Book-Data Communication

Da t a
Communication
Simplified
(Devender Mahajan)
Table of Contents
CHAPTER-01 DATA COMMUNICATION ____________________________________________________4
CLASSIFICATION OF DATA ___________________________________________________________________4
DATA REPRESENTATION ____________________________________________________________________4
DATA COMMUNICATION ____________________________________________________________________5
COMMUNICATION CHANNEL _________________________________________________________________5
MODES OF DATA TRANSMISSION _____________________________________________________________5
TRANSMISSION MODES _____________________________________________________________________6
CHAPTER-02 TRANSMISSION MEDIA ______________________________________________________7
FACTOR RELATING TRANSMISSION MEDIA ______________________________________________________7
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS ________________________________________________________________7
GUIDED MEDIA ___________________________________________________________________________7
FIBER OPTICS _____________________________________________________________________________9
OPTICAL MODES _________________________________________________________________________10
UNGUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA ___________________________________________________________11
WAVE PROPAGATION _____________________________________________________________________11
CHAPTER-03 NETWORK CONCEPTS AND TOPOLOGY ____________________________________15
WHAT IS NETWORK? ______________________________________________________________________15
NETWORK ARCHITECTURE _________________________________________________________________15
OBJECTIVES OF GOOD NETWORK ____________________________________________________________16
TOPOLOGY ______________________________________________________________________________16
APPLICATION OF NETWORKING ______________________________________________________________18
CHAPTER-04 MULTI-CHANNEL DATA COMMUNICATION _________________________________19
MODULATION ___________________________________________________________________________19
MODEMS ______________________________________________________________________________20
TYPE OF MODEMS ________________________________________________________________________21
MULTIPLEXING __________________________________________________________________________21
TYPE OF MULTIPLEXING ___________________________________________________________________22
PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM) ___________________________________________________________22
CHAPTER-05 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE COMPONENTS _______________________________24
NETWORK INTERFACE CARD ________________________________________________________________24
REPEATERS _____________________________________________________________________________25
BRIDGES ________________________________________________________________________________25
ROUTERS _______________________________________________________________________________26
SWITCHES ______________________________________________________________________________27
CHAPTER-06 SWITCHED NETWORK _____________________________________________________29
SWITCHED DATA SUB-NETWORK ____________________________________________________________29
TYPES OF SWITCHED DATA NETWORK ________________________________________________________29
ROUTING OF DATA PACKETS ________________________________________________________________30
CHAPTER-07 NETWORK PROTOCOLS ____________________________________________________31
WHAT IS A PROTOCOL? ____________________________________________________________________31
ELEMENTS OF A PROTOCOL _________________________________________________________________31
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROTOCOLS ___________________________________________________________31
FUNCTIONS OF A PROTOCOL ________________________________________________________________32
CHAPTER-08 ISO/OSI LAYERED NETWORK ARCHITECTURE _____________________________33
COMMUNICATION CATEGORIES ______________________________________________________________33
OSI TERMS ____________________________________________________________________________33
ISO/OSI REFERENCE MODEL _______________________________________________________________34
PHYSICAL LAYER _________________________________________________________________________34
DATA LINK LAYER ________________________________________________________________________35
NETWORK LAYER ________________________________________________________________________36
SUB-LAYERING OF NETWORK LAYER _________________________________________________________37
TRANSPORT LAYER _______________________________________________________________________37
SESSION LAYER __________________________________________________________________________37
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PRESENTATION LAYER ____________________________________________________________________38
APPLICATION LAYER ______________________________________________________________________38
CHAPTER-09 DATA LINK PROTOCOLS ___________________________________________________40
FRAME DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ____________________________________________________________40
TYPES OF FRAME FORMATS_________________________________________________________________40
TYPE OF DATA LINK PROTOCOLS ____________________________________________________________41
BINARY SYNCHRONOUS DATA LINK PROTOCOL (BISYNC) _______________________________________41
HDLC (HIGH LEVEL DATA LINK CONTROL) ___________________________________________________41
CHAPTER-10 LOCAL AREA NETWORK ___________________________________________________43
LAN ATTRIBUTES ________________________________________________________________________43
ARCHITECTURE OF LAN ___________________________________________________________________43
ETHERNET PROTOCOL _____________________________________________________________________44
ETHERNET AND TOKEN RINGS_______________________________________________________________45
CHAPTER-11 X.25 INTERFACE ___________________________________________________________47
X.25 ARCHITECTURE ______________________________________________________________________47
X.25 SERVICES _________________________________________________________________________48
X.25 PACKET FORMATS____________________________________________________________________48
LOGICAL CHANNELS ______________________________________________________________________48
CHAPTER-12 ISDN (INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK) ________________________49
ISDN CHANNELS _________________________________________________________________________49
ISDN ACCESS RATES _____________________________________________________________________49
ISDN SERVICES __________________________________________________________________________49
ISDN ARCHITECTURE _____________________________________________________________________49
ISDN ADVANTAGES ______________________________________________________________________50
ISDN DISADVANTAGES ____________________________________________________________________50
CHAPTER-13 TCP/IP SUITE _______________________________________________________________52
TCP/IP APPROACH _______________________________________________________________________52
ARCHITECTURE OF TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE ___________________________________________________52
IP PROTOCOL __________________________________________________________________________53
IP ADDRESSES ___________________________________________________________________________53
ARP ___________________________________________________________________________________55
ICMP __________________________________________________________________________________55
TCP PROTOCOL __________________________________________________________________________55
UDP PROTOCOL__________________________________________________________________________55
SNMP _________________________________________________________________________________55
CHAPTER-14 FDDI (FIBRE DISTRIBUTED DATA INTERFACE) ______________________________57
TYPE OF SERVICES ________________________________________________________________________57
TRAFFIC CONTROL________________________________________________________________________57
PRIORITY MANAGEMENT ___________________________________________________________________57
RING MANAGEMENT ______________________________________________________________________57
FDDI PHYSICAL LAYER SPECIFICATION _______________________________________________________57
3
Chapter-01 Data Communication
Communication stands for exchange of information between two parties via some media. The
development in the field of communication techniques is spread over the history of human civilization.
Early men used pictures and sign language to express their views, feelings to each other. With the
spread of human race, new methods for communicating were introduced such as smoke signals and
carrier pigeons. Existence of postal services was also found and was treated as much efficient way of
communication.
In modern world, the communication system underwent a total change with the discovery of
Telegraph System in which electricity was used for sending and receiving messages. After this
invention of telephone system, facsimile facilities improved the quality and scope of communication
system.
Introduction of computer system in this field further enhanced not only the capabilities of the
communication system but also introduced the era of electronic communication. The blend of
telecommunication features and computer technology provided more diversified communication
system that can transmit any form of information
Message
Transmission
Source Transmitter System Receiver Destination
Source: The originator of the message.

Transmitter: Converts incoming digital signals from source into terms of transmission media.
Transmission System: Communication system that provides backbone for data communication.
Receiver: Converts incoming signals from Transmission System back to digital format.
Destination: Receiver of the message transmitted by Source.
Message: Content transmitted from Source to Destination.
Classification of Data
Analog Data: It is a kind of data that is treated as physical quantities in continuous form. For example
voice, voltage.
Digital Data: It is a kind of data that is treated as discrete values and is represented as the string of
zeros’ and ones’.
Data Representation
A code set is the set of code representing the symbols that could be used to make up meaningful
data. There are several code set used in data communication, some are used for specific purposes
while other are proprietary code set of computer manufacturers. The following two code set are used
commonly:
ANSI’s 7-bit American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
ASCII is developed and defined by American National Standards Institute (ANSI). It is 7-bit code and
contains 128 codes. The code set consists of the following symbols:
96 graphic symbols, comprising of 94 printable characters, SPACE and Delete characters
32 control symbols. Some important symbols are:
CR (Carriage Return)
LF (Line Feed)
ACK (Acknowledgement)
NAK (Negative Acknowledgement)
STX (Start of Text)
ETX (End of Text)
ASCII is often used with an eighth bit call the parity bit. This bit is used for detecting transmission
errors.
4
IBM’s 8-bit Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
It is developed and defined by International Business Machines (IBM). It is 8-bit code set and contains
256 codes; but all the codes are not used and even not yet defined.
Data Communication
Data communication refers to the electronic transmission data over communication channels.
Communication is simple concept that involves transmitter or sender, a medium of transmission and
the receiver. In case of data communication, the sender could be an electronic sensor or a computer,
which transmits the data electronically over a predefined medium. The receiver again could be a
computer.
Data communication through computer involves:
The physical medium
The hardware and software supporting data communication functions
Procedures for detecting and recovering from errors
Rules and protocols to ensure the discipline exchange of information
In case of data communication, the sender could be an electronic sensor or a computer that transmits
the data electronically. The receiver end again could be a computer.
Communication Channel
A communication channels transport the electrical signals from the transmitter to the receiver. In other
words, communication channels are the ‘Data Highways’ carrying signals from sending end to the
receiving station. It is categorized by two basic parameters – bandwidth and signal to noise ratio.
These parameters determine the information carrying capacity of the channel.
Data Rates
Bit Rate: Bit rate can be defined as number of bits transmitted per second (bps). If t is the
duration of a bit, then bit rate is 1/t.
Baud Rate: It measurement unit for number of time signal changes its value over a unit time.
There is one-to-one correspondence between bits and electrical signals.
Modes of Data Transmission
Data transmission can be defined as the movement of bits on some physical medium connecting two
digital devices. The modes of data transmission are the methods of timing control for reception of bits.
Asynchronous Transmission
It is also known as start-stop transmission. In this kind of transmission sender can transmit a
character at any instant and the receiver will accept it. The terminals are the best examples of this
kind of transmission. In asynchronous transmission data is transmitted character-by-character at
unequal interval.
Stop Bits Data Bits Start Bit
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 Line is quiet
Direction of data ----------------------->

Data: 01001010
In order to enable the receiver to understand the character when it arrives, the sender encloses each
character by stat and stop bits. The preceding the character is start bit and the following is stop bit
(may be of 1, 1½ or 2 bits duration).
• Sending end can commence transmission of bytes at any instant of time.
• Only one byte is sent at a time but there is no time relation between consecutive bytes. That
is there could be arbitrary delay between the transmissions of two bytes.
• In idle state, the polarity of electrical signal corresponds to 1.
• Receiving end needs to be synchronized repeatedly for each byte. This can be achieved by
using two extra bits a start bit and a stop bit.
Start bit is prefixed to each byte and is always 0, i.e. before transmission of a byte, it ensures that the
electrical signal changes for 1 to 0. Stop bit is used to ensure that the transition for 1 to 0 is always
present at the beginning of a byte. It is necessary that the electrical signal should correspond to 1. But
if the last bit of the byte is 0, transition never occurs. Stop bit is suffixed to each byte and it is always 1
and its duration is usually 1, 1.5 or 2 bits.
Advantages:
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i) There no need of synchronized clocks
ii) Each character can be transmitted independently
iii) Less Expensive
Disadvantages:
i) Transmission line is idle during the time interval between transmitting characters.
Synchronous Transmission
In this kind of transmission messages are sent into a block (group of characters) which is further
framed with the header and trailer information. The header usually contains synchronizing information
which is used by the receiving end to set its clock in accordance with sending end clock. The header
also contains the information identifying the sender and receiver. Following the header is the block of
characters that contains the actual message to be transmitted. The block of the message is
terminated by a trailer which contains end-of-message flag, check character for error detection.
Hence, instead of transmitting single character at one time as in asynchronous method a complete
block of characters framed and transmitted together.
This type of transmission is best suitable for remote communication, computer and printer and
buffered storage media
• Transmission is carried out under the control of a time source.
• Bits are always synchronized to the reference clock irrespective of the byte they belong to.
• Bytes are transmitted as block in a continuous stream. Inter-block idle time is filled with idle
character.
• A unique sequence of fixed number of bits called flag is prefixed to each block to identify
bytes’ boundaries
Advantages:
i) Efficient use of transmission line
ii) High data transmission rates
Disadvantages:
i) Requires local buffered storage at the two ends.
ii) Requires accurately synchronized clock.
iii) More expensive
Transmission Modes

Transmission mode specifies data flow
between two points. The direction of the
data flow can be described as:
Simplex Transmission

In simplex mode data flows in only one
direction on the data communication line
(medium). Examples are radio and television
broadcasts. They go from the TV station to
your home television.
Half-Duplex
In half duplex mode, data flows in both

