Baldwin, Claire - AQA A Level Further Mathematics Year 1 (AS) - Hodder Education Group (2017) PDF

AQA
A-Level
Further
Mathematics For Core Year 1 and AS
1
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This textbook has been approved by AQA for use with our qualification. This means that Authors
we have checked that it broadly covers the specification and we are satisfied with the
Ben Sparks
overall quality. Full details of our approval process can be found on our website.
We approve textbooks because we know how important it is for teachers and students to Claire Baldwin
have the right resources to support their teaching and learning. However, the publisher is
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ultimately responsible for the editorial control and quality of this book.
Please note that when teaching the AQA A-Level Further Mathematics course, you must refer Roger Porkess
to AQA’s specification as your definitive source of information. While this book has been written
Catherine Berry
to match the specification, it cannot provide complete coverage of every aspect of the course.
A wide range of other useful resources can be found on the relevant subject pages of our Contributing editor
website: www.aqa.org.uk.
Jonny Griffiths
883316_00_AQA_Maths_Y1_FM_i-viii.indd 1 8/12/17 6:07 PM

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© Jonny Griffiths, Ben Sparks, Roger Porkess and MEI 2017
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Contents
Getting the most from this book iv 7 Further calculus 123
Prior knowledge vi 1 Volumes of revolution 123
2 The mean value of a function 131
1 Matrices and transformations 1
1 Matrices 2 8 Complex numbers and geometry 135
2 Multiplication of matrices 6 1 T
he modulus and argument
3 Transformations 13 of a complex number 136
4 Successive transformations 27 2 Multiplying and dividing complex
5 Invariance 33 numbers in modulus-argument
form 144
2 Introduction to complex 3 Loci in the Argand diagram 148
numbers 39
Practice Questions 2 161
1 Extending the number system 40
2 Division of complex numbers 44 9 Polar coordinates 163
3 Representing complex numbers
1 Polar coordinates 163
geometrically 47
2 Sketching curves with polar
3 Roots of polynomials 52 equations 168
1 Polynomials 53 10 Rational functions and further

2 Cubic equations 58 algebra 174
3 Quartic equations 62
1 Graphs of rational functions 175
4 Solving polynomial equations with
2 Inequalities 186
complex roots 65
11 The determinant of a matrix 196
4 Conics 71
1 The determinant of a matrix 197
1 The conics and their graphs 71
2 The inverse of a matrix 202
Practice Questions 1 80
12 Vectors and 3D space 208
5 Hyperbolic functions 82 1 F
inding the angle between
two vectors 209
1 The hyperbolic functions 82
2 The vector equation of a line 216
6 Sequences and series 93 3 Finding distances 228
1 Sequences and series 94 Practice Questions 3 237
2 Using standard results 99
An introduction to radians 239
3 The method of differences 102
The identities sin (θ ± ϕ) and cos (θ ± ϕ) 242
4 Proof by induction 107
Answers 244
5 Other proofs by induction 113
6 Polynomial approximations and Index 295
Maclaurin series 116
iii

Getting the most from this book
Mathematics is not only a beautiful and exciting subject in its own right but also one that underpins many
other branches of learning. It is consequently fundamental to our national wellbeing.
This book covers the compulsory core content of Year 1/AS Further Mathematics. The requirements of
the compulsory core content for Year 2 are met in a second book, while the Year 1 and Year 2 optional
applied content is covered in the Mechanics and Statistics books, and the remaining option in the A-Level
Further Mathematics Discrete book.
Between 2014 and 2016 A-Level Mathematics and Further Mathematics were substantially revised, for
first teaching in 2017. Major changes included increased emphasis on:
■ Problem solving
■ Mathematical proof
■ Use of ICT
■ Modelling
■ Working with large data sets in statistics.
This book embraces these ideas. A large number of exercise questions involve elements of problem solving.
The ideas of mathematical proof, rigorous logical argument and mathematical modelling are also
included in suitable exercise questions throughout the book.
The use of technology, including graphing software, spreadsheets and high specification calculators,
is encouraged wherever possible, for example in the Activities used to introduce some of the topics. In
particular, readers are expected to have access to a calculator which handles matrices up to order 3 × 3.
Places where ICT can be used are highlighted by a T icon. Margin boxes highlight situations where
the use of technology – such as graphical calculators or graphing software – can be used to further
explore a particular topic.
Throughout the book the emphasis is on understanding and interpretation rather than mere routine
calculations, but the various exercises do nonetheless provide plenty of scope for practising basic techniques.
The exercise questions are split into three bands. Band 1 questions are designed to reinforce basic
understanding; Band 2 questions are broadly typical of what might be expected in an examination; Band
3 questions explore around the topic and some of them are rather more demanding. In addition, extensive
online support tailored to the AQA specification, including further questions, is available by subscription to
MEI’s Integral website, integralmaths.org.
In addition to the exercise questions, there are three sets of practice questions, covering groups of chapters.
These include identified questions requiring problem solving PS , mathematical proof MP , use
of ICT T and modelling M .
This book is written on the assumption that readers are studying or have studied AS Mathematics.
It can be studied alongside the Year 1/AS Mathematics book, or after studying AS or A-Level
Mathematics. There are places where the work depends on knowledge from earlier in the book or in
the Year 1/AS Mathematics book and this is flagged up in the Prior knowledge boxes. This should
be seen as an invitation to those who have problems with the particular topic to revisit it. At the
end of each chapter there is a list of key points covered as well as a summary of the new knowledge
(learning outcomes) that readers should have gained.
iv

Although a general knowledge of A-Level Mathematics beyond AS Level is not required, there are two small
topics from Year 2 of A-Level Mathematics that are needed in the study of the material in this book. These
are radians (needed in the work on the argument of a complex number) and the compound angle formulae,
which are helpful in understanding the multiplication and division of complex numbers in modulus-
argument form. These two topics are introduced briefly at the back of the book, for the benefit of readers
who have not yet studied Year 2 of A-Level Mathematics.
Getting the most from this book

Two common features of the book are Activities and Discussion points. These serve rather different
purposes. The Activities are designed to help readers get into the thought processes of the new work that
they are about to meet; having done an Activity, what follows will seem much easier. The Discussion points
invite readers to talk about particular points with their fellow students and their teacher and so enhance their
understanding. Another feature is a Caution icon , highlighting points where it is easy to go wrong.
Answers to all exercise questions and practice questions are provided at the back of the book, and also online
at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/AQAFurtherMathsYear1
In this AQA textbook much of the material is well tried and tested. However, as a consequence of the
changes to A-Level requirements in Further Mathematics, large parts of the book are either new material or
have been very substantially rewritten.
Catherine Berry
Roger Porkes

Prior knowledge
This book is designed so that it can be studied alongside AQA A-Level Mathematics Year 1. There are
some links with work in AQA A-Level Mathematics Year 2, but it is not necessary to have covered this
work before studying this book. Some essential background work on radians and compound angle
formulae is covered in the An introduction to radians and The identities sin(θ ± ϕ) and cos(θ ± ϕ).
■
Chapter 1: Matrices and transformations builds on GCSE work on transformations, especially
rotations, reflections and enlargements. Knowledge of 3D vectors is assumed.
■
Chapter 2: Introduction to complex numbers uses work on solving quadratic equations, by
factorising and by using the formula. This is covered in Chapter 3 of AQA A-Level Mathematics Year 1.
■
Chapter 3: Roots of polynomials uses work on solving polynomial equations using the factor
theorem, covered in Chapter 7 of AQA A-Level Mathematics Year 1.
■
Chapter 4: Conics builds on work on coordinate geometry in Chapter 5 of AQA A-Level
Mathematics Year 1 (AS) and curve sketching in Chapter 8 of AQA A-Level Mathematics Year 1 (AS).
■
Chapter 5: Hyperbolic functions involves use of the exponential and log functions which are
covered in Chapter 13 of AQA A-Level Mathematics Year 1.
■
Chapter 6: Sequences and series builds on GCSE work on sequences. The notation and
terminology used is also introduced in Chapter 3 in AQA A-Level Mathematics Year 2, but it is not
necessary to have covered this work prior to this chapter.
■
Chapter 7: Further calculus uses integration of simple polynomial functions, covered in Chapter 11 of
AQA A-Level Mathematics Year 1.
■
Chapter 8: Complex numbers and geometry develops the work in Chapter 2. Knowledge of
radians is assumed: this is covered in Chapter 2 of AQA A-Level Mathematics Year 2, but the required
knowledge is also covered in An introduction to radians. It is also helpful to know the compound
angle formulae (which are introduced in Chapter 8 of AQA A-Level Mathematics Year 2; there is also
a brief introduction in The identities sin(θ ± ϕ) and cos(θ ± ϕ)).
■
Chapter 9: Polar coordinates assumes knowledge of radians: this is covered in Chapter 2 of AQA
A-Level Mathematics Year 2, but the required knowledge is also covered in An introduction to
radians.
■
Chapter 10: Rational functions and further algebra builds on work on curve sketching covered
in Chapter 8 of AQA A-Level Mathematics Year 1. It also uses work on inequalities from Chapter 4
of AQA A-Level Mathematics Year 1.
■
Chapter 11: The determinant of a matrix follows on from the work in Chapter 1.
■
Chapter 12: Vectors and 3D space builds on the vectors work covered in Chapter 12 of AQA
A-Level Mathematics Year 1. Knowledge of 3D vectors, which is introduced in Chapter 12 of AQA
Level Mathematics Year 2, is assumed, but it is not necessary to have covered the Mathematics Year 2
chapter prior to this chapter.
vi

Acknowledgements
The Publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright material.
Practice questions have been provided by MEI (p. 80–81, p. 161-162 and p. 237–238).
Photo credits
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vii

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1 Matrices and transformations
As for everything else,

so for a mathematical
theory – beauty can
be perceived but not Burnley (Bu) Bradford (Br) Leeds (L)
Preston (P)
explained.
Arthur Cayley 1883
Manchester (M)
Figure 1.1 Illustration of some major roads and motorways joining some
towns and cities in the north of England.
Discussion point
➜ How many direct routes (without going through any other town) are there
from Preston to Burnley? What about Manchester to Leeds? Preston to
Manchester? Burnley to Leeds?
883316_01_AQA_Maths_Y1_001-038.indd 1 8/12/17 7:14 AM

Matrices
1 Matrices
You can represent the number of direct routes between each pair of towns
(shown in Figure 1.1) in an array of numbers like this:
Br Bu L M P
Br 0 0 1 0 0
Bu 0 0 0 1 3
L 1 0 0 2 0
M 0 1 2 0 1
P 0 3 0 1 0
.
This array is called a matrix (the plural is matrices) and is usually written inside
curved brackets.
 0 0 1 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 1 3 
 1 0 0 2 0 
 0 1 2 0 1 
 
 0 3 0 1 0 .
It is usual to represent matrices by capital letters, often in bold print.

A matrix consists of rows (horizontal) and columns (vertical), and the entries in
the various cells are known as elements.
 0 0 1 0 0 
 
0 0 0 1 3
The matrix M =   representing the routes between the
 1 0 0 2 0 
 0 1 2 0 1 
 
 0 3 0 1 0 
towns and cities has 25 elements, arranged in five rows and five columns. M is
described as a 5 × 5 matrix, and this is the order of the matrix. You state the
number of rows first, then the number of columns. So, for example, the matrix
 4 −4 
 3 −1 4   
A=   is a 2 × 3 matrix and B =  3 4  is a 3 × 2 matrix.
 2 0 5   0 −2 
 
Special matrices
Some matrices are described by special names which relate to the number of
rows and columns or the nature of the elements.
 3 5 1 
 4 2   
Matrices such as   and  2 0 −4  which have the same number of
 1 0   1 7 3 
 
rows as columns are called square matrices.The diagonal that runs from the top left
term to the bottom right term of a square matrix is called the leading diagonal.

 1 0 
The matrix   is called the 2 × 2 identity matrix or unit matrix, and
 0 1  1
 1 0 0 
 
similarly  0 1 0  is called the 3 × 3 identity matrix. Identity matrices must
 0 0 1 
Chapter 1 Matrices and transformations

 
be square, and are usually denoted by I.
 0 0 
The matrix O =   is called the 2 × 2 zero matrix. Zero matrices can
 0 0 
be of any order.
Two matrices are said to be equal if and only if they have the same order and
each element in one matrix is equal to the corresponding element in the other
matrix. So, for example, the matrices A and D below are equal, but B and C are
not equal to any of the other matrices.
 1 3   1 2   1 3 0   1 3 
A=   B=   C=   D=  
 2 4   3 4   2 4 0   2 4 .
Working with matrices

Matrices can be added or subtracted if they are of the same order.
 2 4 0   1 −1 4   3 3 4 
 + =  Add the elements
 −1 3 5   2 0 −5   1 3 0  in corresponding
positions.
 2 −3   7 −3   −5 0 
 − =  Subtract the elements in
 4 1   −1 2   5 −1  corresponding positions.
 2 4 0   2 −3 
But  +  cannot be evaluated because the matrices are
 −1 3 5   4 1 
not of the same order. These matrices are non-conformable for addition.
You can also multiply a matrix by a scalar number:
 3 −4   6 −8  Multiply each of
2 = . the elements by 2.
 0 6   0 12 
TECHNOLOGY
You can use a calculator to add and subtract matrices of the same order and
to multiply a matrix by a number. For your calculator, find out:
• the method for inputting matrices
• how to add and subtract matrices
• how to multiply a matrix by a number for matrices of varying sizes.

Matrices
Associativity and commutativity

When working with numbers the properties of associativity and
commutativity are often used.
Associativity
Addition of numbers is associative.
Discussion points
(3 + 5) + 8 = 3 + (5 + 8).
➜ Give examples
to show that
subtraction of When you add numbers, it does not matter how the numbers are grouped, the
numbers is not answer will be the same.
commutative or
associative.
➜ Are matrix
Commutativity
addition and Addition of numbers is commutative.
matrix subtraction
associative and/or
4 + 5 = 5 + 4.
commutative?
When you add numbers, the order of the numbers can be reversed and the
answer will still be the same.
Exercise 1.1
① Write down the order of these matrices.
 1 
 
 2 4   0 8 4   2 
(i)  6 0  (ii)  –2 –3 1  (iii) ( 7 –3 ) (iv)  3 
     4 
 –3 7   5 3 –2 
 5 
 
 8 5 
 2 –6 4 9 
(v)
 5 10 11 –4 
(vi)  –2 0 
 
 3 –9 
② For the matrices

 2 –3   7 –3   3 5 –9   0 –4 5 
A =  B =  C =  D = 
 0 4   1 4   2 1 4   2 1 8 
 1 
 –3 5   
E=  F=  3 
 –2 7   5 
 
find, where possible
(i) A – E (ii) C + D (iii) E + A – B (iv) F + D (v) D – C
(vi) 4F (vii) 3C + 2D (viii) B + 2F (ix) E – (2B – A)
③ The diagram in Figure 1.2 shows the number of direct flights on one day
offered by an airline between cities P, Q, R and S.

The same information is also given in the partly completed matrix X.
2
Q 1
P 1
To
2 P Q R S
( )
1
2 From P 0 2 1 0

1 Q 1
1
X=
R
S 1
R S
2
Figure 1.2
(i) Copy and complete the matrix X.

A second airline also offers flights between these four cities.The following
matrix represents the total number of direct flights offered by the two airlines.
 0 2 3 2 
 
 2 0 2 1 
 2 2 0 3 
 1 0 3 0 
 
(ii) Find the matrix Y representing the flights offered by the second airline.
(iii) Draw a diagram similar to the one in Figure 1.2, showing the flights
offered by the second airline.
④ The trace of a square matrix is the sum of the elements in the diagonal
from top left to bottom right. A 2 by 2 matrix has a trace of 9; the sum of
the elements in the top row is 3, and the sum of the elements in the first
column is 10. The sum of all the elements is 8. What is the matrix?
⑤ Find the values of w, x, y and z such that
 3 w   2 −1   −9 8 
 + x   =  .
 −1 4   y z   11 −8 
⑥ Find the possible values of p and q such that

 p2 −3   5 p −2   
 −  =  6 −1  .
 2 9   −7 q 2   9 4 
   
 a b 
⑦ Show that if you add two matrices of the form  b a  you get another
 
of the same form.
⑧ Four local football teams took part in a competition in which they each
played each other twice, once at home and once away. Figure 1.3 shows the
results matrix after half of the games had been played.
Goals Goals
Win Draw Lose for against
( )
City 2 1 0 6 3
Rangers 0 0 3 2 8
Town 2 0 1 4 3
United 1 1 1 5 3
Figure 1.3

Multiplication of matrices
(i) The results of the next three matches are as follows:

City 2 Rangers 0
Town 3 United 3
City 2 Town 4
Find the results matrix for these three matches and hence find the
complete results matrix for all the matches so far.
(ii) Here is the complete results matrix for the whole competition.
 4 1 1 12 8 
 
 1 1 4 5 12 
 3 1 2 12 10 
 1 3 2 10 9 
 
Find the results matrix for the last three matches (City vs United,
Rangers vs Town and Rangers vs United) and deduce the result of
each of these three matches.
⑨ A mail-order clothing company stocks a jacket in three different sizes and
four different colours.
 17 8 10 15 
The matrix P =  6 12 19 3  represents the number of jackets in
 
 24 10 11 6 
stock at the start of one week.
 2 5 3 0 
The matrix Q =  1 3 4 6  represents the number of orders for
 
 5 0 2 3 
jackets received during the week.
(i) Find the matrix P – Q.
What does this matrix represent? What does the negative element in
the matrix mean?
A delivery of jackets is received from the manufacturers during the week.

 5 10 10 5 
The matrix R =  10 10 5 15  shows the number of jackets received.
 
 0 0 5 5 
(ii) Find the matrix which represents the number of jackets in stock at the
end of the week after all the orders have been dispatched.
(iii) Assuming that this week is typical, find the matrix which represents
sales of jackets over a six-week period. How realistic is this assumption?
2 Multiplication of matrices
When you multiply two matrices you do not just multiply corresponding
terms. Instead you follow a slightly more complicated procedure. The following
example will help you to understand the rationale for the way it is done.

There are four ways of scoring points in rugby union: a try (five points), a
conversion (two points), a penalty (three points) and a drop goal (three points). In
a match Tonga scored three tries, one conversion, two penalties and one drop goal. 1
So their score was
3 × 5 + 1 × 2 + 2 × 3 + 1 × 3 = 26.

You can write this information using matrices. The tries, conversions, penalties
and drop goals that Tonga scored are written as the 1 × 4 row matrix (3 1 2 1)
and the points for the different methods of scoring as the 4 × 1 column
 5 
 
matrix  2  .
 3 
 3 
 
These are combined to give the 1 × 1 matrix ( 3 × 5 + 1 × 2 + 2 × 3 + 1 × 3) = ( 26) .
Combining matrices in this way is called matrix multiplication and this
 5 
 
2
example is written as (3 1 2 1) ×   = (26) .
 3 
 3 
 
The use of matrices can be extended to include the points scored by the
other team, Japan. They scored two tries, two conversions, four penalties
and one drop goal. This information can be written together with Tonga’s
scores as a 2 × 4 matrix, with one row for Tonga and the other for Japan.
The multiplication is then written as:
 5 
 3 1 2 1   2   26 
 2 2 4 1  ×   = .
 3   29 
 3 
So Japan scored 29 points and won the match.

This example shows you two important points about matrix multiplication.
Look at the orders of the matrices involved.
The two 'middle' numbers, in this case 4, must

be the same for it to be possible to multiply two
matrices. If two matrices can be multiplied,
they are conformable for multiplication.
2×4 × 4×1
The two 'outside' numbers give you the order of

the product matrix, in this case 2 x 1.
You can see from the previous example that multiplying matrices involves
multiplying each element in a row of the left-hand matrix by each element in a
column of the right-hand matrix and then adding these products.

Example 1.1
 10 3   5 
Find    .
 −2 7   2 
Solution
The product will have order 2 × 1.
(10 × 5) + (3 × 2) = 56
( )( )
10 3
−2 7
5
2 ( )
56
4
(−2 × 5) + (7 × 2) = 4
Figure 1.4
Example 1.2
 1 3   4 3 0 
Find    .
 −2 5   −2 −3 1 
Solution
The order of this product is 2 × 3.
(1 × 3) + (3 × −3) = −6 (1 × 0) + (3 × 1) = 3
(1 × 4) + (3 × –2) = −2  
 −2 −6 3 
 −18 −21 5 
 
(–2 × 4) + (5 × –2) = −18
(–2 × 3) + (5 × –3) = −21 (–2 × 0) + (5 × 1) = 5
    
So  1 3   4 3 0  =  −2 −6 3 
 −2 5   −2 −3 1   −18 −21 5 
Discussion point
 1 3 5   8 −1 
 
➜ If A =  −2 4 1  , B =  −2 3  and C =  5 0 
 3 −4 
 0 3 7   4 0 
which of the products AB, BA, AC, CA, BC and CB exist?

Example 1.3
   
Find  3 2   1 0  .
 −1 4   0 1 
1
What do you notice?

Solution
The order of this product is 2 × 2.
(3 × 1) + (2 × 0) = 3
      (3 × 0) + (2 × 1) = 2
 3 2   1 0 = 3 2 
 –1 4   0 1   –1 4 
      (–1 × 0) + (4 × 1) = 4
(–1 × 1) + (4 × 0) = −1
Multiplying a matrix by the identity matrix has no effect.
Properties of matrix multiplication

In this section you will look at whether matrix multiplication is:
n commutative
n associative.
On page 4 you saw that for numbers, addition is both associative and
commutative. Multiplication is also both associative and commutative.
For example:
(3 × 4) × 5 = 3 × (4 × 5)
and
3 × 4 = 4 × 3.
ACTIVITY 1.1
 
Using A =  2 −1  and B =  −4 0  find the products AB and BA and
 3 4   −2 1 
hence comment on whether or not matrix multiplication is commutative.
Find a different pair of matrices, C and D, such that CD = DC.

TECHNOLOGY
ACTIVITY 1.2
You could use the
 2 −1 
matrix function on your Using A =   , B =  −4 0  and C =  1 2  , find the matrix
calculator. products:
 3 4   −2 1   2 3 
(i) AB
(ii) BC
(iii) (AB)C
(iv) A(BC)
Does your answer suggest that matrix multiplication is associative?
Is this true for all 2 × 2 matrices? How can you prove your answer?
Exercise 1.2
In this exercise, do not use a calculator unless asked to. A calculator can be used
for checking answers.
① Write down the orders of these matrices.
 3 4 −1 
 
(i) (a) A=  0 2 3  (b) B = (2 3 6)
 1 5 0 
 
 4 9 2   0 2 4 2 
(c) C=   (d) D=  
 1 −3 0   0 −3 −8 1 
 2 5 0 −4 1 
 3   
(e) E=   (f ) F =  −3 9 −3 2 2 
 6   1 0 0 10 4 
 
(ii) Which of the following matrix products can be found? For those that
can state the order of the matrix product.
(a) AE (b) AF (c) FA (d) CA (e) DC
② Calculate these products.

 3 0   7 2 
(i)    
 5 −1   4 −3 
 0 2 
 
(ii) ( 2 −3 5 )  5 8 
 −3 1 
 1 
 2 5 −1 0   −9

(iii)    
 3 6 4 −3   11 
 −2 
 
Check your answers using the matrix function on a calculator if possible.
10

 5 9   −3 5 
③ Using the matrices A = 
 −2 7 
 and B =   , confirm that
 2 −9  1
matrix multiplication is not commutative.
④ For the matrices
 3 1   −3 7   2 3 4 

A=   B=   C=  
 2 4   2 5   5 7 1 
 3 4   4 7   3 7 −5 
     
D=  7 0
 1 −2  E =  3 −2  F =  2 6 0 
   1 5   −1 4 8 
calculate, where possible, the following:
(i) AB (ii) BA (iii) CD (iv) DC (v) EF (vi) FE
T ⑤ Using the matrix function on a calculator, find M4 for the matrix

 2 0 −1 
  Note
M =  3 1 2 .
 −1 4 3  M4 means M × M × M × M
 
 a b 
⑥ Show that if you multiply two matrices of the form  you get
 b a 
T
another of the same form.
 x 3   2x 0 
⑦ A=   B=  :
 0 −1   4 −3 
(i) Find the matrix product AB in terms of x.
 10x −9 
(ii) If AB =   , find the possible values of x.
 −4 3 
(iii) Find the possible matrix products BA.
 a b 
⑧ Suppose that A =  , where a, b, c and d are all positive integers.
 c d 
 13 12 
You are given that A2 =  9 16  . Find the values of a, b, c and d.
 
