 159.87 0.00
(TPB) Perceived behavioural
control
The regression coefficients related to each independent variable are represented in Table 4.
All independent variables (i.e., attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control) were
found to be significant towards intention to perform active anti-littering behaviour. The first predictor
variables were perceived behavioural control [β = 0.50, p < 0.01] followed by subjective norm [β =
0.31, p < 0.01] as the second predictor of intention. Attitude was the weakest predictor of intention
to perform active anti-littering behaviour [β = 0.13, p < 0.01] (Table 4).
Table 4: Multiple regression coefficients for IVs in active group

B β p t p
V1 0.26 0.13 0.001 3.94 0.001
V2 0.44 0.31 0.001 7.57 0.001
V3 0.51 0.50 0.001 12.05 0.001
V1 – Attitude in active group
V2 – subjective norm in active group
V3 – perceived behavioural control in active group
The results of this study was consistent with Ajzen and Madden (1986) prediction of goal
directed behaviour that TPB significantly enhanced the prediction of behavioural intention [R square
= 0.48 to 0.59]. In this study, TPB was able to explain 55% of variance in intention to perform
active anti-littering behaviour, p < 0.01 (R2 = 0.55). Results of regression analysis showed that the
perceived behavioural control was the strongest determinant variable to predict the intention to
perform active anti-littering behaviour. This reflects that the behaviour of the study (i.e., active anti-
littering behaviour) is under low volitional control. Empirical evidence have indicated that TPB could
efficiently predicted behavioural intentions (Madden et al., 1992; Godin & Kok, 1996; Sheeran &
Taylor, 1999; Armitage & Conner, 2001). It can be deduced that forest parks’ visitors who intend to
125
perform active anti-littering behaviour were more likely to evaluate the behaviour positively, to believe
that important referents would approve of the behaviour, and have control over the behaviour and
are confident in their ability and capability to complete the behaviour successfully.
Regression equation related to active group:
4. Conclusion
Management approaches can be performed directly and indirectly. Recently most forest park
managers prefer indirect management approaches. These method allow forest parks visitors to
retain their freedom of choice. Also it is perceived to be a cost-effective method. However, the
effectiveness of these methods were restrictive to specific time and location. To achieve long term
pro-environmental behaviour, forest park managers must identify the underlying values, attitudes and
beliefs of the forest park visitors prior to applying any kind of management approaches. This study
found that the underlying values, attitudes and beliefs have a significant effect on visitors’ intention
to perform active anti-littering behaviour. The study’s finding confirmed the importance of efficacy
in TPB to predict Forest Park visitors’ intention to perform active anti-littering behaviour. Moreover
performing active anti-littering behaviour is not under an individuals’ full control. This confirmed that
perceived behavioural control is a good predictor of intention for behaviour with low volitional control
as proposed by Ajzen (1991). Thus, it seems appropriate to elicit forest park visitors’ beliefs that
shape their attitude, subjective norm and behavioural control towards active anti-littering behaviour.
Beliefs could help forest park managers 1) to improve the quality of the massages that appear on
the interpretive signage; 2) to find out what are the contextual constrains, preventing individuals to
perform anti-littering behaviour; 3) to determine the facilitator that could help individuals feel easy to
perform pro-environmental behaviour. For example, the findings showed that PBC is an influential
factor on the intention of ShahidZare Forest Park’s visitors to perform active anti-littering behaviour.
More precisely, controllability showed the strongest effect compared to self-efficacy. This finding
can guide forest park manager to provide visitors with sufficient and appropriate equipment such
as having more well-designed recycle bins located at appropriate places. Overloaded recycle bin is
another problem which must be taken into account. In general, it is recommended that managers use
environmental manipulation on trail site rather than focusing on visitors’ attitude and feeling about
social pressure; 4) to determine the most important influential people in the particular population
in the particular context. For instance, this study found that individuals’ families and friends (i.e.,
in-group subjective norm) are the most influential factors in deciding to perform active anti-littering
behaviour. Therefore, individuals can observe the reaction of their families and friends towards
the non-environmental behaviour (i.e., informal sanction). Meanwhile, forest park managers are
recommended to highlight and reinforce the role of forest park managers and employees as sources
of formal sanction in their management approaches. 5) to determine the extend individuals are
knowledgeable about their behavioural consequences. It is important to specify these beliefs as it
assists managers to design intervention that are built base on visitors’ own beliefs. It is expected
that this strategy can increase the attractiveness and efficacy of the management approaches.
126
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IDENTIFYING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PLACE ATTACHMENT AND

ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES
Nurul Rusmida Razali1, Manohar Mariapan 1,2*, Nor Akmar Abdul Aziz1
and Evelyn Lim Ai Lin1
1
Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor.Malaysia.
2
Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor,
Malaysia.
*Corresponding author: mano@upm.edu.my.
ABSTRACT
Mangrove forest is one of the natural resources that are emphasized as an important ecotourism
site. However, public awareness toward mangrove forest is low. The Kukup Island National Park
(KINP) is an ecotourism site that provides ecotourism facilities and recreational activities for visitors
to the park. The purpose of the study is to identify the relationship between place attachment on
visitors’ attitudes toward the mangrove forest of KINP. Three hundred and eighty questionnaires were
completed through an on-site self-administered survey conducted in March 2014. Multiple regression
analysis was used to identify the relationship between place attachment and environmental attitudes.
Results indicated that place dependence and place affect are positively correlated on environmental
attitudes dimensions. The study provides important information to park managers on the visitors’
ecotourism needs in a mangrove park to influence their attitude towards mangrove.
Keywords: Mangrove forest; place attachment; environmental attitudes.
1. Introduction
Ecotourism is a fast growing industry in Malaysia. There has been an increasing trend in the number
of tourists arrival each year. This supports the achievement that Malaysia has won, which was
The Best Ecotourism Destination award at the Travel Weekly (Asia) Industry Award 2008 (Tourism
Malaysia, 2008). There are a few mangrove forests that have become important ecotourism sites
such as the Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve, Kuala Gula Bird Sanctuary, Kukup Island National
Park, Tanjung Piai National Park and Kuching Wetland National Park. Many people visit these
mangrove forests to look for natural areas and enjoy their time in nature. Visitors may engage in
a few activities such as jungle trekking, river cruising, bird-watching and educational activities to
experience nature, first hand. Besides that, mangrove forests also play an important role as habitat
for flora and fauna, acts as a natural shield against storms and tidal waves (Kathiresan & Rajendran,
2005), as a harbour for migratory and aquatic birds (Lakshmi & Ramamoorthy, 2013) and other
ecological services.
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Since Kukup Island National Park (KINP) was awarded with the status of “Wetland of
International Importance” or also known as RAMSAR site on 31st January 2003, the park has
become an important ecotourism site particularly for recreation and education activities. The KINP
has 50% of the world’s mangrove species, including 12 species of vertebrates and 76 species of
birds, including the lesser adjutant stork (Azimah, 2014) which provides environmental learning
opportunities on-site. Today, it is quite challenging to increase awareness and educate people on the
importance of natural areas specifically on mangrove forests. Direct interaction with the environment
through recreational activities is important and necessary to provide a better understanding on the
importance of mangrove forests. Badola et al. (2012) suggested that there is a need to learn about
people’s attitude towards supporting mangrove conservation.
According to Mesch and Manor (1998) and Cheng et al. (2005), meaningful experiences
gained from participation in recreational activities have been associated with place attachment. It
is also known that place attachment increases environmental concern (Budruk et al., 2009). The
availability of facilities at national parks such as the information board, visitor complex, suspension
bridge and observatory tower provides visitors meaningful experiences that help to form a sense of
place attachment. In Malaysia, there is a lack of studies that examine people’s attitudes towards the
environment, especially at national parks. Hence, the present study was designed to determine the
relationship between place attachment and visitors’ attitudes towards KINP.
2. Literature review
Dunlap et al.’s (2000) New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) scale model is useful to investigate
visitors’ feelings and thoughts. The present study utilizes the modified New Environmental Paradigm
(NEP) scale model which also includes the construct of place attachment as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Conceptual framework
2.1 New Environmental Paradigm Scale Model
The NEP is a single component model that has been widely used to measure individual’s
environmental attitude and concern (Dunlap et al., 2000). According to Milfont (2009) environmental
attitudes are defined as ‘a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating perceptions of (or
beliefs regarding) the natural environment, including factors affecting its quality, with some degree
of favour or disfavour’.
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Budruk et al. (2009) stated that visitors’ involvement in activities and direct experiences with nature
can influence individual’s environmental attitude. Milfont (2009) supported the statement when
he stated that environmental attitude can serve to extend and reaffirm our understanding of the
surrounding environment and our place in it.
The NEP scale includes 3 constructs, namely the balance of nature, humans over nature and
limits to growth (Dunlap et al., 2000). The authors defined beliefs about humanity’s ability to upset
the balance of nature as the balance of nature. Anthropocentrism or humans over nature refers
to humanity’s right to rule over the rest of nature while the existence of limits to growth of human
societies is defined by limits of growth. The three NEP constructs would help to determine the
individual’s attitude towards the environment and eventually predict the ecological behaviour.
2.2. Place attachment
According to the place attachment theory (Halpenny, 2010), the connection between the individual
and the place setting is important. For example, the available facilities in a national park provide
opportunities for visitors to experience recreational activities and its surrounding environment which
would eventually help to form some kind of attachment to the park. Many researchers have defined
place attachment differently. According to Chow and Healy (2008) they viewed place attachment
through the people-place bonding on affect, emotions, knowledge, beliefs and behaviour. William
and Vaske (2003) defined place attachment as positive connection or emotional bond between
a person and a particular place. Conceptual studies in place attachment are described by two
dimensions of the construct; a functional “place dependence” (Stokols & Shumacker, 1981) and
emotional “place affect” (Kals & Maes, 2002).
Stokols and Shumacker (1981) stated that place dependence is created when users
demonstrate a functional need for a place that is not transferable to another location while the
physical attribute of the resource refers to the functional attachment. For example, a preference
for a challenging trail may develop place attachment for a hiker (Budruk et al., 2009). Williams et
al. (1992) defined place attachment as visitors’ functional attachment to a specific place and their
awareness of the uniqueness of a setting contributes to the achievement of their visitation goals
(Ramkissoons et al, 2013).
According to Jorgensen and Stedman (2001), affective attachment is the emotional bond to a
place that is formed through the interaction with the environment (Wynveen et al., 2012). This affective
attachment is also known as place affect that Rolero and De Picolli (2010) state as ‘an affective link’
or an emotional bond known as ‘topophilia’ (Tuan, 1977) or ‘love of place’ (Ramkissoons et al, 2012).
3. Methodology
The survey was carried out in the month of March 2014. A total of 380 respondents completed
the questionnaires using Dillman’s (2007) sample size formula with systematic random sampling
technique. The study was conducted by distributing self-administered questionnaire at the exit point
of the park. The questionnaires consisted of three sections which included; i) the satisfaction and
place attachment; ii) environmental attitudes and behaviour and iii) demographic information and
trip/visit characteristics.
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Descriptive analyses were used to identify the place attachment and environmental attitudes
of respondents. Place attachment consisted of two constructs; the place dependence and place affect
was developed by Stokols and Shumacker (1981) and Kals and Maes (2002). The Environmental
attitudes were assessed using the revised New Environmental Paradigm scale by Dunlap et al.
(2000). The scale consists of three constructs; balance with nature, anthropocentrism and ecological
limits. The visitors were asked to rate the items on a five-point Likert-based scale ranging from 1=
“strongly disagree” to 5= “strongly agree”. Multiple regression analysis was used to determine the
relationship between the variables.
From the 380 respondents collected, 47.6% were male, while another 52.4% were female (as shown
in Table 1). Among the respondents, 58.2% were local visitors from the state of Johor and followed
by local visitors from other states in Malaysia (22.4%). Foreign visitors consist of 18.7% of the total
respondents. Most of them were young with 69.2% of the respondents were under 26 years old.
From this total, the age group below 18 years old formed the highest percentage (34.7%). The results
were similar to Cheng et al. (2012)’s findings. The results showed that the younger age groups like
to participate in active activities (Mohd Salleh & Zaleha, 2006). The study also showed that the
majority of the respondents consists of secondary school (50%) and tertiary education (46.1%)
students. This is in tandem with Zaiton et al. (2005) study that participation in ecotourism destination
has a positive relation to education. The employment status showed that 24.5% of the respondents
were working in the private sector and followed by self-employed (15.5%) and government sector
(4.5%). Only 2.9% were either housewives or not working.
Table 1. Respondents’ profile
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The cronbach’s alpha for both construct were reliable as the place dependence and place
affect scores were 0.718 and 0.760, respectively.
The place attachment of respondents to KINP is as shown in Table 2. Place affect showed
more attachment to the park than place dependence by means of place dependence and place
affect ranges between 3.11 to 3.79. Overall, the items showed a positive level of place attachment.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics

Mean
Place attachment: Place dependence

I feel that there are no better facilities that enable me enjoy 3.11
my visit to the park than the KINP
For the activities I enjoy the most, the facilities provided by 3.29
this KINP are the best
I enjoy visiting this KINP and its environment more than 3.27
any other parks
Cronbach’s alpha =0.718
Place attachment: Place affect

I am very attached to KINP because scenery of mangrove 3.73
forest during trekking in the park
I feel a strong sense of belonging to this KINP as I can 3.73
calm my mind through activities there
This KINP is very meaningful to me to learn about 3.79
mangrove forest
Cronbach’s alpha =0.760

Table 3 shows the percentage distributions for nine NEP items that measure respondents’
environmental attitudes. The majority of the respondents agreed that there is a need for a balance
between human and nature as reflected in the statement “Plants and animals in the mangrove
environment at KINP have as much right as humans to exist” (74.2%). This is followed by “Despite
our special abilities, humans are still subject to the laws of nature to conserve mangrove in KINP”
(73.7%) and “The balance of the mangrove environment in KINP is easily upset” (48.2%).
In the anthropocentrism dimension they showed mixed responses. A total of 41.3% agreed
that “Humans have the right to modify the mangrove environment in KINP to suit their needs”
while 34.5% disagreed. However, 66.6% agreed “Humans will eventually learn enough about how
mangrove forest in KINP works to be able to control it”. About half of the respondents agreed to
the existence of limits to growth for human. A total of 46.9% of the respondents agreed with the
statement that “We are approaching the limits to the number of people the mangrove environment
can support” and that “Humans are severely abusing the mangrove environment” (58.7%).
133
Table 3. Frequency distribution (in percentages) for environmental attitudes scale items
Environmental attitudes Agreement level1
Disagree Neutral Agree Mean

Balance with nature
Plants and animals in mangrove environment at KINP 8.2 17.6 74.2 3.99
have as much right as humans to exist
Despite our special abilities humans are still subject to 6.6 19.7 73.7 3.96
the laws of nature to conserve mangrove in KINP
The balance of mangrove environment in KINP is easily 17.4 34.5 48.2 3.38
upset
Anthropocentrism
Humans have the right to modify the mangrove 34.5 24.2 41.3 3.09
environment in KINP to suit their needs
The balance of mangrove environment in KINP is strong 24.2 28.7 47.1 3.30
enough to cope with the impacts of development
The so called “ecological crisis” on mangrove environment 21.8 36.3 41.0 3.23
facing humankind has been greatly exaggerated
Humans will eventually learn enough about how mangrove 8.2 25.3 66.6 3.76
forest in KINP works to be able to control it
Ecological limits
We are approaching the limit to the number of people the 14.3 38.7 46.9 3.46
mangrove environment can support
Humans are severely abusing the mangrove environment 13.4 26.8 58.7 3.61
Note : All entries are percentage; n= 380.

1
Agreement level are based on Disagree=Strongly Disagree+ Disagree; Neutral=Neutral; Agree=Strongly Agree+
Agree.
It was based on the original scale of 1=Strongly Disagree; 2=Disagree; 3=Neutral; 4=Agree; and 5=Strongly Agree.