directions but only one direction at a time on

the data communication line. For example, a
conversation on walkie-talkies is a half-duplex
data flow. Each person takes turns talking. If
both talk at once – nothing occurs! Bi-
directional but only 1 direction at a time!
Full-Duplex
In full-duplex mode, data flows in both directions
simultaneously. Modems are configured to flow data in
both directions. Bi-directional both directions
simultaneously!
6
Chapter-02 Transmission Media
The transmission media is the physical path between the transmitter and receiver in the data
transmission system. There are 2 basic categories of transmission media: guided and unguided.
Guided transmission media uses a cabling system that guides the data signals along a specific path.
The data signals are bound by the cabling system. Guided media is also known as bound media.
Unguided transmission media consists of a means for the data signals to travel but nothing to guide
them along a specific path. The data signals are not bound to a cabling media and are therefore often
called unbound media.
Factor relating transmission media
1. Bandwidth: Bandwidth can be defined as the difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies available for transmission in any given range. Greater the bandwidth of the
signal, higher the data rates.
2. Transmission Impairments: Impairment implies the way signal may lose its strength, such
as attenuation, limit the distance. Least the impairments, smoother the transmission.
3. Interference: Interference means the overlapping of frequency band that can distort or wipe
out a signal. It is particularly related with unguided media. This may also occur in case of
guide media when cables are closely placed.
4. No of Receivers: In guided media a link is shared with multiple attachments. In this case
some attenuation and distortion of line is possible.
Transmission Impairments
For analog signals, impairments introduce various random changes that degrade the signal
quality.
Digital signals, bit errors are found, i.e., interchange of 0 and 1 while transmission.
Types of Impairments
Attenuation and Attenuation Distortion
Attenuation stands for reduction in the strength of a signal. It poses three problems before concerned
personnel.
a) To provide strength to electronics to detect and intercepts the signals
b) Level of signal must be high than that of noise
c) Attenuation is an increasing function of frequency
Delay Distortion
This impairment is introduced due to variations in velocity of propagation of a signal through a guided
media as for varying frequency
Noise
Undesired signals that travel along with transmitted signal is referred as noise. Following are the
common type of noises exist in transmission
a) Thermal Noise: This is caused by agitation of electrons in a conductor. It cannot be
eliminated. It is also called as white noise
b) Intermodulation Noise: This is produced when there is some non-linearity in the transmitter,
receiver or intervening transmission system.
c) Cross Talks
d) Impulse Noise: It is a minor noise annoyance for analog data such as short clicks and
crackles experienced while voice transmission.
Guided Media
The signal are guided alone a solid medium. In this case, transmission capacity is measured in term
of either data rates or bandwidth. The transmission capacity solely depends upon the distance
between two nodes and nature of network, i.e., point-to-point or multi-point network. The three guided
media commonly used are
Twisted Pair
Coaxial Cable
Optical Fiber
7
Twisted Pair
It is also abbreviated as TP. A pair of TP consists of two insulated copper wires used for both analog
and digital. For analog signal amplifier is required about every 5-6 KM. For digital signals repeater are
required about every 2-3 KM.
Physical Description
• Consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in regular spiral pattern
• The twisting tends to decrease the crosstalk interference between adjacent pair in a cable
• The twist length typically varies from two to six inches
• Wires in pair have thickness of from 0.016 to 0.036 inches
Applications
• Commonly used in telephone network.
• Commonly used within building for local area networks providing digital signaling
Transmission Characteristics
• Data rate varies from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps.
• For long distance application 14 Mbps data rate could be achieved.
• For analog transmission, amplifiers are required about 5 to 6 KM.
• For digital transmission, repeaters are required every 2-3 KM.
• TP is limited in distance, bandwidth and data rate
Types
TP comes in two flavors: Shielded TP (STP) and Unshielded TP (UTP). The difference between both
is that the STP has a foil around individual wires whereas in UTP it is not present. Moreover, STP is
provide better protection from external interference and is comparatively more expensive. UTP is
commonly used form of TP whether its telephone communication or digital LAN.
Category 3 and 5 UTP
In 1991, Electronic Industries Association published standard EIA-568 specifying the use of voice
grade UTP and STP for in-building application and it was revised in 1995 with improved standard with
respect to cable and connector design (EIA-568-A)
Features CAT-3 CAT-5
Frequency: 16 MHz 100 MHz
Data Rate: 16 Mbps 100 Mbps
Twists: 3-4 per foot 3-4 per inches
Difference between Category 3 and Category 5 UTP/STP
It is popular due to its low cost and moderate performance. It is commonly used in telecommunication.
It eradicates the problem of problems of mixing signals and thus compensates the loss of information.
Advantages:
Cheaper Installation
Disadvantage:
Requires specialized hardware called hubs to connect more than two computers.
It covers very short distance data communication
Coaxial or Co-ax Cable
Coaxial cable is a two element cable, but is constructed to differently to permit it to operate over a
wider range of frequencies. A central
copper core is wrapped by an insulator
which is again wrapped by an outer
conductor- a wire braid which is surrounded
by insulation cover. The data is carried by
8
the copper core and the copper mesh acts as a shielded against external electrical interface. The co-
axial cable is resistant to noise and transmit data at higher rates. It can be used over longer distances
and support more stations on a shared line than twisted pair.
It can be used for both analog and digital signals. Coaxial Cable has higher frequency characteristic
then TP and, hence effectively used for higher frequencies and data rates. For analog signal amplifier
is required about every few KM. For digital signals repeater are required about every KM.
Applications
• Television Distribution
• Long Distance Telephone Transmission
• Short-run computer system links
• Local Area Network
• It is used for both analog and digital signal.
• High frequency spectrum allows higher data rate.
• Using frequency division multiplexing over 10,000 voice channels could be transmitted on
single cable simultaneously.
• Performance is affected be attenuation, thermal noise and intermodulation noise
Advantages:
It is resistant to electrical and magnetic interface.
Disadvantages:
It is thick and relatively stiff.
It requires expensive, specialized connectors and trained professional for its installation.
Fiber Optics
Board band channel are required when large volume of data has to transmit at high speeds. But
exiting broadband channels are very expensive. A new technology for data transmission is in
developing to maturing stage. Through expensive it can be viewed as of future. Instead of using
electromagnetic ways, it uses light as a source to transmit data. The cable is made of stand glass as
thin as a human hair each surround by a protective coating. The light pulse is transmitted over the
channel and a processing device at the receiver and reconverts. Advantages of this cable are that it is
highly resistant to noise the transmission errors are reduced to negligible probability. It also allows
data transmission over long distances without regeneration by high which means the capacity to size
per unit of data transmission. The cost of manufacturing the cable is very high due to cost
sophistication and specialization required while handling the production process.
A light pulse can be used to signal 1 bit, the absence of a pulse signal a 0 bit the absence of a pulse
signals a 0 bit.
• A thin (2 to 125µm), flexible media capable of conducting an optical ray
• Glass, plastic or superfine fused silica is use to make fibre
• It has three concentric section: the core, the cladding and the jacket
• Core consists of one or more very thin strands or fibre
• Each fibre is surrounded by it own cladding (a glass or plastic coating)
• Jacket covers one or more bundles of clad fibre. It gives protection against moisture,
abrasion, crushing and other environmental dangers.
14 15
• Optical Fibre system operates in the range of about 10 to 10 Hz covering portions of
infrared and visible spectrum.
Applications
• Long haul trunk: 900 miles coverage with 20000 to 60000 voice channels
• Metropolitan trunk: 7.8 miles coverage with 100,000 voice channels
• Rural exchange truck
• Subscriber loop
• Local Area Network
Advantage over TP and Coaxial Cable
9
• Greater Capacity: Data rate of 2 Gbps over 10 KM as compare to 100 Mbps/KM for coaxial
and 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps per 10 KM for TP.
• Smaller size and lighter weight
• Lower attenuation: 0.2 dB
• Electromagnetic isolation
• Greater repeater spacing
• Light beam from the source enters the core. Rays at shallow angle are reflected and
propagate along the fibre; other rays are absorbed by the surrounding cladding. This is
known as multimode where variety of angles are reflected
• When the fibre core radius is reduced to the order of wavelength, such that only a single
angle can pass that is the axial ray. This is known as single mode
An optical transmission system mainly consists of the components:

Light Source: It is used to emit light whenever an electric pulse is applied. For example,
LED (Light Emitting Diode) and ILD (Injection Laser Diode)
LED
- Stands for Light Emitting Diode
- Cost effective
- Can operate on wide range of temperature.
- Longer operational life
ILD
- Stands for Injection Laser Diode
- Operates upon laser principle
- More efficient
- Greater data rate
Transmission Media: An ultra-thin wire of glass fibre or fused silica.
Light Detector: It is a function to generate electric push when light falls on it. For example,
photo-diode
Optical Modes
As the light enters the core, rays at shallow angles are reflected and propagated along the fibre; other
rays are absorbed by the surrounding material. This kind of propagation is called multimode. There
are three primary types of transmission modes using optical fiber. They are:
Step Index
Graded Index
Single Mode
Step Index
Step index has a large core, so the light rays tend to bounce around inside the core, reflecting off the
cladding. This causes some rays to take a longer or shorter path through the core. Some take the
direct path with hardly any reflections while others bounce back and forth taking a longer path. The
10
result is that the light rays arrive at the receiver at different times. The signal becomes longer than the
original signal. LED light sources are used. Typical Core: 62.5 microns.
Graded Index
Graded index has a gradual change in the core's refractive index. This causes the light rays to be
gradually bent back into the core path. This is represented by a curved reflective path in the attached
drawing. The result is a better receive signal than with step index. LED light sources are used. Typical
Core: 62.5 microns.
Single Mode
Single mode has separate distinct refractive indexes for the cladding and core. The light ray passes
through the core with relatively few reflections off the cladding. Single mode is used for a single
source of light (one color) operation. It requires a laser and the core is very small: 9 microns.
Advantages
Noise immunity: RFI and EMI immune (RFI - Radio Frequency Interference, EMI -
Electromagnetic Interference)
Security: cannot tap into cable.
Large Capacity due to BW (bandwidth)
No corrosion
Longer distances than copper wire
Smaller and lighter than copper wire
Faster transmission rate
Disadvantages
Physical vibration will show up as signal noise!
Limited physical arc of cable. Bend it too much and it will break!
Difficult to splice
The cost of optical fiber is a trade-off between capacity and cost. At higher transmission capacity,
it is cheaper than copper. At lower transmission capacity, it is more expensive.
Unguided Transmission Media
Unguided transmission media is data signals that flow through the air. They are not guided or bound
to a channel to follow. Transmission (electromagnetic radiations released in the air) and reception
(picking electromagnetic radiations from the environment) take place by the means of antenna.
Configurations
Unguided transmission works on the two type of configurations:
Directional: Transmitting and receiving antenna must be perfectly aligned.
Omni Directional: Transmitted signal spreads out in all directions and can be received by
many antennas.
Frequencies
Microwave Frequencies fall in the range of 20GHz to 40 GHz. These are highly directional
beams. It is suitable for point-to-point communication and satellite communication.
Broadcast Radio Frequencies fall in the range of 30 MHz to 1 GHz. These are suitable for
omni-directional applications.
Infrared Frequencies fall in the range of 3 X 1011 Hz to 2 X 1014 Hz. It is suitable for point-to-
point and multipoint application within confined area.
Wave Propagation
11
RF Propagation
There are three types of RF (radio frequency) propagation:
Ground Wave
Ionospheric
Line of Sight (LOS)
Ground wave propagation
It follows the curvature of the Earth. Ground waves have carrier frequencies up to 2 MHz. AM radio is
an example of ground wave propagation.
Ionospheric propagation
It bounces off of the Earth's ionospheric layer in the upper atmosphere. It is sometimes called double
hop propagation. It operates in the frequency range of 30 - 85 MHz. Because it depends on the
Earth's ionosphere, it changes with the weather and time of day. The signal bounces off of the
ionosphere and back to earth. Ham radios operate in this range.
Line of sight propagation

It transmits exactly in the line of sight. The receive station must be in the view of the transmit station.
It is sometimes called space waves or tropospheric propagation. It is limited by the curvature of the
Earth for ground based stations (100 km, from horizon to horizon). Reflected waves can cause
problems. Examples of line of sight propagation are: FM radio, microwave and satellite.
Radio Frequencies
These are in the range of 300 kHz to 10 GHz. We are seeing an emerging technology called wireless
LANs. Some use radio frequencies to connect the workstations together, some use infrared
technology.
The frequency spectrum operates from 0 Hz (DC) to gamma rays (1019 Hz).
12
Terrestrial Microwave
Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The transmit station must be in visible contact
with the receive station. This sets a limit on the distance between stations depending on the local
geography. Typically the line of sight due to the Earth's curvature is only 50 km to the horizon!
Repeater stations must be placed so the data signal can hop, skip and jump across the country.
• Parabolic dish type microwave antenna.
• Typical size is of 10 feet in diameter.
• Fixed and focused a narrow beam to achieve line of sight transmission.
• Maximum distance between antennas should confirm to:
D = 7.14 √K.h
Where K is adjustment factor usually 4/3 and h is the height of
antenna in meters
• Microwaves bent with the curvature of earth
Applications
• Long haul telecommunication
• Television transmission
• Short point-to-point links between links between buildings
• Fewer amplifiers or repeaters
• Require line of sight transmission
• Attenuation can be expressed as
• Attenuation increases with rainfall

• Interference is another source of impairment. Therefore, assignment of frequencies band
has to be strictly adhered.
• Band Assignment
- 4 GHz to 6 GHz: Long haul telecommunication
- 12 GHz: Cable television
- Higher frequencies such as 22 GHz are used for point-to-point communication
Microwaves operate at high operating frequencies of 3 to 10 GHz. This allows them to carry large
quantities of data due to their large bandwidth.
Advantages:
They require no right of way acquisition between towers.
They can carry high quantities of information due to their high operating frequencies.
Low cost land purchase: each tower occupies only a small area.
High frequency/short wavelength signals require small antennae.
Disadvantages:
Attenuation by solid objects: birds, rain, snow and fog.
Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metal.
Diffracted (split) around solid objects.
Refracted by atmosphere, thus causing beam to be projected away from receiver.
13
Satellite Communication
Satellites are transponders (units that receive on one frequency and retransmit on another) that are
set in geostationary orbits directly over the equator. These geostationary orbits are 36,000 km from
the Earth's surface. At this point, the gravitational pull of the Earth and the centrifugal force of Earth's
rotation are balanced and cancel each other out. Centrifugal force is the rotational force placed on the
satellite that wants to fling it out into space.
Satellite work as a switch to the earth stations