 2 1 
⑨ (i) For the matrix A =   , find
 0 1 
(a) A 2
(b) A3
(c) A4
(ii) Suggest a general form for the matrix An in terms of n.
T (iii) Verify your answer by finding A10 on your calculator and confirming
it gives the same answer as (ii).
⑩ The map in Figure 1.5 below shows the bus routes in a holiday area. Lines
represent routes that run each way between the resorts. Arrows indicated
one-way scenic routes.
11

M is the partly completed 4 × 4 matrix which shows the number of direct

routes between the various resorts.
Beesborough
To
( )
AB CD
From A 1 1 2 0
B
Ayton M=
C
Danehill
D
Cidmouth
Figure 1.5
(i) Copy and complete the matrix M.
(ii) Calculate M2 and explain what information it contains.
(iii) What information would M3 contain?

 2 −5 
 4 x 0   
⑪ A =  B=  4 x 
 2 −3 1   x 7 
 
(i) Find the product AB in terms of x.
A symmetric matrix is one in which the entries are symmetrical about the
 3 4 −6 
 2 5   
leading diagonal, for example   and  4 2 5 
 5 0   −6 5 1 
 
(ii) Given that the matrix AB is symmetric, find the possible values of x.
(iii) Write down the possible matrices AB.
⑫ The matrix A, in Figure 1.6, shows the number of sales of five flavours of
ice cream:Vanilla(V), Strawberry(S), Chocolate(C), Toffee(T) and Banana(B),
from an ice cream shop on each of Wednesday(W), Thursday(Th), Friday(F)
and Saturday(Sa) during one week.
V S C T B
( )
W 63 49 55 44 18
Th 58 52 66 29 26
A=
F 77 41 81 39 25
Sa 101 57 68 63 45
Figure 1.6
(i) Find a matrix D such that the product DA shows the total number of
sales of each flavour of ice cream during the four-day period and find
the product DA.
(ii) Find a matrix F such that the product AF gives the total number of ice
cream sales each day during the four-day period and find the product AF.
The Vanilla and Banana ice creams are served with strawberry sauce; the
other three ice creams are served with chocolate sprinkles.
(iii) Find two matrices, S and C, such that the product DAS gives the total
number of servings of strawberry sauce needed and the product DAC
12

gives the total number of servings of sprinkles needed during the

four-day period. Find the matrices DAS and DAC.
The price of Vanilla and Strawberry ice creams is 95p, Chocolate ice
1
creams cost £1.05 and Toffee and Banana ice creams cost £1.15 each.
(iv) Using only matrix multiplication, find a way of calculating the total

cost of all of the ice creams sold during the four-day period.
⑬ Figure 1.7 shows the start of the
plaiting process for producing a A B C
leather bracelet from three leather
strands a, b and c.
The process has only two steps,
repeated alternately:
Step 1: cross the top strand over the
middle strand
Step 2: cross the middle strand under
the bottom strand.
Figure 1.7
At the start of the plaiting process,
Stage 0, the order of the strands is given
 a 
 
by S0 =  b 
 c 
   0 1 0 
 
(i) Show that pre-multiplying S0 by the matrix A =  1 0 0 
 0 0 1 
 
gives S1, the matrix which represents the order of the strands at Stage 1.
(ii) Find the 3 × 3 matrix B which represents the transition from Stage 1
to Stage 2.
(iii) Find matrix M = BA and show that MS0 gives S2, the matrix which
represents the order of the strands at Stage 2.
(iv) Find M2 and hence find the order of the strands at Stage 4.
(v) Calculate M3. What does this tell you?
3 Transformations
You are already familiar with several different types of transformation, including
reflections, rotations and enlargements.
n The original point, or shape, is called the object.
n The new point, or shape, after the transformation, is called the image.
n A transformation is a mapping of an object onto its image.
Some examples of transformations are illustrated in Figures 1.8 to 1.10 (note that
the vertices of the image are denoted by the same letters with a dash, e.g. A′, B′).
13

Transformations
y
y
A′ B
B′
A
B
O x
A
O x
A′ B′
Figure 1.8 Reflection in the line y = x Figure 1.9 Rotation through 90° clockwise,
centre O
y
B′
A A′
O x
Figure 1.10 Enlargement centre O, scale factor 2
In this section, you will also meet the idea of

n a stretch parallel to the x-axis or y-axis
n a shear
and three-dimensional transformations where
n a shape is reflected in the planes x = 0, y = 0 or z = 0
n a shape is rotated about one of the three coordinate axes.
A transformation maps an object according to a rule and can be represented by
a matrix (see next section). The effect of a transformation on an object can be
 x 
found by looking at the effect it has on the position vector of the point   ,
 y 
i.e. the vector from the origin to the point (x, y). So, for example, to find the effect
of a transformation on the point (2, 3) you would look at the effect that the
 2 
transformation matrix has on the position vector  .
 3 
Vectors that have length or magnitude of 1 are called unit vectors.
In two dimensions, two unit vectors that are of particular interest are
 1 
i=   – a unit vector in the direction of the x-axis
 0 
 0 
j=   – a unit vector in the direction of the y-axis.
 1 
The equivalent unit vectors in three dimensions are
14

 1 
 
i =  0  – a unit vector in the direction of the x-axis
 0 
1
 
 0 
 

j =  1  – a unit vector in the direction of the y-axis
 0 
 
 0 
 
k =  0  – a unit vector in the direction of the z-axis.
 1 
 
Finding the transformation represented

by a given matrix
 1 
Start by looking at the effect of multiplying the unit vectors i =  
 0   −1 0   0 
and j =   by the matrix  .
 1   0 −1 
 1 
The image of   under this transformation is given by
 0 
 −1 0   1   −1 
   = .
 0 −1   0   0 
y
I′ I
O x
Note
The letter I is often used for the point (1, 0).
Figure 1.11
 0 
The image of   under the transformation is given by
 1 
 −1 0   0   0 
 0 −1   1  =  −1  .
O x Note
J′ The letter J is often used for the point (0, 1).
Figure 1.12
 −1 0 
You can see from this that the matrix   represents a rotation, centre
the origin, through 180°.  0 −1 
15

Transformations
Example 1.4 Describe the transformations represented by the following matrices.

 0 1   2 0 
(i)   (ii)  .
 1 0   0 2 
Solution
 0 1   1   0   0 1   0   1 
(i)    =     = 
 1 0   0   1   1 0   1   0 
y y
I′ J
I J′
O x O x
Figure 1.13 Figure 1.14

 0 1 
The matrix   represents a reflection in the line y = x.
 1 0 
 2 0   1   2   2 0   0   0 
(ii)  0 2   0  =  0     = 
       0 2   1   2 
y y
J′
I I′
J
O x
O x

 2 0 
The matrix   represents an enlargement, centre the origin, scale
 0 2 
factor 2.
 1   0 
You can see that the images of i =   and j =   are the two
 0   1 
columns of the transformation matrix.
Finding the matrix that represents a given

transformation
The connection between the images of the unit vectors i and j and the matrix
Hint representing the transformation provides a quick method for finding the matrix
representing a transformation.
You may find it easier
to see what the It is common to use the unit square with coordinates O(0, 0), I(1, 0), P(1, 1)
transformation is when and J(0, 1).
you use a shape, like
the unit square, rather You can think about the images of the points I and J, and from this you can
than points or lines. write down the images of the unit vectors i and j.
This is done in the next example.
16

Example 1.5 By drawing a diagram to show the image of the unit square, find the matrices
which represent each of the following transformations: 1
(i) a reflection in the x-axis
(ii) an enlargement of scale factor 3, centre the origin.

Solution
(i) y
J
1
I
-2 -1 O 1 I′ 2 3 x
-1
J′ P′
Figure 1.17
You can see from Figure 1.17 that I (1, 0) is mapped to itself
and J (0, 1) is mapped to J′ (0, −1).
So the image of I is
( ) 1
( )
0
and the image of J is 0 .
−1
 1 0 
So the matrix which represents a reflection in the x-axis is  .
 0 −1 
(ii) y
J′ P′
3
J P
1
I I′
-2 -1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1
Figure 1.18 So the image of I is

( )
3
0
You can see from Figure 1.18 that I (1, 0) is mapped to I′ (3, 0),
and J (0, 1) is mapped to J′ (0, 3).
and the image of J is ( )
0
3
.
So the matrix which represents an enlargement, centre the origin,

 3 0 
scale factor 3 is  .
 0 3 
17

Transformations
Discussion points
 a b 
➜ For a general transformation represented by the matrix  , what are
 c d 
   0 
the images of the unit vectors  1  and  ?
 0   1 
➜ What is the image of the origin (0,0)?
ACTIVITY 1.3
Using the image of the unit square, find the matrix which represents a rotation of
45° anticlockwise about the origin.
Use your answer to write down the matrices which represent the following
transformations:
(i) a rotation of 45° clockwise about the origin
(ii) a rotation of 135° anticlockwise about the origin.
Example 1.6 (i) Find the matrix which represents a rotation through angle θ
anticlockwise about the origin.
(ii) Use your answer to find the matrix which represents a rotation
of 60° anticlockwise about the origin.
Solution
(i) Figure 1.19 shows a rotation of angle θ anticlockwise about the origin.
y
A′
B′
θ
θ A
O x
Figure 1.19
Call the coordinates of the point A′ (p, q). Since the lines OA and OB
are perpendicular, the coordinates of B′ will be (−q, p).
From the right-angled triangle with OA′ as the hypotenuse, cos θ = p

1
and so p = cos θ .
Similarly, from the right-angled triangle with OB′ as the hypotenuse,
q
sin θ = so q = sin θ .
1
 cos θ 
So, the image point A′ (p, q) has position vector   and the
 sin θ 
 
image point B′ (–q, p) has position vector  − sin θ  .
 cos θ 
18

Therefore, the matrix that represents a rotation of angle θ anticlockwise
 cos θ − sin θ 
about the origin is  .
1
 sin θ cos θ 
(ii) The matrix that represents an anticlockwise rotation of 60° about the

 1 3 
 cos 60° − sin 60°   − 
2 2
origin is  = .
 sin 60° cos 60°   3 1 
 2 2 
Discussion point
➜ What matrix would represent a rotation through angle θ clockwise about the origin?
ACTIVITY 1.4
Investigate the effect of the matrices:
TECHNOLOGY
 2 0   1 0 
You could use (i)   (ii)  .
geometrical software  0 1   0 5 
to try different values
of m and n. Describe the general transformation represented by the
 m 0   1 0 
matrices   and  .
 0 1   0 n 
Activity 1.4 illustrates two important general results.

 
n The matrix  m 0  represents a stretch of scale factor m parallel to the
x-axis.  0 1 
 1 0 
n The matrix   represents a stretch of scale factor n parallel to the
y-axis.  0 n 
Shears
Figure 1.20 shows the unit square and its image under the transformation
 1 3   1 3 
represented by the matrix   on the unit square. The matrix  
 0 1   0 1 
 1   
transforms the unit vector i =   to the vector  1  and transforms the
 0   0 
 0   3 
unit vector j =   to the vector  .
 1   1 
19

Transformations
 1 
The point with position vector   is transformed to the point with
 1 
 4 
position vector  .
 1 
as ( 1 3
0 1 )( ) ( )
1
1
= 4
1
y
J P J′ P′
1
O I 1 I′ 2 3 4 x
Figure 1.20
This transformation is called a shear. Notice that the points on the x-axis
stay the same, and the points J and P move parallel to the x-axis to the right.
This shear can be described fully by saying that the x-axis is fixed, and giving the
image of one point not on the x-axis, e.g. (0, 1) is mapped to (3, 1).
 1 k 
Generally, a shear with the x-axis fixed has the form   and a shear with
 0 1 
 1 0 
the y-axis fixed has the form  .
 k 1 
Example 1.7 Find the image of the rectangle with vertices A(-1, 2), B(1, 2), C(1,-1) and
 1 3 
D(-1, -1) under the shear   and show the rectangle and its image on
a diagram.  0 1 
Solution
 1 3   −1 1 1 −1   5 7 −2 −4 
   = 
 0 1   2 2 −1 −1   2 2 −1 −1 
A B A′ B′
2
−4 −3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
−1
D′ C′ D C
−2
Figure 1.21
20

1
The effect of this shear is to transform the Note
sides of the rectangle parallel to the y-axis
into sloping lines. Notice that the Notice that under the shear
transformation, points above
gradient of the side A′ D′ is 1 which the x-axis move to the right and
3
points below the x-axis move to

is the reciprocal of the top right-hand the left.
 
element of the matrix  1 3  .
 0 1 
ACTIVITY 1.5
For each of the points A, B, C and D in Example 1.7, find
distancebetweenthepoint andits image
.
distance of original point from x-axis
What do you notice?
In the activity above, you should have found that dividing the distance between
the point and its image by the distance of the original point from the x-axis
(which is fixed), gives the answer 3 for all points, which is the number in the top
right of the matrix. This is called the shear factor for the shear.
TECHNOLOGY There are different conventions about the sign of a shear factor, and for this
If you have access to reason shear factors are not used to define a shear in this book. It is possible
geometrical software, to show the effect of matrix transformations using some geometrical
investigate how shears computer software packages.You might find that some packages use
are defined. different approaches towards shears and define them in different ways.
Example 1.8 In a shear, S, the y-axis is fixed, and the image of the point (1, 0) is the point (1, 5).
(i) Draw a diagram showing the image of the unit square under the
transformation S.
(ii) Find the matrix that represents the shear S.
Solution
(i) y
6 B′
5 C′
A B
1
A′
O 1C 2 3 4 x
Figure 1.22
21

Transformations
   
(ii) Under S  1  →  1 
 0   5 
 0   0  since the y-axis is fixed
and  → 
 1   1 
 1 0 
So the matrix representing S is  .
 5 1 
Notice that this matrix is of the form

the y-axis fixed
( 1 0
k 1 ) for shears with
Summary of transformations in two dimensions
Note  1 0   −1 0 
Reflection in the x-axis   Reflection in the y-axis  
All these transformations  0 −1   0 1 
are examples of linear
transformations. In a    0 −1 
linear transformation, Reflection in the line y = x  0 1  Reflection in the line
 1 0   
straight lines are y = −x  −1 0 
mapped to straight
lines, and the origin is Rotation Enlargement, centre the  k 0 
mapped to itself. anticlockwise  cos θ − sin θ  origin, scale factor k  
   0 k 
about the origin  sin θ cos θ 
through angle θ
 k 0   1 0 
Stretch parallel to the Stretch parallel to the  
 
x-axis, scale factor k  0 1  y-axis, scale factor k  0 k 
Shear, x-axis fixed,  1 k  Shear, y-axis fixed,  1 0 

with (0, 1) mapped to (k, 1)    
 0 1  with (1, 0) mapped to (1, k)
 k 1 
Transformations in three dimensions

When working with matrices, it is sometimes necessary to refer to a ‘plane’ –
this is an infinite two-dimensional fl at surface with no thickness. Figure 1.23
below illustrates some common planes in three dimensions – the XY plane,
the XZ plane and YZ plane. These three planes will be referred to when using
matrices to represent some transformations in three dimensions. The plane XY
can also be referred to as z = 0 , since the z-coordinate would be zero for all
points in the XY plane. Similarly, the XZ plane is referred to as y = 0 and the
YZ plane as x = 0.
22

z z
1
YZ XZ
y y

XY XY
x x
Figure 1.23
So far you have looked at transformations of sets of points from a plane (i.e. two
dimensions) to the same plane. In a similar way, you can transform a set of points
within three-dimensional space.You will look at reflections in the planes x = 0,
y = 0 or z = 0, and rotations about one of the coordinate axes. Again, the matrix
can be found algebraically or by considering the effect of the transformation on
the three unit vectors
 1   0   0 
     
i =  0 , j =  1  and k =  0  .
 0 
   0   1 
Think about reflecting an object in the plane y = 0. The plane y = 0 is the
plane which contains the x- and z-axes. Figure 1.24 shows the effect of a
reflection in the plane y = 0.
z
(0, 0, 1)
(0, −1, 0)
(0, 1, 0) y
(1, 0, 0)
Figure 1.24
 1   1   0   0   0 
i =  0  maps to  , j =   maps to   and k =   maps
   0   1   −1   0 
 0   0   0   0   1 
 0 
to  0 .
 
 1 
The images of i, j and k form the columns of the 3 × 3 transformation matrix.
 1 0 0 
 
It is  0 −1 0  .
 0 0 1 
 
23

Transformations
Example 1.9 Find the matrix that represents a rotation of 90° anticlockwise about the
x-axis.
Solution
A rotation of 90° anticlockwise about the x-axis is shown in Figure 1.25.
z z
(0, 0, 1) (0, 0, 1)
P′(1, –1, 1)
P(1, 1, 1)
(0, 1, 0) y (0, –1, 0) y
(1, 0, 0) (1, 0, 0)
x x
Figure 1.25
Note
Rotations are taken to be anticlockwise about the axis of rotation when
looking along the axis from the positive end towards the origin.
Look at the effect of the transformation on the unit vectors i, j and k:

 1   1   0   0   0 
   , j =      
i =  0  maps to  1  maps to  0  and k =  0 
 0   0 
   0   0   1   1 
 0 
 
maps to  −1  .
 0 
 
The images of i, j and k form the columns of the 3 × 3 transformation matrix.
 1 0 0 
 
The matrix is  0 0 −1  .
 0 1 0 
 
Exercise 1.3 ① Figure 1.26 shows a triangle with vertices at O, A(1, 2) and B(0, 2).
y
B A
2
−3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 x
Figure 1.26
24

For each of the transformations below
(a) draw a diagram to show the effect of the transformation on triangle
OAB 1
(b) give the coordinates of A′ and B′, the images of points A and B
(c) find expressions for x′ and y′, the coordinates of P′, the image of a

general point P(x, y)
(d) find the matrix which represents the transformation.
(i) Enlargement, centre the origin, scale factor 3

(ii) Reflection in the x-axis
(iii) Reflection in the line x + y = 0
(iv) Rotation 90° clockwise about O
Two-way stretch, scale factor 3 horizontally and scale factor 21 vertically.
(v)
② Describe the geometrical transformations represented by these matrices.

 1 0   0 −1   2 0 
(i)   (ii)   (iii)  
 0 −1   −1 0   0 3 
 4 0   0 1 
(iv)   (v)  
 0 4   −1 0 
③ Each of the following matrices represents a rotation about the origin. Find
the angle and direction of rotation in each case.
 
 1 − 3 
2 2   0.574 −0.819 
(i)  (ii)  
 3 1   0.819 0.574 
 2 2 

 1 1   
 −   − 3 −1 
 2 2   2 2 
(iii) (iv)
 − 1 − 1   1 
   2 − 3 
 2 2   2 
④ Figure 1.27 shows a square with vertices at the points

A(1, 1), B(1, −1), C(−1, −1) and D(−1,1). y
(i) Draw a diagram to show the image of this square D A
 1 4 
under the transformation matrix M =  .
 0 1  O x
Describe fully the transformation represented by the

(ii) C B
matrix M. State the fixed line and the image of the
point A. Figure 1.27
⑤ (i) Find the image of the unit square under the
transformations represented by the matrices
 1 0   1 0.5 
(a) A =   (b) B =  
 5 1   0 1 
(ii) Use your answers to part (i) to fully describe the transformations
represented by each of the matrices A and B.
25

Transformations
⑥ Find the matrix that represents each of the following transformations in

three dimensions.
(i) Rotation of 90° anticlockwise about the z-axis
(ii) Reflection in the plane y = 0
(iii) Rotation of 180° about the x-axis
(iv) Rotation of 270° anticlockwise about the y-axis
⑦ The right-angled isosceles triangle OAB, where O is the origin, A is

the point (0, 1) and B is the point (1, 1), is mapped by a matrix to the
equilateral triangle OA′B′, where A′ =(1, 3 ) and B′ = (2, 0).
 1 n 
If the matrix is of the form  p q  , find n, p and q.
 
⑧ Figure 1.28 shows a shear that maps the rectangle ABCD to the
parallelogram A′B′C′D′.
The angle A′DA is 60°.
y
A(−1, 2) B(2, 2) A′ B′
60°
D C
D′ O C′ x
Figure 1.28
(i) Find the coordinates of A′.
(ii) Find the matrix that represents the shear.
 
⑨  
 0 
How many different matrices can you make by replacing the squares in this
matrix with the numbers 1, 2 and 3 (no repeats!)?
Show that the images of the point (1, 1) under the transformations
represented by these matrices all lie in a straight line.
⑩ The unit square OABC has its vertices at (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1) and (0, 1).
OABC is mapped to OA'B'C' by the transformation defined by the matrix
 4 3 
 .
 5 4 
Find the coordinates of A', B' and C' and show that the area of the shape has
not been changed by the transformation.
 1 2 
⑪ The transformation represented by the matrix M =   is applied to
 0 1 
the triangle ABC with vertices A(−1, 1), B(1, −1) and C(−1, −1).
(i) Draw a diagram showing the triangle ABC and its image A′B′C′.
(ii) Find the gradient of the line A′C′ and explain how this relates to the
matrix M.
26

⑫ Describe the transformations represented by these matrices.
 1 0 0 
 
 1 0 0 
 
1
(i)  0 0 1  (ii)
 0 1 0 
 0 −1 0   0 0 −1 

⑬ Find the matrices that would represent
(i) a reflection in the plane z = 0
(ii) a rotation of 180° about the y-axis.
⑭ A transformation maps P to P' as follows:

n Each point is mapped on to the line y = x.
n The line joining a point to its image is parallel to the y-axis.
Find the coordinates of the image of the point (x, y) and hence show that
this transformation can be represented by means of a matrix.
What is that matrix?
⑮ A square has corners with coordinates A(1, 0), B(1, 1), C(0, 1) and O(0, 0).
It is to be transformed into another quadrilateral in the first quadrant of the
coordinate grid.
Find a matrix which would transform the square into
(i) a rectangle with one vertex at the origin, the sides lie along the axes
and one side of length is 5 units
(ii) a rhombus with one vertex at the origin, two angles of 45° and side
lengths of 2 units; one of the sides lies along an axis
(iii) a parallelogram with one vertex at the origin and two angles of 30°;
one of the longest sides lies along an axis and has length 7 units; the
shortest sides have length 3 units.
Is there more than one possibility for any of these matrices? If so, write
down alternative matrices that satisfy the same description.
4 Successive transformations
Figure 1.29 shows the effect of two successive transformations on a triangle. The
transformation A represents a reflection in the x-axis. A maps the point P to the
point A(P).
The transformation B represents a rotation of 90° anticlockwise about O. When
you apply B to the image formed by A, the point A(P) is mapped to the point
B(A(P)). This is abbreviated to BA(P).
A B
y y y
P(x, y) BA(P)
O x O x O x
A(P)
Figure 1.29
27

Successive transformations
Note Discussion point

Notice that a ➜ Look at Figure 1.29 and compare the original triangle with the final image
transformation written after both transformations.
as BA means ‘carry out (i) Describe the single transformation represented by BA.
A, then carry out B’. (ii) Write down the matrices which represent the transformations A and B.
This process is Calculate the matrix product BA and comment on your answer.
sometimes called
composition of
transformations.
Note
A transformation is often denoted by a capital letter. The matrix representing this
transformation is usually denoted by the same letter, in bold.
In general, the matrix for a composite transformation is found by

multiplying the matrices of the individual transformations in reverse order.
So, for two transformations the matrix representing the first transformation
is on the right and the matrix for the second transformation is on the left.
For n transformations T1, T2, …., Tn-1, Tn, the matrix product would be
TnTn-1 … T2T1.
You will prove this result for two transformations in Activity 1.6.
TECHNOLOGY
ACTIVITY 1.6
If you have access to
 a b 
geometrical software, The transformations T and S are represented by the matrices T =   and
you could investigate  p q   c d 
this using several S =   .
different matrices for  r s 
T and S.  x 
T is applied to the point P with position vector p =   . The image of P is P’.

 y 
S is then applied to the point P' . The image of P' is P'' . This is illustrated
in Figure 1.30.
U
T S
y y y
( )
a c
b d P'
( )
p r
q s
P''
( xy ) P
( x'y' ) ( x"y" )
O x O x O x
Discussion point Figure 1.30

➜ How can you use the
idea of successive  x′   x 
(i) Find the position vector   of P' by calculating the matrix product T   .
transformations  y′   y 
to explain the  
associativity of
 x ′′   x′ 
matrix multiplication (ii) Find the position vector  of P'' by calculating the matrix product S   .

 y ′′ 
(AB)C = A(BC)?
   y′ 
 x   x ′′ 
(iii) Find the matrix product U = ST and show that U   is the same as   .
 y   y ′′ 
28

Proving results in trigonometry
If you carry out a rotation about the origin through angle θ, followed by a 1
rotation about the origin through angle ϕ, then this is equivalent to a single
rotation about the origin through angle θ + ϕ. Using matrices to represent
these transformations allows you to prove the formulae for sin (θ + ϕ) and

cos (θ + ϕ) given on page 242. This is done in Activity 1.7.
ACTIVITY 1.7
(i) Write down the matrix A representing a rotation about the origin through angle
θ, and the matrix B representing a rotation about the origin through angle ϕ.
(ii) Find the matrix BA, representing a rotation about the origin through angle θ,
followed by a rotation about the origin through angle ϕ.
(iii) Write down the matrix C representing a rotation about the origin through
angle θ + ϕ .
(iv) By equating C to BA, write down expressions for sin (θ + ϕ) and cos (θ + ϕ).
(v) Explain why BA = AB in this case.
Example 1.10 (i) Write down the matrix A which represents an anticlockwise rotation of
135° about the origin.
(ii) Write down the matrices B and C which represent rotations of 45° and 90°
respectively about the origin. Find the matrix BC and verify that A = BC.
(iii) Calculate the matrix B3 and comment on your answer.
Solution
 1   
 − − 1  
1 − 1   0 −1 
2 2 2 2
(i) A =   (ii) B =  , C=  
 1 − 1   1 1   1 0 
 2 2   2 2 
   
 1   
 − 1    −
1 − 1 

BC = 
2 2   0 −1  =  2 2  =A
 1 1   1 0   1 − 1 
 2 2   2 2 
   
 1       
 − 1  
1 − 1  
1 − 1   −
1 − 1 
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(iii) B3 = 1 1



 1 1



 1 1
=
  1
.