Table 4 and Figure 2 show the multiple regression analysis results. The adjusted R square
value measures the variation in the dependent variable explained by the independent variables.
The adjusted R square value was 0.267 indicated only 26.7% of the variation in balance with
nature in this study is explained by place dependence and affect, followed by anthropocentrism
(18.6%) and ecological limits (19.7%). From this study, place dependence has a positive effect
on anthropocentrism (F=70.106, p=0.001) and ecological limits (F=47.532, p=0.001). On the other
hand, place affect has a positive effect on balance with nature (F=70.106, p=0.001) and ecological
limits (F=47.532, p=0.001).
The relationship between place dependence with anthropocentrism and ecological limits are
directly proportional with positive coefficients of 0.410 and 0.274 respectively. In this study, place
dependence refers to the visitors’ functional attachment to a specific place. From the result, it shows
134
that place attachment increased visitors’ awareness of the uniqueness of the park. The park’s ability
to provide desired recreational experiences such as the suspension bridge, observatory tower,
river cruising and others activities also increased place attachment among its visitors. The facilities
provided make people feel attached to the park and this result is in tandem to Ryan’s (2005) findings
that attachment to urban natural areas are influenced by 3 factors; the physical characteristics of the
place itself, the type and intensity of people’s experience with a place, and their knowledge about
nature in general. Even though the respondents perceived human to have the right to rule nature,
but they also agreed on the existence of limits to growth for human. This means that the availability
of facilities at this park is enough to provide visitors the opportunity to engage with the recreational
activities there.
The relationship between place affect and the balance with nature and ecological limits are
also directly proportional with positive coefficients of 0.467 and 0.247 respectively. The results show
respondents have an emotional bond to the KINP, thus it increased their agreement that human
and nature must be in an equilibrium relationship. This result supports the findings of Budruk et al.
(2009) that state the increase in emotional bonds with the setting place, environmental values that
considers human as a part of nature becomes stronger. Wyveen’s et al. (2013) finding also identified
the interaction of visitors with the area during their trips influence respondents’ emotion attachment
to the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. In summary, the results of the present study state
that with stronger emotional bond between visitors to the national park, more respondents were
agreeing with the idea of the ecological limits to growth as they become more concern of human
impact towards mangrove areas. The findings by Cheng et al. (2012) show that as the tourists’ place
attachment increased, the environmental responsible behaviour among Penghu island visitors also
increased.
Table 4. Regression analysis using Place dependence and Place affect to predict environmental
attitude dimensions
Balance with nature Anthropocentrism Ecological limits
β t-value p-value β t-value p-value β t-value p-value
Place 0.096 1.916 0.056 0.410 7.755 0.001 0.274 5.214 0.001
dependence
Place affect 0.467 9.310 0.001 0.048 0.909 0.364 0.247 4.700 0.001
R=0.521 R=0.436 R=0.449

F=70.106 F=44.159 F=47.532
Adjusted R square=0.267 Adjusted R square=0.186 Adjusted R square=0.197
Note :
1
Asterisk indicates significant at p<.05. The variable environmental attitude was coded on 5-point Likert-based scale
ranging from 1=Strongly Disagree; 2=Disagree; 3=Neutral; 4=Agree; and 5=Strongly Agree.
135
Figure 2. Regression analysis using Place dependence and Place affect to predict
environmental attitude dimensions
5. Conclusion
The positive level of place dependence and place affect provide functional meanings and deep
emotional bond to the KINP. The unique mangrove forests and the facilities available at the park
enables the conduct of various recreational activities that influences positive functional attachment
and emotional attachment. The positive functional attachment and emotional attachment had in turn
influenced pro-environmental attitudes as reflected in the balance with nature, anthropocentrism
and ecological limits constructs. According to Tarrant and Green (1999), participants that appreciate
the outdoor recreation activities improves predictability of the pro-environmental attitude-behaviour
consistency. From the study, the finding provides important baseline information on developing
mangrove areas as important ecotourism sites that are capable to influence positive attitudes
through functional attachment and emotional attachment.
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138
USING INTERPRETIVE ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION PROGRAM TO

INFLUENCE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ BEHAVIOR INTENTION
TOWARDS CONSERVING ORANGUTAN
Rahmah Mohamed Razali, Manohar Mariapan, Evelyn Lim Ai Lin

and Nor Akmar Abdul Aziz
Department of Recreation and Ecotourism, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia.
*Corresponding author: mano@upm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Many environmental education (EE) programs organized for school students are targeted at
raising the level of environmental awareness rather than influencing behaviour. The objective of
this study was to determine the effectiveness of interpretive EE program in influencing secondary
school students’ behaviour intention towards conserving the Orangutan. The study utilizes a pre-
test and post-test experimental design. A total of two hundred and forty-seven secondary school
students from schools located close to natural areas in Sabah and Sarawak participated in the
study. Students from each state were divided into the control group (non-interpretive program) and
experimental group (interpretive program). The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and the EROT
interpretive model were used to design an interpretive program to influence secondary school
students’ behaviour intention towards conserving the Orangutan. Results showed that the interpretive
elements of enjoy, relevant, provoke, organized, thematic and emotion used in the designing and
delivery of the conservation messages in the interpretive program was successful in influencing
students’ behaviour intention to conserve the Orangutan in both states. This was represented by the
statistically significant improved mean value of attitude and subjective norm in Sabah as well as the
significant improved attitude and behaviour intention mean value in Sarawak.
Keywords: Environmental education; interpretation; secondary school students; behaviour intention;