Features
It is a microwave relay station
It is used to convert two or more ground-base microwaves transmitters/receivers.
Uplink is receiving signal from one station
Downlink is amplifying and transmitting signal to other station
Satellite operates on numerous frequency bands known as transponder channels or simply
transponders
Supports point-to-point and point-to-multipoint communication
It must be stationary with respect to its position in order to be aligned with the line of sight of its
earth stations.
Two satellites working on same frequency band must be properly spaced. For 4/6 GHz band,
angular displacement from the earth must of 4 degrees and 12/14 GHz band, angular
displacement from the earth must be 3 degrees.
Application
Television Distribution
Long distance telephone transmission
Private business network
Broadcast Radio
• Radio waves with frequency in range of 3 KHz to 300 GHz come under this category.
• Does not require disc-shape antenna and any precise alignment.
• VHF is widely used for high quality voice transmission, video transmission. It is also used in
police wireless transmission.
Application
• Cover VHF and a part of the UHF: 30 MHz to 1 GHz
• Cover FM radio and UHF and VHF television
• Main source of impairment is multipath
14
Chapter-03 Network Concepts and Topology
What is network?
Network is a group of computer and associated peripherals connected by communication channel
capable of sharing files and other resources between several users. Networks are an interconnection
of computers. These computers can be linked together using a wide variety of different cabling types,
and for a wide variety of different purposes.
A network can range from peer-to-peer networks connecting a small number of users in office or
department, to local area network connection many users over permanently installed cables and dial-
up line or to a wide area network connecting users on several networks spread over a wide range of
geographic area.
Take for example a typical office scenario where a number of users in a small business require
access to common information. As long as all user computers are connected via a network, they can
share their files, exchange mail, schedule meetings, send faxes and print documents all from any
point of the network.
It would not be necessary for users to transfer files via electronic mail or floppy disk, rather, each user
could access all the information they require, thus leading to less wasted time and hence greater
productivity.
Imagine the benefits of a user being able to directly fax the Word document they are working on,
rather than print it out, then feed it into the fax machine, dial the number etc.
Network Architecture
The design of the network including the hardware, software, access method and protocols in use, is
called Network Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Networking
Network architecture in which drives, files and printer on every PC can be available to every other PC
on the network, eliminating the need of costly, dedicated server.
Local Area Network
LAN is a group of computers and associated peripherals connected by a communication channel
capable of sharing files and others resources between several users.
Moreover LANs typically comprise only one transmission media type: Coaxial cable or twisted pair but
not both. Local area networks are characterized by comparatively high speed communication. The
high speeds are possible because of usage of one type of cable and distance limitation which is
generally 10 Km. or less.
More then any of the network model; the most importing thing about LANs is that they must
successfully balance network hardware and software. The LANs hardware gives the system its
processing
Metropolitan Area Network
MAN is a public high speed network, operating at 100 megabits per second, capable of voice and
data transmission over a distances of up 50 miles. A MAN a smaller than a wide area network but
larger than a local area network (LAN).
MAN often enables users in several local geographical locations to use the shared network resources
as if they were all part of the same local network. MAN are all local network, however; they do not
necessarily have to use routers (devices responsible for figuring out which data should says inside the
local network and which data should stay inside the local network and which data should stay inside
the local network and which data should be passed on to other network).
Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN are those which may span over entire cities, countries, and continents. Such huge connection
calls for different protocols connection-less. A wide area network is a LAN of many LANs. WANs
consist of interconnected LANs that may be in different buildings, cities or even countries around the
world. A WAN network may use two types connectivity: Connection-oriented and Connection-less.
Connection-oriented: A connection-oriented is one in which there is a physical connection between
two terminals and fixed sequences of event-initializations, data transfer and disconnection are
performed for each transmission. This is analogous to traditional telephone system, where a
connection involves initialization (dialing), data transfer (speech), and hang-up (disconnect).
Connection-Less: A connection-less is one in which there is not physical connection between the
two entities. The data contents with it all the addressing information required to reach the destination.
This is analogous to traditional postal system.
15
Since WAN were initially developed on packet-switched data network they mostly connection-less in
contrast to LAN which are connection-oriented.
There are two type of WAN called Enterprise WAN and Global WAN respectively. An Enterprise WAN
connects all the LANs situated at different physical locations but belonging to same organization.
WAN consisting of LANs belonging to widespread organization like corporations universals,
government or multination companies come under category of Enterprise WAN. All the LANs
of Enterprise WAN may be in different parts of country or even world but must be belongs to a single
company or institution. WANS have two standards namely CCITT X.25 and ISDN
CCIIT X.25
CCIIT X.25 forms the basic of all packet switching networks & uncompress the tower there layers of
OSI model.
Physical layers deals with the routines to initialize, maintain & disconnect a physical connection .
The link layer is responsible for the efficient data transfer over the physical over the physical link.
The packet level is responsible for the routing of data switching of circuits and communication
between the user and the network system.
ISDN
Digital data communication is all set to revolutionize the way information was been transmitted across
a network specially WANS due to their unprecedented of unparalleled reliability. Integrated Services
Digital network (ISDN)is one such new coming technology which promise to after amazingly efficient
transmission of voice, data , graphics video and other digital services, all in one integrated
transmission system.
Objectives of Good Network
The major criteria that a data communication network must meet are:
Performance: Performance is the defined as the rate of transference of error-free data. It is
measured by the response time. Response time is the elapsed time between the end of an inquiry
and the beginning of a response, e.g. requesting a file transfer and starting the file transfer.
Factors that affect response time are:
Number of Users: The more users are on a network, the slower the network will run
Transmission Speed: The speed that the data will be transmitted at measured in bits per
second (bps)
Media Type: The type of physical connection used to connect nodes together
Hardware Type: Slow computers such as XT, or fast ones such as Pentiums
Consistency: Consistency is the predictability of response time and accuracy of data.
Users prefer to have consistent response times; they develop a feel for normal operating
conditions. For example, if the "normal" response time is 3 seconds for printing to a
network printer but a response time of over 30 seconds occurs, we know that there is a
problem in the system!
Accuracy of data determines if the network is reliable! If a system loses data, then the
users will not have confidence in the information and will often not use the system.
Reliability: Reliability is the measure of how often a network is usable. MTBF (Mean Time
Between Failures) is a measure of the average time a component is expected to operate between
failures, and is normally provided by the manufacturer. A network failure can be caused by a
problem with the hardware, the data carrying medium, or the Network Operating System.
Recovery: Recovery is the network's ability to return to a prescribed level of operation after a
network failure. This level is where the amount of lost data is nonexistent or at a minimum.
Recovery is based on having back-up files.
Security: Security is the protection of hardware, software and data from unauthorized access.
Restricted physical access to computers, password protection, limiting user privileges and data
encryption are common security methods. Anti-virus monitoring programs to defend against
computer viruses are also a security measure.
Topology
Topology refers to the way in which the network of computers is connected. Each topology is suited to
specific tasks and has its own advantages and disadvantages. Topology can be classified as physical
topology and logical topology: Physical Topology describes where the cables are run and the
terminals or nodes are located. Logical Topology refers to the path that the messages take to get
from one user to another user.
16
Bus Topology
In this kind of topology all workstations connect to the same cable segment commonly used cable is
terminated at each end wiring is normally done point to point a faulty cable or workstation will take the
entire LAN down.
The bus cable carries the transmitted message along the cable. As the message arrives at each
workstation, the workstation computer checks the destination address contained in the message to
see if it matches it's own. If the workstations address matches that contained in the message, the
workstation processes the message. The message is transmitted along the cable and is visible to all
computers connected to that cable.
Advantages Disadvantages
a) Easy to implement a) Limits on cable length and Workstation numbers
b) Low Cost b) Difficult to isolate network faults
c) A cable fault affects all workstations
d) As the number of workstations increase, the speed of the
network slows down
Ring Topology
In ring topology workstations connected through repeaters called Ring Interface Unit (RIU) to form the
ring. Main features of ring topology:
Uni-directional transmission
Each RIU receives the signal and forward it after regeneration
Previous RIU station retains the copy of the data until it is received by next RIU station or the
recipient completely
a) Cable failures affect limited users a) Costly Wiring
b) Equal access for all users b) Difficult Connections
c) Each workstation has full access
c) Expensive Adaptor Cards
speed to the ring
17
d) As workstation numbers increase
performance diminishes slightly
Star Topology
In this type of topology, there are dedicated links from the station to the central controller, usually a
hub. Each interconnection supports two-way communication. The central controller acts as a switch to
route the data from the source to destination.
a) Easy to add new workstations a) Single point of network failure
b) Centralized control b) No sharing of transmission media
c) Centralized network/hub monitoring
Application of Networking
1. Electronic Mail (e-mail or Email) replaces snail mail. E-mail is the forwarding of electronic files
to an electronic post office for the recipient to pick up.
2. Scheduling Programs allow people across the network to schedule appointments directly by
calling up their fellow worker's schedule and selecting a time!
3. Videotext is the capability of having a two-way transmission of picture and sound. Games like
doom and Hearts, distance education lectures, etc. use video text.
4. Groupware is the latest network application. It allows user groups to share documents,
schedules databases, etc. (ex. Lotus Notes)
5. Teleconferencing allows people in different regions to "attend" meetings using telephone lines.
6. Telecommuting allows employees to perform office work at home by "Remote Access" to the
network.
7. Automated Banking Machines allow banking transactions to be performed everywhere: at
grocery stores, drive-in machines etc.
8. Information Service Providers provide connections to the Internet and other information
services. Examples are CompuServe, Genie, Prodigy, America online (AOL), etc.
9. Electronic Bulletin Boards (BBS - Bulletin Board Services) are dialup connections (using a
modem and phone lines) that offer a range of services for a fee.
10. Value Added Networks are common carriers such as AGT, Bell Canada, etc. (they can be
private or public companies) who provide additional leased line connections to their customers.
These can be Frame Relay, ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode), X.25, etc. The leased line is
the Value Added Network.
18
Chapter-04 Multi-channel Data Communication
The common problem that is faced in long haul communication is the convergence of signals that
could be efficiently transmitted over the network. It is not feasible to have every machine connected
physically to the other machine in the network. It would be unrealistic approach to implement data
communication. Moreover, detecting point of failure and recovering from it will be difficult.
To solve this problem, the solution lies in the using existing transmission technique and media. Firstly,
modulation is done to convert signals according to the transmission media. This helps two different
types of devices to accomplish data communication task. On the other hand, multiplexing is
implemented to properly consume the transmission capacity of the media.
Circuit can be defined as physical or virtual connection between two communicating devices. Channel
can be defined as single route (slot) availed of the circuit to transmit/receive the data. Thus, on the
single wired circuit or non-physical circuit, there can exist more than one channel.
Modulation
Modulation can be defined as technique by which a digital signal is converted into its analog form for
transmission over analog facility.
The transmission media can either physical connection such as wires or virtual connection such as
microwaves. The data transmitted by an electrical pulse or wave form which possess following
properties:
1. Amplitude: It can be defined a maximum value of a varying quantity from the BASE value.
2. Frequency: The frequency of a signal is the number of times the same form of signal is repeated.
That is no of repetitions in wave like periodic process per unit time
3. Phase: Points having similar locations on the time amplitude wave form are said to be in the
same phase. In other words, relative position of the two waves having same frequency.
In modulation, a transmission media is usually divided into different independent data paths called
bands. And each band can accommodate a range of frequency on a transmission media. This quality
is known as bandwidth.
When bands are used, there is a requirement of a device that converts constant level direct current of
the sender equipment into signals suitable for transmission media and performs reverse process for
the receiving end. This conversion is called modulation and demodulation.
The carrier signal is called sinusoidal signal. Basically, there are three techniques by which the digital
signals can be converted and transmitted on the transmission. These techniques are based upon the
three characteristics of the sinusoidal wave viz, amplitude, frequency and phase
Amplitude Shift Key (ASK)
This is the simplest form of the digital modulation. In this method the carries amplitude is multiplied by
the binary 1, or 0, i.e. Binary 1 is represented by one amplitude and binary 0 is represented by the
another amplitude. This method allows medium speed transmission.
ASK is very sensitive to noise and finds limited application in data transmission. It is used at very low
bit rate of less than 100 bps.
Frequency Shift Key (FSK)
In FSK one frequency of the carrier signal during bit time represents a binary one and another
frequency represents a binary zero. That is in FSK, the frequency of the carrier is shifted between two
19
direct values; one represents binary one and other binary zero. In the FSK carrier amplitude does not
change. It is relatively simple to implement. It used extensively in low speed modems having bit rate
below 1200 bps.
FSK is not very efficient in its use of available transmission channel bandwidth.
Phase Shift Key (PSK)
PSK is the most efficient of the three modulation methods and is used for high bit rates. A binary 1 is
assumed until a phase shift occurs.
The phase shift indicates a binary 0. Binary states 0 and 1 are represented by the negative and
positive polarities of the signal.
Differential PSK (DPSK)
The problem of generating the carrier with a fixed absolute phase can be overcome by encoding the
digital information as the phase change rather than the absolute phase. This method is known as
differential PSK.
If ¬T-1 is the pervious state and ¬T is the new phase state carrier, when the data bit modulate the
carrier, the phase change is defined as ∆¬¬ = ¬t - ¬ t-1
For demodulating the DPSK signal, it is merely necessary to detect the carrier phase variation
MODEMS
The term modem has been derived from the words Modulator and Demodulator. Its basic function is
To Other
Transmitter
Interface
Interface
Modem
(Modulator)
Digital
Line
To
DTE
Receiver
(Demodulator)
Block Diagram of MODEM To

Telephone
to prepare digital
data for transmission over analog voice band services offered by the telecommunication network. The
20
transmission media between two modems is always a dedicated lease circuit or a switched telephone
network
Acoustic Coupler: A special type of modem will allows an ordinary telephone to be used within in the
computer for data transmission
Type of Modems
Directional Capability wise
Half Duplex Modem: These types of modems allow transmission only in one direction at a time.
Thus, if the modem detects a carrier on the line, it indicates the DTE about incoming single and does
not let the DTE to transmit until the incoming data bits are not received completely.
Full Duplex Modem: These types of modems allow simultaneous transmission in either directions.
Hence it comprises two carriers on the line: one outgoing (transmitter) and other incoming (receiver).
Transmission Wise
Asynchronous Modem: These types of modems transmit or receive data bit-wise. That is, single
byte at a time which is framed with start and stop bits.
Synchronous Modem: These types of modems handle a continuous stream of data bytes, but
require a clock signal. The data bits are always synchronized to the clock signal. There is separate
clock for transmitting and receiving data.
Data Rate Wise
Low Speed Modems: These modems operate on bit rate up to 1200 bps. These are asynchronous
and employ FSK modulation of carrier.
Medium Speed Modems: These modems operate within the range of 2400 bps to 4800 bps. These
are synchronous and employ differential PSK modulation of carrier.
High Speed Modems: These modems operate at 9600 bps or above. These are synchronous and
employ QAM modulation of carrier.
Interconnection with computer
Internal Modems: These types of modems are installed within the computer system like card
devices.
External Modems: These types of modems are like other peripherals to the system. They are
connected to the system via a external port.
Multiplexing
It is the method of breaking single physical channel into several logical sub-channels, so that number
of independent signal may be transmitted simultaneously on it. This technique is called multiplexing.
A modem is an intermediary device that interconnects two DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) at larger
distance. But, in case there are many applications in which several terminals are interconnected it is
not feasible to install modems twice the number of the terminals for data communication.
Multiplexer
Another data transmission intermediary device which allows sharing the transmission medium called
multiplexer is feasible and best suited. A multiplexer takes several data communication channels and
converts them into one single data communication channel at the sending end. Thus, with
multiplexing it is possible to use single transmission line to concurrently transmit data between several
transmitters and receivers.
Advantage:
Economical and efficient use of available communication channel
Multiplexer can be equipped with the diagnostic hardware and software for monitoring the
performance of individual
data channel
Disadvantage
The major drawback of this
technique is, if any of the
multiplexer or leased lines
fails, all the terminals will be
cut of the host.
Demultiplexer
Demultiplexing involves
separating the samples from the
21
different channels. Since multiplexing is done sequentially, the demultiplexer utilize the flag (special
symbol identifier for each data channel) with sample to identify the corresponding channel
Type of Multiplexing
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
The lease line is usually provides speech channel with bandwidth of 300-3400 Hz. Most of
multiplexers take advantage of this band. In FDM, the frequency band is sub-divided into several sub-
channels separated by guard bands. Each channel is translated to different band and then all the
channels are combined to form a FDM signal. In the FDM, the speech channels are stacked at the
interval of 4 kHz to provide a guard band between the adjacent channels. Frequency transmission is
done by employing a carrier which is modulated by the speech signal using suppressed amplitude
modulation.
All sub-channels use FSK modulation of the carrier. Since aggregate of all sub-channels ranges
within the speech channel bandwidth and is an analog signal, the multiplexer does not requires any
modem to connect it to the line. Bandwidth of sub-channels depends upon the baud rates. Usually,
FDM provides baud rates from 50 to 600 bauds
Advantages:
Failure of on channel does not effects other channels
Disadvantages:
High production cost due to analog components
Total capacity is limited to 2400 bps due to large bandwidth is wasted in the guard band.
Does not allow different bit rates of sub-channels.
Small variation requires complete hardware reconfiguration.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
In TDM two or more signals are transmitted as single composite signal by using time sharing
technique. TDM uses fixed allocation of time slots to the sub-channels, rather than assigning them
different frequencies as in FDM. One complete cycle of time slot is called frame and the beginning of
a frame is marked by a synchronized word which help the demultiplexer to identify the time slot and
their boundaries.
If all the sub-channels have same bit rate, all the time slots are of uniform length. Otherwise, if
multiplexer permits speed flexibility the higher speed sub-channel have longer time slot. There are
two types of TDM.
a) Bit Interleaved TDM: In this type of TDM, each time-slot is one bit long. Hence, user data
streams are interleaved taking one bit from each stream
b) Byte Interleaved TDM: In this type of TDM, each time-slot is one byte long. Hence, the
multiplexed signal consists of series of interleaved character (byte) of the successive channels.
FEATURE:
TDM allows the mixing of bit rates
Better utilization of line capacity
A better bit rate of 9600 bps is possible
Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
Statistical Time Division Multiplexing uses intelligent devices that are capable of identifying when a
terminal is idle. They allocate time only to lines when required. This means that more lines can be
connected to a transmission medium because this device statistically compensates for normal idle
time (in data communication lines). Newer STDM units provide additional capabilities: data
compression, line priority, mixed speed lines, host port sharing, network port control, automatic speed
detection and much more.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
TDM signal although being in pulse form remains in analog samples and sample levels can have
infinite possible values. For converting these analog samples to digital form, another form of
modulation is applied. This is known as PCM. The process involves two stage
Quantization
It is the approximation of the level of sample by the nearest value drawn from assortment of the
discrete values. For example, if the set consists of discrete levels, 0 to 7 volts and the sample level of
3.2 volts is approximated with a discrete level of 3 volt.
Coding
22
This refers to the conversion of discrete level of the sample after quantization to binary code of fixed
length. For example, 3 volts may be coded as 011. The number of bits in the code is determined by
the total number of discrete levels. In telephony, 256 discrete levels are used, therefore number of
bits per code is 8.
23
Chapter-05 Hardware and Software components
Network Interface Card
A network adapter card plugs into the workstation, providing the connection to the network. Adapter
cards come from many different manufacturers, and support a wide variety of cable media and bus
types [ISA, MCA, EISA, PCI, and PCMCIA. New cards are software configurable, using a software
program to configure the resources used by the card. Other cards are PNP [plug and Play], which
automatically configure their resources when installed in the computer, simplifying installation. With an
operating system like Windows 95, auto-detection of new hardware makes network connections
simple and quick.
On power-up, the computer detects the new network card, assigns the correct resources to it, and
then installs the networking software required for connection to the network. All the user need do is
assigned the network details like computer name.
For Ethernet or 10BaseT cards, each card is identified by a twelve digit hexadecimal number. This
number uniquely identifies the computer. These network card numbers are used in the Medium
Access (MAC) Layer to identify the destination for the data.
When talking to another computer, the data you send to that
computer is prefixed with the number of the card you are
sending the data to.
This allows intermediate devices in the network to decide in
which direction the data should go, in order to transport the
data to its correct destination.
A typical adapter card looks like.
A PCMCIA adapter card, suitable