       − 1 
 2 2   2 2   2 2   2 2 
This verifies that three successive anticlockwise rotations of 45° about

the origin is equivalent to a single anticlockwise rotation of 135°
about the origin.
29

Exercise 1.4  3 0   0 −1   1 0   0 1 
① A =   , B =  ,C =   and D =  
 0 3   1 0   0 −1   1 0 
(i) Describe the transformations that are represented by matrices
A, B, C and D.
(ii) Find the following matrix products and describe the single
transformation represented in each case:
(a) BC (b) CB (c) DC (d) A2 (e) BCB (f) DC2D
(iii) Write down two other matrix products, using the matrices A, B, C
and D, which would produce the same single transformation as DC²D.
② The matrix X represents a reflection in the x-axis.
The matrix Y represents a reflection in the y-axis.
(i) Write down the matrices X and Y.
(ii) Find the matrix XY and describe the transformation it represents.
(iii) Find the matrix YX.
(iv) Explain geometrically why XY = YX in this case.
 1 a   a 1 
③ If A =   and B =   , where a and b are positive integers,
 b 1   1 b 
and BA maps (1, 1) to (10, 15), what are a and b? Find where AB maps
(1, 1) using these values.
④ The matrix P represents a rotation of 180° about the origin.
The matrix Q represents a reflection in the line y = x.
(i) Write down the matrices P and Q.
(ii) Find the matrix PQ and describe the transformation it represents.
(iii) Find the matrix QP.
(iv) Explain geometrically why PQ = QP in this case.

 p q   
⑤ Let P =   , Q =  1 1  . The matrix QP maps (1, 1) to (2, 4),
 r s   −1 1 
while the matrix PQ maps (1, 1) to (4, 2). Find P.
⑥ In three dimensions, the four matrices J, K, L and M represent
transformations as follows:
J represents a reflection in the plane z = 0.
K represents a rotation of 90° about the x-axis.
L represents a reflection in the plane x = 0.
M represents a rotation of 90° about the y-axis.
(i) Write down the matrices J, K, L and M.
(ii) Write down matrix products which would represent the single
transformations obtained by each of the following combinations of
transformations.
(a) A reflection in the plane z = 0 followed by a reflection in the plane
x=0
(b) A reflection in the plane z = 0 followed by a rotation of 90° about
the y-axis
30

A rotation of 90° about the x-axis followed by a second rotation of
(c)
90° about the x-axis
(d) A rotation of 90° about the x-axis followed by a reflection in the
1
plane x = 0 followed by a reflection in the plane z = 0
⑦ The transformations R and S are represented by the matrices

 2 −1   3 0 
R=   and S =  
 1 3   −2 4 
(i) Find the matrix which represents the transformation RS.
(ii) Find the image of the point (3, -2) under the transformation RS.
 0 3 
⑧ The transformation represented by C =   is equivalent to a single
 −1 0 
transformation B followed by a single transformation A. Give geometrical
descriptions of a pair of possible transformations B and A and state the
matrices that represent them.
y
Comment on the order in which the
transformations are performed.
A B
⑨ Figure 1.31 shows the image of the unit
square OABC under the combined
transformation with matrix PQ. O C x
(i) Write down the matrix PQ.

A′
Matrix P represents a reflection.
(ii) State the matrices P and Q and
define fully the two transformations C′
represented by these matrices. When

describing matrix Q you should refer B′
to the image of the point B.
⑩ Find the matrix X which represents a Figure 1.31
rotation of 135° about the origin followed
by a reflection in the y-axis.
Explain why matrix X cannot represent a rotation about the origin.
⑪ (i) Write down the matrix P which represents a stretch of scale factor 2
parallel to the y-axis.
 5 0 
(ii) The matrix Q =   . Write down the two single
 0 −1 
transformations which are represented by the matrix Q.
(iii) Find the matrix PQ. Write a list of the three transformations which
are represented by the matrix PQ. In how many different orders could
the three transformations occur?
(iv) Find the matrix R for which the matrix product RPQ would
transform an object to its original position.
31

⑫ There are two basic types of four-terminal electrical networks, as shown in

Figure 1.32.
Figure 1.32
In Type A the output voltage V2 and current I2 are related to the input
voltage V1 and current I1 by the simultaneous equations:
V2 = V1 − I 1R1
I 2 = I1
 V   V 
The simultaneous equations can be written as   = A 1 
2
  I1 
 I2   
(i) Find the matrix A.
V2 = V1
In Type B the corresponding simultaneous equations are: V
I 2 = I1 − 1
R2
(ii) Write down the matrix B which represents the effect of a Type B network.
(iii) Find the matrix which represents the effect of Type A followed by Type B.
(iv) Is the effect of Type B followed by Type A the same as the effect of
Type A followed by Type B?
⑬ The matrix B represents a rotation of 45° anticlockwise about the origin.
 1 1   a −b 
 − 
B=
2 2 ,D =   where a and b are positive real numbers
 1 1   b a 
 
 2 2 
Given that D2 = B, find exact values for a and b.Write down the transformation
represented by the matrix D. W hat do the exact values a and b represent?
In questions 15 and 16 you will need to use the matrix which represents a
 1 − m2 2m 
reflection in the line y = mx. This can be written as 1 2 
1 + m  2m m 2 − 1 
1 x
⑭ (i) Find the matrix P which represents reflection in the line y = ,
3
and the matrix Q which represents reflection in the line y = 3x.
(ii) Use matrix multiplication to find the single transformation equivalent to
reflection in the line y = 1 x followed by reflection in the line y = 3x .

3
Describe this transformation fully.
(iii) Use matrix multiplication to find the single transformation equivalent to
reflection in the line y = 3x followed by reflection in the line y = 1 x.

3
Describe this transformation fully.
⑮ The matrix R represents a reflection in the line y = mx .
 1 0 
Show that R2 =   and explain geometrically why this is the case.
 0 1 
32

5 Invariance 1
Invariant points
Discussion points

➜ In a reflection, are there any points which map to themselves?
➜ In a rotation, are there any points which map to themselves?
Points which map to themselves under a transformation are called invariant

points. The origin is always an invariant point under a transformation that can
be represented by a matrix, as the following statement is always true:
 a b   0   0 
    = .
 c d   0   0 
More generally, a point (x, y) is invariant if it satisfies the matrix equation:
 a b   x   x 
    =  
 c d   y   y 
For example, the point (−2, 2) is invariant under the transformation represented
       
by the matrix  6 5  :  6 5   −2  =  −2  .
 2 3   2 3   2   2 
Example 1.11
 2 −1 
M is the matrix  .
 1 0 
(i) Show that (5, 5) is an invariant point under the transformation
represented by M.
(ii) What can you say about the invariant points under this transformation?
Solution
 2 −1   5   5 
(i)
    =  so (5, 5) is an invariant point under the
 1 0   5   5 
transformation represented by M.
 x 
(ii) Suppose the point   maps to itself. Then
 y 
 2 −1   x   x 
    =  
 1 0   y   y 
 2x − y   x  Both equations simplify to y = x.
  =  
 x   y 
⇔ 2x – y = x and x = y.
So the invariant points of the transformation are all the points on the line y = x.
These points all have the form (λ, λ). The
point (5,5) is just one of the points on this line.
33

Invariance
The simultaneous equations in Example 1.11 were equivalent and so all the
invariant points were on a straight line. Generally, any matrix equation set up to
find the invariant points will lead to two equations of the form ax + by = 0,
ax
which can also be expressed in the form y = − . These equations may be
b
equivalent, in which case this is a line of invariant points. If the two equations
are not equivalent, the origin is the only point which satisfies both equations,
and so this is the only invariant point.
Invariant lines
A line AB is known as an invariant line under a transformation if the image of
every point on AB is also on AB. It is important to note that it is not necessary
for each of the points to map to itself; it can map to itself or to some other point
on the line AB.
Sometimes it is easy to spot which lines are invariant. For example, in
Figure 1.33 the position of the points A–F and their images A′–F′ show
that the transformation is a
reflection in the line l. So every
point on l maps onto itself and l is
a line of invariant points.
Look at the lines perpendicular
to the mirror line in Figure 1.33,
for example the line ABB′A′. Any
point on one of these lines maps
onto another point on the same
line. Such a line is invariant but it
is not a line of invariant points. Figure 1.33
Example 1.12
 5 1 
Find the invariant lines of the transformation given by the matrix M =  .
 2 4 
Solution Let the original point

be (x, y) and the image
Suppose the invariant line has the form y = mx + c point be (x′, y′).
 xx′′   5 1   xx 
  5 1 ⇔ xx′′ == 55xx ++ yy and y ′ = 2x + 4 y
 yy′′  ==  22 44   yy  ⇔
     
x ′ = 5x + mx + c = (5 + m )x + c
Using y = mx + c .
⇔ 
y ′ = 2x + 4(mx + c ) = (2 + 4m )x + 4c
As the line is invariant, ( x ′, y′) also lies on the line, so y ′ = mx ′ + c .
Therefore,
(2 + 4m )x + 4c = m[(5 + m )x + c ] + c
⇔ 0 = (m 2 + m − 2)x + (m − 3)c
For the left-hand side to equal zero, both m 2 + m − 2 = 0 and (m − 3)c = 0 .
((mm −− 1)(
1)(mm ++ 2)
2) == 00 ⇔
⇔ mm == 11or
or mm == −−22
34

and
(m − 3)c = 0 ⇔ m = 3 or c = 0
m = 3 is not a viable solution
as m 2 + m − 2 ≠ 0. 1
So, there are two possible solutions
for the invariant line:
m = 1, c = 0 ⇔ ⇒ y == xx

or
m = −2, c = 0 ⇔ ⇒ y == –2x
−2x y
y = −2x
Figure 1.34 shows the effect of C′ B′
this transformation, together
with its invariant lines. C
B
D x
D′ A′
y=x
Figure 1.34
Exercise 1.5
① Find the invariant points under the transformations represented by the
following matrices.
 −1 −1   3 4   4 1   7 −4 
(i)   (ii)   (iii)   (iv)  
 2 2   1 2   6 3   3 −1 
② What lines, if any, are invariant under the following transformations?
(i) Enlargement, centre the origin
(ii) Rotation through 180° about the origin
(iii) Rotation through 90° about the origin
(iv) Reflection in the line y = x
(v) Reflection in the line y = –x
(vi) Shear, x-axis fixed
③ Find a matrix A so that A has no invariant lines, but A2 has many invariant lines.
④ Figure 1.35 shows the effect on the unit square of a transformation
 0.6 0.8 
represented by A =  
 0.8 −0.6  y
(i) Find three points which are

invariant under this transformation.
J B
(ii) Given that this transformation I′
is a reflection, write down the
equation of the mirror line.
I B′
(iii) Using your answer to part O x
(ii), write down the equation of
an invariant line, other than the
mirror line, under this reflection. J′
(iv) Justify your answer to part

(iii) algebraically. Figure 1.35
35

Invariance
⑤ A matrix A has the fixed point (1, -1), while the point (1, 1) is mapped to
(3, 3) under A.
(i) What is the matrix A?

(ii) Give two lines that are invariant under the transformation it represents.
(iii) Find three points which are invariant under this transformation.
 4 11 
⑥ For the matrix M =  
 11 4 
(i) show that the origin is the only invariant point
(ii) find the invariant lines of the transformation represented by M.
⑦ (i) Find the invariant lines of the transformation given by the matrix
 3 4 
 
 9 −2 
(ii) Draw a diagram to show the effect of the transformation on the unit
square, and show the invariant lines on your diagram.
 0 1 
⑧ For the matrix M =  
 −1 2 
(i) find the line of invariant points of the transformation given by M
(ii) find the invariant lines of the transformation
(iii) draw a diagram to show the effect of the transformation on the

unit square.
 1 − m2 2m 

1+ m 2
1 + m2 
⑨ The matrix  represents a reflection in the line y = mx.
 2m m2 − 1 
 1 + m2 1 + m2 
 
Prove that the line y = mx is a line of invariant points.
 x   a b   x 
⑩ The transformation T maps   to    
 y   c d   y 
Show that invariant points other than the origin exist if ad − bc = a + d − 1.
 a 
⑪ T is a translation of the plane by the vector   . The point (x, y) is
y ′  b 
mapped to the point ( x ′ , ).
(i) Write down equations for x ′ and y ′ in terms of x and y.
 x′   1 0 a   x 
(ii) Verify that  y ′  =  0 1 b   y  produces the same
 
 z ′   0 0 1   1 
equations as those obtained in part (i).
The point (X, Y) is the image of the point (x, y) under the combined
transformation TM where
 X   −0.6 0.8 a   x 
     
 Y  =  0.8 0.6 b   y 
 1   0 0 1   1 
36

(iii) (a) S how that if a = –4 and b = 2 then (0, 5) is an invariant point of
TM.
(b) Show that if a = 2 and b = 1 then TM has no invariant point.
1
(c) Find a relationship between a and b that must be satisfied if TM is
to have any invariant points.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
When you have completed this chapter you should be able to:
➤ understand what is meant by the terms order of a matrix, square matrix,
identity matrix, zero matrix and equal matrices
➤ add and subtract matrices of the same order
➤ multiply a matrix by a scalar
➤ know when two matrices are conformable for multiplication, and be able to
multiply conformable matrices
➤ use a calculator to carry out matrix calculations
➤ know that matrix multiplication is associative but not commutative
➤ find the matrix associated with a linear transformation in two dimensions:

➤ reflections in the coordinate axes and the lines y = ± x
➤ rotations about the origin
➤ enlargements centre the origin
➤ stretches parallel to the coordinate axes
➤ shears with the coordinate axes as fixed lines

➤ find the matrix associated with a linear transformation in three dimensions:
➤ reflection in x = 0, y = 0 or z = 0
➤ rotations through multiples of 90° about the x, y or z-axes
➤ understand successive transformations in two dimensions and the

connection with matrix multiplication
➤ find the invariant points for a linear transformation
➤ find the invariant lines for a linear transformation.
KEY POINTS
1 A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or letters.
2 The shape of a matrix is described by its order. A matrix with r rows and c
columns has order r × c.
3 A matrix with the same number of rows and columns is called a square matrix.
 
4 The matrix O =  0 0  is known as the 2 × 2 zero matrix. Zero matrices can
 0 0 
be of any order.
 
5 A matrix of the form I =  1 0  is known as an identity matrix. All identity
 0 1 
matrices are square, with 1s on the leading diagonal and zeros elsewhere.
6 Matrices can be added or subtracted if they have the same order.
7 Two matrices A and B can be multiplied to give matrix AB if their orders are
of the form p × q and q × r respectively. The resulting matrix will have the
order p × r .
37

Invariance
8 Matrix multiplication
Row from left matrix with

column from right matrix.
( )( )
p r
q s
a c
b d
= ( pa + rb pc + rd
qa + sb qc + sd )
Figure 1.36
9 Matrix addition and multiplication are associative:
A + ( B + C) = ( A + B) + C
A( BC) = ( AB)C
10 Matrix addition is commutative but matrix multiplication is generally not
commutative:
A+B = B+A
AB ≠ BA
 
11 The matrix M =  a b  represents the transformation which maps the
 c d 
 x   ax + by 
point with position vector   to the point with position vector  .
 y   cx + dy 
12 A list of the matrices representing common transformations, including rotations,
reflections, enlargements, stretches and shears, is given on page 22.
 
13 Under the transformation represented by M, the image of i =  1  is the
 0 
first column of M and the image of j = 
 0 
 is the second column of M.
 1 
 1 
Similarly, in three dimensions the images of the unit vectors i =  0  ,
 
 0   0   0 
j =  1  and k =  0  are the first, second and third columns of the
   
 0   1 
transformation matrix.
14 The composite of the transformation represented by M followed by that
represented by N is represented by the matrix product NM.
15 If ( x , y ) is an invariant point under a transformation represented by the
FUTURE USES
 x   x 
n Work on matrices is matrix M, then M   =  .
developed further  y   y 
in Chapter 11 ‘The 16 A line AB is known as an invariant line under a transformation if the image of
determinant of a every point on AB is also on AB.
matrix’.
38

2 Introduction to complex numbers
... that wonder of

analysis, that portent Real numbers
of the ideal world, that Rational numbers
amphibian between
being and not-being, Integers
which we call the

Natural numbers
imaginary root of
negative unity.
Leibniz, 1702
Figure 2.1
Discussion points
➜ What is the meaning of each of the terms shown in Figure 2.1?
➜ Suggest two numbers that could be placed in each part of the diagram.
39

Extending the number system
1 Extending the number system

The number system we use today has taken thousands of years to develop. To
classify the different types of numbers used in mathematics the following letter
symbols are used:
N Natural numbers
Discussion point Z Integers
➜ Which part of the
Q Rational numbers
diagram shows the
irrational numbers? Q Irrational numbers
R Real numbers
You may have noticed that some of these sets of numbers fit within the other
sets. This can be seen in Figure 2.1.
ACTIVITY 2.1
On a copy of Figure 2.1 write the following numbers in the correct positions.
227
7 5 −13 109 − 5 3.1415 π 0.33 0.3
What are complex numbers?
ACTIVITY 2.2
Solve each of these equations and decide which set of numbers the roots belong
to in each case.
(i) x + 7 = 9 (ii) 7 x = 9 (iii) x = 9
2
(iv) x + 10 = 9 (v) x 2 + 7 x = 0
Writing this quadratic equation as

Now think about the equation x 2 + 9 = 0 . 2
x + 0x + 9 = 0 and calculating
the discriminant for this quadratic
You could rewrite it as x 2 = −9. However, 2
gives b − 4ac = −36 which is less
since the square of every real number is than zero.
positive or zero, there is no real number
with a square of –9. This is an example of a quadratic equation which, up to
now, you would have classified as having ‘no real roots’.
Prior knowledge
The existence of such equations was recognised for hundreds of years, in
You should know how
to solve quadratic
the same way that Greek mathematicians had accepted that x + 10 = 9 had
equations using the no solution; the concept of a negative number had yet to be developed.
quadratic formula. The number system has expanded as mathematicians increased the range of
mathematical problems they wanted to tackle.
You can solve the equation x 2 + 9 = 0 by extending the number system to
include a new number, i (sometimes written as j). This has the property that
40

i² = −1 and it follows the usual laws of algebra. The value i is called an imaginary
number.
The square root of any negative number can be expressed in terms of i. For
2
example, the solution of the equation x 2 = −9 is x = ± −9 . This can be
written as ± 9 × −1 which simplifies to ±3i.
Chapter 2 Introduction to complex numbers

Example 2.1 Use the quadratic formula to solve the quadratic equation z 2 − 6z + 58 = 0,
simplifying your answer as far as possible.
TECHNOLOGY Solution
If your calculator has z 2 − 6z + 58 = 0 Using the quadratic formula with a = 1, b = –6 and c = 58.
an equation solver, fi nd
out if it will give you the 6 ± (−6)2 − 4 × 1 × 58
z=
complex roots of this 2×1
quadratic equation. 6 ± −196
=
2
= 6 ± 14i -196 = 196 × -1 = 14i.
2
= 3 ± 7i
3 is called the real part You will have noticed that the roots 3 + 7i and 3 – 7i 7 is called the
of the complex number of the quadratic equation z 2 − 6z + 58 = 0 have both imaginary part of the
3 + 7i and is denoted a real part and an imaginary part. complex number and
Re(z). is denoted Im(z).
Notation
Any number z of the form x + yi, where x and y are real, is called a complex
number.
The letter z is commonly used for complex numbers, and w is also used. In this
chapter a complex number z is often denoted by x + yi , but other letters are
sometimes used, such as a + bi.
x is called the real part of the complex number, denoted by Re(z) and y is called
the imaginary part, denoted by Im(z).
Working with complex numbers

The general methods for addition, subtraction and multiplication of complex
numbers are straightforward.
Addition: add the real parts and add the imaginary parts.
For example, ( 3 + 4i) + ( 2 − 8i) = ( 3 + 2) + (4 − 8) i
= 5 − 4i.
Subtraction: subtract the real parts and subtract the imaginary parts.
For example, (6 − 9i) − (1 + 6i) = 5 − 15i.
41

Extending the number system
Multiplication: multiply out the brackets in the usual way and simplify.
TECHNOLOGY
For example, (7 + 2i)( 3 − 4i) = 21 − 28i + 6i − 8i 2
Some calculators will When simplifying
allow you to calculate = 21 − 22i − 8 (−1) it is important to
with complex numbers. remember that
Find out whether your
= 29 − 22i.
i2 = −1.
calculator has this Division of complex numbers follows later in this chapter.
facility.
Historical note
Gerolamo Cardano (1501–1576) was an Italian mathematician and physicist

who was the fi rst known writer to explore calculations involving the square
Discussion point roots of negative quantities, in his 1545 publication Ars magna (‘The Great Art’).
➜ What answer do He wanted to calculate:
you think Gerolamo
Cardano might (5 + )(
−15 5 − −15 .? )
have obtained to
Some years later, an Italian engineer named Rafael Bombelli introduced the
the calculation
( )(
5 + −15 5 − −15 ?) words ‘plus of minus’ to indicate −1 and ‘minus of minus’ to indicate − −1.
However, the general mathematical community was slow to accept these
‘fi ctional’ numbers, with the French mathematician and philosopher René
Descartes rather dismissively describing them as ‘imaginary’. Similarly,
Isaac Newton described the numbers as ‘impossible’ and the mystifi cation of
Gottfried Leibniz is evident in the quote at the beginning of the chapter! In the
end it was Leonhard Euler who eventually began to use the symbol i, the fi rst
letter of ‘imaginarius’ (imaginary) instead of writing −1.
Equality of complex numbers

Two complex numbers z = x + yi and w = u + vi are equal if both x = u and
y = v. If x ≠ u or y ≠ v, or both, then z and w are not equal.
You may feel that this is obvious, but it is interesting to compare this situation
with the equality of rational numbers.
Discussion points
➜ Are the rational numbers xy and uv equal if x = u and y = v?
➜ Is it possible for the rational numbers xy and uv to be equal if x ≠ u and y ≠ v?
For two complex numbers to be equal, the real parts must be equal, and the
imaginary parts must be equal. Using this result is described as equating real
and imaginary parts, as shown in the following example.
Example 2.2 The complex numbers z1 and z2 are given by

z1 = ( 3 − a ) + ( 2b − 4 ) i
and
z 2 = ( 7b − 4 ) + ( 3a − 2 ) i.
(i) Given that z1 and z2 are equal, find the values of a and b.
(ii) Check your answer by substituting your values for a and b into the
expressions above.
42

Solution
(i) (3 − a ) + (2b − 4)i = (7b − 4) + (3a − 2)i Equating real and imaginary
2
parts leads to two equations.
Equating real parts: 3 − a = 7b − 4
Equating imaginary parts: 2b − 4 = 3a − 2

7b + a = 7 Simplifying the equations.
2b − 3a = 2
Solving simultaneously gives b = 1 and a = 0.
(ii) Substituting a = 0 and b = 1 gives z1 = 3 − 2i and z 2 = 3 − 2i
so z1 and z2 are indeed equal.
Exercise 2.1 Do not use a calculator in this exercise

① Write down the values of
(i) i9 (ii) i14 (iii) i31 (iv) i100
② Find the following:

(i) (6 + 4i ) + ( 3 − 5i ) (ii) (−6 + 4i ) + (−3 + 5i )
(iii) (6 + 4i ) − ( 3 − 5i ) (iv) (−6 + 4i ) − (−3 + 5i )
③ Find the following:

(i) 3 (6 + 4i ) + 2 ( 3 − 5i ) (ii) 3i (6 + 4i ) + 2i ( 3 − 5i )
(iii) (6 + 4i ) (iv) ( 6 + 4i )( 3 − 5i )
2
④ Given that (a + 3i) + (2 – ai) = b + ai, find the value of b.