Orangutan.
1. Introduction
Environmental education (EE) helps students achieve environmental literacy, which has the attitude
and behaviour components in addition to knowledge (Athman & Monroe, 2001). Effective EE will
produce students that are willing to help and become volunteers in the conservation efforts of
the Orangutan. After the establishment of the Department of Environment in 1974 to enforce the
Environmental Quality Act, EE programs were organized for public and school students (Pudin et al.,
2005). However, these programs target at raising the level of environmental awareness rather than
influencing behaviour. Therefore, the present study determines the effectiveness of the interpretive
program in influencing secondary school students’ behaviour intention towards conserving the
Orangutan.
139
2. Theoretical background
Few studies have been conducted in Malaysia to determine the effectiveness of using interpretation
in various fields. For example, a study was conducted to determine the effectiveness of wetlands
interpretive learning experience (Roslina et al., 2010), while, another measured the use of
environmental interpretation as an effective learning tool in parks and recreation forest (Mohd Aswad
et al., 2010). A study was conducted by Lim (2014) that utilized interpretation as a communication
tool to develop an interpretive education program to influence behaviour while the Theory of Planned
Behaviour was used to compare the effectiveness of the non-interpretive and interpretive education
program in influencing behaviour. The study involved 171 rural secondary school students from four
schools located in the district of Jerantut in the state of Pahang. Lim’s study utilized the Malayan
Tapir as a subject for the education program. The present study replicates the methodology of Lim’s
study on a different animal and location, i.e. the Orangutan in Sabah and Sarawak.
The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) is a theory introduced by Ajzen (1991) where it is an
extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA). The TPB is similar to TRA but it consists of an
additional predictor to the theoretical framework which is the perceived control. The perceived control
predictor was added because behaviour appears not to be 100% voluntary and under control. Thus,
the TPB is a theory which predicts deliberate behaviour because behaviour can be deliberated and
planned.
The TPB suggests that behaviour is determined by his/her intention to perform the behaviour.
The intention is a function of an individual’s attitude toward the behaviour; people’s subjective norm,
which is their belief about how people they care affects their decision towards the behaviour; and
their perceived control, which is the extent the individual is capable of performing the behaviour.
The theory of planned behaviour holds that to target behaviour, we must be specific towards the
behaviour in question.
In 1992, Ham introduces an interpretive tool that can be used in planning and designing
programs.According to Ham (1992), an effective interpretive program must be Enjoyable, Relevant,
Organized and Thematic (EROT). It simply means that a good interpretive EE program must be
enjoyable to the participants; relevant to the target groups’ knowledge and experiences, organized
and have a specific theme. The theoretical framework (Figure 1) was created for the present study
as it seeks to determine the changes in students’ behaviour intention towards conserving the
Orangutan.
.
140
Figure 1 Theoretical framework of the study
3. Methodology
The study uses a pre-test and post-test experimental design. The questionnaire was given at least 3
days before the implementation of the program while the post-test was distributed at the end of the
intervention programs. A group of two hundred and forty-seven Form four secondary school students
from schools located near to natural areas in Sandakan, Sabah and Kuching in Sarawak participated
in the program. The sample was randomly divided into the control group (non-interpretive program)
and experimental group (interpretive program).The TPB and EROT interpretive model were used to
design an interpretive program to influence secondary school students’ behaviour intention towards
conserving the Orangutan.
The non-interpretive group participated in a half a day information based program through
a poster exhibition while the interpretive group participated in a one day interpretive program that
was held in selected natural areas. Both intervention groups learned similar information on the
Orangutan but utilized different approaches; i.e. informative vs. Interpretive.
The interpretive program was conducted stage by stage. The interpretive program began by
getting students to the Sepilok Orangutan Rehabilitation Centre to view and identify the Orangutan’s
physical built and behaviour. Students were also required to identify its similarity to human. Next,
students were taken for a walk on the trail to understand the importance of forest to Orangutan and
in turn how Orangutan also contributes towards the sustainability of forest. Games, simulations and
stories were used to help students understand the impact of forest lost to the Orangutan, provoke
their thinking thoughts and emotions towards the threats of habitat loss on Orangutan.
141
This section presents the results of the study according to the state of Sabah and Sarawak.
4.1. Sabah
Comparison between tests for the non-interpretive group showed no improvement or significant
differences in the attitude, subjective norm, perceived control and behaviour intention constructs
mean value. However, comparison between tests for the interpretive group showed improved mean
value with statistically significant differences in the attitude and subjective norm constructs as shown
in Table 1.
Table 1 Comparing Interpretive Group’s tests mean score based on the Theory of Planned
Behavior (TPB) Constructs in Sabah.
Test
TPB (n=48)
Construct t-test p-value
Pre-test Post-test
Attitude 4.222 4.318 -2.237 .028**
Subjective
3.930 4.026 -2.074 .042**
norm
Perceived
3.838 3.823 .259 .796
control
Behavioural
4.068 4.150 -1.211 .230
intention
*response to items were coded as 1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neutral, 4=agree, 5=strongly agree
**p < .05
When the mean values for the EROT constructs were compared between groups, no
significant difference were observed between the non-interpretive and interpretive groups (Table 2).
This could be attributed to the fact that both intervention programs were held outside their school and
at natural sites. This was because the experiment was conducted during the Penilaian Menengah
Rendah (Lower Secondary Examination). Therefore, no programs were allowed in school and the
non-interpretive program was held at Rainforest Discovery Centre. As this was the first time most
students visited the RDC, it may have influenced the non-significant mean scores between the
groups.
142
Table 2 Comparing Interpretive Group’s tests mean score based on EROT Constructs
in Sabah.
Test
EROT (n=)
Construct Non- t-test p-value
Interpretive
interpretive
Enjoy 4.365 4.398 -.383 .702
Relevant 4.465 4.509 -.457 .649
Provoke 4.163 4.303 -1.615 .109
Emotion 3.849 3.854 -.043 .966
Desire to
4.194 4.259 -.761 .448
Participate
Desire to
4.5104 4.527 -.165 .869
Share
*response to items were coded as 1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neutral, 4=agree, 5=strongly
agree
**p < .05
Although the EROT constructs showed no significant differences between groups, the result
in the TPB proved that the interpretive EE program did have a positive impact on students’ behaviour
intention as shown in the statistically significant mean scores for the attitude and subjective norm
between tests.
4.2. Sarawak
The mean value for the non-interpretive group showed no statistical significant differences between
tests. However, significant differences between tests were observed for the interpretive group with
statistical significant differences observed for the attitude and behavior intention constructs (Table
3).
143
Table 3. Comparing Interpretive Group’s tests mean score based on Theory of Planned
Behavior (TPB) Construct in Sarawak.
Test
TPB (n=77)
Construct t-test p-value
Pre-test Post-test
Attitude 4.042 4.179 -2.870 .005**
Subjective
3.889 3.961 -1.457 .149
norm
Perceived
3.362 3.430 -1.526 .131
control
Behavioral
3.771 4.080 -4.316 .001**
intention
agree
**p < .05
When the mean value between the non-interpretive and interpretive groups were compared
for the EROT constructs, statistical significant differences was observed for the enjoy, relevant,
provoke, desire to participate and desire to share constructs. No statistical significant differences
between the groups were observed for the emotion construct (Table 4).
These results show that the implementation of EROT in this study gave a positive impact to
students’ behaviour intention. The interpretive group showed higher mean scores with statistically
significant differences in the attitude and behaviour intention constructs.
The use of interpretive elements in the designing and implementation of the program gave
significant impact to the students’ behaviour intention. Unlike the interpretive group, students
from the non-interpretive group were provided with the information of the Orangutan through an
informative poster exhibition. The informative type of presentation easily makes students bored and
less interested. When working with the teenagers, the person must be genuinely interested in them.
According to Ham (1992), we need to allow students to have fun to generate excitement among
them.
144
Table 4. Comparing Interpretive Group’s tests mean score based on EROT Construct
in Sarawak.
Test
EROT (n=)
Construct Non- t-test p-value
Interpretive
interpretive
Enjoy 3.685 4.453 -8.616 .001**
Relevant 4.148 4.587 -4.711 .001**
Provoke 3.867 4.324 -4.780 .001**
Emotion 3.856 3.977 -1.021 .309
Desire to
3.519 4.344 -6.873 .001**
Participate
Desire to
4.091 4.393 -2.560 0.12**
Share
agree
**p < .05
5. Conclusion