for connecting to a portable laptop computer to a network, looks like.
Peripheral cards associated with EISA and MCA are normally self
configuring.
Resources Used By Peripheral Cards
Essentially, there are four resources which are user configurable for
peripheral cards. Some cards may only use one (a port location(s)), others
may require all four.
I/O Port Address: In the PC, the port numbers used by peripheral
cards range from 200h to 3FFh. The I/O port address is used by the PC to communicate with the
peripheral card (issue commands, read responses, and perform data transfer).
Interrupt Request Line: The interrupt request line is used by the card to signal the processor that
the card requires the processors attention..
Direct Memory Request Line: The DMA request line is used to transfer data between the
peripheral card and the computers memory at high speed. DMA channel 0 cannot be used, as it is
reserved for system use.
Buffer Memory Address: Some peripheral cards prefer to use memory space rather than an I/O
port address to transfer data to the processor. This memory space occupied by the peripheral
card appears in the main system memory RAM area available to the processor (usually between
C0000h to EFFFFh).
So How Do Peripheral Cards Work?
Peripheral cards require a software driver to function. This software driver provides the interface
between the card and the operating system, making the services provided by the card available to the
user.
The software driver is normally configured to match the resource settings of the card. This is done by
a configuration utility, and stored either in the executable file, or a separate file (like .ini or .cfg).
It is obviously important for the configuration settings in the software driver to match those configured
on the peripheral card.
The software driver provides the follow functions:
a. Initialization routine
b. Interrupt service routine
c. Procedures to transmit and receive data
d. Procedures for status, configuration and control
24
e. The basic operation looks something like,
f. Card receives data
g. Card generates interrupt by asserting interrupt request line
h. Processor responds to interrupt request and jumps to service routine
i. Service routine instructs processor to read data from port location
j. Interrupt service routine releases processor to continue previous work
Repeaters
Repeaters EXTEND network segments. They amplify the incoming signal received from one segment
and send it on to all other attached segments. This allows the distance limitations of network cabling
to be extended. There are limits on the number of repeaters which can be used. The repeater counts
as a single node in the maximum node count associated with the Ethernet standard [30 for thin coax].
Repeaters also allow isolation of segments in the event of failures or fault conditions. Disconnecting
one side of a repeater effectively isolates the associated segments from the network.
Using repeaters simply allows you to extend your network distance limitations. It does not give you
any more bandwidth or allow you to transmit data faster.
A repeater works at the Physical Layer by simply repeating all data from one segment to another.
Features of repeater
Increase traffic on segments
Have distance limitations
Limitations on the number that can be used
Propagate errors in the network
Cannot be administered or controlled via remote access
Cannot loop back to itself (must be unique single paths)
No traffic isolation or filtering
Bridges
Bridges interconnect Ethernet segments. Most bridges today support filtering and forwarding, as well
as Spanning Tree Algorithm. The IEEE 802.1D specification is the standard for bridges.
During initialization, the bridge learns about the network and the routes. Packets are passed onto
other network segments based on the MAC layer. Each time the bridge is presented with a frame, the
source address is stored. The bridge builds up a table which identifies the segment to which the
device is located on. This internal table is then used to determine which segment incoming frames
should be forwarded to. The size of this table is important, especially if the network has a large
number of workstations/servers.
Advantages
1. Increase the number of attached workstations and network segments
2. Since bridges buffer frames, it is possible to interconnect different segments which use
different MAC protocols
3. Since bridges work at the MAC layer, they are transparent to higher level protocols
4. By subdividing the LAN into smaller segments, overall reliability is increased and the network
becomes easier to maintain
5. Used for non routable protocols like NETBEUI which must be bridged
25
6. Help localize network traffic by only forwarding data onto other segments as required (unlike
repeaters)
Disadvantages
1. The buffering of frames introduces network delays
2. Bridges may overload during periods of high traffic
3. Bridges which combine different MAC protocols require the frames to be modified before
transmission onto the new segment. This causes delays
4. In complex networks, data may be sent over redundant paths, and the shortest path is not
always taken
5. Bridges pass on broadcasts, giving rise to broadcast storms on the network
Bridges are ideally used in environments where there a number of well defined workgroups, each
operating more or less independent of each other, with occasional access to servers outside of their
localized workgroup or network segment. Bridges do not offer performance improvements when used
in diverse or scattered workgroups, where the majority of access occurs outside of the local segment.
Ideally, if workstations on network segment A needed access to a server, the best place to locate that
server is on the same segment as the workstations, as this minimizes traffic on the other segment,
and avoids the delay incurred by the bridge.
A bridge works at the MAC Layer by looking at the destination address and forwarding the frame to
the appropriate segment upon which the destination computer resides.
Features of Bridge
Operate at the MAC layer (layer 2 of the OSI model)
Can reduce traffic on other segments
Broadcasts are forwarded to every segment
Most allow remote access and configuration
Often SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) enabled
Loops can be used (redundant paths) if using spanning tree algorithm
Small delays introduced
Fault tolerant by isolating fault segments and reconfiguring paths in the event of failure
Not efficient with complex networks
Redundant paths to other networks are not used (would be useful if the major path being used
was overloaded)
Shortest path is not always chosen by spanning tree algorithm
Routers
Routers were devised in order to separate networks logically. Filtering at this level (on TCP/IP
addresses, also known as level 3 switching) will take longer than that of a bridge or switch which only
looks at the MAC layer.
Most routers can also perform bridging functions. A major feature of routers, because they can filter
packets at a protocol level, is to act as a firewall. This is essentially a barrier, which prevents
unwanted packets either entering or leaving designated areas of the network.
A router works at the Network Layer or higher, by looking at information embedded within the data
field, like a TCP/IP address, then forwards the frame to the appropriate segment upon which the
destination computer resides.
Router features
use dynamic routing
operate at the protocol level
remote administration and configuration via SNMP
support complex networks
26
the more filtering done, the lower the performance
provides security
segment networks logically
broadcast storms can be isolated
often provide bridge functions also
more complex routing protocols used [such as RIP, IGRP, OSPF]
HUBS
There are many types of hubs. Passive hubs are
simple splitters or combiners that group workstations
into a single segment, whereas active hubs include
a repeater function and are thus capable of
supporting many more connections.
In standard Ethernet, all stations are connected to the same network segment in bus configuration.
Traffic on the bus is controlled using the CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) protocol, and all
stations share the available bandwidth.
10BaseT Hubs dedicate the entire bandwidth to each port (workstation). The workstations attach to
the hub using UTP. The hub provides a number of ports, which are logically, combined using a single
backplane, which often runs at a much higher data rate than that of the ports.
Ports can also be buffered, to allow packets to be held in case the hub or port is busy. And, because
each workstation has it's own port, it does not contend with other workstations for access, having the
entire bandwidth available for it's exclusive use.
Hub options also include an SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) agent. This allows the
use of network management software to remotely administer and configure the hub. Detailed statistics
related to port usage and bandwidths are often available, allowing informed decisions to be made
concerning the state of the network.
Advantages
Each port has exclusive access to its bandwidth (no CSMA/CD)
Hubs may be cascaded to add additional ports
SNMP managed hubs offer good management tools and statistics
Utilize existing cabling and other network components
Becoming a low cost solution
Switches
Ethernet switches increase network
performance by decreasing the amount of
extraneous traffic on individual network
segments attached to the switch. They also
filter packets a bit like a router does. In
addition, Ethernet switches work and function
like bridges at the MAC layer, but instead of
reading the entire incoming Ethernet frame
before forwarding it to the destination
segment, usually only read the destination address in the frame before retransmitting it to the correct
segment. In this way, switches forward frames faster than bridges, offering fewer delays through the
network, hence better performance.
Nodes which inter-communicate frequently should be placed on the same segment. Switches work at
the MAC layer level.
Switches divide the network into smaller collision domains [a collision domain is a group of
workstations that contend for the same bandwidth]. Each segment into the switch has its own collision
domain (where the bandwidth is competed for by workstations in that segment). As packets arrive at
the switch, it looks at the MAC address in the header, and decides which segment to forward the
packet to. Higher protocols like IPX and TCP/IP are buried deep inside the packet, so are invisible to
the switch. Once the destination segment has been determined, the packet is forwarded without
delay.
Advantages
Existing cabling structure and network adapters is preserved
Switches can be used to segment overloaded networks
Switches can be used to create server farms or implement backbones
Technology is proven, Ethernet is a widely used standard
27
Improved efficiency and faster performance due to low latency switching times
Each port does not contend with other ports, each having their own full bandwidth (there is no
contention like there is on Ethernet)
28
Chapter-06 Switched Network
Switched Data Sub-Network
LAN has its own boundaries and limitation with respect to performance and area coverage. To
transmit data beyond a local area, it is required to take services of intermediary switching nodes.
Switching is the selection and establishment of path from the source to a destination through subnet.
The job of switching node is to carry data from source end to receiver end through following nodes.
The end devices involved in data communication are known as stations. They could be terminals,
computers, telephone or any other communicating device. Switching devices that rend their services
are known as switching node or simply nodes. And collection of such nodes is referred as a
communication network. Data entering network from a station routed to a destination by being
switched from node to node. Following of switching are
Flexible Topology: One access point to number of destination
Resource Sharing
Switched data network is made up of an interconnected collection of node and interconnected links
are known as trunks
Types of Switched Data Network
Circuit Switched Network
Communication using Circuit Switched Network means that there is a dedicated path between two
stations. This path is a connected sequence of links between network nodes. A logical channel on
every physical link is dedicated to the connection. The connection path is made dedicated
(established) before any data transmission begins.
This was originally developed to handle voice traffic, but is now used for data traffic. The Public
Telephone Network is the best example.
Circuit Switched Network consists of Circuit Switched Nodes. Circuit Switched Nodes carry out cross
connection between incoming trunk circuit and outgoing circuit and create transmission path.
There three phases in Circuit Switched Network
1. Connection Establishment
2. Data transfer
3. Release
Features
Destination address is fixed once
Delivery delay is minimal
Data rates are same at both ends
Data transmission is bi-directional
No error control
No data storage in sub-network
Packet Switched Network
In 1970, this technique came into existence as a efficient method for data communication over long
distances. It was appreciated for its advantages: flexibility, resource sharing, robustness and
responsiveness. This is a distributed collection of packet switching nodes.
Circuit Switched Network suffers two main shortcomings:
Under utilization of line capacity in user host connection.
Constant rate of data transmission. This limits the utility of the network in interconnecting variety
of most computers and terminals.
Advantage of packet switched network over Circuit Switched Network is if source has a longer
massage, the massage is broken into a series of the packet. Each packet contains a portion (or all for
a short message) of the user data plus some control information. The control information includes
routing information. At each node en route packet is received, stored briefly, and passed on to the
next node till destination.
Advantages:
Greater line efficiency
Varying data rate
Properties can be used
Varying delivery delay
Reduced processing time at the node
Reduced end-to-end message transmission
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Routing of Data Packets
Datagram Routing
A datagram is a packet of data with complete address of destination. In this approach, each packet is
treated independently with no reference to packets that have gone before. Following methodologies
could be use to decide the route of datagram:
Send datagram on one trunk circuit at random.
Send datagram on the trunk which has the shortest queue irrespective of destination
Brute Force Approach: Send datagram in all the outgoing trunks except in the direction from
which the datagram came.
A routing table is maintained at each node. This is used for looking up and decides the next
node.
Features:
No connection establishment and release phase
Finite and fluctuating delivery delay
Finite error rate due to lost and duplicate packets
Disordering the packets
Source and destination data rates can differ
Destination and source addresses are specified on each packets
Non-reliable service as there is no acknowledgement
Virtual Circuit Routing
Virtual circuit routing appear quiet similar to circuit switching. A Virtual circuit routing is requested
using a call request packet which incurs a delay at each node. The Virtual circuit is accepted with a
call accept packet. In contrast to circuit switching case the call acceptance also experiences node
delays even through Virtual circuit route is now established; the reason is that this packet is queued at
each node and must wait for its turn of re-transmission. Once the virtual circuit route is established,
the message is transmitted in packets. It should be clear that this phase of operation can be no faster
than circuit switching. For comparable networks, this is because circuit switching is an essentially
transparent process providing a constant data rate across network. Packet switching involves delay at
each node in the path; this delay could be variable and increased with the load.
Features:
Connection establishment and release phase
Destination and source address specified only once
Sequences delivery of packets
Source and destination data rate may differ
Finite and almost constant delivery delay
Delivery assured using acknowledgement
30
Chapter-07 Network Protocols
What is a Protocol?
A protocol is used for communication coordination between two stations. For two systems to
communicate successfully, they must speak the same language. What is communicated, how is it
communicated and when it is communicated must abide to some acceptable norms between systems
involved. These set of conventions is referred as a protocol, which may be defined as set of rules
governing the exchange of data.
Elements of a Protocol
Syntax: This part of protocol is concerned with the data format and the signal level
Semantic: This part of protocol includes control information and error-handling code
Timing: This part of protocol deals with speed matching and sequencing of data transfer
TCP/IP is an example of protocol that is widely used in internet connectivity.
Characteristics of Protocols
A protocol can display any of the following characteristics
Point-to-point
Multi-point Broadcast
Network
Switched Network
Internet
1. Direct or Indirect: If two stations are working in point-to-point or multi-point broadcast