⑤ (i) Find the following:
(a) (6 + 4i)(6 − 4i)
(b) ( 3 − 5i)( 3 + 5i)
(c) (6 + 4i)(6 − 4i)( 3 − 5i)( 3 + 5i)
(ii) What do you notice about the answers in part (i)?
⑥ Given that (p + 6i) (1 – qi) = 17 – 4i, and p and q are whole numbers, find
the value of pq.
⑦ Find the following:
(i) ( 3 − 7i )( 2 + 2i )(5 − i ) (ii) ( 3 − 7i )
3
⑧ Solve each of the following equations.

In each case, check your solutions are correct by substituting the values back
into the equation.
(i) z + 2 z + 2 = 0 (ii) z − 2 z + 5 = 0
2 2
(iii) z − 4 z + 13 = 0 (iv) z + 6 z + 34 = 0
2 2
(v) 4 z − 4 z + 17 = 0 (vi) z + 4 z + 6 = 0
2 2
⑨ Given that the complex numbers

z1 = a 2 + ( 3 + 2b ) i
z 2 = (5a − 4 ) + b 2 i
are equal, find the possible values of a and b.
Hence list the possible pairs of complex numbers z1 and z2.
43

Division of complex numbers
⑩ A complex number z = a + bi, where a and b are real, is squared to give an

answer of –16 + 30i. Find the possible values of a and b.
⑪ Find the square roots of the complex number –40 + 42i.
⑫ Figure 2.2 shows the graph of y = x2 – 4x + 3.
y
y = x2 − 4x + 3

Figure 2.2
(i) Draw sketches of the curves y = x 2 − 4 x + 3, y = x 2 − 4 x + 6 and
y = x 2 − 4 x + 8 on the same axes.
(ii) Solve the equations
(a) x − 4 x + 3 = 0
2
(b) x − 4 x + 6 = 0
2
(c) x − 4 x + 8 = 0
2
(iii) Describe the relationship between the roots of the three equations and
how they relate to the graphs you sketched in part (i).
⑬ Given that z = 2 + 3i is a root of the equation
z 2 + (a − i) z + 16 + bi = 0
where a and b are real, find a and b.
Explain why you cannot assume that the other root is z = 2 − 3i.
Given that the second root has the form 5 + ci , find the other root of the
equation.
2 Division of complex numbers

Complex conjugates
You have seen that the roots of a quadratic equation are almost the same, but
have the opposite sign (+ and −) between the real and imaginary terms. For
example, the roots of x2 – 4x + 13 = 0 are x = 2 + 3i and x = 2 – 3i. The
pair of complex numbers 2 + 3i and 2 – 3i are called conjugates. Each is
the conjugate of the other.
In general the complex number x – yi is called the complex conjugate,
or just the conjugate, of x + yi. The conjugate of a complex number z is
denoted by z∗.
44

Example 2.3 Given that z = 3 + 5i , find
(i) z + z∗ (ii)
zz∗ 2
Solution

∗
(i) z + z = (3 + 5i) + (3 − 5i)
=6
(ii) zz ∗ = (3 + 5i)(3 − 5i)
= 9 + 15i − 15i − 25i 2
= 9 + 25
= 34
You can see from the example above that z + z∗ and zz∗ are both real. This is an
ACTIVITY 2.3 example of an important general result: that the sum of two complex conjugates
Prove that z + z∗ and is real and that their product is also real.
zz are both real for all
complex numbers z.
Dividing complex numbers
2
You probably already know that you can write an expression like as a
3− 2
fraction with a rational denominator by multiplying both the numerator and
denominator by 3 + 2 .
2 = 2 × 3+ 2 = 6+2 2 = 6+2 2.
3− 2 3− 2 3+ 2 9−2 7
Because zz∗ is always real, you can use a similar method to write an expression
2
like 3 − 5i as a fraction with a real denominator, by multiplying the numerator
and denominator by 3 + 5i.
3 + 5i is the complex conjugate of 3 – 5i.
This is the basis for dividing one complex number by another.
Example 2.4 1 .
Find the real and imaginary parts of
5 + 2i
Solution
5 – 2i is the
Multiply the numerator and denominator by 5 − 2i. conjugate of the
1 = 5 − 2i denominator 5 + 2i.
5 + 2i (5 + 2i)(5 − 2i)
= 5 − 2i
25 + 4
= − 2i
5
29
5 2
The real part is 29 and the imaginary part is − 29 .
45

Division of complex numbers
Example 2.5
Solve the equation ( 2 + 3i) z = 9 − 4i .
Solution
Discussion points (2 + 3i)z = 9 − 4i
➜ What are the values 9 − 4i Multiply top and
1 1 1 1 ⇒ z = 2 + 3i bottom by 2 − 3i.
of , 2 , 3 and 4 ?
i i i i (9 − 4i)(2 − 3i)
=
➜ Explain how you (2 + 3i)(2 − 3i)
would work out the
= 18 − 27i − 8i + 12i
2
1 Notice how the –6i and
value of n for any + 6i terms will cancel
i 4 − 6i + 6i − 9i 2
positive integer to produce a real

value n. = − 35i
6 denominator.
13
= 6 − 35 i
13 13
Exercise 2.2
① Express these complex numbers in the form x + yi.
3 3 3i 3i
TECHNOLOGY (i)
7−i
(ii)
7+i
(iii)
7−i
(iv)
7+i
If your calculator ② Express these complex numbers in the form x + yi.
handles complex
3 + 5i 2 − 3i 3 − 5i 2 + 3i
numbers, you can use it (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
2 − 3i 3 + 5i 2 + 3i 3 − 5i
to check your answers.
③ Simplify the following, giving your answers in the form x + yi.
(i)
(12 − 5i)( 2 + 2i)
4 − 3i
(ii)
12 − 5i
(4 − 3i)2
④ z = 3 − 6i , w = −2 + 9i and q = 6 + 3i .
Write down the values of the following:
(i) z + z∗ (ii) ww∗ (iii) q∗ + q
∗ ∗
(iv) z z (v) w + w (vi) qq∗
⑤ Jo writes: ‘If a and b are real, non-zero numbers, then (a + bi)(b + ai) has an
imaginary part but no real part.’ Is Jo correct? Explain your answer.
⑥ Given that z = 2 + 3i and w = 6 − 4i, find the following:
(i) Re(z) (ii) Im(z) (iii) z∗
(iv) w∗ (v) z∗ + w∗ (vi) z∗ − w∗
⑦ Im((z + z∗ + 1)(zz∗ – 1)) = 0 for all z. Is this statement true or false?
Explain your answer.
⑧ Given that z = 2 + 3i and w = 6 – 4i, find the following:
(i) Im(z + z∗) (ii) Re(w – w∗) (iii) zz∗ − ww∗
(iv) (z3)∗ (v) (z∗)3 (vi) zw∗ − z∗w
46

⑨ Given that z1 = 2 − 5i, z 2 = 4 + 10i and z 3 = 6 − 5i, find the following in
the form a + bi, where a and b are rational numbers.
z1z 2 (z3 )
2
z1 + z 2 − z 3
2
(i) (ii) (iii)
z3 z1 (z3 )
2
⑩ Solve these equations.

(i) (1 + i) z = 3 + i
(ii) ( 2 − i) z + ( 2 − 6i) = 4 − 7i
(iii) ( 3 − 4i)( z − 1) = 10 − 5i
(iv) ( 3 + 5i)( z + 2 − 5i) = 6 + 3i
⑪ Find the values of a and b such that 2 − 5i = a + bi .
3 + 2i 1− i
⑫ The complex number w = a + bi, where a and b are real, satisfies the
equation (5 − 2i) w = 67 + 37i .
(i) Using the method of equating coefficients, find the values of a and b.
(ii) Using division of complex numbers, find the values of a and b.
⑬ (i) For z = 5 − 8i find 1 + 1∗ in its simplest form.
z z
1+ 1
(ii) Write down the value of for z = 5 + 8i
z z∗
1 1
⑭ For z = x + yi, find + ∗ in terms of x and y.
z z
⑮ Let z1 = x1 + y1i and z 2 = x 2 + y 2 i.
Show that ( z1 + z 2 )∗ = z1∗ + z 2∗ .
a b
⑯ Find real numbers a and b such that 3 + i + 1 + 2i = 1 − i .
⑰ Find all the numbers z, real or complex, for which z 2 = 2z ∗.
⑱ The complex numbers z and w satisfy the following simultaneous equations.
z + wi = 13
3z − 4w = 2i
Find z and w, giving your answers in the form a + bi.
Discussion point
➜ Why is it not 3 Representing complex numbers
possible to show a
complex number on
geometrically
a number line?
A complex number x + yi can be represented by the point with Cartesian
coordinates (x, y). Im
For example, in Figure 2.3,

2 + 3i is represented by (2, 3)
–5 – 4i is represented by (–5, –4) 2 + 3i
2i is represented by (0, 2) 2i
7 is represented by (7, 0).
O 7 Re
−5 − 4i
Figure 2.3
47

Representing complex numbers geometrically
All real numbers are represented by points on the x-axis, which is therefore called the
real axis. Purely imaginary numbers which have no real component (of the form
0 + yi) give points on the y-axis, which is called the imaginary axis.
These axes are labelled as Re and Im.
This geometrical illustration of complex numbers is called the complex plane
or the Argand diagram.
The Argand diagram is named after Jean-Robert
Argand (1768–1822), a self-taught Swiss book-
keeper who published an account of it in 1806.
ACTIVITY 2.4
(i) Copy Figure 2.3.
For each of the four given points z, mark also the point –z.
Describe the geometrical transformation which maps the point representing
z to the point representing –z.
(ii) For each of the points z, mark the point z∗, the complex conjugate of z.
Describe the geometrical transformation which maps the point representing
z to the point representing z∗.
Representing the sum and difference of complex

numbers
In Figure 2.4 the complex number z = x + yi is shown as a vector on an Argand
diagram.
Im
z = x + yi
O Re
Figure 2.4
The use of vectors can be helpful in illustrating addition and subtraction of
complex numbers on an Argand diagram. Figure 2.5 shows that the position
vectors representing z1 and z2 form two sides of a parallelogram, the diagonal of
which is the vector z1 + z2.
48

Im
2
z2
z 1 + z2

z1
O Re
Figure 2.5
The addition can also be shown as a triangle of vectors, as in Figure 2.6.

Im
z 1 + z2 z2
z1
O Re
Figure 2.6
In Figure 2.7 you can see that z 2 + w = z1 and so w = z1 − z 2.

Im
w = z1 − z2
z2 w
z1
O Re
Figure 2.7
This shows that the complex number z1 – z2 is represented by the vector from
the point representing z2 to the point representing z1, as shown in Figure 2.8.
Im
z1
z2
−z2
z1 + (−z2)
z1
O Re
Figure 2.8
Notice the order of the points: the vector z1 – z2 starts at the point z2 and goes
to the point z1.
49

Representing complex numbers geometrically
Exercise 2.3
① Represent each of the following complex numbers on a single Argand
diagram.
(i) 3 + 2i (ii) 4i (iii) –5 + i
(iv) –2 (v) –6 – 5i (vi) 4 – 3i

② Given that z = 2 − 4i, represent the following by points on a single Argand
diagram.
(i) z (ii) –z (iii) z∗ (iv) –z∗
(v) iz (vi) –iz (vii) iz∗ (viii) (iz)∗

③ Given that z = 10 + 5i and w = 1 + 2i , represent the following complex
numbers on an Argand diagram.
(i) z (ii) w (iii) z + w
(iv) z – w (v) w – z
④ Given that z is the number 1+i, draw the points z, z2 and z3 on an Argand
diagram. Find the area of the triangle that these three points form.
⑤ Im
C1
3
2
B1
1
A1 A2
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Re
–1
B2
–2
–3
C2

Figure 2.9
(i) Find the quadratic equation which has roots A1 and A2.
(ii) Find the quadratic equation which has roots B1 and B2.
(iii) Find the quadratic equation which has roots C1 and C2.
(iv) What do you notice about your answers to (i), (ii) and (iii)?
⑥ Give a geometrical proof that (−z ) = − ( z ).

∗ ∗
⑦ Let z = 1 + i.
(i) Find zn for n = –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
(ii) Plot each of the points zn from part (i) on a single Argand diagram.
Join each point to its predecessor and to the origin.
(iii) Find the distance of each point from the origin.
(iv) What do you notice?
50

⑧ Figure 2.10 shows the complex number z = a + ib. The distance of the
point representing z from the origin is denoted by r.
Im
2
z = a + ib

r
O Re
Figure 2.10
(i) Find an expression for r, and hence prove that r2 = zz∗.
A second complex number, w, is given by w = c + di. The distance of the
point representing w from the origin is denoted by s.
(ii) Write down an expression for s.
(iii) Find zw, and prove that the distance of the point representing zw from
the origin is given by rs.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
➤ understand how complex numbers extend the number system
➤ solve quadratic equations with complex roots
➤ know what is meant by the terms real part, imaginary part and complex conjugate
➤ add, subtract, multiply and divide complex numbers
➤ solve problems involving complex numbers by equating real and imaginary parts
➤ represent a complex number on an Argand diagram
➤ represent addition and subtraction of two complex numbers on an Argand diagram.
KEY POINTS
1 Complex numbers are of the form z = x + yi with i2 = −1.
x is called the real part, Re(z), and y is called the imaginary part, Im(z).
∗
2 The conjugate of z = x + yi is z = x − yi .
3 To add or subtract complex numbers, add or subtract the real and imaginary
parts separately.
( x1 + y1i) + ( x 2 + y 2 i) = ( x1 + x 2 ) + ( y1 + y 2 )i .
4 To multiply complex numbers, expand the brackets then simplify using
2
the fact that i = −1.
FUTURE USES
5 To divide complex numbers, write as a fraction, then multiply top and bottom
n In Chapter 8 you by the conjugate of the bottom and simplify the answer.
will look at how 6 Two complex numbers z1 = x1 + y1i and z 2 = x 2 + y 2 i are equal if and only
complex numbers if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2.
can be used to
7 The complex number z = x + yi can be represented geometrically as the
describe sets
point (x, y).
of points in the
Argand diagram. The real/imaginary axes system is known as an Argand diagram.
51

3 Roots of polynomials
In mathematics it is A polynomial is an expression like 4 x 3 + x 2 − 4 x − 1. Its terms are all positive

new ways of looking at integer powers of a variable (in this case x ) like x 2, or multiples of them like 4x 3.
There are no square roots, reciprocals, etc.
old things that seem
to be the most prolific The degree (or order) of a polynomial is the highest power of the variable. So the
sources of far-reaching degree of 4 x 3 + x 2 − 4 x − 1 is 3; this is why it is called a cubic.
discoveries. You often need to solve polynomial equations, and it is usually helpful to think
Eric Temple Bell, 1951
about the associated graph.
The following diagrams show the graphs of two cubic polynomial functions. The
first example (in Figure 3.1) has three real roots (where the graph of the polynomial
crosses the x-axis). The second example (in Figure 3.2) has only one real root. In
this case there are also two complex roots.
y y
1 1
−1 O 1 2 x −1 O 1 2 x
−1 −1
−2 −2
f(x) = 4x3 + x2 − 4x − 1 f(x) = 4x3 + x2 + 4x + 1
52

In general a polynomial equation of degree n has n roots. However, some of
these may be complex rather than real numbers and sometimes they coincide so
that two or more distinct roots become one repeated root. 3
Discussion points
1 Polynomials
Chapter 3 Roots of polynomials

➜ How would The following two statements are true for all polynomials:
you solve the
polynomial equation n A polynomial equation of degree n has at most n real roots.
3 2
4x + x − 4x − 1 = 0 ? n The graph of a polynomial function of degree n has at most n – 1 turning
points.
➜ What about
3 2 Here are some examples that illustrate these results.
4x + x + 4x + 1 = 0 ?
Degree 1 (a linear equation) Degree 2 (a quadratic equation)
Example: 2x − 7 = 0. Example: x 2 − 4 x + 4 = 0.
y y
O 3.5 x
4 y = x2 − 4x + 4
y = 2x − 7
O 2 x
−7
Figure 3.3 The graph is a straight line with Figure 3.4 The curve has one turning
no turning points. There is one real root at point. There is one repeated root at x = 2.
x = 3.5.
Degree 3 (a cubic equation) Degree 4 (a quartic equation)
Example: x − 1 = 0.
3
Example: x 4 − 3x 2 − 4 = 0.
y y
y = x4 − 3x2 − 4
y = x3 − 1
−2 O 2 x
O
1 x
−1
−4
Figure 3.5 The two turning points of this Figure 3.6 This curve has three turning
curve coincide to give a point of inflection at points. There are two real roots at x = −2
(0, −1). There is one real root at x = 1 and two and x = 2 and two complex roots at
−1 ± 3 i x = ±i .
complex roots at x = . You will learn how how
2
The same patterns continue for higher degree polynomials. to find the complex roots
of polynomial equations
later in this chapter.
53

Polynomials
The rest of this chapter explores some properties of polynomials, and ways to use these
properties to avoid the difficulties of actually finding the roots of polynomials directly.
It is important that you recognise that the roots of polynomials may be complex.
For this reason, in the work that follows, z is used as the variable (or unknown)
instead of x to emphasise that the results apply regardless of whether the roots
are complex or real.
Quadratic equations
ACTIVITY 3.1
TECHNOLOGY
Solve each of the following quadratic equations (by factorising or otherwise).
You could use the
Also write down the sum and product of the two roots.
equation solver on a
calculator. What do you notice?
Equation Two roots Sum of roots Product of roots

Discussion point (i) z − 3z + 2 = 0
2
➜ What is the
(ii) z + z − 6 = 0
2
connection between
the sums and (iii) z − 6 z + 8 = 0
2
products of the roots,
and the coefficients in (iv) z − 3z − 10 = 0
2
the original equation?
(v) 2 z − 3z + 1 = 0
2
(vi) z − 4 z + 5 = 0
2
The roots of polynomial equations are usually denoted by Greek letters such as
α and β.
α (alpha) and β (beta) are the first two letters of the Greek alphabet.
Always be careful to distinguish between:

a – the coefficient of z2 and
α – one of the roots of the quadratic.
If you know the roots are α and β, you can write the equation
az 2 + bz + c = 0
in factorised form as
a ( z – α )( z – β ) = 0 . Assuming a ≠ 0

This gives the identity,
az 2 + bz + c ≡ a ( z – α ) ( z – β ).
az 2 + bz + c ≡ a ( z 2 – α z – β z + αβ )
≡ az 2 − a (α + β ) z + aαβ Multiplying out
54

b = − a (α + β ) ⇒ α + β = − b Equating coefficients of z
Discussion point
➜ What happens if you
a
3
try to find the values
c = aαβ ⇒ αβ = c . Equating constant terms
a
of α and β by solving
the equations So the sum of the roots is

b b
α + β = − and α + β = −
a a
c and the product of the roots is
αβ = as a pair
a c
of simultaneous αβ = .
a
equations?
From these results you can obtain information about the roots without actually
solving the equation.
ACTIVITY 3.2
The quadratic formula gives the roots α and β (where α > β) of the quadratic
equation az 2 + bz + c = 0 as
−b + b 2 − 4ac , β = −b − b 2 − 4ac .

α =
2a 2a
Use these expressions to prove that α + β = − b and αβ = c .
a a
Example 3.1 Find a quadratic equation with roots 5 and –3.
Solution
The sum of the roots is 5 + (–3) = 2 ⇒ −b = 2
a
The product of the roots is 5 × (–3) = –15 c
⇒ = −15
a
Taking a to be 1 gives
You could choose any value for a but
b = –2 and c = –15 choosing 1 in this case gives the
simplest form of the equation.
A quadratic equation with roots 5 and –3 is z 2 – 2z –15 = 0.
Forming new equations

Using these properties of the roots sometimes allows you to form a new
equation with roots that are related to the roots of the original equation. The
next example illustrates this.
55

Polynomials
Example 3.2
The roots of the equation 2z 2 + 3z + 5 = 0 are α and β.
(i) Find the values of α + β and αβ.
(ii) Find the quadratic equation with roots 2α and 2β.
Solution
These lines come from looking at the original
(i) α + β = − 3 and quadratic, and quoting the facts α + β = −
b
2 a
c
αβ = 5 and αβ = .
a
2
(ii) The sum of the new roots = 2α + 2β
= 2 (α + β )
= 2× −3
2
= −3
The product of the new roots = 2α × 2β
= 4αβ
=4× 5
2
= 10
Let p, q and r be the coefficients in the new quadratic equation, then
−q r
= −3 and p = 10.
p
Taking p = 1 gives q = 3 and r = 10. So a quadratic equation with the
required roots is z2 + 3z + 10 = 0.
Example 3.3 The roots of the equation 3z 2 − 4 z − 1 = 0 are α and β.

Find the quadratic equation with roots α + 1 and β + 1.
Solution
4 and
α + β =
3
1
αβ = −
3
The sum of the new roots = α + 1 + β + 1
=α +β +2
= 4 +2
3
10
=
3
The product of the new roots = (α + 1) ( β + 1)
= αβ + (α + β ) + 1
1 4
= − + +1
3 3
= 2
56

3
Choosing a = 1
So − b = 10 and c = 2. would give a value
a 3 a for b which is not an
integer. It is easier
Choose a = 3, then b = –10 and c = 6. here to use a = 3.