Interpretive elements of enjoy, relevant, provoke, organized, thematic and emotion used in the
designing and delivery of the conservation messages in the interpretive program was successful in
influencing students’ behaviour intention to conserving the Orangutan in both states. The positive
influence on the interpretive group was represented by the statistically significant difference improve
mean value for the attitude and subjective norm constructs in Sabah. In Sarawak, the effectiveness
of the interpretive program was represented by a statistical significant difference in the interpretive
groups mean value for the attitude and behaviour intention constructs. Hence, interpretation is an
effective tool that can be used to influence behaviour intention.
Reference
Ajzen I (1991) The Theory of Planned Behaviour. Organizational Behaviour And Human Decision
Processes 50:179-211.
Athman JA and Monroe MC (2001) Elements of Effective Environmental Education Programs.
In Fedler A (Ed.) Defining Best Practices in Boating, Fishing, and Stewardship Education.
Recreational Boating and Fishing Foundation: Washington DC (pp. 37-48).
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Lim EAL (2014) Effectiveness of Interpretive Education Program in Influencing Rural Secondary
School Students’ Conservation Behaviour. Unpublished Doctor of Philosophy Thesis Universiti
Putra Malaysia.
Ham SH (1992) Environmental Interpretation: A Practical Guide for People with Big Ideas and Small
Budgets, North American Press, Golden, Colorado.
Mohd Aswad R, Noor Azlin Y, Nik Azyyati AK and Naimah CL (2010) Environmental Interpretation
as an Effective Learning Tools In Parks and Recreation Forests. Proceeding of The Conference
on The Best Of Both World: Effective Environmental Education For Biodiversity Conservation.
Kuching, Sarawak. November 2010 (pp. 75-78).
Pudin S, Tagi K and Periasamny A Environmental Education in Malaysia and Japan: A Comparative
Assessment. Paper presented at the International Conference on Education for a Sustainable
Future, Ahmedabad, India. January 2005.
Roslina N, Manohar M, Noor Azlin Y and Sreetheran M (2010) The Effectiveness Of Wetlands
Interpretive Learning Experiences in Affecting School Children’s Attitude towards Scratching
on Trees. Proceeding of The Conference on The Best Of Both World: Effective Environmental
Education For Biodiversity Conservation. Kuching, Sarawak. November 2010 (pp.86-93).
146
EFFECTS OF CROWDING ON VISITORS’ EMOTION IN KUKUP ISLAND

NATIONAL PARK
Noor Haslidawati Rosli1, Manohar Mariapan1,2, Nor Akmar Abdul Aziz1