configuration, these system may communicate directly without requiring any intervening
active agent. But, if systems are connected through switched network, direct protocol no
longer has any meaning. Here two systems depend on the functioning of other entities to
exchange information. This refers to indirect protocol.
2. Monolithic or Structured: To be completely monolithic, protocol has to be implemented as
single package including all of the functions. Major disadvantage of this kind of protocol is a
small change in any part will be done by designing of entire package. Moreover, debugging is
not also easy-to-do task.
In structured protocol design, design refers to the hardware and software that regulates the
communication function.
3. Symmetric or Asymmetric: Symmetric protocols define and control communication between
peer entities, whereas asymmetric protocol controls hierarchical communication
4. Standard or Non-standard: A non-standard protocol in one that is built for a specific
communication situation or a particular model of computer. Standard protocol refers to
protocol architecture that enjoys world wide acceptance for communication functions.
31
Functions of a Protocol
A protocol is concerned with exchanging stream of data between two entities. A data block that is
transmitted between two entities is technically known as Protocol Data Unit (PDU). Following are the
major functions that are carried out by most of protocols.
Segmentation and Reassembly
At the application level, logical unit of data is referred as a message. For better management and
control, message is broken into blocks of pre-defined small-sized packets. This process is called
segmentation or fragmentation.
Reassembling is just opposite of segmentation. On the receiving end it is required that the segmented
data must reassembled into original.
Encapsulation
This refers to the methodology of compartmentalization of all required logic for handling data
communication in a single package. Specifically it means the inclusion of control information with the
data to be transmitted such as address, error-detecting code and protocol information.
Connection control
This function specifies how the communication link has to be managed during the data transmission
from source to destination. A logical association or connection is established between communicating
entities. Three phases occur during communication:
Connection Establishment
Data Transfer
Connection termination
Ordered Delivery
The protocol must ensure that data packets should be delivered to the destination station in the same
sequence in which they were accept from the sending station. This becomes more important in when
two communicating entities are in different hosts connected by a network, as it induces the risk of
losing data packets in the route.
Flow Control
It is a function performed by the receiving entity to limit the amount or rate of data that is sent by the
transmitting entity. The simplest form of flow control is a stop-and-wait procedure, in which each data
packet must be acknowledged before the next can be sent.
Error Control
This refers to the techniques that are required to prevent loss or damage data and control information.
Generally all the methods involve error-detection based on frame check sequence and retransmission
of the faulty frame.
Addressing
There must be a unique, standard and simple-to-use method of address assigning and address
resolving method with the protocol. Addressing is an complex issue in which following point are of
paramount importance:
Addressing Levels: These refer to the level in the communication architecture at which entity
is named. A unique address is associated with each system and
intermediary system in a communication configuration. This also known
as Network level address
Addressing Scope: This refers to the applicability of the address in global space of network
Connection Identifier: In case of connection oriented communication, the connection identifier is
used to uniquely identify each service access point.
Addressing Mode: It refers to implement the address onto the system. An address refers to
a signal system or a port.
- unicast in which address refers to single system or port. Otherwise
- broadcast in which address refers to multiple recipients in domain
- multicast in which address refers to specific subset of entities
32
Chapter-08 ISO/OSI Layered Network Architecture
It is not necessary that network systems used all over the world are working the same architecture.
Hence to make the different type of machines communicated with each other there was a need for
standardization of network architecture.
Communication Categories
Hierarchical Communication
The messages exchanged between the adjacent layers during the Hierarchical Communication are
called Interface Control Information (ICI)
Peer-to-peer Communication
Peer-to-peer Communication is between the peer layers for carrying out an assigned set of functions.
The messages which are exchanged between the peer layers are called Protocol Control Information
(PCI)
Since there is no direct path between the peer layers Protocol Control Information is exchanged using
the service by the lower layer
OSI TERMS
Connection A connection is logical association of peer entities to provide services
to next higher layer
Service Access Point For hierarchical communication, the adjacent layer entities interact
(SAP) through a service access point, which at the interface between the
layers
SAP-Address (N)-SAP address or (N)-address identifies the SAP located between
(N+1)-layer and (N)-layer
Connection End A SAP path can support multiple connections on its communication
Point Identifier path. (N)-connection end point identifier uniquely identifies a
connection. It consists of two parts
(N)-address of (N)-SAP
A suffix which is uniquely within the scope of (N)-SAP
Data Units Protocol Control Information (PCI): (N)-PCI is the protocol control
information exchanged between (N)-entities to coordinated their
functions
Service Data Unit (SDU): (N)-SDU is the data transferred between the
(N)-connection and whose identity is preserved during transmission.
Protocol Data Unit (PDU): (N)-PDU is the combination of (N)-PCI and
(N)-SDU.
Interface Control Information (ICI): (N)-ICI is the information
exchanged (N+1)-entity and (N)-entity to coordinate their function.
Interface Data Unit (IDU): (N)-IDU is total data transfer across the SAP
between (N+1)-entity and (N)-entity.
33
(N+1)-PDU
(N)-ICI
(N+1)-Layer
(N)-IDU
(N)-Layer
(N)-ICI
(N)-SDU
DATA UNITS IN THE OSI

(N)-ICI
REFERENCE MODEL
(N)-SDU
ISO/OSI Reference Model

The International Standards Organization (ISO) Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) is a standard set of
rules describing the transfer of data between each layer in a network operating system. Each layer
has a specific function. For example, the physical layer deals with the electrical and cable
specifications. The OSI Model clearly defines the interfaces between each layer. The application of
the ISO/OSI model has allowed the modern multi-protocol networks that exist today.
OSI Reference Model represents generalization of concepts regarding inter-process communication.
In this approach the communication has been divided into hierarchical functional layers. It
modularizes a set of system interconnection rule in a particular way by defining a series of layer
functions. Each layer handles certain specific predefined function.
Peer Protocol
Application Application
Presentation Presentation
Session Session
Transport Transport
Relay System
Network Network
Data Link Data Link
Physical Physical
Physical Medium
In the OSI Reference Model, the communication function is divided into the hierarchy of seven layers
Physical Layer
Physical layer is basically concerned with the transmission of the raw bits over the transmission
media. The Physical layer provides its services to the Data Link Layer and receives services of the
physical interconnection channel for transmitting electrical signals. The Physical layer carries out the
following functions:
Conversion of bits into electrical signals having characteristics suitable for the transmission media
a) Signal Encoding
b) Relaying of digital signals using intermediary devices such as modems
c) The rules and procedures for interaction between Physical layer entities are called Physical layer
Protocols.
Physical Connection: The Physical layer at the two ends provides a transport service from Data Link
layer on one end to Data Link layer on the other end over a physical connection activated by them to
transmit data. Physical Connection is different from Physical transmission path in the sense that it
works at bit-level where as latter works at the electrical signal level.
Services to Data Link layer
34
1. Activation/Deactivation of the Physical Connection: The Physical layer activates/deactivates
the physical connection on the request of Data Link layer for transmission of bits.
2. Physical Service Data Units (Ph-SDU): Ph-SDU received from Data Link layer consists of 1 bit
in serial transmission or ‘n’ bits in parallel transmission.
3. Sequence Delivery: The Physical layer delivers bits in the same order in which they were
submitted by the Data Link layer.
4. Fault Condition Notification: The Data Link layer is notified in the case of error detection.
Functions within the Physical layer
a) Setup and release of the physical connection between entities in the Data Link layer
b) A physical connection may use a relay at on intermediary point to regenerate the electrical signal.
The process to activate and deactivate the relay is done by Physical layer
c) The physical transmission of bits may be synchronous or asynchronous
d) If the signal encoding is required, this function is carried out by the Physical Layer
Physical Layer Standards
a) Mechanical Specifications: This deals with type of connectors, physical dimensions, allocation
of pins and so-on. In other words, it includes mechanical design of the connectors which are used
on the equipment and the interconnecting cables and pin assignment of the connectors
b) Electrical Specifications: This is concerned with the electrical characteristics e.g., voltage level
impedance.
c) Functional Specifications: These deals with the meaning of voltage levels on the certain pins of
the connectors.
d) Procedural Specifications: The procedural specification define the rules applying to various
functions, the sequence in which certain events may occur
Data Link layer
The Physical Layer lack certain features such as:
• It does not have any function to control error induced if the electric signal gets impaired due to
disturbances encountered while transmission
• It does not supports any data flow control mechanism which could be implemented in case of
error induced if the receiving device is not ready to receive the incoming signal.
These all features are implemented in Data Link layer for error-free transmission. The Data Link layer
is the second layer of OSI Reference Model. This layer shields upper layers from the characteristics
of the physical transmission and provides a reliable and error-free Data Link Connection. It receives
the data from the higher layer and blocks them along with certain control bits. This data block along
with control bits is called frames. This frame is transmitted to the physical layer which converted bits
into electrical signals which are transmitted over the physical transmission media. At the receiving
end, the physical layer converts the incoming electrical signals back to bits and the frame is handed
over to the Data Link Layer. The Data Link Layer removes the control bits and check for errors.
The control bits includes error check bit addresses sequence numbers etc. the additional bits usually
enable error control, flow control and link managements.
Services to Network Layer
The Data Link Layer receives the services from the Physical Layer and provides service to the
Network Layer.
Following service are provided by the Data Link layer to the Network Layer
• Data Link Connection: Provides one or more Data Link connections between two network
entities.
• Data Link Connection end point identifier: to identify the individual Data Link connection.
• Sequencing: Maintain the integrity of the data Sequence.
• Error notification: Data Link layer informs Network Layer about unrecoverable error.
• Flow Control: The Network Layer can control the rate at which it receives data from Data Link
layer and Data Link layer will accepts data from Network Layer
Services within the Data Link layer
1. Setups and releases the data link connections
2. Splitting of one data link connection onto several physical connection
3. Framing function organizes bits into frames
35
4. Controls the sequence of the frames transmitted over the data link
5. Error detection and error-recovery
6. Flow control
7. Identification and parameter exchange
8. Link management
Network Layer
It is the third layer of OSI Reference Model. It consumes the services provided by Data Link Layer
and provides services to Transport Layer. The basic purpose of the Network Layer is provides mean
to access the sub-net for routing the data to the destination end system.
The Network Layer decides how to pass the data frames over the sub-net so that they reach their
destination.
Network Services
The services provided by the Network Layer to the Transport Layer are called network services. The
network services proving transparent transfer of data units to the Transport entities and data units are
received and delivered from Network Service Access Point (N-SAP). The network services can be
categories in two classes:
Connection Mode Network Services (CONS): In CONS a network connection is first established
between the communicating transport entities and then data unit received from transport layer are
transported over the connection. The data units are always delivery in same sequence in which they
were received. CONS are a reliable service because it has built-in error recovery procedures. And in
case of network failure, transport entities are informed. CCITT X.213 specifies CONS
Connection-Less Mode Network Services (CLNS): In CLNS, each data unit carries the destination
and source addresses and is delivered independently than other data units. That is the Network Layer
of the nodes makes the routing decisions independently for each data packet. It result into following
faults:
Some data packets may be lost
Some data packets may delivered out of sequence
Duplication of some data packets
CLNS can’t be categorized as reliable because there is no guarantee that the data packets will be
correctly delivered. Transport entities have to make their own effort to collect the delivery of data
packets.
Services to Transport Layer
1. Unique addresses are provided to identify transport entities
2. Point-to-point Network Connection is established
3. Quality of service is provided that includes parameters such as, Residual Error rate, throughput,
connection delay, transit delay, service availability and reliability
4. Un-recoverable errors are notified to the transport entities
5. Controlled flow of data
6. Sequenced delivery of data
7. Connection termination.
Function of Network Layer
Network Connection: This function provides a network connection between transport entities,
making use of Data Link connection provided by Data Link
Routing and Relaying: Routing function helps in selecting appropriate route between two systems
for data transmission. Network connections are provided by network entities in end systems but there
may involve intermediary system that provides relaying.
Multiplexing: The network entity may multiplex several network connections on a single data link
connection, in order to better utilization of data link connection
Segmenting and Blocking: This function is performed by network layer over data packets to get a
data packet of required size for the purpose of data transmission.
Error Detection and Recovery: The error detection is used to check the quality of the service
provided by the Network Layer over the network connection. In case of error detection, it implements
error-recovery mechanism
36
Sub-layering of Network Layer
This function is required due to the following reasons:
Difference in the operational functions of various subnetworks. Network layer has to take case of
the differences and provide uniform network services.
Subnetwork may operate on different Subnetwork access protocols. Hence, emerges the need
different set of protocols to be implemented in the end systems according to the type of subnet
Since the network layer has to interact with the subnet access mode and intermediary system, it
results into complexity of the Network Layer function. Hence it becomes necessary to specify the
internal architecture of the Network Layer so that the functioning of the entities can be simplified. The
Network Layer is sub-divided into three sub-layers:
Subnetwork Independent Convergence Function Sub-layer (SNIC)
The convergence means bringing together into a common interpretation. This layer includes following
functions:
SNIC entity provides CONS or CLNS in the system as requested by the Transport entity.
Relaying function which involves forwarding of the N-SDU by the SNIC entity of intermediary OSI
system from the SNIC entity of one end system to the SNIC entity of another system.
Routing function which decide over which of the possible many subnetworks particular
information will travel
Subnetwork Dependent Convergence Function Sub-layer (SNDC)
It includes functions required to convert the subnet into a well defined service expected by the SNIC
sub-layer. This protocol is used for the following functions:
Add to, correct or mute function provided by the sub-network so that. an uniform basic network
service boundary is provided.
Relate the services provided by the subnetwork to the provisions of the Network services
Subnetwork Access Control Function Sub-layer (SNAC)
SNAC sub-layer performs all the functions and protocols with the corresponding layer of sub-
networking. Eg. X.25 (Packet Switched Data Network) and X.21 (Circuit Switched Data Network)
Transport Layer
The Network Layer and other lower layers are the part of all the end systems and intermediary
systems. But, the Transport Layer is only implemented at the end systems.
The Transport Layer provides the functions necessary to bridge the gap between the services
available from the Network Layer and those required by the layers above. The Transport Layer
provides transparent, reliable and cost effective transfer of data between user entities in the Session
Layer.
Services to Session Layer
The Transport Layer uniquely each session entity by its transport addresses. The Transport Service
like other layers of OSI model, ISO defines a connectionless mode and connection mode transport
service. But currently, most of the applications are based on Connection mode transport service.
1. Transport connection establishment and release
2. Data Transfer
- Normal Data Transfer: Data can be transfer in any integral number of octets. This could
be two way simultaneously
- Expedited Data Transfer: Number of octets is restricted to 16. It ensure data delivery
before any further data transmission
Session Layer
It is fifth layer of the ISO Reference model which rends its services to its upper layer i.e., Presentation
Layer using the services of Transport Layer. Allows two applications to establish, use and disconnect
a connection between them called a session. The Session Layer controls and structures the
interaction between different application entities. That is, the main function of this layer establishes,
maintain and manage dialogue between different use entities.
Since, Session Connection are mapped onto the Transport connection on the one-to-one basis,
hence the Session Layer does not supports multiplexing. In case the Transport connection fails, a
new connection is established without the session use intervention or knowledge.
37
Services to Presentation Layer
• Session Connection Establishment
• Session Connection Release
- User Abort
- Provider Abort
- Orderly Release
- Negotiate Release
• Normal Data Transfer
• Session Connection Synchronization: Synchronization refers to assuring the same state of dialog
between the session service user at any point of time
• Resynchronization: It is the process of restoring the state of dialog to a previous state.
- Restart: Return to previous state of dialog
- Abandon: Cancel the current dialog
- Set: Re-agreeing the condition of dialog
Presentation Layer
This layer is concerned about the way information is to be presented to the end user. Up to Session
Layer, data is treated as the string bits. The Presentation Layer deals only with the representation of
data (syntax) and the data structures employed in the representation and not with the meaning of the
data (semantics). Computer system may employ different representation of data such as ACSII or
EBCDIC etc. Hence, the Presentation Layer provides common representation between applications/
system making them independent of syntax. The Presentation Layer only deals with the concepts of
external data representation irrespective of the methodology employed by the end user to represent
data internally.
Data type
The term data types visualize the data values to be operated upon and the subsequent result. The
data types are classified into two classes:
5. Primitive Type are basic and elementary data type such as integer, character, date
6. Constructed Type are the derived data type based upon primitive type such as record
Data Syntax
Presentation Layer and Application Layer use types of data syntax:
Abstract Syntax: It is not concerned with the representation of data. As the application entities
exchange the Application Layer data units between themselves using the underlying services of the
Presentation Layer. This type of syntax is used to define the structure of Application Layer data unit
Local Concrete Syntax: This syntax specifies the format is used for the representation of data by an
end system. These may varies from system to system.
Common Transfer Syntax: This syntax is used for encoding the information to be exchanged
between two presentation entities. The sending presentation entity encodes the data values of its
local concrete system into the common transfer syntax and the receiving presentation entity and
performs the reverse process
Service to Application Layer
Transformation of syntax
Selection of syntax
Function within the Presentation Layer
Session establishment request
Data Transfer
Negotiation and re-negotiation of syntax
Transformation of syntax
Session Termination request.
Application Layer
It is the topmost layer of the OSI Reference model. Its architecture is totally different from that of other
layers. The basic purpose of this layer is to provide a interface for corresponding application
processes to communicate via OSI environment. An application process can be defined as set of
resources that can be used to generate some useful information for a user.
38
Thus this layer provides a platform for exchanging data units between two processes via application
entities, application protocols and Presentation Layer services.
An application entity could be further partitioned into collection of several Application Service Element
(ASE). ASEs are used to carry out different function. For example, an ASE may call Presentation
Layer services or set communication path with other ASEs.
ASE can be classified into two classes:
Core/Common Application Service Entity (CASE)
Association Control Service Element (ACSE): This ASE controls and manages the relationship
between the application entities. This is the vital ASE because every service that is enjoyed by
application entity is at connection-mode. Hence ACSE establishes and releases the association
between application entities
Reliable Transfer Service Element (RTSE): This ASE with association of ACSE provides a facility
for recovering from the lost connection between application entities. For this purpose it makes use
of Session Layer synchronization service which is mapped by the Presentation Layer for it
Remote Operation Service Element (ROSE): This ASE gives authority to application entity to
associate with other application entity to which there is no direct access. This operation includes a
invoker which sends request for remote operation and a performer which returns the response.
Commitment, Concurrency and Recovery (CCR): This ASE provides the capability to perform
distributed processing transactions such as, updating multiple copies of a specific database. During
updating, it maintains data integrity and consistency in spite of outrage in communication system.
Specific Application Service Element (SASE)
File Transfer, Access and Management (FTAM): This ASE provides a reliable file operation
between two communication stations irrespective of the fact that both may be using different file
management system. The OSI file service is based upon concept of a virtual file store. The virtual
file store is an abstract description of real file store which exists in the local system environment.
The virtual file store technique gives the FTAM service independence from specific implementation
of the local system.
Virtual Terminal (VT): An OSI virtual terminal is a service provide for accessing communication
between two human terminal users, between two computer systems, or a human terminal and a
computer system. In yester years, the human terminal was connected to the host via a dedicated
link, where as today computer can be linked to any kind of network and access any resource on the
network. This could be only possible by local installation of virtual terminal interface and protocols.
39
Chapter-09 Data Link Protocols
The Data Link layers should also agree on set of regulations o be adapted to exchange of control
information. These specified set of rules and procedures for carrying out data link control function is
called data link protocol.
A data link protocol takes care of following elements:
Format of the frame (Location and size)
Content of various fields
Sequence of message to be exchanged to carry out the error control, flow control and link
management
These are numerous types of data link protocols being used, but the following two types of protocols
are preferred and commonly implemented:
i) Binary Synchronous Data Link Control (BISYNC)
ii) High Level Data Link Control (HDLC)
Frame Design Considerations
As earlier discussed, frame is basic unit transmitted by the Data Link layer. A frame consists of user
data and control fields. Each frame is processed as a single entity for error and flow control. The
general format has three components:
a) Header
b) Data
c) Trailer
Header Data Trailer
<------------FRAME------------>
Types of Frame Formats