So a quadratic equation with the required roots is 3z 2 − 10z + 6 = 0 .
T ACTIVITY 3.3
Solve the quadratic equations from the previous two examples (perhaps using
the equation solver on your calculator, or a computer algebra system):
2
(i) 2 z + 3z + 5 = 0 z 2 + 3z + 10 = 0
2
(ii) 3z - 4 z - 1 = 0 3z 2 - 10z + 6 = 0
Verify that the relationships between the roots and the coefficients are correct.
Exercise 3.1
① Write down the sum and product of the roots of each of these quadratic
equations.
(i) 2z 2 + 7z + 6 = 0 (ii) 5z 2 − z − 1 = 0
(iv) 5z + 24 z = 0
2
7z 2 + 2 = 0
(iii)
(v) z( z + 8) = 4 − 3z (vi) 3z + 8 z − 6 = 0
2

② Write down quadratic equations (in expanded form, with integer
coefficients) with the following roots:
(i) 7, 3 (ii) 4, –1
(iii) –5, –4.5 (iv) 5, 0

(v) 3 (repeated) (vi) 3 − 2i, 3 + 2i
③ The roots of 2z 2 + 5z − 9 = 0 are α and β .
Find quadratic equations with these roots.
(i) 3α and 3β (ii) −α and − β
(iii) α − 2 and β − 2 1 − 2α and 1 − 2β

(iv)
④ The sum of the roots of 2x + 6x – a = 0 is the same as the product of the

2
roots of 3x2 + bx + 1 = 0. The product of the roots of 2x2 + 6x – a = 0 is

the same as the sum of the roots of 3x2 + bx + 1 = 0. Find the value of ab.
⑤ Using the fact that α + β = − b , and αβ = c , what can you say about the
a a
roots, α and β , of az 2 + bz + c = 0 in the following cases:
(i) a, b, c are all positive and b 2 − 4ac > 0
(ii) b=0
(iii) c=0
(iv) a and c have opposite signs
⑥ One root of az 2 + bz + c = 0 is twice the other. Prove that 2b 2 = 9ac .
57

Cubic equations
⑦ You are given the equations x2 + ax + 5 = 0 and y2 + bx = 0.You are told

the sum of the roots for x is equal to the product of the roots for y and vice
versa. Find a and b. Solve the two equations for x and y and check your
results.
⑧ The roots of az 2 + bz + c = 0 are, α and β . You may wish to introduce
Find quadratic equations with the following different letters (say p, q
roots: and r instead of a, b and c)
(i) kα and kβ for the coefficients of your
target equation.
(ii) k + α and k + β
⑨ (i) A quadratic equation with real coefficients ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has

complex roots z1 and z 2. Explain how the relationships between
roots and coefficients show that z1 and z 2 must be complex
conjugates.
(ii) Find a quadratic equation with complex coefficients which has roots
2 + 3i and 3 – i.
2 Cubic equations
There are corresponding properties for the roots of degree polynomials.
To see how to generalise the properties you can begin with the cubics in a
similar manner to the discussion of the quadratics. As before, it is conventional to
use Greek letters to represent the three roots: α, β and γ (gamma, the third letter
of the Greek alphabet).
You can write the general cubic as
az 3 + bz 2 + cz + d = 0
or in factorised form as
a ( z − α ) ( z − β ) ( z − γ ) = 0.
This gives the identity
az 3 + bz 2 + cz + d ≡ a ( z − α ) ( z − β ) ( z − γ ). Check this for yourself.
Multiplying out the right-hand side gives

az + bz + cz + d ≡ az − a (α + β + γ ) z + a (αβ + βγ + γα ) z − aαβγ .
3 2 3 2
Comparing coefficients of z2:

b = − a (α + β + γ ) ⇒ α + β + γ = − b Sum of the roots: ∑α
a
Comparing coefficients of z:
c = a (αβ + βγ + γα ) ⇒ αβ + βγ + γα = c Sum of products of
a pairs of roots: ∑ αβ
Comparing constant terms:
d = − aαβγ ⇒ αβγ = − d Product of the three
a roots: ∑ αβγ
58

Note
Notation 3
It often becomes tedious writing out the sums of various combinations of roots,
so shorthand notation is often used:

∑α = α + β + γ the sum of individual roots (however many there are)
∑ αβ = αβ + βγ + γα the sum of the products of pairs of roots
∑ αβγ = αβγ the sum of the products of triples of roots (in this case
only one)
Provided you know the degree of the equation (e.g. cubic, quartic, etc,) it will be
quite clear what this means. Functions like these are called symmetric functions
of the roots, since exchanging any two of α, β, γ will not change the value of the
function.
Using this notation you can shorten tediously long expressions. For example, for
a cubic with roots α, β and γ,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
α β + αβ + β γ + βγ + γ α + γα = ∑ α β .
This becomes particularly useful when you deal with quartics in the next section.
Example 3.4 The roots of the equation 2z 3 − 9z 2 − 27z + 54 = 0 form a geometric

progression (i.e. they may be written as ar , a, ar ).
Solve the equation.
Solution
d ⇒ a × a × ar = −
54
αβγ = −
a r 2
⇒ a = −27
3
⇒ a = −3
∑α = − b ⇒ a + a + ar = 9
a r 2
1
(
⇒ −3 + 1 + r =
r
9
2 )
1
(
⇒ 2 + 1 + r = −3
r )
⇒ 2 + 2r + 2r 2 = −3r
⇒ 2r 2 + 5r + 2 = 0
⇒ (2r + 1)(r + 2) = 0
⇒ r = −2 or r = − 1
2
Either value of r gives the same three roots: 3 , –3, 6.

2
59

Cubic equations
Forming new equations: the substitution method

In the next example you are asked to form a new cubic equation with roots
related to the roots of the original equation. Using the same approach as in the
quadratic example is possible, but this gets increasingly complicated as the degree
of the equation increases. A substitution method is often a quicker alternative.
The following example shows both methods for comparison.
Example 3.5 The roots of the cubic equation 2z 3 + 5z 2 − 3z − 2 = 0 are α, β, γ.
Find the cubic equation with roots 2α + 1, 2β + 1, 2γ + 1.
Solution 1
∑α = α + β + γ = − 5 ∑ α = − b
2 a
∑ αβ = αβ + βγ + γα = −
3 ∑ αβ = c
2 a
2
∑ αβγ = αβγ =
2
=1 ∑ αβγ = − d
a
For the new equation:
Sum of roots = 2α + 1 + 2β + 1 + 2γ + 1
= 2(α + β + γ ) + 3
= −5 + 3 = −2
Product of the roots in pairs
= (2α + 1)(2 β + 1) + (2 β + 1)(2γ + 1) + (2γ + 1)(2α + 1)
= [4αβ + 2(α + β ) + 1] + [4 βγ + 2( β + γ ) + 1] + [4γα + 2(γ + α ) + 1]
= 4(αβ + βγ + γα ) + 4(α + β + γ ) + 3
3 5
=4×− +4×− +3
2 2
= −13
Product of roots = (2α + 1)(2 β + 1))(2γ + 1)

= 8αβγ + 4(αβ + βγ + γα ) + 2(α + β + γ ) + 1
= 8 ×1+ 4 × −3 + 2 × −5 +1
2 2 Check this for yourself.
= −2
These are all
In the new equation, − b = −2 , c = −13 , − d = −2 . integers, so choose
a a a
a = 1 and this gives
the simplest integer
The new equation is z + 2z − 13z + 2 = 0 .
3 2
coefficients.
Solution 2 (substitution method) This is a transformation

This method involves a new variable w = 2z + 1. of z in the same way
You write z in terms of w, and substitute into as the new roots are a
transformation of the
the original equation: original z roots.
60

TECHNOLOGY z = w − 1 α, β, γ are the roots of 2z 3 + 5z 2 − 3z − 2 = 0
Use graphing software
2 3
to draw the graphs of ⇔ 2α + 1, 2β + 1, 2γ + 1 are the roots of
y = 2x³ + 5x² - 3x - 2
( ) ( ) ( )
3 2
and y = x³ + 2x² - 13x + 2. 2 w −1 +5 w −1 −3 w −1 −2 = 0

How do these graphs 2 2 2
relate to Example 3.5?
What transformations
⇔ 2 (w − 1)3 + 5 (w − 1)2 − 3 (w − 1) − 2 = 0
8 4 2
map the first graph on ⇔ (w − 1) + 5(w − 1) − 6(w − 1) − 8 = 0
3 2
to the second one?
⇔ w 3 − 3w 2 + 3w − 1 + 5w 2 − 10w + 5 − 6w + 6 − 8 = 0
⇔ w 3 + 2w 2 − 13w + 2 = 0
The substitution method can sometimes be much more efficient, although
you need to take care with the expansion of the cubic brackets.
Exercise 3.2
① The roots of the cubic equation 2z 3 + 3z 2 − z + 7 = 0 are α, β, γ.
Find the following:
(i) ∑α (ii) ∑ αβ
∑ αβγ
(iii)
② Find cubic equations (with integer coefficients) with the following roots:
(i) 1, 2, 4 (ii) 2, –2, 3
(iii) 0, –2, –1.5 (iv) 2 (repeated), 2.5
(v) –2, –3, 5 (vi) 1, 2 + i, 2 − i
③ The roots of each of these equations are in arithmetic progression (i.e. they
may be written as a − d , a, a + d ).
Solve each equation.
(i) z 3 − 15z 2 + 66z − 80 = 0 (ii) 9z 3 − 18z 2 − 4 z + 8 = 0
(iii) z 3 − 6z 2 + 16 = 0 (iv) 54 z 3 − 189z 2 + 207z − 70 = 0
④ The roots of the equation z 3 + z 2 + 2z − 3 = 0 are α, β, γ.
(i) The substitution w = z + 3 is made. Write z in terms of w.
(ii) Substitute your answer to part (i) for z in the equation
z 3 + z 2 + 2z − 3 = 0
(iii) Give your answer to part (ii) as a cubic equation in w with integer
coefficients.
(iv) Write down the roots of your equation in part (iii), in terms of α, β and γ.
⑤ The roots of the equation z 3 − 2z 2 + z − 3 = 0 are α, β, γ. Use the

substitution w = 2z to find a cubic equation in w with roots 2α, 2β, 2γ.
⑥ The equation 27z3 + 9z2 + 3z – 1 = 0 has roots α, β and γ. Find an
equation that has roots 3α – 1, 3β – 1, and 3γ –1.
⑦ The roots of the equation 2z 3 + 4 z 2 − 3z + 1 = 0 are α, β, γ.
Find cubic equations with these roots:
(i) 2 − α, 2 − β, 2 − γ (ii) 3α − 2, 3β − 2, 3γ − 2
⑧ The roots of the equation 2z 3 − 12z 2 + kz − 15 = 0 are in arithmetic

progression.
Solve the equation and find k.
61

Quartic equations
⑨ Solve 32z 3 − 14 z + 3 = 0 given that one root is twice one of the others.
⑩ The equation z 3 + pz 2 + 2 pz + q = 0 has roots α, 2α, 4α.
Find all possible values of p, q, α.
⑪ The roots of z 3 + pz 2 + qz + r = 0 are α , − α , β , and r ≠ 0.
Show that r = pq , and find all three roots in terms of p and q.
⑫ The cubic equation 8x 3 + px 2 + qx + r = 0 has roots α and 1 and β .

2α
(i) Express p, q and r in terms of α and β.
(ii) Show that 2r 2 − pr + 4q = 16 .

(iii) Given that p = 6 and q = –23, find the two possible values of r and, in
each case, solve the equation 8x 3 + 6x 2 − 23x + r = 0.
⑬ Show that one root of az 3 + bz 2 + cz + d = 0 is the reciprocal of another
root if and only if a 2 − d 2 = ac − dc .
Verify that this condition is satisfied for the equation
21z 3 − 16z 2 + 78z − 27 = 0 and hence solve the equation.
⑭ Find a formula connecting a, b, c and d which is a necessary and sufficient
condition for the roots of the equation az 3 + bz 2 + cz + d = 0 to be in
geometric progression.
Show that this condition is satisfied for the equation
8z 3 − 52z 2 + 78z − 27 = 0 and hence solve the equation.
3 Quartic equations
Quartic equations have four roots, usually denoted by the first four Greek letters:
α, β, γ and δ (delta).
Discussion point
➜ By looking back at the two formulae for quadratics and the three
formulae for cubics, predict the four formulae that relate the roots
α, β, γ and δ to the coefficients a, b, c, d and e of the quartic equation
ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e = 0.
You may wish to check/derive these results yourself before looking at the
derivation on the next page.
Historical note
The formulae used to relate the coefficients of polynomials with sums and
products of their roots are called Vieta’s Formulae after François Viète (a
Frenchman who commonly used a Latin version of his name: Franciscus
Vieta). He was a lawyer by trade but made important progress (while doing
mathematics in his spare time) on algebraic notation and helped pave the way
for the more logical system of notation we use today.
62

Derivation of formulae
As before, the quartic equation 3
az 4 + bz 3 + cz 2 + dz + e = 0
can be written in factorised form as

a( z − α )( z − β )( z − γ )( z − δ ) = 0.
This gives the identity
az 4 + bz 3 + cz 2 + dz + e ≡ a( z − α )( z − β )( z − γ )( z − δ ).
Multiplying out the right-hand side gives
4 4 + bz
+ bz 3 + + + dz+ e+ ≡e ≡ 4 4 − a(α + β + γ + δ3)z 3
3 2
azaz cz 2cz+ dz az az− a(α + β + γ + δ )z
az + bz + cz + dz + a++ + αγ+− αδ
≡+ az +a(αδ +ββγ+
α++βγ + +βδ )+z 3γα
)z 2)z− a−(αβγ + βγδ + γδα + δαβ )z a+
4 3 2 4 2
ae(αβ
(αβ αγ + γβδ +δ γα a(αβγ
+ βγδ + γδα + δαβ )z + aαβγδ
αβγδ . .
+ a(αβ + αγ + αδ + βγ + βδ + γα )z − a(αβγ + βγδ + γδα + δαβ )z + aαβγδ .
2
Equating coefficients shows that

Check this
for yourself.
∑α = α + β + γ + δ = − b
The sum of the
a individual roots.
The sum of the products
∑ αβ = αβ + αγ + αδ + βγ + βδ + γδ = c of roots in pairs.
a
d
∑ αβγ = αβγ + βγδ + γδα + δαβ = − The sum of the products
a of roots in threes.
e
αβγδ = . The product of the roots.
a
Example 3.6
The roots of the quartic equation 4 z 4 + pz 3 + qz 2 − z + 3 = 0 are
α , − α , α + λ , α − λ where α and λ are real numbers.
(i) Express p and q in terms of α and λ .

(ii) Show that α = − 1 , and find the values of p and q.
2
(iii) Give the roots of the quartic equation.
Solution
p
(i) ∑ α = α − α + α + λ + α − λ = −
4
p
⇒ 2α = − Use the sum of the individual
4
roots to find an expression for p.
⇒ p = −8α
∑ αβ = −α 2 + α (α + λ ) + α (α − λ ) − α (α + λ ) − α (α − λ )
q
+(α + λ )(α − λ ) =
4
q
⇒ −λ 2 =
4 Use the sum of the product of the roots
⇒ q = −4 λ 2 in pairs to find an expression for q.
63

Quartic equations
(ii)
1
∑ αβγ = −α 2 (α + λ ) − α (α + λ )(α − λ ) + α (α + λ )(α − λ ) − α 2 (α − λ ) =
4
1 Use the sum of the product of the
⇒ −2α 3 =
4 roots in threes to find α (λ cancels
1 out) and hence find p, using your
⇒α = −
2 answer to part (i).
1
p = −8α = −8 × − = 4
2
3
αβγδ = −α (α + λ )(α − λ ) =
2
4 Use the sum of the product
3 of the roots and the value for
⇒ −α 2 (α 2 − λ 2 ) = α to find λ , and hence find q,
4
( )
using your answer to part (i).
1 1 3
⇒− − λ2 =
4 4 4
1 λ2
⇒ − = −3
4 Substitute the values for α
13 and λ to give the roots.
⇒λ = 2
4
13
q = −4 λ 2 = −4 × = −13
4
1 1 1 1 13, − 1 − 1 13 .
(iii) The roots of the equation are , − , − +
2 2 2 2 2 2
Exercise 3.3
① The roots of 2z 4 + 3z 3 + 6z 2 − 5z + 4 = 0 are α, β, γ and δ.
Write down the following:
(i) ∑α
(ii) ∑ αβ
(iii) ∑ αβγ
∑ αβγδ
(iv)
② For the quartic equation x4 + (a – 2)x3 + x2 + x + a = 0, Σα = Σαβγδ. Find

the value of a.
③ Find quartic equations (with integer coefficients) with the roots.
(i) 1, −1, 2, 4
(ii) 0, 1.5, −2.5, −4
(iii) 1.5 (repeated), −3 (repeated)
(iv) 1, −3, 1 + i, 1 − i.
④ The roots of the quartic equation 2z 4 + 4 z 3 − 3z 2 − z + 6 = 0 are α, β, γ

and δ.
Find quartic equations with these roots:
(i) 2α , 2 β , 2γ , 2δ
(ii) α − 1, β − 1, γ − 1, δ − 1.
64

⑤ The roots of the quartic equation x 4 + 4 x 3 − 8 x + 4 = 0 are α, β, γ and δ.
(i) By making a suitable substitution, find a quartic equation with roots 3
α + 1, β + 1, γ + 1 and δ + 1 .
(ii) Solve the equation found in part (i), and hence find the values of
α, β, γ and δ.

⑥ The quartic equation x 4 + px 3 − 12 x + q = 0 , where p and q are real, has
roots α, 3α, β, −β.
(i) By considering the coefficients of x2 and x, find α and β, where β > 0.
(ii) Show that p = 4 and find the value of q.
(iii) By making the substitution y = x − k, for a suitable value of k, find

a cubic equation in y, with integer coefficients, which has roots
−2α , β − 3α , − β − 3α .
⑦ (i) Make conjectures about the five properties of the roots α, β, γ, δ and ε
(epsilon) of the general quintic ax 5 + bx 4 + cx 3 + dx 2 + ex + f = 0 .
(ii) Prove your conjectures.
T
Note
For question 6, you should try the algebra by hand, thinking about keeping
good presentation habits for long algebraic expansions. You may want to check
any long expansions using CAS (computer algebra software). You then might
also like to consider whether a ‘proof’ is still valid if it relies on a computer
system to prove it – look up the history of The Four Colour Theorem to explore
this idea further.
Prior Knowledge
You need to know 4 Solving polynomial equations
how to use the factor
theorem to solve
with complex roots
polynomial equations,
covered in AQA A-Level When solving polynomial equations with real coefficients, it is important to
Mathematics Year 1 (AS), remember that any complex roots occur in conjugate pairs.
Chapter 7. This says
When there is a possibility of complex roots, it is common to express the
that x – a divides into a
polynomial f(x) exactly if polynomial in terms of z.
and only if f(a) = 0.
Example 3.7
The equation z 3 + 7z 2 + 17z + 15 = 0 has at least one integer root.
(i) Factorise f ( z ) = z 3 + 7z 2 + 17z + 15.
(ii) Solve z 3 + 7z 2 + 17z + 15 = 0 .
(iii) Sketch the graph of y = x 3 + 7x 2 + 17x + 15.
65

Solving polynomial equations with complex roots
Solution If there is an
integer root, it must
(i) f (1) = 1 + 7 × 1 + 17 × 1 + 15 = 40
3 2
be a factor of 15. So
try z = ±1, ±3, etc.
f (−1) = (−1)3 + 7 × (−1)2 + 17 × (−1) + 15 = 4
f (3) = 33 + 7 × 32 + 17 × 3 + 15 = 156 f(–3) = 0 so

using the factor
f (−3) = (−3)3 + 7 × (−3)2 + 17 × (−3) + 15 = 0 theorem, (z + 3)
is a factor.
So one root is z = −3, and (z + 3) is a factor of f (z ).
Using algebraic division or by inspection, f ( z ) can be written in the form:
f ( z ) = ( z + 3) ( z 2 + 4 z + 5) Check this for yourself

using the
Now solve the quadratic equation z 2 + 4 z + 5 = 0 : quadratic
formula.
−4 ± 4 2 − (4 × 1 × 5) −4 ± −4
z= = = −4 ± 2i = −2 ± i
2 2 2
So, fully factorised f ( z ) = ( z + 3) ( z − ( −2 + i ))( z − ( −2 − i ))
(ii) The roots are z = −3, z = −2 ± i Note that
(iii) Figure 3.7 shows the graph of the curve y = f ( x ). there is one
conjugate pair
y of complex
roots and one
15
real root.
10
-4 -2 O 2 x
-5 You can see that the graph
crosses the x-axis just once.
Figure 3.7
Example 3.8 Given that z = 1 + 2i is a root of 4 z 3 – 11z 2 + 26z – 15 = 0 , find the

other roots.
Solution
As complex roots occur in conjugate pairs, the conjugate z = 1 – 2i is also a
root.
The next step is to find a quadratic equation az 2 + bz + c = 0 with roots
1 + 2i and 1 – 2i.
− b = (1 + 2i) + (1 − 2i) = 2
a
c = (1 + 2i)(1 − 2i) = 1 + 4 = 5
a
Taking a = 1 gives b = −2 and c = 5
66

3
So the quadratic equation is z 2 − 2z + 5 = 0
4 z 3 – 11z 2 + 26z – 15 = ( z 2 – 2z + 5)(4 z – 3)
The other roots are z = 1 – 2i and z = 3 .
4

Example 3.9
(i) Solve z 4 − 3z 2 − 4 = 0 .
(ii) Sketch the curve y = x 4 − 3x 2 − 4 .
(iii) Show the roots of z 4 − 3z 2 − 4 = 0 on an Argand diagram.
Solution
(i) z 2 − 3z −2 4 = 0
4 2
4 2
z − 3z − 4
( z − 4)( z + 1) = 0 is a quadratic
( z − 2)( z + 2)( z + i)( z − i) = 0 in z² and can
be factorised.
The solution is z = 2, –2, i –i.
(ii) y
-2 O 2 x
-4
Figure 3.8
(iii) Im
−2 O 2 Re
−i
Figure 3.9
Exercise 3.4
① 4 − 5i is one root of a quadratic equation with real coefficients.
Write down the second root of the equation and hence find the
equation.
② Verify that 2 + i is a root of z 3 – z 2 – 7z + 15 = 0 , and find the other roots.

③ At least one root of z 3 – 15z 2 + 76z – 140 = 0 is an integer.
Solve the equation and show all three roots on an Argand diagram.
④ The equation z 3 − 2z 2 − 6z + 27 = 0 has a real integer root in the
range −6 ≤ z ≤ 0.
(i) Find the real root of the equation.
(ii) Hence solve the equation and find the exact value of all three roots.
67

⑤ Given that 4 is a root of the equation z 3 − z 2 − 3z − k = 0, find the value

of k and hence find the exact value of the other two roots of the equation.
⑥ Given that 1 – i is a root of z 3 + pz 2 + qz + 12 = 0 , find the real numbers
p and q, and state the other roots.
⑦ The three roots of a cubic equation are shown on the Argand diagram in
Figure 3.10.
Im
2
z2 √2
1
z1
−1 O 1 2 Re
−1
z3 −√2
−2
Figure 3.10
Find the equation in polynomial form.
⑧ One root of z 4 – 10z 3 + 42z 2 – 82z + 65 = 0 is 3 + 2i.

Solve the equation and show the four roots on an Argand diagram.
⑨ You are given the complex number w = 1 – i.
(i) Express w2, w3 and w4 in the form a + bi .
(ii) Given that w 4 + 3w 3 + pw 2 + qw + 8 = 0 , where p and q are real

numbers, find the values of p and q.
(iii) Hence find all four roots of the equation z 4 + 3z 3 + pz 2 + qz + 8 = 0 ,
where p and q are the real numbers found in part (ii).
⑩ (i) Solve the equation z 4 − 81 = 0
(ii) Hence show the four fourth roots of 81 on an Argand diagram.
⑪ (i) Given that α = –1 + 2i, express α2 and α3 in the form a + bi .