and Evelyn Lim Ai Lin
1
Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
2
Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor,
Malaysia.
Corresponding author: mano@upm.edu.my
Abstract
Tourism is a fast growing industry. Many people are attracted to visit natural places and thus, the
number of visitors to National Parks is also increasing. The objective of this study is to determine
the effect of crowding on visitors’ emotion in Kukup Island National Park. Three hundred and eighty
visitors to the Kukup Island National Park were surveyed to determine their emotional response
toward crowding situation in the park. Visitors’ emotions were measured using Mehrabian and
Russell model (1974) in term of pleasure, arousal and dominance. Results indicated that crowding
effected visitors’ emotion in both positive and negative ways. The positive emotional effect of
crowding is associated with arousal while the negative emotion is associated with dominance. The
present research provides important baseline information to park managers or recreational sites on
appropriate course of action to solve crowding problems in their respective areas.
Key words: Crowding; pleasure; arousal; dominance.
1. Introduction
Over the past decades, tourism has gained importance in the economic sector as it is not only expanding
worldwide but also transforming the world (Theuns, 2002; Theobald, 2004; Daskalopoulou & Petrou,
2009). Malaysia is one of the many countries that have strong foundations in the ecotourism market.
It has a variety of natural and cultural assets that can be used to develop ecotourism activities and
experiences. In Malaysia, more than half of its land area is covered with forest and one third of its
land area is placed under protected area. Some of these areas are gazetted as a National Park to
protect the natural resources from excessive human exploitation. These National Parks have been
serving as an important ecotourism site.
Among the protected areas in Malaysia, National Parks are one of the most attractive
destinations for domestic and foreign tourists. National Park is often described as an area to protect
the flora and fauna but it also provides opportunities for the development of recreational activities.
Other than that, it also has various scientific and educational programs through nature exploration
activities. National Parks are protected for conservation purposes since 1938.
147
The Kukup Island National Park has a unique mangrove habitat and was declared a RAMSAR
site on 31 January 2003 along with Tanjung Piai and Sungai Pulai. The Kukup Island National Park
is one of the National Parks that serve to preserve flora and fauna. It is the largest mangrove island
in Malaysia and is uninhabited. There are a lot of mangrove species in this National Park (Murakami,
2013). The number of visitors to Kukup Island National Park has increased since 2007. Table 1
shows the number of Malaysian and International tourists to Kukup Island National Park from 2007
to 2013. The total number of Malaysian and International tourist to Kukup Island National Park in
2007 is 31 067 visitors and the total increased to 44 004 visitors in 2013. The area of Kukup Island
National Park is 647 ha and is surrounded by some 800 ha of mudflats. The length of the boardwalk
in Kukup Island National Park is 600 meters. The board walk is not extensive but it accommodates
many visitors to the park. Therefore, the objective of this study is to determine the effects of crowding
on visitor’s emotion in Kukup Island National Park.
Table 1: Number of Malaysian and International tourists to Kukup Island National Park from
2007 to 2013
Malaysian International
Year Others Total
tourist tourist
2007 28 814 2253 - 31 067
2008 28 417 1670 2742 32 827
2009 22 735 2254 1894 26 883
2010 16 137 2316 721 19 174
2011 33 222 2999 1323 37 544
2012 33 688 1867 1537 37 092
2013 40 652 1231 2121 44 004
Source: Kukup Island National Park, 2014
2.1 Concept of Crowding
There are many different definitions of crowding. Stokols (1972) define crowding as a psychological
stress, which stems from an individual’s demand for space that exceeds supply. According to
Schmidt and Keating’s social interference theory (1979), crowding by actual or perceived levels
differs between individuals. An individual may perceive a certain level of crowding as acceptable
while for another, it may be unacceptable. These feelings are influenced from the past experience
and information obtained from others. Other than that, Shelby et al. (1989) argue that crowding is a
negative evaluation of a particular density in a particular setting that exceeds a certain point.
Environmental psychologist found that there are several factors that make an individual feel
crowded when doing their activities. The three factors identified are 1) situation of the environment;
2) characteristics of other tourists encountered and 3) the individual’s personal characteristics
(Stokols, 1972; Stokols et al., 1973; Westover, 1989; Manning, 1999; Kyle et al., 2004). When the
148
situational characteristics of visitors are combined with the physical features, it will influence the
level of accessibility. The number of tourists is the first environmental attribute that can influence the
experience of crowding at a destination.
The characteristics of other people present can also affect crowding norms in the area. The
behaviour of other tourists on the site has attracted many researchers (Manning, 1999). Certain
behaviours that are not appropriate with one’s own norms, value or activity might result in conflict
(Jacob & Schreyer, 1980; Lewis et al., 1996; Tarrant & English, 1996; Manning, 1999; Vaske et
al., 2000). This factor is also related to the behaviour and origin of other tourists at the site (Yagi
& Pearce, 2007). Kyle et al. (2004) found that tourist interaction is more influenced by the social
dimension and crowding in urban settings than group size.
Lastly, personal characteristics of an individual are also associated with the socio-demographic
factors, their expectation and motivation. Normally, the nationality of the visitors is related to the
perception of crowding and the tolerance level towards others (Doorne, 2000; Leujak & Ormond,
2007; Yagi & Pearce, 2007; Sayan & Karagüzel, 2010). Other than that, visitors’ expectations are
also closely related to the past experiences and information obtained from others. Experience is a
mediator to visitors’ crowding perception (Manning, 1999).
2.2 Emotional Responses
Stokols (1972) have suggested that perceived crowding under a crowded or stress setting can
create tension as well as arousal. There are a few perspective of emotion that can be studied.
The two most common perspectives are the discrete emotions perspective and the dimensional
perspective. Mehrabian and Russell (1974) suggested that the variety of all emotional response is
represented by the three dimensions of pleasure, arousal and dominance.
Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) theory stated that the emotional response is the mediator
between the impact of the situation (environment stimuli) and the behaviour response in a crowded
or stress situation (as shown in Figure 1). So any stimulation in a stressed condition will generate
an emotional reaction that leads to a behavioural response. The behavioural response may be
represented by one or a combination of the three basic dimensions of pleasure, arousal and
dominance.
Figure 1: The Mehrabian and Russell Model
149
Pleasure is about the degree of an individual feeling good, joyful, content and happy doing
the activities at the site (Mehrabian, 1976). Pleasure gives a direct subjective positive response to
the environment (Lovelock & Wirtz, 2011). While arousal is an activity orientation that measures
how a stimulation of the organism leads to a reaction to a certain situation, the emotional response
of dominance is related to an individual’s feeling of being in control (Blackwell et al., 2006). In the
dominance dimension, the dimension is more relevant in a service oriented environment because it
involves waiting time and crowd control (Kearney et al., 2007).
Based on empirical researches in a service setting, it shows that when the environment is
crowded, visitors will experience feelings of stress or less excitement doing an activity (Wakefield
& Blodgett, 1994). Moreover, the feeling of an individual in a crowded condition may not only evoke
an emotional response, but it may also influence visitor’s behaviour. Based on Stokol (1976) study,
it revealed that perceived crowding normally do not affect pleasure, but it can cause tension to the
individuals and also affect arousal in crowded or stress situations.
3. Materials and Methods
The study was carried out in the Kukup Island National Park in Pontian, Johor. A total of 380
visitors was sampled for the study. It utilized the systematic random sampling technique to obtain a
representative sample of the population.
Self-administered questionnaire were distributed to the visitors in Kukup Island National Park.
The questionnaire was in both Malay and English language. All items were measured on a five-
point Likert scales, with 1 indicating strongly disagree and 5 indicating strongly agree. However, the
perceived crowding were measured using the Heberlein scale that anchored at 1 as not crowded at
all and 9 as extremely crowded. Correlation analysis was used to determine the effect of crowding
on visitor’s emotion in Kukup Island National Park. The reliability and validity were also used in this
study.
Table 2 shows the correlation between emotional response and perception of crowding. Overall,
there were significant impacts of crowding towards emotions. Results also showed that crowding can
influence visitor’s decision to enter the service environment. Other than that, crowding influenced
emotions in both positive and negative ways. The positive effect of emotion towards crowding is
arousal.
The higher the level of crowding in an open space, it made visitors more aroused as
compared to the low level of crowding in an open space. It appears that visitors felt that crowding is
an opportunity for social stimulation. Based on the correlation results, arousal has higher correlation
in an open space area. Visitors view crowding situation in a positive way because higher levels
of arousal are associated positively with visitors’ responses towards services. Arousal correlated
positively with open space area (r=0.43), route (r=0.37), scenery site (r=0.28), facilities (r=0.37) and
overall perception (r=0.28)
150
Table 2: Correlation between emotional response and perception of crowding
Emotions Open Route Scenery Facilities Overall