The frame format is so designed that the receiver is always able to locate the beginning of the frame
and its various fields so that it could separate data fields. To identify a frame and its various fields,
field delimiters are used. The requirement of field delimiters is determined by the frame structure. A
data link protocol can adopt fixed or variable format of the frame.
In the fixed format, all fields are always present in all the frames. In variable format, the presence of
any field is optional. In fixed format the length of a frame may also be fixed or variable.
Variable Format – Variable Length
All the fields in this format are optional. If a field exists, its size is variable. In this format, the presence
of each field is indicated by a field identifier with symbols signifying the start and end of the frame.
X A B C Y
X – Start of Frame
A – Start of First Field
B – Start of Second Field
C – Start of Third Field
Y – End of Frame
Figure: Variable Format– Variable Length Frame
Fixed Format – Fixed Length
In this type of format of frame the design of the frame is decided once for all and the field size is also
fixed in all frames. It requires only one identifier at the beginning of the frame. All specification about
the frame is known to the receiver in advance
X
Figure: Fixed Format – Fixed Length Frame
Fixed Format – Variable length
40
In this type of format start and end identifiers are required. Except first field, other fields require
separate identifier/delimiters
X B C Y
A – Start of First Field
B – Start of Second Field
C – Start of Third Field
Y – End of Frame
Figure: Fixed Format – Variable Length Frame
Type of Data Link Protocols
Bit Oriented Data Link Protocol
In this protocol, control information is coded in bit level and the length of the data field may not be a
multiple of bytes. Bit level implies that the length of control symbol needs not to be one full byte e.g.,
HDLC protocol.
Byte Oriented Data Link Protocol
In this protocol, all control symbols should be at least one byte long. The length of data field can be a
multiple of byte, e.g. BISYNC protocol.
Binary Synchronous Data Link Protocol (BISYNC)
BISYNC protocol is used for communication between IBM computers and terminals. Related ISO
standards are ISO-1745, ISO-2111, ISO-2628 and ISO-2629.
Features
Byte-oriented data protocol
Supports three data code sets – ASCII, EBCDIC and Transcode
Support synchronous two-way alternate communication
Application for point-to-point and point-to-multipoint communication
Relationship between stations
There is master (originator of message) and slave (recipient of message) between stations.
Point-to-point Communication
This kind of communication exists between two hosts. These two stations contend for master status
when they want to transmit a message.
Point-to-multipoint Communication
In this kind of communication, there is only one host and several tributary stations. The host decides
who can send or receive message. For this two techniques are used.
Host
Tributary Stations
Polling: Host selects a station which will act as master next to it and control further communication.
After job completion, the control is returned back to the Host.
Selecting: This is the process in which the host decides about the station to which it will transmit
data. The select station then takes over slave status.
Transmission Frames
BISYNC employs variable format and variable size frame. BISYNC makes use of two types of frames:
Supervisory Frames are used for sending control information and are not protected against the
content errors
Data Frames are used to send user data and also contains error detection code.
HDLC (High Level Data Link Control)
41
HDLC is developed by ISO and is the most widely implemented Data Link protocol. It is characterized
by high flexibility, adaptability, reliability and efficiency of operation for present and future synchronous
data communication.
HDLC is a bit-oriented protocol. It satisfies following data link requirements:
Point-to-point and point-to-multipoint communication
Two-way simultaneously communication over full duplex circuits
Two-way alternate communication over full duplex circuits
Communication between equal stations and host and remote station
Full data transparency
Type of stations
Primary Station: It has responsibility of data link management. It can be designated as host or
master station
Secondary Station: It operates under the control of primary station. It is equivalent to tributary or
slave station.
Combined Station: This system can operate as both primary as well as secondary station.
Frames
All the frames sent by the primary station are called commands. And the frames sent by the
secondary stations are called response.
Mode of Data transfer
Normal Response Mode (NRM) provides unequal type of data transfer capabilities between logically
unequal stations. In NRM, primary station controls the overall link management function. It is a
synchronous mode of communication. The secondary station can send a frame only after receiving
permission from the primary station. It is good for polled multipoint operation where ordered
interaction between host and number of secondary station is required.
Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM) is similar to NRM. But in multipoint environment only one
secondary station can be active at a time keeping other station in disconnect mode
Asynchronous Balance Mode (ABM) is applicable to point-to-point communication between two
combined stations. Both stations are capable of link management
Normal Disconnect Mode (NDM): All stations are logically disconnected. In this mode secondary
station is activated by mode-setting command for NRM from the primary station
Asynchronous Disconnect Mode (ADM): In ADM, the stations enter in either ARM or ABM when
the corresponding mode-setting command is exchanged. A secondary in ADM can request mode-
setting command from the primary station in order to establish data transfer mode.
Initialization Mode (IM): In this mode, operational parameters are exchanged. It is invoked when
primary station senses the malfunctioning of secondary station and its operational parameter to be
corrected. This process can also be requested by the secondary station.
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Chapter-10 Local Area Network
It is a kind of broadcast network where each station is attached to a transmission media shared by
other stations. That means one station broadcasts transmission and other stations receive it..
Moreover being packet switched transmission is in form of packets.
In this section you will learn about LAN architecture that is widely implemented. You will also learn
medium access control (MAC) and Logical Link Control (LLC) and medium access control techniques.
LAN Attributes
Geographic coverage local area network is limited to less that 5 KM
Data rate exceeds 1 Mbps
The physical interconnecting media is privately owned
Shared physical interconnecting media
Architecture of LAN
The standardized protocol architecture includes physical, medium access and logical link control
layers
Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Upper Layer
Session Layer
Protocols
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Logical Link Layer