Hence show that α is a root of the cubic equation
z 3 + 7z 2 + 15z + 25 = 0
(ii) Find the other two roots of this cubic equation.
(iii) Illustrate the three roots of the cubic equation on an Argand

diagram.
⑫ For each of these statements about polynomial equations with real
coefficients, say whether the statement is true or false, and give an
explanation.
(A) A cubic equation can have three complex roots.
(B) Some equations of degree 6 have no real roots.
(C) A cubic equation can have a single root repeated three times.
(D) A quartic equation can have a repeated complex root.
68

⑬ Given that z = –2 + i is a root of the equation
z 4 + az 3 + bz 2 + 10z + 25 = 0, find the values of a and b, and solve the
equation. 3
⑭ The equation z 4 – 8z 3 + 20z 2 – 72z + 99 = 0 has a purely imaginary
root.

Solve the equation.
⑮ In this question, α is the complex number –1 + 3i.
(i) Find α2 and α3.
It is given that λ and μ are real numbers such that

λα 3 + 8α 2 + 34α + µ = 0
(ii) Show that λ = 3, and find the value of μ.
(iii) Solve the equation λ z 3 + 8z 2 + 34 z + µ = 0, where λ and μ are as in
part (ii).
(iv) Illustrate the three roots on an Argand diagram.
⑯ Three of the roots of the quintic equation z 5 + bz 4 + cz 3 + dz 2 + ez + f = 0

are 3, –4i and 3 – i.
Find the values of the coefficients of the equation.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
➤ know the relationships between the roots and coefficients of quadratic, cubic
and quartic equations
➤ form new equations whose roots are related to the roots of a given equation
by a linear transformation
➤ understand that complex roots of polynomial equations with real coefficients
occur in conjugate pairs
➤ solve cubic and quartic equations with complex roots.
KEY POINTS
2
1 If α and β are the roots of the quadratic equation az + bz + c = 0, then
b
α + β = − and αβ = c .
a a
3 2
2 If α, β and γ are the roots of the cubic equation az + bz + cz + d = 0, then
b
∑ α = α + β + γ = − ,
a
c
∑ αβ = αβ + βγ + γα = and,
a
d
αβγ = − .
a
69

3 If α, β, γ and δ are the roots of the quartic equation

4 3 2
az + bz + cz + dz + e = 0, then
b
∑α = α + β + γ + δ = − ,
a
c
∑ αβ = αβ + αγ + αδ + βγ + βδ + γδ = ,
a
d
∑ αβγ = αβγ + βγδ + γδα + δαβ = − and
a
e
αβγδ = .
a
4 All of these formulae may be summarised using the shorthand sigma

notation for elementary symmetric functions as follows:
b
∑ α = −
a
c
∑ αβ =
a
d
∑ αβγ = −
a
e
∑ αβγδ = a
(using the convention that polynomials of degree n are labelled
+ … = 0 and have roots α, β, γ,...).
n n −1
az + bz
5 A polynomial equation of degree n has n roots, taking into account complex
roots and repeated roots. In the case of polynomial equations with real
coefficients, complex roots always occur in conjugate pairs.
70

4 Conics
The curve of life is

like the parabola of Discussion point
a projectile which, ➜ Describe the shape of the path of the planets round the sun.
disturbed from its initial
state of rest, rises and
then returns to a state of 1 The conics and their graphs
repose.
Carl Jung
ACTIVITY 4.1
Take a point A, and a line not through A.
Another point B moves so that it is always the same distance from A as it is from the line.
In Figure 4.2, the point C is the foot of the perpendicular from B to the line.
B
A A
AB = BC
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 C
Describe the set of possible positions for point B.
71

The conics and their graphs
Figure 4.3 shows a sketch of the locus of point B in Activity 4.1.

Note: ‘Locus’
means ‘path’.
Locus of B
A
The plural of
locus is loci.
Figure 4.3
This looks very much like a quadratic curve.
You can confirm this with coordinate geometry.
Say A is the point (0, 1) and the line is the x-axis.
AB = BC
⇒ AB2 = BC2
⇒ x2 + (y − 1)2 = y2
⇒ x2 + 1 = 2y
B
A (x, y)
(0, 1)
C
(x, 0)
Figure 4.4
This is of the form y = ax2 + bx + c, and so is a quadratic curve. This curve is

called a parabola.
Suppose you now change your starting situation and say that AB is e times the
distance BC, where e is a non-negative number.
B
A
AB = eBC
C
Figure 4.5
AB = eBC
Discussion point
⇒ AB2 = e2BC2
➜ What is the locus of
x2 + (y − 1)2 = e2y2
B now?
⇒ x2 + y2 (1 − e2) −2y + 1 = 0
When e is 1, the point B traces out a parabola as you expect.
y
Figure 4.6
72

What if you reduce the value of e to 0.9?
y
This time the point B traces out an ellipse (Figure 4.7).
y
4
Chapter 4 Conics
A
Figure 4.7 Figure 4.8 Figure 4.9
What if you increased e to 1.1?

The point B traces out a graph in two parts called a hyperbola (Figure 4.8).
What happens when e gets closer and closer to 0?
The ellipse gets closer and closer to being a circle (Figure 4.9).
Cutting a double cone

Now imagine a double cone like the one in Figure 4.10.
If you allow yourself one plane cut across the cone, and then look at the
cross section, what curves can you make?
How about a horizontal cut (Figure 4.11)? Clearly this will give you a circle.
This gives you

an ellipse … a parabola … a hyperbola …
Figure 4.12
73

Figure 4.12 shows the same set of curves you saw earlier when looking at loci.
These curves (for obvious reasons) are called the conics.
They each have a standard form for their equation.
a
O x
The circle is x2 + y2 = a2.
Figure 4.13
a
–a O x
–b 2
The ellipse is x2 + y = .
1
a2 b2
Figure 4.14
The intercepts are easily found by putting x = 0 and then y = 0.

Notice that if a = b you get the standard equation for a circle.
–a
O a x 2
The hyperbola’s standard form is x 2 − y = 1.
a2 b2
Figure 4.15
Notice that the hyperbola is the only conic with a pair of asymptotes,
y = ba x, y = − ba x .You can find these by recognising that when x and y are
large, the 1 in the equation of the hyperbola becomes insignificant. The curve
y2
( )( ) y
2
becomes x2 − 2 ≈ 0 , or x − y x + y ≈ 0 and so x − ≈ 0 or
a b a b a b a b
x + y ≈ 0, which rearrange into the asymptote equations above.
a b
74

y
y = − ba x y = ba x
4
O x
Chapter 4 Conics
Figure 4.16
There is also a special case for the hyperbola – when the asymptotes are at right
angles. In this case, you can rotate the curve so that the asymptotes are the x- and
y-axes, and the equation of the curve becomes xy = c 2.
y
O x
Figure 4.17
This curve is called a rectangular hyperbola (since its asymptotes are at right
angles). Notice that this time there are no intercepts with the axes.
y
O x
The parabola also has a standard form: y2 = 4ax.
Figure 4.18
Note that here the axis of symmetry is the x-axis, and the origin lies on the
curve.You may wonder if a parabola has any asymptotes, but it does not.
Example 4.1 The point A is (1, 1), the line L is x = 3 and a point P moves so that its distance
from A is twice its distance from L. What is the equation of the locus of P?
Solution
Let P be the point (x, y).
y
4 L
P(x, y)
D(3, y)
2
A(1, 1)
O x
Figure 4.19
75

AP2 = (x − 1)2 + (y − 1)2

DP2 = (3 − x)2
AP = 2AD ⇒ AP2 = 4AD2
⇒ (x − 1)2 + (y − 1)2 = 4(3 − x)2
⇒ x2 − 2x + 1 + y 2 − 2y + 1 = 36 − 24x + 4x2
⇒ 3x2 − y2 − 22 x + 2y + 34 = 0
y
P(x, y)
2
L
A
O 2 4 6 x
Figure 4.20
Example 4.2 If F is the point (6, 0) and L is the line x = 4, what is the locus of A if the
distance AF is equal to the distance of A from L? Give your equation in
Cartesian form and sketch it.
Solution y
L
Let A be (x, y). 4
D(4, y) A(x, y)
AF2 = (x − 6)2 + y2 2
AD2 = (x − 4)2 O F(6, 0) 10 x

AF = AD ⇒ AF = AD 2 2 −2
⇒ (x − 6)2 + y 2 = (x − 4)2 Figure 4.21

⇒ x2 − 12x + 36 + y 2 = x 2 − 8x + 16
⇒ y2 = 4 x − 20
This is a parabola.
Conics and transformations

These curves can be transformed in various ways that you should be familiar
with from AS Maths. Here is a reminder.
Discussion point Starting with the curve y = f(x):
➜ Explain why this is 1 y = f(x) + a represents a translation of the curve by a in the y-direction
equivalent to the
statements in 1 2 y = f(x + a) represents a translation of the curve by –a in the x-direction.
and 2. Alternatively, replacing x by (x – a) represents a translation of the curve by
a in the x-direction, and replacing y by (y – a) represents a translation of the
curve by a in the y-direction.
76

y = af(x) represents a stretch of the curve by a scale factor a in the y-direction.
3
Discussion point
➜ Explain why this is y = f(ax) represents a stretch of the curve by a scale factor 1a in the x-direction.
4 4
equivalent to the
statements in 3 Alternatively, replacing x by xa represents a stretch of the curve by a scale
and 4. y
factor a in the x-direction, and replacing y by a represents a stretch of the
Chapter 4 Conics
curve by a scale factor a in the y-direction.
5 y = −f(x) is a reflection of the curve in the x-axis.
6 y = f(−x) is a reflection of the curve in the y-axis.
A reflection is equivalent to a stretch of scale factor –1, so a reflection
in the x-axis is a stretch of scale factor –1 in the y-direction, and a
reflection in the y-axis is a stretch of scale factor –1 in the x-direction.
7 x = f(y) is a reflection in the line y = x.
8 x = –f(–y) is a reflection in the line y = –x.
Example 4.3 Give the equation of the curve that results from translating the curve y2 = 4x
 3 
through the vector  .
 −4 
Solution
Replace x with (x – 3) and y with (y + 4)
(y + 4)2 = 4(x − 3)
y
4
2
O 10 x
−2
−4
−6
−8
Figure 4.22
Example 4.4 2
The ellipse x + y 2 = 1 is stretched by a scale factor of 2 in the x-direction
4
and by a scale factor of 5 in the y-direction. What is the transformed equation
of the curve?
Solution y
y 4
Replace x by x and y by
2 5 2
( x2 )
2
()
2 O x
y
+ =1 −2
4 5
2 −4
x2 + y = 1
16 25
Figure 4.23
77

Example 4.5 What curve do you get if you reflect xy = 4 in the y-axis?
Solution y
Reflecting in the y-axis is equivalent to 4
a stretch scale factor –1 in the x-direction, xy = –4 xy = 4
2
so replace x by –x.
(–x)y = 4 O x
−2
4
y = – x
−4
Figure 4.24
Exercise 4.1
2
y2
① Write down the equation of an ellipse in the form x2 + 2 = 1 that cuts
a b
the x-axis at 3, and the y-axis at 2.
② The parabola y2 = 4ax passes through the point (3, 4). What is the value
of a?
③ The curve y = x2 + x is reflected in the x-axis and then the y-axis. What is
its equation now?
④ (i) The curve y = x2 + x is reflected in the x-axis. Find the new equation
of the curve.
(ii) The curve y = x2 + x is reflected in the y-axis. Find the new equation of
the curve.
⑤ A hyperbola that has the x- and y-axes as lines of symmetry has the
asymptotes y = 3x and y = −3x. It also passes through the point (1, 1). Find
2
y2
the equation of the hyperbola in the form x2 − 2 = 1 .
a b
⑥ A line L of negative gradient passes through the point (1, 2). It cuts the
x-axis at X and the y-axis at Y. What is the locus of the midpoint M of XY?
Give your answer in Cartesian form.
⑦ Each of the following three curves are an ellipse, a hyperbola or a parabola.
Say which is which, and give the coordinates where the axes are crossed in
each case.
(i) 2x2 + 3y2 = 4
(ii) 2x2 + 3y = 4
(iii) 2x2 = 3y2 + 4
2
⑧ The rectangular hyperbola xy = 2 cuts the hyperbola x − y 2 = 1 in two
9
places. Find the x-coordinates of these points.
 4 
⑨ The parabola y = 3x is translated through the vector  and is then
 −2 
stretched by a scale factor of 5 in the x-direction. What is its equation now?
78

LEARNING OUTCOMES 4
➤ find the locus of a point that obeys a simple rule
Chapter 4 Conics
➤ know what the conic curves are, their shapes and their standard forms
➤ find the intercepts for conic curves from their equations, and the asymptotes
for a hyperbola
➤ transform equations of a conic using translations, stretches and reflections.
KEY POINTS
1 If you cut a double cone with one plane cut, the cross-section can be
a) A circle (standard form x 2 + y 2 = a 2)
2
x2 + y = )
b) An ellipse (standard form 1
a2 b2
c) A parabola (standard form y 2 = 4ax)
2
x2 − y = )
d) A hyperbola (standard form 1.
a2 b2
(A pair of straight lines is also possible.)
2
x 2 + y = 1 are y = ± b x.
2 The asymptotes for the hyperbola
a2 b2 a
3 A conic curve y = f(x) can be transformed in these ways (amongst others):
n y = f(x) + a represents a translation of the curve by a in the y-direction.

n y = f(x + a) represents a translation of the curve by –a in the x-direction.
n y = af(x) represents a stretch of the curve by a scale factor a in the
y-direction.
1
n y = f(ax) represents a stretch of the curve by a scale factor a in the
x-direction.
n y = f(x) is a reflection of the curve in the x-axis.
n y = f(–x) is a reflection of the curve in the y-axis.
n x = f(y) is a reflection of the curve in the line y = x.
n x = –f(–y) is a reflection of the curve in the line y = –x.
79

Practice Questions 1
For questions 1 to 4 you must show non-calculator methods in
your answer.
① (i) The complex number w is given by w = 1+ 2i. On a single Argand
diagram plot the points which represent the four complex numbers
w, w2, w – w* and 1 + 1* . [5 marks]
w w
(ii) Which two of the numbers w, w2, w – w* and
1 + 1 have
w w*
the same imaginary part? [1 mark]
② You are given that one of the roots of the cubic equation
z3 – 9z2 + 28z – 30 = 0 is an integer and that another is 3 + i.
Solve the cubic equation. [5 marks]
2
Sketch the curve x − y = 1.
2
③ (i) [3 marks]
4 9
 1 
The curve is translated through 
(ii)  . Give the equation
of the translated curve.  −2  [2 marks]
④ Ezra is investigating whether the formula for solving quadratic
equations works if the coefficients of the quadratic are not real
numbers. Here is the beginning of his working for one particular
quadratic equation.
(2 + i)z2 + 6z + (2 – i) = 0
z = −b ± b − 4ac
2
2
−6 ± 36 − 4(2 + i)(2 – i)
=
2(2 + i)
= ...

(i) Finish off Ezra’s working. Show that both of the answers
given by this method are of the form λ(2 – i), where λ is real,
stating the value of λ in each case. [4 marks]
(ii) How should Ezra check that his answers are indeed roots
of the equation? [1 mark]
⑤ The cubic equation x + 3x – 6x – 8 = 0 has roots α, β, γ.
3 2
(i) Find a cubic equation with roots α + 1, β + 1, γ + 1. [4 marks]

(ii) Solve the equation you found as your answer to part (i). [3 marks]
(iii) Solve the equation x + 3x – 6x – 8 = 0.
3 2
[2 marks]
 
PS ⑥ (i) What transformation is represented by the matrix B =  0 −1  ?[2 marks]
 1 0 
(ii) By considering transformations, or otherwise, find a
matrix A such that A2 = B. [3 marks]
MP PS ⑦ You are given that the quadratic equation az + bz + c = 0
2
has roots δ and δ + 1.

By considering the sum and product of its roots, or otherwise,
prove that b2 – 4ac = a2. [5 marks]
80

 3 4 
⑧ The matrix R is given by R = 
−
 5 5 
4 3 
. The transformation 4
 5 5 
corresponding to R is denoted R. The unit square OIPJ has coordinates
O(0, 0), I(1, 0), P(1, 1), J(0, 1).
Chapter 4Questions
Practice
(i) Plot, on the same diagram, the unit square and its image
O’I’P’J under R. [2 marks]
(ii) Find the equation of the line of invariant points for R. [3 marks]
Conics 1
(iii) Verify that the line which is perpendicular to this line of
invariant points, and which passes through the origin, is
an invariant line. [3 marks]
(iv) Mark on your diagram in part (i) two points on the unit
square which are invariant under R. [2 marks]
81

5 Hyperbolic functions
As is well-known,
Physics became a Discussion point
science only after the ➜ How would you describe the curved shape in this suspension bridge?
invention of differential
calculus.
Riemann 1 The hyperbolic functions
y
The curved shape formed by the
6
wires holding up a suspension
bridge (as in the photo above) 5
is a catenary. A catenary is also
formed when a chain is hung 4
between two posts.
3
Figure 5.1 shows the same curve
drawn with a different horizontal 2
scale. If you think it looks like
a quadratic, you are in good 1
company. Galileo made the same

observation but on investigation −4 −3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 4 x
found that it was close to, but not
exactly the same as, a quadratic Figure 5.1
82
curve.

Note ex + e− x
The equation of this curve in its simplest form is actually y =
5
2 and this
The sinh function is function is called y = cosh x .
pronounced in many −x
e −e
x
different ways by A closely related curve is y = sinh x . Its equation is y = 2 .
different people, but
Chapter 5 Hyperbolic functions

most commonly as
‘shine’, or ‘sine-aitch’, or
‘cinch’ (with a soft ‘c’).
Hyperbolic functions and circular functions
Example 5.1
Simplify cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x.
Discussion point Solution

➜ Compare the result −x −x 2 2
cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x =  e + e  −  e − e 
x x
in Example 5.1 to
a similar result  2   2 
involving the more −2 x −2 x
= e +2+e − e −2+e
2x 2x
familiar functions of 4 4
sine and cosine. −2 x −2 x
= e +2+e −e +2−e
2x 2x
4
= 4
4
=1
You will have worked with the circular functions (often referred to as the
trigonometric functions, because of their uses in measuring triangles)
throughout your A-Level Mathematics studies. They are properly called the
circular functions because they describe the coordinates of a point moving in
a circle – they parameterise the circle, since
x = cos θ and y = sin θ
give the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1.

y
Note 1
(cos θ, sin θ)
This is, of course,
where the identity 1
cos 2 x + sin 2 x ≡ 1 sin θ
comes from.
cos θ 1 x
Figure 5.2
If you use parametric equations x = cosh t, y = sinh t , you get one branch
of the rectangular hyperbola x 2 − y 2 = 1, rather than a circle. For this reason
then sinh and cosh functions and other related functions are known as the
hyperbolic functions.
83

The hyperbolic functions
(cosh t, sinh t)
Discussion point
Figure 5.3
➜ Why do the
parametric equations
x = cosh t, y = sinh t
only give one of the Graphs and properties
branches of the
hyperbola? Which The hyperbolic functions have similar properties to the circular functions, but
branch do they give? their graphs are not periodic.
y
6
e –x ex
5
cosh x
4
−4 −3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 4 x
Figure 5.4
Note
1 x
• Since cosh x = (e + e − x ) the graph of y = cosh x lies midway between
2
−x
the graphs of y = e and y = e .
x
• Notice that the function has a minimum point at (0, 1).
84

y
2
ex
sinh x
5
1

−3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 x
−1
−2
–e –x
Figure 5.5
Note
• Similarly, the graph of y = sinh x lies midway between the graphs of y = ex
and y = −e − x .
• It passes through the origin.
The similarities with the circular functions are more obvious when it comes to
identities relating sinh x and cosh x. The comparison with the circular functions
also motivates a definition of the ratio of sinh x to cosh x, to give an equivalent
to the circular tan θ function: tanh x.
−x
tanh x = sinh x = e x − e − x
x
cosh x e +e
Pronunciations
vary, but usually, or (by dividing top and bottom by ex)
‘tanch’ or ‘tan- −2 x
aitch’ or ‘than’ tanh x = sinh x = 1 − e −2 x
– with a soft ‘th’ cosh x 1 + e .
as in ‘thistle’, not
‘this’. This helps to visualise the function, since you can see that y → 1 as x → ∞
and y → –1 as x → – ∞.
1 y = tanh x
–2 O 2 x
–1
Figure 5.6
85

Example 5.2
Solve the equation:
cosh x = 2 sinh x − 1.
Solution
It is often easiest to convert the hyperbolic functions into their definitions in
x
terms of e .
cosh x = 2 sinh x − 1
ex + e− x = ex − e− x − 1
2
0 = e x − 3e − x − 2
Multiply by ex, to
(e ) − 3 − 2e = 0
x 2 x
get a quadratic
in ex.
(e ) − 2e − 3 = 0
x 2 x
(e − 3)(e + 1) = 0
x x
Since ex can’t be
e = 3
x negative.
x = ln 3
Inverse hyperbolic functions

Example 5.3
Solve the equation sinh x = 2.
Solution
sinh x = 2
e − e− x
x
= 2
2
ex − e− x = 4
e 2 x − 1 = 4e x Multiply through by ex.
e 2 x − 4e x − 1 = 0 This is a quadratic in ex.
ex = 4 ± 20 Using the quadratic formula.

2
= 2± 5
x = ln(2 ± 5) 2 − 5 is negative so ln(2 − 5)

is not real.
The solution of the equation is x = ln(2 + 5).
The inverse function of the sinh function is denoted by arsinh, or sometimes

sinh-1.
So Example 5.3 shows that arsinh 2 = ln(2 + 5).
86

Figure 5.7 shows the curves y = sinh x and y = arsinh x.
y y = sinh x
y=x y y = artanh x 5
3 3 y=x
2 2

y = arsinh x
1 1 y = tanh x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 x –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 x
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4
(a) (b)
Figure 5.7
As for any function and its inverse, the curves are reflections of each other in
the line y = x.
This allows you to find an expression for arsinh x, using a similar method to
Example 5.3.
yy == arsinh
arsinhxx ⇒ ⇒ xx == sinh
sinhyy
eyy − e−−yy
y − y
x 2 + 1 is
xx == e −2e greater than x,
2
−y so x − x 2 + 1
2x = e −− ee−−yy
2 x = e yyy
is negative. As ey
ee22yy −− 22xxeeyy −− 11 == 00
2y y
cannot be negative
for any real y, the
2x ± 4 x222 + 4
eeyy == 2x ± 42x + 4 == xx ++ xx22 ++ 11 negative square
y 2
2 root is discarded.
yy == ln ( )
ln xx ++ xx222 ++ 11 ..
This result gives an easy method to solve an equation like sinh x = 2.

sinh x = 2 ⇒ x = arsinh 2 = ln 2 + ( )
2 2 + 1 = ln(2 + 5).
You can find the inverse of the tanh function in a similar way.
y = artanh x ⇒ x = tanh y
x = e2y − 1
2y
e +1
xe + x = e 2 y − 1
2y
e 2 y (1 − x ) = 1 + x
e2y = 1 + x
1− x
( )
2y = ln 1 + x
1− x
2( )
y = 1 ln 1 + x
1− x
So artanh x = 2 ln ( 1 − x ).
1 1+ x
87

Example 5.4 Solve the equation cosh x = 2.
Solution
cosh x = 2
e x + e−x = 2
2
e + e−x = 4
x
e 2 x + 1 = 4e x Multiply through by ex.
e 2 x − 4e x + 1 = 0
This is a quadratic in ex.
e x = 4 ± 12 Using the quadratic formula.