space site perception
Pleasure
0.52 0.41 0.42 0.58 0.35
Arousal
0.43** 0.37** 0.28 0.37** 0.28*
Dominance
0.02* 0.06* 0.10* 0.05* 0.06*
Notes: *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed); **correlation is significant at the 0.01 level
(two-tailed)
Table 2 shows that the mean arousal score for the low crowding condition is 0.28 while the
mean arousal score for high crowding condition is 0.43. This result is supported by Lawrence et al.
(2011) that state human crowding will influence the customers’ emotions of pleasure, arousal and
dominance. They found that high crowding condition will lead to a significantly higher level of arousal
compared to the low crowding condition.
Secondly, the negative effect of crowding is shown in the result as reflected in the dominance
emotion. Dominance is higher correlated to route or boardwalk while the value of mean for others was
as follows: facilities (r=0.05), open space (r=0.02), route (r=0.06), scenery site (r=0.01) and overall
perception (r=0.06). There was no significance of crowding towards pleasure. The high level of
crowding in the area made visitors feel less dominated due their lack of control over the environment.
Several theories explained this negative association between density and dominance. According to
Manning’s theory (Wicker, 1984), “every setting requires an optimal number of occupants to function
effectively; then the setting is said to adequately manned”. A theory of behaviour-environment fit
(Michelson, 1970) also provided a similar explanation to the Manning theory. Visitors in crowded
condition may feel that their environment is incompatible with their goal of entering the National Park
to release stress and enjoyment.
When many visitors walk along the boardwalk, visitors feel less dominated. They felt
interrupted and they were not able to accomplish their goals. It is indicated that respondents felt
interrupted when there were many visitors in the park as it affected their emotion. Similarly, Zhang et
al. (2012) also reported that over-crowding in the park arouses negative emotional response.
5. Conclusion
Overall, the crowding situation gives effect to the arousal and dominance factor. It gives effects in
both positive and negative ways. Therefore, the high crowding in open spaces made visitors feel
more aroused than the low crowding open spaces. Other than that, the high level of crowding made
visitors feel less dominated due to the lack of control over their environment. Visitors see crowding
situation as not created by them but from other people. In order to cope crowding situations, certain
visitors avoid the high social density situations while other visitors interrupt other visitors’ goal.
151
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Outdoor Education: A Path to Greater Group Cohesion

Chapter · January 2015

Mazuki Mohd Yasim

Muslim in the outdoors View project

An Assessment Tool for Outdoor Education SOP View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Department of Recreation and Ecotourism

First edition: 2015

For further inquiry, please contact:

Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Adventure and Ecotourism in Malaysia

Design by: Siti Nur Fathirah Adnan

Assalamualaikum w.b.t. and salam sejahtera.

Professor Dr. Mohamed Zakaria Hussin

Section 1: Adventure and Ecotourism 1-25

Section 3: Ecotourism Research Paradigm 55-117

ADVENTURE AND ECOTOURISM IN MALAYSIA

*Corresponding author: ssuria4@upm.edu.my

“Tourism Protects, Preserves & Conserves

Keywords: Adventure; ecotourism; Malaysia; stakeholders.

1. Introduction to Adventure and Ecotourism

2. Related Literature on Adventure Tourism and Ecotourism

2.1 Adventure Tourism

2.2 Adventure Tourism Activities

Table 1 Adventure Recreation Pursuits

Backpacking Kayaking Rogaining

Bicycling Orienteering Sailing

Diving Mountaineering Snowshoeing

Hanggliding Rafting Spelunking

Ballooning Rappelling Trekking

Hiking Rock Climbing Sky Diving

Source: Hall and Weiler (1992)

2.4 Malaysia Adventure Tourism and Ecotourism

NATIONAL KEY ECONOMIC AREAS - TOURISM

MALAYSIA TOURISM TRANSFORMATION PLAN TOWARDS 2020

Affordable Luxury Family Events, Business Nature

11 Connectivity (greater focus on medium connectivity to support growth)

12 Hotels (ensure adequate supply with better mix, better rates)

Enablers (Marketing, Visa, Funding, Human Capital, Tourism Environment)

Figure 1 Malaysia National Agenda and Policy on Adventure and Ecotourism

• Ministry of Tourism and Culture (MoTAC)

• Other important ministries in Malaysia

• Non Governmental Organisations (NGO)

4. The Next Agenda

1. Beginning of a Revival 2. Anatomy Adventure & Ecotourism

Figure 2 ICAE 2014 Conclusion and Recommendations

4.1 Beginning of Revival

4.2 Anatomy Adventure and Ecotourism

4.3 Conservation of Resources

4.4 New Idea for State of Kedah

4.6 Creative Products

Photo 1: Kedah Royalty Mausoleum in Langgar

Photo 2: One of Kedah royalty old palaces in Bukit Pinang

4.7 Creative Tourism

Table 3 The relationship between cultural and creative forms of tourism

Past & High culture, Product, process

Source: Richards and Wilson (2006)

5. Conclusion and Recommendations

Tourism Malaysia (2015) About Us. Retrieved from http://corporate.tourism.gov.my/aboutus.asp.

Langkawi: Ecotourism Destination Case Study

I. Langkawi: An Island of Legend

II. Langkawi Development Authority (LADA)