Data Link Layer
Medium Access
Control
Physical Layer Physical Layer
Medium Medium
Physical Layer
This layer defines the specification of the transmission medium and the topology. This layer includes
On transmission, assemble data into frames with address and error-detection field
On reception, disassemble frame, perform address recognition and error-detection
Govern access to the LAN transmission medium
Provide an interface to higher layer and perform flow and error control
The data link layer in the LAN is divide into two sub-layers:
MAC (Medium Access Control)
MAC sub layer provides the medium access control, error detection and station addressing. MAC sub
layer provides connectionless mode services to LLC (Logical Link Control Layer).
The MAC sub layer service primitives:
- Request for transmission
- Indication of availability of service
- Confirm the transmission completion
LLC (Logical Link Control)
LLC is concern with the transmission of link level protocol data unit between two station without using
intermediary switching node(s). LLC has two following characteristics that make it different from the
other link layers:
Must support multiple access, shared medium nature of the link
43
It is relieved for some details of link access by the MAC Layer
LLC Services
LLC handles methods of addressing across the medium and controlling data exchanged between two
users. Three types of services are provided by LLC:
• Unacknowledged Connectionless Service
- Datagram based
- No flow control
- No Error control
- No guaranteed delivery
• Connection mode services
- Logical Connection
- Flow control
- Error control
- Guaranteed delivery
• Acknowledged Connectionless Service
- Datagram based
- Flow control
- Error control
- Guaranteed delivery
Ethernet Protocol
The IEEE-802.3 Protocol is based on the Xerox Network Standard (XNS) called Ethernet. The IEEE-
802.3 Protocol is commonly called Ethernet but it is just one version.
These are the four versions of the Ethernet frame:
Ethernet-802.2 Frame type used on Netware 3.12 & 4.01
Ethernet-802.3 Frame type used on Netware 3.x & 2.x (raw)
Ethernet-II Frame type used on DEC, TCP/IP
Ethernet-SNAP Frame type used on Appletalk (SubNet Access Protocol)
The Source and Destination must have the same Ethernet Frame type in order to communicate.
CSMA / CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detect)
Bus arbitration is performed on all versions of Ethernet using the CSMA / CD (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access / Collision Detect) protocol. Bus arbitration is another way of discussing how to control who is
allowed to talk on the medium (and when). Put simply, it is used to determine who's turn it is to talk.
In CSMA / CD, all stations, on the same segment of cable, listen for the carrier signal. If they hear the
carrier, then they know that someone else it talking on the wire. If they don't hear carrier then they
know that they can talk. This is called the Carrier Sense portion of CSMA / CD.
All stations share the same segment of cable, and can talk on it similar to a party line. This is the
Multiple Access portion of CSMA / CD. If 2 stations should attempt to talk at the same time, a collision
is detected, and both stations back off--for a random amount of time--before they try again. This is the
Collision Detect portion of CSMA/CD.
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Media Types
IEEE 802.3 defines five media types of IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Types shown below:
IEEE 802.3 10Base5 Thick Coax 10Mbps Baseband 500m
IEEE 802.3a 10Base2 Thin Coax 10Mbps Baseband 185m
IEEE803b 10Broad36 Broadband 10 Mbps Broadband 3600m
IEEE802.3e 1Base5 Star-LAN 1 Mbps Baseband 500m
IEEE 802.3i 10BaseT Twisted Pair 10Mps Baseband 100m
IEEE 802.3 10Base5 (Thick Coax) is used only as backbones to networks.
Backbones are lines that connect buildings & network equipment together (such as Bridges, Routers,
B-router, Hubs, Concentrators, Gateways, etc.). 10Base5 is now being replaced by either Thin Coax
or fibre optics.
Cabling Standards
Cat 3, 4 and 5 cables
44
IBM Type 1-9 cabling standards
EIA568A and 568B
Ethernet cabling standards: IEEE 802.3 (10Base5), IEEE 802.3a (10Base2),IEEE 802.3i
(10BaseT)
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Connectors: RJ45, RJ11, Hermaphroditic connectors, RS-232, DB-25,BNC, TEE
Hardware Devices
Network Interface Cards (NICs)
Repeaters
Ethernet Hubs or multi port repeaters
Token Ring Multi Station Access Units (MSAUs), Control Access Units (CAUs) and Lobe Access
Modules (LAMs)
Bridges, Brouters, Routers, Gateways, Print servers, File servers, Switches
LAN Protocols
Ethernet frame types: Ethernet II, Ethernet SNAP, Ethernet 802.2, Ethernet 802.3
Media Access Control layer (MAC layer)
Token Ring: IBM and IEEE 802.5
Logical Link Control Layer (LLC) IEEE 802.2
TCP/IP, SMB, NetBIOS and NETBEUI, IPX/SPX, Fiber Distributed Data Interchange (FDDI)
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
Ethernet and Token Rings
Ethernet –CSMA/CD-IEEE8021.3-ISO 8802/3 & 7425
Created by Xerox and later developed in collaboration with Intel and DEC, also known as DIX (DEC-
Intel and DEC). It was later modified by IEEE to be known as IEEE, 802.3 standard equivalents to the
ISO 8802/3 standards. It uses a Bus structure, a single cable connecting all devices in the network.
All devices are equal status and can start transmitting any instant. The device continuously senses
the channel (carrier sense). If the line is idle, it starts transmitting the data bits. If another device starts
transmission at the same instance (Multiple Access), there could be interference or mixing or collision
of the data bits of one terminal with others. Therefore, the device must check for any such collision
and by any detected (Collision detection), must want, re monitor and retransmit. Hence is named as
CSMA/CD. Only one signal may travel over the channel CBaseband communication) Speed-10
Mbps. This type of access is called probabilistic on non-deterministic i.e. there is a certain measure of
chances which data is being transmitted regarding the actual transmission which depends on the
availability of the time. The maximum length of the connecting segment between two terminals could
be 500 meters and each segment can support as much 100 terminals
IEEE 802.5 Token Ring
The LAN structure in an improvement over CSMA/CD in case of heavy load as the reduction in
performance is not as low as in the former. The maximum data transmission rate would be as high as
16 Mbps. Another advantage over Ethernet is the use of twisted pair which are cheaper than Co-axial,
waking it more cost effective. All terminals are connected in the ring like structure, i.e. a closed loop. A
token which is a special bit sequence looping around the loop. Unlike CSMA/CD, the terminal cannot
transmit derives to arrive. This concludes there could be never be any collision and therefore incase
of heavy traffic. The degradation in performance would be liner function of the no. of terminals,
resulting into much better length load efficiency then the IEEE 802.3 the major drawback is in case
any terminal fails the entire network breakdowns. A double ring structure i.e. two concentric rings may
be used to buffer the effect at some additional cost. Another limitation is the maximum distance
between terminals is only 100 meter.
IEEE 802.4 (Token Bus)
A combination of the Ethernet and touching system all the terminals are connected using one co-axial
cable. Broadband communication channel is used to facilitate transmission of different signals over
the channel using varying frequency. The token passing makes a bus structure from a logical ring.
The token is received and sent to the terminal on the network to it is addressed. There are two
channel, forward and reverse. The signal is reflected from one end and is re modulated and
retransmitted over the channel. The system provide better efficiency in case of high load as compare
45
to Ethernet and the wiring is easier than in ring. However, the signaling routines are more complicated
and therefore are more expensive.
46
Chapter-11 X.25 INTERFACE
X.25 is an analog packet switching network and it can be considered Slow Packet Switching. The
transfer speeds are typically 56 kbps to 2.08 Mbps. There is a world-wide set of Public X.25
Networks; it's possible for an organization to have its own private X.25 network.
X.25 is an over 20 year old, established technology. There are many multi-vendor solutions: dissimilar
technologies in an organization are allowed to access the X.25 network. In Canada, the main X.25
network is called Datapac, a public offering of X.25. You pay either a flat rate or by the packet.
X.25 is used to connect LANs together. Due to its slow transfer speed, it is used for the following:
Host terminal emulations: low data
Client/Server applications such as E-mail: small files, bandwidth
File Server: large amount of data & real-time traffic (doesn't work well)
Databases: usually large databases, but queries are small inbound and medium size outbound.
X.25 has a high protocol overhead compared to other networks. This reduces the Transfer speed and
bandwidth utilization (i.e. it’s not as efficient).
Overhead Example
Truck A represents X.25. It has a heavy "empty" weight of 5 tons (overhead). The Bridge (medium)
only allows 6 tons of weight. This means that Truck A can only carry 1 Ton of cargo (i.e. data). Truck
B is a smaller truck, and weighs 3 tons empty. This means that it can carry up to 3 tons of cargo
(data) across the bridge (medium). Truck B makes better use of its weight when crossing the bridge
(i.e. it utilizes its bandwidth better; it is more efficient).
X.25 Architecture
OSI MODEL X.25 Model
Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer
SNIC
Network Layer SNDC
SNAC
Data Link Layer Data Link Layer
Physical Layer Physical Layer
Medium Medium
X.25 consists of the following layers:

Physical Layer
Physical media specification
Translation of bits to signal levels and vice versa
Four type of specifications:
X.21 Sync Digital Interface 9.6kbps (unbalance), 64Kbps (balanced)
X.21bis Leased Line Analog Interface
V.24 RS232 Leased Lines
V.35 RS232 Duplex operation over Leased Lines
It uses four flavors of medium (similar to the multiple Ethernet flavors: 10BaseT, Thinnet and
Thicknet). The X.25 packet is carried on serial data lines.
Data Link Layer
Framing of data bits
Link Management
47
Error-detection and recovery
Protocols implemented
LAPB (Link Access Procedure Balanced)
HDLC (High Level Data Link Control)
It uses HDLC & LAPB for the Data Link layer; LAPB is considered a subset of HDLC. Both are similar
to IEEE-802.2 LLC (Logical Link Control), and provide 2-way communications. The B in LAPB stands
for balanced communications (another way of saying Full-Duplex - both sides communicating at the
same time). The X.25 packet is carried within the LAPB frame's info field: this is similar to how the
LLC packet is carried within the MAC frame's info field
Network Layer
Subnet access
Station addressing
Address resolution
Routing
Protocols implemented
PLP (Packet Layer Protocol), or
SNDCF (Sub network Dependant Convergence Function)
X.25 uses IP network addresses and it's one of the reasons for the high overhead.
X.25 connects to the network using either a DCE modem or DSU/CSU (Data Service Unit/Channel
Service Unit). X.25 allows 4,096 logical channels to be connected on one physical connection. The
Packet Assembler/Disassembler (PAD) connects the DSU/CSU to the DTEs (user devices, which can
be terminals or LANs).
The X.3 standard governs the operation of the PAD and the X.28 standard governs the operation of
the PAD-to-terminal connection. The X.29 standard defines the End-to-End communications, from
DTE-to-DTE through the X.25 Network.
X.25 SERVICES
X.25 has a high overhead because it provides extensive error checking. Each device in the X.25
network acknowledges every packet that's sent. This slows down the transfer of information, and uses
up available bandwidth. When X.25 was first introduced, the quality of the analog phone lines required
this extensive error checking.
X.25 provides a virtual circuit connection mode service by establishing end-to-end logical path using
subnet. There are two types of connection:
SVC (Switched Virtual Circuit)
Established on the request of DTE
Terminate at the end of the call
Resource available only for direction of call
PVC (Permanent Virtual Circuit)
Permanent logical connection between two DTE
No need for connection establishment
X.25 Packet Formats
There are three X.25 packet formats.
Call Request - Call connection/disconnection
Control Packet - Data control
Data Packet - Information transfer
Logical Channels
There are 4,096 Logical Channels available on a single physical connection to an X.25 network. The
Logical Channels are divided into Groups and Channels. There can be 16 groups (4 bits) of 256
channels (8 bits). 16 x 256 = 4,096. The Logical Channel Numbers (LCN) is used to identify the
connections to the Network.
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Chapter-12 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
The Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a method used to bridge "the last mile" between the
Central Office and the premise connection (home). ISDN uses the existing wiring, so no new cabling
is required.
The application of digital technology to the telephone of the world has yielded significant benefits by
way of increased reliability and reduced operating cost. Furthermore these digital networks has
enable the development of public services which can offer end-to-end switched transmission of
integrated voice, computer data and other form digitized information.
This class of telecommunication, which is known as ISDN, has been the subject of standard work by
CCITT and has the commitment of major Public Telecommunication authorities worldwide.
ISDN lines can be dedicated lines that are always up and connected, or they can be dial on demand
(DOD) lines. When the line is required, the connection is dialed up and made. The connection time for
an ISDN line is very quick, in the order of 0.5 second or so. This can result in a substantial cost saving
if used over long distance (or paying by the minute). The line charges are only for when data is being
transferred, and not when it is sitting idle.
ISDN Channels
ISDN supports user call of voice, text or image on any of the user 64 kbps channels. These channels
are referred as B-Channels, as available in Basic (B) or Primary (P) bundles from the major
telecommunication authorities of the world. Calls over these channels can be made simultaneously to
different destinations and used for the transmission voice, text, image or the mixture of these three.
Types of call can be either circuit switched or packet switched. Beside B-channel, there is another
type of channel, called the D-channel, which is used to set up and tear of call, to any destination, can
be achieved by over the D-channel.
ISDN Access Rates
Basic Rate Interface (BRI) consists of 2B + D channels. This stands for 2 Bearer channels of 64
kbps each for data and one D channel of 16 kbps for handshaking and control. Having a separate
channel for handshaking and control is called "out of band" signaling. The 2B channels can be
bonded together for a single data channel with a 128 kbps transfer rate.
Primary Rate Interface (PRI) consists of 23B + D channels. This stands for 23 Bearer channels of 64
kbps each for data and one D channel of 64 kbps for handshaking and control. The Bearer channels
can be bonded in any combination as required.
ISDN Services
There three types of telecommunication services are available to the ISDN user:
Bearer Service is the network service (lower three layers), and is what the user encounters
when attaching to ISDN at the plug-in-the-wall level. E.g. a 64 kbps circuit switched B-channel,
with no restrictions on the traffic type.
Tele-service is composed higher layer function (Layer 4-7) and usually operates the standard
Bearer services. For example, Facsimile
Supplementary Services are options that are available with both bearer services and Tele-
services. For example, display of the calling party’s number on the incoming call.
ISDN Architecture
The architecture of ISDN follows the OSI closely, but the lower three OSI layers are applicable to
ISDN. The higher layers are covered by CCITT standards for other types of telecommunication
services. As a network, ISDN is not concerned with user layers 4-7. These are end-to-end layers
employed by the user for exchange of information. The network access is concerned only with layer 1
to 3.
ISDN Physical Layer
Physical Layer is defined in I.430 and I.431, specifies the Physical Interface for the both basic and
primary access. Because B and D channels are multiplexed over the same Physical Interface, these
standards apply to both types of channels. Functions that are included in the physical layer are as
follow:
Channel management
Frame structure
Frame alignment
49
Bit stream control
Bit and octet timing
D-Channel Connection
Power transfer
Bit transmission
Application
Presentation End-to-end
User
Session Signalling
Transport
Network Q.931 X.25 For Further X.25

Call Control Packet Level Study Packet Level
Data Link Frame LAPB
LAPD (Q.921) Relay
Physical I.430 Basic Interface – I.431 Primary Interface
Control Packet Telemetry Circuit Semi- Packet