2
= 2± 3
x = ln(2 ± 3) 2 − 3 is positive so the

equation has two real roots.
The two roots of the equation are shown on the graph below.
y
y = cosh x
ln(2 – √3) ln(2 + √3) x
Figure 5.8
You can see from the symmetry of the graph that one of the roots is the negative
of the other.
It is probably not immediately obvious to you that ln(2 − 3) is the negative
of ln(2 + 3). However, it is quite easy to prove that this is the case by adding
them together.
ln(2 + 3) + ln(2 − (
3) = ln (2 + 3)(2 − 3) )
= ln ( 4 − 3)
= ln1
=0
Since ln(2 + 3) + ln(2 − 3) = 0 , ln(2 − 3) = − ln(2 + 3) .
Example 5.4 shows that the equation cosh x = k has two real roots if k > 1.
The inverse of the cosh function is denoted by arcosh (or sometimes cosh–1).
The derivation of arcosh x is shown below.
88

yy =y= = arcosh
arcosh
arcosh xx x
xx x== = yy y
cosh
cosh
cosh
−y
5
22xx2x== = eeyyye++ e+e−−yyey
y

(eeyy(ye)2y2 )−− 2−2xx2eexyyye++y 1+1 =1= =00 0
2 2
( )

2x ± 4222x 2 − 4
eeyye== =22xx ±± 244xx2 −− 44
y y
2
= x ± 222x 2 − 1
== xx ±± xx −− 11
y
y= =ln
yy = ((
lnlnxx +x+ + xx 2x−− 1−
22 2
1 1or
oror
ln)) ((
lnlnxx −x− − xx 2x−− 1−
22
11
2
))
y = cosh x
As in Example 5.4, the second root is the
negative of the first (as you can see in Figure 5.9
showing the y = cosh x curve). y1
Since arcosh x > 0 by definition, the positive
root is the required one.
Therefore: –x1 O x1 x
arcosh x = ln x + ( )
x2 − 1 . Figure 5.9
ACTIVITY 5.1
Use the definition arcosh x = ln x + (
x 2 − 1 to find arcosh 2. )
How is this related to solving the equation cosh x = 2?
It is important to understand that there is a difference between solving the

equation cosh x = k, and finding arcosh k. Compare this with solving an equation
like sin x = 0.5. When you use the inverse sine button on your calculator, it gives
you just one answer – the principal value.You then need to work out any other
roots in the required range. Similarly, if you use the square root button on your
calculator to solve the equation x2 = 2, you get the positive square root only, but
the full solution of the equation is x = ± 2 .
Exercise 5.1
① Using the definitions of the hyperbolic functions, prove that
sinh 2x = 2 cosh x sinh x .
② Given that sinh x = 2, find the exact values of cosh x and tanh x .
③ (i) Rewrite the equation
cosh x + 2 sinh x = −1
in terms of ex, showing that it simplifies to:
3e x − e − x + 2 = 0 .
(ii) Multiply by ex to create a quadratic in ex.
(iii) Solve the quadratic equation to show that the only real root of this
equation is x = − ln 3.
④ Find the exact value of each of the following, giving your answers as logarithms:
(i) arcosh3 (ii) arsinh1 (iii) artanh 0.5
(iv) arsinh (−2) (v)
5
arcosh (vi) artanh −
4
2
3 ( )
89

⑤ Solve the following equations:

(i) sinh x = 3 (ii) cosh x = 3 (iii) tanh x = 0.2
⑥ Find all the real roots of each of the following equations:
(i) 10 cosh x − 2 sinh x = 11
(ii) cosh x − 5 sinh x = 5
(iii) 7 cosh x + 4 sinh x = 3
⑦ Given that
sinh x + sinh y = 25
12
cosh x − cosh y = 5
12
show that
2e x = 5 + 2e − y
and
3e − x = −5 + 3e − y
Hence find the real values of x and y.
⑧ The diagram represents a cable hanging between two points A and B, where
AB is horizontal. The lowest point of the cable, O, is taken as the origin of
the coordinate system.
y
B A
O x
Figure 5.10
If the cable is flexible and has uniform density then the curve formed is a
catenary with equation:
( () )
y = c cosh x − 1
c
where c is a constant.
For a particular cable c = 20 m and AB = 16 m. Find the sag of the cable, i.e.
the distance of O below AB.
⑨ (i) Using the definition of cosh x in terms of the exponential function,
prove
1
cosh 2 x = (cosh 2x + 1)
2
(ii) Deduce that sinh 2 x =
1 (cosh 2x − 1).
2
⑩ Show that if arsinh x and arcosh x are both defined then
arsinh x > arcosh x.
Write (e arsinh x
– earcosh x)2 in terms of x, and hence show that as x tends to ∞,
arcsinh x tends to x.
90

⑪ Solve exactly the equation arsinh x = arcosh 2x.
⑫ Solve the equation sinh2x − 4cosh x = −5. 5
⑬ (i) Sketch the curve y = cosh x and the line y = x on the same axes. Prove
that cosh x > x for all x

(ii) Prove that the point on the curve y = cosh x which is closest to the line
( ( ) )
y = x has coordinates ln 1 + 2 , 2 and mark this point on your
graph.
⑭ Find conditions on a, b and c which are necessary and sufficient to ensure
that the equation a cosh x + b sinh x = c has:
(i) two distinct real roots
(ii) exactly one real root
(iii) no real roots.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
➤ know the definitions of the hyperbolic functions and their domains and
ranges, and be able to sketch their graphs
➤ understand and use the identity cosh x − sinh x ≡ 1
2 2
➤ understand and use the definitions of the inverse hyperbolic functions and
know their domains and ranges
➤ derive and use the logarithmic forms of the inverse hyperbolic functions.
KEY POINTS
ex + e− x
1 cosh x =
2
y
y = cosh x
Figure 5.11
91

−x
tanh x = e x − e − x = e 2 x − 1
−x x 2x
sinh x = e − e
x
2 e +e e +1
y y
1 y = tanh x
y = sinh x
x
x −1
Figure 5.13
Figure 5.12
2 cosh x − sinh x ≡ 1 .
2 2
(
arcosh x = ln x + x2 − 1 )
(
3 arcosh x = ln x + x2 − 1 ) arsinh x = ln ( x + x2 + 1)
arsinh x = ln ( x + x2 + 1) (
artanh x = 1 ln 1 + x
2 1− x )
( )
y y y = arcsinh x
2 1− x
y = arcosh x
1 x
(
arcosh x = ln x +Figure
x 2 −5.15
1 )
Figure 5.14 arsinh x = ln ( x + x2 + 1)
2 1− x ( )
y
y = arctanh x
−1 1 x
Figure 5.16
92

6 Sequences and series
Great things are not

done by impulse, but by
a series of small things
brought together.
Vincent Van Gogh, 1882
Figure 6.1
Discussion point
➜ How would you describe the sequence of pictures of the moon shown in
Figure 6.1?
93

Sequences and series
Discussion point 1 Sequences and series

➜ How would you
describe this A sequence is an ordered (that could be infinite) set of objects with an
sequence? underlying rule.
For example:
2, 5, 8, 11, 14.
A series is the sum of the terms of a numerical sequence:
2 + 5 + 8 + 11 + 14.
Notation
There are a number of different notations which are commonly used in writing
down sequences and series:
n The terms of a sequence are often written as a1, a2, a3, … or u1, u2, u3, …
n The general term of a sequence may be written as ar or ur.
(Sometimes the letters k or i are used instead of r .)
n The last term is usually written as an or un.
n The sum Sn of the first n terms of a sequence can be written using the
symbol ∑ (the Greek capital S, sigma).
n
Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + … + an = ∑a r
r =1
The numbers above and below the ∑ say where the sequence starts and
stops. They show that the sum includes all the ar from a1 to an. The limits
may be omitted if they are obvious, so that you would just write ∑ar or you
might write ∑ a
r r
(meaning the sum of ar for all values of r).
When discussing sequences you may find the following vocabulary helpful:
n In an increasing sequence, each term is greater than the previous term.
n In a decreasing sequence, each term is smaller than the previous term.
n In an oscillating sequence, the terms lie above and below a middle number.
n The terms of a convergent sequence get closer and closer to a limiting value.
Defining sequences
One way to define a sequence is by thinking about the relationship between one
term and the next.
The sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, … can be written as
u1 = 2 You need to say where the sequence starts.
ur +1 = ur + 3. You find each term by adding 3 to the previous term.
This is called an inductive definition or term-to-term definition.
94

An alternative way to define a sequence is to describe the relationship between
the term and its position.
In this case,
6
ur = 3r − 1.
Chapter 6 Sequences and series

You can see that, for example, substituting r = 2 into this definition gives
u2 = (3 × 2) − 1 = 5 , which is the second term of the sequence.
This is called a deductive definition or position-to-term definition.
The series of positive integers

One of the simplest of all sequences is the sequence of the integers:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ...
As simple as it is, it may not be immediately obvious how to calculate the sum
of the first few integers, for example the sum of the first 100 integers.
100
∑ r = 1 + 2 + … + 100.
r =1
One way of reaching a total is illustrated below.
S100 = 1 + 2 + 3 + … + 98 + 99 + 100.
Call the sum S100
Rewrite S100 in reverse:
S100 = 100 + 99 + 98 + … + 3 + 2 + 1.
Adding these two lines together, by matching up each term with the one below it,
produces pairings of 101 each time, while giving you 2S100 on the left-hand side.
S100 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + 98 + 99 + 100
S100 = 100 + 99 + 98 + ... + 3 + 2 + 1
.
2S100 = 101 + 101 + 101 + ... + 101 + 101 + 101
There are 100 terms on the right-hand side (since you were originally adding
100 terms together), so simplify the right-hand side:
2S100 = 100 × 101
and solve for S100:
2S100 = 10100
S100 = 5050.
The sum of the first 100 integers is 5050.
You can use this method to find a general result for the sum of the first n
integers (call this Sn).
Sn = 1 + 2 + 3 + … + (n − 2 ) + (n − 1) + n
Sn = n + (n − 1) + (n − 2 ) + … + 3 + 2 + 1
TECHNOLOGY 2Sn = (n + 1) + (n + 1) + (n + 1) + … + (n + 1) + (n + 1) + (n + 1)
You could use a 2Sn = n (n + 1)
spreadsheet to verify
this result for different Sn = 1 n (n + 1) .
values of n. 2
This result is an important one and you will often need to use it.
95

Note
A common confusion occurs with the sigma notation when there is no r term
present.
For example,
5
∑3 This means ‘The sum of 3, with r changing from 1 to 5’.

r =1
means
3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 15
since there are five terms in the sum (it’s just that there is no r term to change
anything each time).
In general:
n
∑1 = 1 + 1 + … + 1 + 1
r =1
with n repetitions of the number 1.

So,
n
∑1 = n.
r =1
This apparently obvious result is important and you will often need to use it.
n n
You can use the results ∑r = 1 n (n + 1) and ∑1 = n to find the sum of other
2
series. r =1 r =1
Example 6.1 For the series 2 + 5 + 8 + ... + 500:

(i) Find a formula for the rth term, ur.
(ii) How many terms are in this series?
(iii) Find the sum of the series using the reverse/add method.
(iv) Express the sum using sigma notation, and use this to confirm your
answer to part (iii).
Solution
(i) The terms increase by 3 each time and start at 2. So ur = 3r − 1.
(ii) Let the number of terms be n. The last term (the nth term) is 500.
un = 3n – 1
3n – 1 = 500
3n = 501
n = 167
There are 167 terms in this series.
(iii) S = 2 + 5 + … + 497 + 500
S = 500 + 497 + … + 5 + 2
2S = 167 × 502
S = 41 917
96

Note S = 3 × 1 × 167 × 168 − 167
n
∑ (3r − 1)
2
S = 41917
Using the results
n
∑r
r =1
= 1 n (n + 1)
2 6
= ∑ 3r − ∑ 1 and ∑1 = n
r =1
= 3∑ r − ∑ 1

Example 6.2 Calculate the sum of the integers from 100 to 200 inclusive.
Solution
200 200 99 Start with all the integers from 1 to 200,
∑ r = ∑r − ∑r and subtract the integers from 1 to 99,
leaving those from 100 to 200.
r =100 1 1
= 1 × 200 × 201 − 1 × 99 × 100

2 2
= 20100 − 4950
= 15150
Exercise 6.1
① For each of the following definitions, write down the first five terms of the
sequence and describe the sequence.
(i) ur = 5r + 1
(ii) v r = 3 − 6r
(iii) pr = 2 r + 2
(iv) qr = 10 + 2 × ( −1)r
(v) ar + 1 = 2ar + 1, a1 = 2
(vi)ur = 5
r
② For the sequence 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, …
(i) write down the next four terms of the sequence
(ii) write down an inductive rule for the sequence, in the form
u1 = …, ur +1 = …
(iii) write down a deductive rule for the general term of the sequence, in
the form ur = …
③ For each of the following sequences.
(a) write down the next four terms of the sequence
(b) write down an inductive rule for the sequence
(c) write down a deductive rule for the general term of the sequence
(d) find the 20th term of the sequence.
(i) 10, 8, 6, 4, 2, …
(ii) 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, …
(iii) 50, 250, 1250, 6250, …
97

5
④ Find the sum of the series ∑u
1
r
for each of the following:
(i) ur = 2 + r
(ii) ur = 3 – 11r
(iii) ur = 3r
(iv) ur = 7.5 × (–1)r

m 5
⑤ Given that ∑1 = ∑r 2
, find the value of m.
1 1
⑥ Pick a whole number value for k between 4 and 10.
k k
Work out ∑ r , and square it. Now work out ∑ r . What do you notice?
3
1 1
Does this always work? Use a spreadsheet to investigate.
⑦ For S = 50 + 44 + 38 + 32 + … + 14
n
(i) Express S in the form ∑ur
r =1
where n is an integer, and ur is an algebraic expression for the r th term
of the series.
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, calculate the value of S.
30
⑧ Given ur = 6r + 2, calculate ∑u . r
r = 11
⑨ The general term of a sequence is given by ur = (–1)r × 5.
(i) Write down the first six terms of the sequence and describe it.
n
(ii) Find the sum of the series ∑ ur :
r =1
(a) when n is even
(b) when n is odd.
(iii) Find an algebraic expression for the sum to n terms, whatever the value of n.
⑩ A sequence is given by
br + 2 = br + 2, b1 = 0, b2 = 100
(i) Write down the first six terms of the sequence and describe it.
(ii) Find the smallest odd value of r for which br > 200.
(iii) Find the largest even value of r for which br < 200.
⑪ A sawmill receives an order requesting many logs of various specific lengths,

that must come from the same particular tree. The log lengths must start at
5 cm long and increase by 2 cm each time, up to a length of 53 cm.
The saw blade destroys 1 cm (in length) of wood (turning it to sawdust) at
every cut. What is the minimum height of tree required to fulfil this order?
⑫ Find the sum of the integers from n to its square (inclusive). Express your
answer in a fully factorised form.
⑬ Write down the first ten terms of the following sequence:
 3c r + 1 if c r is odd

c r +1 =  c c 1 = 10
 2r if c r is even

You can find out more about this sequence by a web search for the Collatz
conjecture.
Use a spreadsheet to investigate.
98

2 Using standard results
In the previous section you used two important results:
6
n
∑1 = n

r =1
∑r = 1 n (n + 1) . The sum of the integers.

r =1
2
There are similar results for the sum of the first n squares, and the first n cubes.
n
The sum of the squares: ∑r 2

= 1 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) .
6
r =1
n
The sum of the cubes: ∑r 3

= 1 n 2 (n + 1)2.
4
r =1
These are important results.

These results can be used to sum other series, as shown in the following
examples.
Example 6.3
(i) Write out the first three terms of the sequence ur = r 2 + 2r − 1 .
n
(ii) Find ∑u . r
r =1
(iii) Use your answers from part (i) to check that your answer to part (ii)
works for n = 3.
Solution
(i) 2, 7, 14
n n
(ii)
∑ ur = ∑(r 2
+ 2r − 1)
r =1 r =1
n n n
= ∑r 2
+ 2∑ r − ∑1
r =1 r =1 r =1
= 1 n (n + 1)( 2n + 1) + 2 × 1 n (n + 1) − n
6 2
= 1 n [(n + 1)( 2n + 1) + 6 (n + 1) − 6]
6
= 1 n ( 2n 2 + 3n + 1 + 6n + 6 − 6)
6
= 1 n ( 2n 2 + 9n + 1)
6

99

Using standard results
(iii) n = 3
1 n 2n 2 + 9n + 1 = 1 × 3 × 18 + 27 + 1
6 ( ) 6 ( )
= 1 × 46 It is a good idea to
2 check your results like
= 23 this, if you can.
2 + 7 + 14 = 23
Example 6.4 (i) Write the sum of this series using ∑ notation.
(1 × 3) + (2 × 4) + (3 × 5) + … + n (n + 2)
(ii) Hence find an expression for the sum in terms of n.
Solution
n
(i) ∑ r (r + 2)
r =1
n n
(ii) ∑ r (r + 2) = ∑(r 2
+ 2r )
r =1 r =1
n n
= ∑ r 2 + 2∑ r
r =1 r =1
= 61 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) + 2 × 21 n(n + 1)
= 61 n(n + 1)[2n + 1 + 6]
= 61 n(n + 1)(2n + 7)
Exercise 6.2
① (i) Write out the first three terms of the sequence ur = 2r − 1.
n
(ii) Find an expression for ∑ (2r − 1).
r =1
(iii)
Use part (i) to check part (ii).
② (i) Write out the first three terms of the sequence ur = r ( 3r + 1).
n
(ii) Find an expression for ∑ r (3r + 1).
r =1
(iii) Use part (i) to check part (ii).
③ (i) Write out the first three terms of the sequence ur = (r + 1) r 2 .
n
(ii) Find an expression for ∑ (r + 1) r 2
.
r =1
(iii) Use part (i) to check part (ii).

a b c
④ Given ∑r = ∑r 2
+6= ∑ r , find a, b and c.
3
1 1 1
100

n
∑(4r 3
− 6r 2 + 4r − 1).
6
⑤ Find
r =1
n
⑥ Find a formula for ∑ (r + 1)(r − 1) in terms of n, and use it to evaluate the
1
sum in the case where n = 10.

⑦ Find (1 × 2) + (2 × 3) + (3 × 4) + ... + n(n + 1).
⑧ Find (1 × 2 × 3) + (2 × 3 × 4) + (3 × 4 × 5) + ... + n(n + 1)(n + 2).
⑨ Find the sum of integers above n, up to and including 2n, giving your
answer in a fully factorised form.
⑩ Find the sum of the cubes of the integers larger than n, up to and including
3n, giving your answer in a fully factorised form.
⑪ O
n a particularly artistic fruit stall, a pile of oranges is arranged to form a
truncated square pyramid. Each layer is a square, with the lengths of the side
of successive layers reducing by one orange (as in Figure 6.2).
The bottom layer measures 2n × 2n oranges, and there are n layers.
1
(i) Prove that the number of oranges used is n ( 2n + 1)(7n + 1) .
6
(ii) How many complete layers can the person setting up the stall use
for this arrangement, given their stock of 1000 oranges? How many
oranges are left over?
Figure 6.2
⑫ You have £20 000 to invest for one year.You put it in the following bank
account:
‘Flexible Saver’: 1.5% interest APR
1.5
n Interest calculated monthly (i.e. 12 % of balance each month).
n Interest paid annually, into a separate account.
n No limits on withdrawals or balance.
Your bank then informs you of a new savings account, which you are
allowed to open as well as the Flexible Saver.
‘Regular Saver’: 5% interest APR
5
n Interest calculated monthly (i.e. 12 % each month).
n Interest paid annually, into a separate account.
n Maximum £1000 balance increase per month.
101

The method of differences
(i) Assuming you initially have your money in the Flexible Saver, but transfer
as much as you can into a Regular Saver each month, calculate how much
extra money you will earn, compared to what would happen if you just left
it in the Flexible Saver all year.
(ii) Generalise your result – given an investment of I (in thousands of pounds),
and a time of n months – what interest will you earn?
(Assume n < I , or you’ll run out of funds to transfer.)
3 The method of differences

Sometimes it is possible to find the sum of a series by subtracting it from a
related series, with most of the terms cancelling out. This is called the method of
differences and is shown in the following example.
Example 6.5
Calculate the value of the series: 5 + 10 + 20 + 40 + … + 2560 + 5120.
Solution
Each term is double the previous one.
In fact, the sequence is
r -1
ur = 5 × 2
but you won’t
Call the sum S. need that here.
S = 5 + 10 + 20 + … + 2560 + 5120
Double it:
2S = 10 + 20 + 40 + … + 5120 + 10 240
Subtract the first line from the second and notice that most terms cancel. In
fact, only two remain.
2S − S = 10 240 − 5
S = 10 235
This is the sum you needed.
This example worked because of the doubling of the terms.

Calculating the sums of much more complicated series can also use this
technique, if each term can be expressed as the difference of two (or more)
terms. Look at the following examples carefully to see the idea, paying particular
attention to the way the series are laid out to help find the cancelling terms.
Example 6.6
(i) Show that 1 − 1 = 1 .
r r + 1 r (r + 1)
(ii) Hence find 1 + 1 + 1 + … + 1 .

1× 2 2 × 3 3 × 4 30 × 31
102

Solution
(i)
1 1
LHS = r − r + 1 =
(r + 1) − r 6
r (r + 1)
= 1
r (r + 1)

= RHS as required
30
1 + 1 + 1 +…+ 1 =
(ii) 1× 2 2 × 3 3× 4 30 × 31 ∑ r (r 1+ 1)
r =1
∑ ( 1r − r +1 1)
30
=
r =1
Using the result from part (i)
1
start writing out the == 11−− 12
2
sum, but it is helpful 1 1
to lay it out like this to + 2 −− 13
+1
2 3
see which parts cancel.
+ 1 − +11 − 1
3 43 4
The terms in the
+……+……
red loops cancel
out – so all the
+ 1 −+ 1 − 1
terms in the green 29 30 29 30
box vanish. 1
+ − 1 − 1
30 + 31
30 31
= 1− 1
31
30
=
31
Notice that the result in the example can easily be generalised for a sequence
Discussion point of any length. If the sequence has n terms, then the terms would still cancel in
➜ What happens to 1
pairs, leaving the first term, 1, and the last term, − .
this series when n n+1
becomes very large? The sum of the terms would therefore be
1− 1 = n +1−1 = n .
n+1 n+1 n+1
The cancelling of nearly all the terms is similar to the way in which the interior
sections of a collapsible telescope disappear when it is compressed, so a sum like
this is sometimes described as a telescoping sum.
The next example uses a telescoping sum to prove a familiar result.
103

Example 6.7 (i) Show that ( 2r + 1) − ( 2r − 1) = 8r .