Signalling Switched Permanent Switched
D-Channel B and H
Channels
ISDN Data Link Layer
For D-Channel a new Data Link Layer standard, LAPD (Link Access Protocol D-Channel) has been
defined and is specified by CCITT in Q.920 and Q.921. The standard is based on HDLC, modified to
meet the ISDN requirements. All transmission on the D-Channel is form of LAPB frames that are
exchanged between the subscriber equipment and an ISDN switching element. This layer performs
Logical establishment of a link
Detection of transmission error
Error recovery
Flow Control
ISDN Network Layer
The Network layer of ISDN is described in Q.930 and the layer protocol is specified in Q.931. This
protocol is meant to define, establish, maintain and terminate network connections across an ISDN
between communication entities. Following function are performed by this layer:
• Signaling
- identify calling party
- identify called party
- identify type of connection
• Connection management
- initiate connection
- maintain connection
- release connection
ISDN Advantages
ISDN is a mature technology; it has been around since the late 1980s. It is has been tried, tested
and works
It is governed by a world-wide set of standards
It provides symmetrical transfer rates: the transmit rate is the same as the receive rate.
It has consistent transfer rates. If you have a 64kbps bearer channel then that's the speed that
you transfer at.
It is competitive priced compared to other technologies.
ISDN Disadvantages
50
An external power supply is required. If the power fails, the phones won't work.
Special digital phones are required or a Terminal Adapter to talk to the existing POTS devices.
It is very expensive to upgrade a central office switch.
51
Chapter-13 TCP/IP Suite
TCP/IP is one of the most commonly used network protocols. It was developed in 1970 by
Department of Defense (DoD) as a strategy for connecting dissimilar networks. It is specified in MIL-
STD-1777 document. TCP/IP has become de-facto standard protocol architecture.
TCP/IP was an outcome of an experimental project over packet switched network research work
named as ARPANET
TCP/IP Approach
The TCP/IP protocol suite sees that the job of communication is too complicate and diverse to be
completed as single unit. Thus divides the entire job broadly into to sections:
First section IP deals with addressing aspect of network and station
Second section TCP controls and provides reliable and error free transportation service.
Advantages if TCP/IP
Lower technical risk and cost in case of migration
Provided foundation stone for wide spread development of Internet.
Architecture of TCP/IP protocol suite
Although there is no official TCP/IP architecture, on the basis of services provide by it, the suite can
be broken into five relative layers:
Application
Application HTTP SNMP FTP TFTP SMTP Telnet NNTP
Presentation
(PORT) (80) (161 (20 (69) (25 (23 (119)
162) 21)
Session
Transport TCP UDP

Host-to-Host
Network ICMP IP
Internet ARP
Data Link Network
Network Devices
Physical Physical
OSI Reference Model and DoD TCP/IP Model
Physical Layer
This layer is concerned with the physical interface between DTE and the physical transmission media.
It also defines characteristics of transmission media such as signal level, data rate etc. Network
Devices are network interface cards (NIC) and their software drivers are place in this layer.
Network Layer
This layer controls the exchange of data packets between an end system and the network to which it
is connected. This layer simply manages access and routing data across a network for two end
systems connected to the same network
IP Layer
This layer manages data communication between two end systems attached to different networks.
This layer provides the routing function across multiple networks. Its main job is to find the best route
through the Internet to the destination. IP (Internet Protocol) is used for this task. This protocol is
implemented not only in the end system but also in the router. It could be broken to two parts:
ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol and it is used to map IP addresses to MAC
addresses. This is needed because the Network layer is not aware of the Data Link layer's
addresses and vice versa.
ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol, and is used mainly for troubleshooting
TCP/IP network connections. Two common programs, ping and traceroute, are part of
ICMP.
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Host-to-Host Layer
It is also known as TCP Layer. This layer ensures complete, safer and error-free data transmission
between source and destination stations. Moreover, the services provided by this layer are
independent of nature of the application. To accomplish this job it uses following protocols:
TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol, and is used to guarantee end to end delivery
of segments of data, to put out of order segments in order, and to check for transmission
errors. TCP is a connection-oriented service.
UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol, and is a connectionless service. This results in a
low overhead and fast transfer service (relies on the upper layer protocols to provide error
checking and delivery of data).
Application Layer
This layer encapsulate the logic to support various user application such as file transfer, electronic
mail etc. The Application layer includes many hundreds of network-aware programs and services
such as the following:
HTTP (80): HyperText Transport Protocol, which is used for transferring web pages.
SNMP (161/162): Simple Network Management Protocol, which is used for managing network
devices.
FTP (20/21): File Transfer Protocol, which is used for transferring files across the network.
TFTP (69): Trivial File Transfer Protocol, which is a low overhead fast transfer FTP protocol.
SMTP (25): Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, which is used for transferring email across the
Internet.
Telnet (23): An application for remotely logging into a server across the network.
NNTP (119): Network News Transfer Protocol, which is used for transferring news.
The numbers, shown in brackets next to the protocols, are called the well-known Port Numbers or
Socket. TCP and UDP use these port numbers to indicate where the segments should be sent.
IP PROTOCOL
The Network Layer protocol for TCP/IP is the Internet Protocol (IP). It uses IP addresses and the
subnet mask to determine if the datagram is on a local or remote network. If it is on the remote
network, the datagram is forwarded to the default gateway (which is a router that links to another
network). Functionally, it is similar as OSI connectionless network protocol (CLNP).
IP keeps track of the number of transverses through each router (that the datagram goes through to
reach its destination). Each transverse is called a hop. If the hop count exceeds 255 hops, the
datagram is removed, and the destination is considered unreachable. IP's name for the hop count is
called Time to Live (TTL).
IP Services
IP provides limited set services to TCP namely send and receive.
Send primitive is use to transmit user data packets
Deliver primitive is used to notify the arrival of data packet to the user.
Both use following parameters:
Source address: Address of the sender
Destination Address: Address of the recipient
Service Indicators: Flag indicating the treatment of data packet in its transmission through
subnet
Identifier: Unique identity to each data packet. It is used for reassembly and error-reporting. Not
present in Deliver primitive.
Time to Live: Network hops count. Not present in Deliver primitive.
Data Length: Length of the data that is transmitted
Option data: Option flags such as security, source routing, route recording, timestamping.
Data: User data to be transmitted
IP Addresses
The source and destination address field contains IP addresses. IP address consists of a 32-bit global
internet number, and is represented by the dot-decimal format. A portion of an IP address represents
the network address, and the remaining portion the host (or local) computer’s address.
53
The address is coded to allow variable allocation of bits to specify network and host. This encoding
provided flexibility in assigning address to hosts and decides the network sizes on an internet.
There are three main class of IP address. Depending upon the class, different parts of the address
show the network portion of address and the host address, as shown in following diagram.
0 Network (7-bits) Host (24 bits) Class A
10 Network (14-bits) Host (16 bits) Class B
110 Network (21-bits) Host (8 bits) Class C
1110 Multicast Address (31-bits) Class D
For example, 142.110.237.1 is an IP address of a computer. There are 4 decimal digits separated by
three dots. Each digit is allowed the range of 0 to 255. This range corresponds to 8 bits (one byte) of
information. The network that the computer resides on is 142.110.237.0 (Note: IP addresses that end
in a 0 represent network addresses). The host address of the firewall is 0.0.0.1 (Note: the network
portion of the IP address is represented by 0s). Each host on the network and Internet must have a
unique IP address.
Following table lists the three classes of IP addresses, number of networks and host that are available
on each class
Network Class Address in First Field Number of Networks Number of Hosts
A 1-126 126 16777214
B 128-191 16384 65534
C 192-223 2097152 254
D 224-239 - -
E 240-255 - -
There are several classifications of IP addresses: they include network addresses and special
purpose addresses.
Class A addresses
Class A addresses always have bit 0 set to 0; bits 1-7 are used as the network ID; bits 8-31 are used
as the host ID. Class A networks are used by very large companies, such as IBM, US Dept of
Defense and AT&T.
Class B addresses
Class B addresses always have bit 0 and 1 set to 10. Bits 2-15 are used as the network ID. Bits 16-31
are used as the host ID. Class B networks are assigned to large companies and universities.
Class C addresses
Class C addresses always have bits 0-2 set to 110. Bits 3-24 are used as the network ID. Bits 25-31
are used as the host ID. Class C network addresses are assigned to small companies and local
Internet providers.
Class D Addresses
IP address range 224.0.0.0 to 239.0.0.0. Class D addresses always have bits 0-3 set to 1110, bits 4-
31 are used as the Multicast address. Class D network addresses are used by multicasting.
Multicasting is a method of reducing network traffic (rather than send a separate datagram to each
host if multiple hosts require the same information).
Class E Addresses
IP addresses range from 240.0.0.0 to 255.0.0.0. It is reserved by the Internet for its own use.
Reserved IP Addresses
Name IP Address Description
Loopback 127.0.0.1 This IP address is reserved for Loopback testing. It refers to the
same machine on which it is implemented. An A class address.
Subnet Mask A.B.C.1 It is the first address of the network and is typically used for the
router address.
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Network Number A.B.C.0 This address is used to define the range of network to the router
starting from A.B.C.0 to A.B.C.255
IP Broadcast A.B.C.255 This is used for broadcasting purposes. It is a C class address
SUBNET MASK
The subnet mask is used to specify which part of the IP address is the network address and which
part is the host address. By default, the following subnet masks are applied:
Class A Class B Class C
255.0.0.0 255.255.0.0 255.255.255.0
By using 255, user selects the octet or octets to identify the network address. For example, in the
Class B IP network address 192.200.102.100 with the subnet mask 255.255.0.0, 192.200 is the
network address and 102.100 is the host address.
ARP
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) resides in the bottom half of the Network layer. It can be
considered a mechanism for mapping addresses between the Network logical addresses and MAC
(Media Access Control) layer physical addresses. ARP provides the mechanism to map MAC
addresses to IP addresses in a temporary memory space called the ARP cache. The ARP cache is a
dynamic cache and the information is stored only for 120 seconds (then it is discarded).
ICMP
The job of the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is to report errors that may have occurred in
processing IP datagrams. ICMP is an integral part of IP and its messages are encapsulated within an
IP datagram.
TCP Protocol
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is responsible for reliable end-to-end delivery (segments of
information). Segment is the term that is used to describe the data that is transmitted and received at
the Transport level of the OSI model (i.e. where TCP resides). TCP also redirects the data to the
appropriate port (upper level service) that is required. The reliable end-to-end delivery of data is
accomplished by the following:
Connection-oriented service Segments are acknowledged to the source when received by the
destination. A sliding window is used to enable unacknowledged segments on the "wire" in order
to speed up transmission rates
Sequencing of segments Data is broken up into segments that are numbered (sequenced) when
transmitted. The destination TCP layer keeps track of the received segments and places them in
the proper order (re-sequences).
Requesting retransmission of lost data If a segment is lost in transmission (missing sequence
number). The destination will timeout and request that all segments starting at the lost segment
be retransmitted.
Error checking Segments are checked for data integrity when received using a 32 bit CRC check.
The redirection of data to the upper level service is accomplished by using Source and Destination
Port numbers. Multiple connections to the same service are allowed. For example, you may have
many users (clients) connected to a single web server (http is normally port 80). Each client will have
a unique Port number assigned (typically above 8000) but the web server will only use Port 80.
UDP Protocol
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless host. UDP hosts service that operates at the
Transport layer of the OSI model. UDP relies on the upper layer protocol for both error correction and
reliable service. The protocol is transaction oriented and delivery and duplicate protection are not
guaranteed. The major uses of this protocol are DNS and TFTP.
UDP has a small header and for all intents and purposes it adds Port addressing to the IP header.
The IP header routes datagrams to the correct host on the network. UDP routes the datagram to the
correct application.
SNMP
SNMP is not actually a protocol: it's a client server application that runs on the UDP (User Datagram
Protocol) service of the TCP/IP protocol suite. It was developed to be an efficient means of sending
network management information over UDP, using Ports 161(SNMP) and 162 (SNMPTRAP).
SNMP consists of three parts: Messages, Agents and Managers.
55
SNMP Messages (such as Get and GetResponse) communicate the management information.
SNMP Managers asks the questions (polls) and manages the Agents approximately every 15
minutes to see if anything has changed.
SNMP Agents are resources to be managed such as hosts, servers, routers, hubs, etc....
56
Chapter-14 FDDI (Fibre Distributed Data Interface)
The Fibre Distributed Data Interface is the LAN based on the optical fibre as the transmission media.
This standard is developed by ANSI. It operates under IEEE 802.2 LLC sublayer allowing to be
integrated easily with other LAN standards.
FDDI was originally developed as back-end network interconnecting several hosts and high speed
peripherals. It can also be used as a backbone network interconnecting several front-end LANs. It has
ring topology and 1000 stations can be connected on the ring.
Optical fibre as transmission media in a LAN enjoys several advantages over copper media.
Its potential bandwidth is immense.
It is thinner, lighter in weight
It is immune to electromagnetic interface
Type of Services
FDDI LANs provides two types of services:
Synchronous services
These type of services is for real time application in which bandwidth and response time are critical
parameter and predictable. The allocation of ring bandwidth for synchronous transmissions is done
mutually by all stations
Asynchronous services
This type of service provides dynamic bandwidth and is suitable for heavy traffic and interactive
application. Unused synchronous bandwidth is transferred for asynchronous transmissions.
Traffic Control
FDDI controls the traffic in such a way that the token is rotated round the ring once in the Target
Token Rotation Time (TTRT). In other words, total time for transmitting synchronous and some
asynchronous data by all the station is less than TTRT. All the stations maintain two timers: Token
Rotation Timer (TRT) and Token Holding Timer (THT).
If the token arrives earlier than TTRT at a station, the left over time is transferred to the THT. First, the
synchronous data us transmitted up to the allotted time and then asynchronous data is transmitted till
expiry of THT. The token is released immediately thereafter for the next station.
If the token arrives late, only the synchronous data is transmitted for the allotted time and the token is
released thereafter. The maximum token rotation time can be 2 X TTRT beyond which a corrective
action is required. The station send claim token frames indicating the required TTRT values. The
station with the lowest TTRT wins and claims the token.
Priority Management
The synchronous data gets the top priority. For the asynchronous data, an optional priority scheme
with eight levels of priorities is implemented.
Ring Management
The Ring Management function includes ring initialization, ring monitoring, and token monitoring.
These functions are also implemented in FDDI ring. The ring initialization function also involves
allocation of synchronous bandwidth to each station
FDDI Physical Layer Specification
The FDDI standard specifies a ring topology operating at 100 Mbps. Two media are as given below:
Transmission Medium Optical Fibre Twisted Pair
Data Rates (Mbps): 100 100
Max of No. of Repeaters: 100 100
Max length between Repeaters: 2 KM 100 M
57

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Direction of data ----------------------->

An optical transmission system mainly consists of the components:

Line of sight propagation

• Attenuation increases with rainfall

Satellite work as a switch to the earth stations

Block Diagram of MODEM To

A PCMCIA adapter card, suitable

1. Direct or Indirect: If two stations are working in point-to-point or multi-point broadcast

DATA UNITS IN THE OSI

ISO/OSI Reference Model

Data Link Data Link

Header Data Trailer

Types of Frame Formats

Logical Link Layer

Physical Layer Physical Layer

X.25 consists of the following layers:

Network Q.931 X.25 For Further X.25

Control Packet Telemetry Circuit Semi- Packet

Transport TCP UDP

OSI Reference Model and DoD TCP/IP Model

0 Network (7-bits) Host (24 bits) Class A

10 Network (14-bits) Host (16 bits) Class B

110 Network (21-bits) Host (8 bits) Class C

1110 Multicast Address (31-bits) Class D

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