2 2
(ii) Hence find ∑8r .

r =1
n
1
(iii) Deduce that ∑r = n (n + 1).
2
r =1
Solution
(i) ( 2r + 1) − ( 2r − 1) = (4r 2 + 4r + 1) − (4r 2 − 4r + 1)
2 2
= 8r
as required.
n n
(ii) ∑8r = ∑(2r + 1) 2

− ( 2r − 1) 
2
r =1 r =1
= 32 − 12 The only terms remaining

+5 −3 2 2 are the 2nd and the 2nd
to last.
+ 7 − 52 2
+…
+ (2(n − 1) + 1)2 − 2(n − 1) − 1)2
+ 2(n + 1)2 − (2n − 1)2

= ( 2n + 1)2 − 12
= 4n 2 + 4n + 1 − 1
= 4n + 4n
2

n
(iii) Since ∑ 8r = 4n 2 + 4n
n r =1
1 n2 + 1 n
so ∑r =
2 2 This result was also
r =1 proved on page 96 using a
different method.
= 1 n (n + 1)
2
as required.
104

Example 6.8 (i) Show that 2 − 3 + 1 = r +4 .
r r + 1 r + 2 r (r + 1)(r + 2)
n
r +4
6
(ii) Hence find ∑ r (r + 1)(r + 2) .
r =1

Solution
2 − 3 + 1 = 2(r + 1)(r + 2) − 3r (r + 2) + r (r + 1)
(i) r r +1 r +2 r (r + 1)(r + 2)
= 2r + 6r + 4 − 3r − 6r + r + r
2 2 2
r (r + 1)(r + 2)
= r +4
r (r + 1)(r + 2)
∑ ( 2r − r +3 1 + r +1 2 )
n n
+4
(ii) ∑ r (r +r 1)( r + 2)
=
r =1 r =1
=2− 3 + 1
2 3
The terms in the red
+2 − 3+1
loops cancel out – so all
2 3 4
the terms in the green
+2−3+1 box vanish.
3 4 5
+…−…+…
+…−…+…
+ 2 − 3 +1
n −1 n −1 n
+ 2 −3+ 1
n −1 n n+1
+2− 3 + 1
n n+1 n+2
Most of the terms cancel, leaving

n
+4
∑ r (r +r 1)( r + 2)
=2− 3+2+ 1 − 3 + 1
2 2 n+1 n+1 n+2
r =1
= 3− 2 + 1
2 n+1 n+2
Note
The terms which do not cancel form a symmetrical pattern, three at the start
and three at the end.
105

Discussion points
➜ Show that the final expression in the previous example can be simplified to give
n (3n + 7)
2 (n + 1)(n + 2) .
➜ What happens to the series as n becomes very large?
Exercise 6.3 ① This question is about the series 1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2n – 1).

n
You can write this as ∑ (2r − 1).
r =1
Show that r 2 − ( r − 1) = 2r − 1.
2
(i)
(ii) Write out the first three terms and the last three terms of
n
∑ (r 2
− (r − 1)2 ).
r =1 n
(iii) Hence find ∑ (2r − 1) .
r =1 n
(iv) Show that using the standard formulae to find ∑ (2r − 1) gives the
same result as in (iii). r =1
② This question is about the series 2 + 2 + 2 +…+ 2 .

1× 3 3× 5 5× 7 19 × 21
(i) Show that the general term of the series is 2 , and find
(2r − 1)(2r + 1)
the values of r for the first term and the last term of the series.
(ii) Show that 1 − 1 = 2 .
2r − 1 2r + 1 ( 2r − 1)( 2r + 1)
(iii) Hence find 2 + 2 + 2 +…+ 2 .

1× 3 3× 5 5× 7 19 × 21
③ (i) Show that ( r + 1)2 ( r + 2 ) − r 2 ( r + 1) = ( r + 1)( 3r + 2 ).
(ii) Hence find ( 2 × 5) + ( 3 × 8 ) + ( 4 × 11) + … + (n + 1)( 3n + 2 ).
(iii) Show that you can obtain the same result by using the standard
formulae to find the sum of this series.
(iv) Using trial and improvement, find the smallest value of n for which the
sum is greater than one million.
k
3 A B 3
④ Given that n (n − 3) = n − 3 + n , find A and B. Hence find ∑ (n − 3) as
4
a sum of six fractions in terms of k, where k > 7.
⑤ (i) Show that 12 − = 2r + 1 .

1
r ( r + 1)2 r 2 ( r + 1)2
n
2r + 1
(ii) Hence find ∑ 2.
r = 1 r ( r + 1)
2
⑥ (i) Show that 1 − 1 = 1 .

2r 2 ( r + 2 ) r ( r + 2 )
n
(ii) Hence find ∑ 1 .
r =1
r ( r + 2)
(iii) Find the value of this sum for n = 100, n = 1000 and n = 10 000 and
comment on your answer.
106

⑦ (i) Show that − 1 + 3 − 2 = r .
r + 2 r + 3 r + 4 ( r + 2 )( r + 3)( r + 4 )
12
r
6
(ii) Hence find ∑ .
r =1
( r + 2 )( r + 3)(r + 4 )
1 − 1 + 1 1

⑧ (i) Show that = .
2r r + 1 2 ( r + 2 ) r ( r + 1)( r + 2 )
n
(ii) Hence find ∑ 1 .
r =1
r ( r + 1)( r + 2 )
(iii) Find the value of this sum for n = 100 and n = 1000, and comment on
your answer.
Questions 9 and 10 are enrichment material that is beyond the syllabus. Here
you are asked to prove’ the standard results for ∑r 2 and ∑r 3.
⑨ (i) Show that ( 2r + 1)3 − ( 2r − 1)3 = 24r 2 + 2.

n
(ii) Hence find ∑ ( 24r 2 + 2 ).
r =1
n
(iii) Deduce that ∑r 2 = 1 n (n + 1)( 2n + 1).
r =1
6
⑩ (i) Show that ( 2r + 1)4 − ( 2r − 1)4 = 64r 3 + 16r .

n
(ii) Hence find ∑ ( 64r 3 + 16r ).
r =1
n
1
Deduce that ∑r 3 = 4 n 2 (n + 1) .
2
(iii)
r =1
(You may use the standard result for Σr.)
⑪ (i) Show that 2 can be written as 1 − 1 .

r2 − 1 r −1 r +1
(ii) Hence find the values of A and B in the identity
1 = A + B
r2 − 1 r − 1 r + 1
n
(iii) Find ∑ 1 .
r =2 r 2
−1
(iv) What is the value of this sum as n becomes very large?
4 Proof by induction
Discussion point The oldest person to have ever lived, with documentary evidence, is believed to
➜ Is this a valid be a French woman called Jeanne Calment who died aged 122, in 1997.
argument?
Emily is an old woman who claims to have broken the record. A reporter asked
her, ‘How do you know you’re 122 years old?’
She replied, ‘Because I was 121 last year.’
107

Proof by induction
The sort of argument Emily was trying to use is called inductive reasoning. If all
the elements are present it can be used in proof by induction. This is the subject
of the rest of this chapter. It is a very beautiful form of proof but it is also very
delicate; if you miss out any of the steps in the argument, as Emily did, you
invalidate your whole proof.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Work out the first four terms of this pattern:
1
=
1× 2
1 + 1 =
1× 2 2 × 3
1 + 1 + 1 =
1× 2 2 × 3 3× 4
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 =
1× 2 2 × 3 3× 4 4 × 5
Activity 6.1 illustrates a common way of making progress in mathematics.

Looking at a number of particular cases may show a pattern,
which can be used to form a conjecture (i.e. a theory about Conjectures are
a possible general result). often written
algebraically.
The conjecture can then be tested in further particular cases.
In this case, the sum of the first n terms of the sequence can be written as
1 + 1 + 1 +…+ 1
1× 2 2 × 3 3× 4 n (n + 1)
The activity shows that the conjecture
1 + 1 + 1 +…+ 1 = n
1× 2 2 × 3 3× 4 n (n + 1) n + 1
is true for n = 1, 2, 3 and 4.

Try some more terms, say, the next two.
If you find a counter-example at any point (a case where the conjecture is
not true) then the conjecture is definitely disproved. If, on the other hand, the
further cases agree with the conjecture then you may feel that you are on the
right lines, but you can never be mathematically certain that trying another
particular case might not reveal a counter-example: the conjecture is supported
by more evidence but not proved. The ultimate goal is to prove this conjecture
is true for all positive integers. But it is not possible to prove this conjecture
by deduction from known results. A different approach is needed; this is called
mathematical induction.
In Activity 6.1 you established that the conjecture is true for some particular
cases of n (specifically when n = 1, 2, 3 and 4) but this does not show that it is
true for all positive integer values of n.
Now assume that the conjecture is true for a particular integer, n = k, say. (This
may be, perhaps, n = 6 or n = 60 or n = 600, but you do not want to give a specific
value which is why k is used.) You are assuming that for some positive integer k:
108

1 + 1 + 1 + … + 1 = k .
1× 2 2 × 3 3 × 4 k (k + 1) k + 1 6
The idea is to use this assumption to verify what happens for the next case
when n = k + 1.

It is important to be clear about what is being assumed and what is trying to be
shown.
If the conjecture is true, then when n = k + 1 you should get
1 + 1 + 1 +…+ 1 1 (k + 1) k + 1.
+ = =
1× 2 2 × 3 3× 4 k (k + 1) (k + 1)(k + 2 ) (k + 1) + 1 k + 2
This is your target result. It is what you need to establish. Replacing k by k + 1
in the result
k
Look at the left-hand side (LHS).You can see that the first k +1
k terms are part of the assumption.
1 + 1 + 1 + … + 1 + 1
(the LHS)
1× 2 2 × 3 3× 4 k (k + 1) (k + 1)(k + 2 )
k 1
= + using the assumption
(
k +1 k +1 k + 2 )( )
k (k + 2 ) + 1
= getting a common denominator
(k + 1)(k + 2 )
= k + 2k + 1
2
(k + 1)(k + 2 ) expanding the top bracket
(k + 1) 2
= factorising the top quadratic
(k + 1)(k + 2 )
= k+1 cancelling the (k+1) factor, since k ≠ −1
k+2
which is the required result
These steps show that if the conjecture is true for n = k, then it is true for
n = k + 1.
Since you have already proved it is true for n = 1, you can deduce that it is
therefore true for n = 2 (by taking k = 1).
You can continue in this way (take n = 2 and deduce that it is true for n = 3,
then take k = 3 and deduce that it is true for n = 4, …) as far as you want to
go. Since you can reach any positive integer n, you have now proved that the
conjecture is true for every positive integer.
This method of proof by mathematical induction (often shortened to proof
by induction) is a bit like the process of climbing a ladder:
If you can:
1 get on the ladder (the bottom rung)
2 get from one rung to the next
then you can climb as far up the ladder as you like.
109

Proof by induction
Figure 6.3
The corresponding steps in the previous proof are:

1 showing that the conjecture is true for n = 1 and
2 showing that if it is true for a particular value (n = k, say), then it is true for
the next one (n = k + 1).
(Notice the if … then … structure to this step).
You should conclude any argument by mathematical induction with a statement
of what you have shown.
Steps in proof by induction

To prove something by mathematical induction you need to state a conjecture
to begin with. There are then five elements needed to try to prove that the
conjecture is true.
n Proving that it is true for a starting value (usually n = 1).

n Assuming the result is true for n = k and finding the target expression:
using the result for n = k to find the equivalent expression for n = k +1.
n Proving that: To find the target expression you replace
if it is true for n = k, then it is true k with k + 1 in the result for n = k.
for n = k + 1.
This can be done before or after finding
n Arguing that since it is true for the target expression, but you may find it
n = 1, it is also true for easier to find the target expression first,
n = 1 + 1 = 2, so that you know what you are working
towards.
and then for
n = 2 + 1 = 3,
and all subsequent values of n.
n Concluding the argument by writing down
the result and stating that it has been proved, This ensures the argument is
by induction. properly rounded off. You will
often use the word ‘therefore’.
110

Example 6.9 The sum of the squares of the first n integers
Prove that, for all positive integers n: 6
12 + 2 2 + 32 + … + n 2 = 1 n (n + 1)( 2n + 1)
6

Solution
1
When n = 1, LHS = 12 = 1 RHS = 6 × 1 × 2 × 3 = 1
So it is true for n = 1.
Assume the result is true for n = k, so
12 + 2 2 + 32 + … + k 2 = 1 k (k + 1)( 2k + 1)
6
Target expression:
12 + 2 2 + 32 + … + k 2 + (k + 1) = 1 (k + 1) ((k + 1) + 1)( 2 (k + 1) + 1)
2
6
= 1 (k + 1)(k + 2 )( 2k + 3)
6
You want to prove that if the result is true for n = k then it is true for n = k + 1.
Look at the LHS of the result you want to prove:
12 + 2 2 + 32 + … + k 2 + (k + 1) .
2
Use the assumed result for n = k to replace the first k terms:
= 1 k (k + 1)( 2k + 1) + (k + 1) First k terms.

2
6
= 1 (k + 1) [k ( 2k + 1) + 6 (k + 1)]
The (k + 1)th term.
6
= 1 (k + 1)  2k 2 + 7k + 6  Take out common factor .
6 You can see from the target
= 1 (k + 1)(k + 2 )( 2k + 3)
expression that this is useful.
6
If the result is true for n = k then it is This is the same as the target
true for n = k + 1. expression, as required.
Since true for n = 1 and if true for n = k then true for n = k + 1,

so it is true for all positive integer values.
Therefore, the result that 12 + 2 2 + 32 + … + n 2 = 1 n (n + 1)( 2n + 1) is

6
true for all n ∈ ℤ+.
ACTIVITY 6.2
Jane is investigating the sum of the first n even numbers.
( 2)
2
She writes: 2 + 4 + 6 + … + 2n = n +
1 .
(i) Prove that if this result is true when n = k, then it is true when n = k + 1.
Explain why Jane’s conjecture is not true for all positive integers n.
(ii) Suggest a different conjecture for the sum of the first n even numbers, that
is true for n = 1 but not for other values of n. At what point does an attempt to
use proof by induction on this result break down?
111

Proof by induction
Exercise 6.4
① (i) Show that the result 1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2n – 1) = n2 is true for the
case n = 1.
(ii) Assume that 1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2k – 1) = k2 and use this to prove that
1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2k – 1) + (2k + 1) = (k + 1)2.
(iii) Explain how parts (i) and (ii) together prove that the sum of the first n
odd integers is n2.
(i) Show that the result 1 + 5 + 9 + … + (4n – 3) = n(2n – 1) is true for

②
the case n = 1.
(ii) Assume that 1 + 5 + 9 + … + (4k – 3) = k(2k – 1)
and use this to prove that 1 + 5 + 9 + … + (4k – 3) + (4(k + 1) – 3)
= (k + 1)(2(k + 1) – 1).
(iii) Explain how parts (i) and (ii) together prove that
1 + 5 + 9 + … + (4n – 3) = n(2n – 1) for all positive integers n.
Prove the following results, for n ∈ ℤ+, by induction.
③ 1 + 2 + 3 + … + n = 1 n (n + 1) (the sum of the first n integers)

2
n
④ ∑r 3
= 1 n 2 (n + 1)2 (the sum of the first n cubes)
r =1
4
⑤ 21 + 2 2 + 2 3 + 24 + … + 2n = 2 ( 2n − 1)
n
1 − x n + 1 (x ≠ 1)
⑥ ∑ x r
=
1− x
r =0
⑦ (1 × 2 × 3) + ( 2 × 3 × 4 ) + … + n (n + 1)(n + 2 ) = 1 n (n + 1)(n + 2 )(n + 3)

4
n
1 n ( 3n + 5)
⑧ ∑ ( 3r + 1) = 2
r =1
Prove the following results by induction.
⑨ 1 + 1 + 1 + … + 21 = n for n ∈ ℤ+
3 15 35 4n − 1 2n + 1
(2
1
3
1
4)(
1
n
1
)(
⑩ 1 − 2 1 − 2 1 − 2 … 1 − 2 =
n+1
2n ) ( )
for n ∈ ℤ+, n > 2
⑪ 1 × 1! + 2 × 2! + 3 × 3! + … + n × n ! = (n + 1) ! − 1
n
(i) Prove by induction that ∑ ( 5r + r ) =
1 2
⑫ 4 2
n (n + 1)2 ( 2n + 1) for n ∈ ℤ+.
r =1
2
n
(ii) Using the result in part (i) and the formula ∑r 2 = 1 n (n + 1)( 2n + 1),
r =1
6
n
show that ∑r 4 = 1 n (n + 1)( 2n + 1) ( 3n 2 + 3n − 1) for n ∈ ℤ+.
r =1
30
112

5 Other proofs by induction
6
So far you have used induction to prove a given expression for the sum of a
series. Here are some other examples of its use.
In Example 6.10 a sequence is given using the term-to-term form and the

position-to-term form has to be proved. This idea is developed further in A2
Further Mathematics.
Example 6.10 A sequence is defined by un + 1 = 4un − 3, u1 = 2.

Prove that un = 4 n − 1 + 1.
Solution
For n = 1: u1 = 40 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2, so the result is true for n = 1.
Assume that the result is true for n = k,
so that uk = 4k–1 + 1. Target expression:
uk + 1 = 4 k + 1
For n = k + 1: uk+1 = 4uk – 3
= 4(4k–1 + 1) – 3
= 4 × 4k–1 + 4 – 3
= 4k + 1
If the result is true for n = k then it is true for n = k + 1.
Since true for n = 1 and if true for n = k then true for n = k + 1, so it is
true for all positive integer values.
Therefore the result that un = 4n–1 + 1 is true for all n ∈ ℤ+.
You can use induction to prove results about powers of certain matrices.
Example 6.11
 4 1
Given A =  , prove by induction that
 3 2 
 3 × 5n + 1 5n − 1 
An = 1  .
4  3 × 5n − 3 5n + 3 
113

Other proofs by induction
Solution
 4 1
For n = 1: LHS = A1 = 
 3 2 
 4 1  4 1 
 1  16 A
RHS = 1  3 × 5 + 1 5 − 1  =  ==
4  3 × 5 − 3 5 + 3  4  12 8   3 2 
so the result is true for n = 1.
Assume that the result is true for n = k, so that
 3 × 5k + 1 5k − 1 Target expression:
Ak = 1 
4  3 × 5k − 3 5k + 3  3 × 5k + 1 + 1 5k + 1 − 1 
A k +1 = 1 
4  3 × 5k + 1 − 3 5k + 1 + 3 
For n = k + 1:
Ak+1 = AkA
1 3 × 5 + 1 5 − 1 4 1
k k
Multiplying matrices
=
4  3 × 5k − 3 5k + 3   3 2 
 12 × 5k + 4 + 3 × 5k − 3 3 × 5k + 1 + 2 × 5k − 2 
= 1 
4  12 × 5k − 12 + 3 × 5k + 9 3 × 5k − 3 + 2 × 5k + 6 
1  15 × 5 + 1 5 × 5 − 1 
k k
= 
4  15 × 5k − 3 5 × 5k + 3 
Using 15 = 3 × 5
 3 × 5k + 1 + 1 5k + 1 − 1 
= 1  as required
4  3 × 5k + 1 − 3 5k + 1 + 3  This is the target
matrix.
If the result is true for n = k then it is true for n = k + 1.

Since true for n = 1 and if true for n = k then true for n = k + 1, so it is
true for all positive integer values.
 
Therefore the result that A n = 1  3 × 5n + 1 5n − 1  is true for all
n n
4  3×5 −3 5 +3 
n ∈ ℤ+.
Another use of proof by induction is to check divisibility, as the following

example shows.
114

Example 6.12 Divisibility
Prove that un = 4 n + 6n − 1 is divisible by 9 for all n > 1. 6
Solution

When n = 1, u1 = 41 + 6 − 1 = 9 which is divisible by 9. So it is true
for n = 1.
Assume the result is true for n = k, so
uk = 4 k + 6k − 1 is divisible by 9
You want to prove that uk +1 is divisible by 9 (if the assumption is true).
uk +1 = 4 k +1 + 6(k + 1) − 1
You want to express uk + 1 in
= 4 × 4 k + 6k + 5 terms of uk.
= 4(uk − 6k + 1) + 6k + 5 Substituting 4
k
= uk − 6k + 1.
= 4uk − 24k + 4 + 6k + 5
= 4uk − 18k + 9 You have assumed that uk is divisible
= 4uk − 9(2k + 1) by 9, and 9(2k + 1) is divisible by 9,
so uk + 1 is divisible by 9.
If uk is divisible by 9, then uk + 1 is divisible by 9.

Since it is true for n = 1, it is true for all positive integer values of n.
Therefore the result that un = 4 n + 6n − 1 is divisible by 9 is true.
Exercise 6.5
① A sequence is defined by un + 1 = 3un + 2, u1 = 2. Prove by induction that
un = 3n – 1.
 2 0   2n 0 
② Given that M =  , prove by induction that M n
= 

 0 3   0 3n  ,
 
for n ∈ ℤ+.
③ f(n) = 2n + 6n.
(i) Show that f(k +1) = 6f(k) − 4(2k ).
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, prove by induction that, for n ∈ ℤ+, f(n) is

divisible by 4.
un
④ A sequence is defined by un + 1 = , u = 1.
un + 1 1
(i) Find the values of u2, u3 and u4.
(ii) Suggest a general formula for un and prove your conjecture by

induction.
 −1 −4 
⑤ You are given the matrix A =  .
 1 3 
(i) Calculate A2 and A3.
 1 − 2n −4n 
(ii) Show that the formula A n =  is consistent with
 n 1 + 2n 
the given value of A and your expressions for A2 and A3.
115

Polynomial approximations and Maclaurin series
(iii) Prove by induction that the formula for An is correct for all positive
integers n.
⑥ Prove by induction that 24n+1 + 3 is a multiple of 5 for all positive integers n.

n
1
⑦ (i) Prove by induction that, for n ∈ ℤ+, ∑r ( r + 2 ) = n (n + 1)( 2n + 7 ) .
r =1
6
(ii) A sequence of positive integers is defined by u1 = 2,
un + 1 = un + 2(n + 1), for n ∈ ℤ+. Prove by induction
that un = n(n + 1), n ∈ ℤ+.
⑧ Prove that 11n+2 + 122n+1 is divisible by 133 for all integers n > 0.
  −1−1−12 2 2 
MM=M= = 
⑨ You are given the matrix .
 3
  3 1 1 1 
3
(i) Calculate M2, M3 and M4.
(ii) Write down separate conjectures for formulae for Mn for even n (i.e. M2m)
and for odd n (i.e. M2m+1).
(iii) Prove each conjecture by induction on the value of m.
⑩ Let Fn = 2(2n) + 1.
(i) Calculate F0, F1, F2, F3 and F4.
(ii) Prove by induction that F0 × F1 × F2 ×… Fn–1 = Fn – 2.
(iii) Use the result from part (ii) to prove that Fi and Fj are coprime (have
no common factors other than 1) for all i, j (i ≠ j).
(iv) Use the result from part (iii) to prove that there are infinitely many
prime numbers. The Fn numbers are called Fermat numbers. The first
five are prime (the Fermat primes). Nobody (yet) knows if any of the
other Fermat numbers are prime.
6 Polynomial approximations and

Maclaurin series
In this section you will be expressing a function as a series of ever increasing
accuracy by adding on successive terms of a polynomial.
Discussion point
➜ Look at Figure 6.4. Can sin x be represented as a polynomial for all values
of x?
116

y
1 y=x y=x−
x3
+
6 120
x5
6

x3
x−
6
y = sin (x)
O –�2 � x
Figure 6.4
Since polynomial functions are easy to evaluate, differentiate and integrate (among
other things), they are often useful approximations to more complicated functions.
As you can see with the sine curve in the diagram, it seems that if you add the
right multiples of powers of x to the polynomial each time, you can create a
polynomial that is closer and closer to sin x. Indeed, as the power of x that you
add becomes higher and higher, the polynomial curve becomes indistinguishable
from sin x. This is true for sin x and also many other functions. Such an infinite
polynomial approximation to a function f(x) is known as the Maclaurin
expansion or Maclaurin series for f(x).
The infinite polynomial for ex is simple:
2 3 3
eexx = 1 + x + x + x + x + ...
1! 2! 3! 4!
Sometimes with series like these, there is a condition on the value of x. For
example, the series for (1 – x)-1 is 1 + x + x2 + x3 +… which is a geometric
series that you know only converges if |x|< 1. The series for e x and for sin x are
in fact valid for all values of x.
Using Maclaurin series for standard functions

You will often need to use the Maclaurin series for some common functions, which
are listed below, together with the values of x for which the expansion is valid.
2 r
e x = 1 + x + x + ... + x + ... Valid for all x
2! r!
2 3 r
ln(1 + x ) = x − x + x − ... + ( −1)r + 1 x + ... Valid for −1 < x ≤ 1
2 3 r
3 5 2r +1
Note sin x = x − x + x − ... + ( −1)r x + ... Valid for all x
3! 5! (2r + 1)!
It is always good 2 4 2r
practice to state the cos x = 1 − x + x − ... + ( −1)r x + ... Valid for all x
2! 4! (2r )!
values of x for which
it is valid when you n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)…(n − r + 1) r
(1 + x )n = 1 + nx + x +…+ x + …
write down a Maclaurin 2! r!
n(n − 1)in 2
series, particularly n(n − 1)…(n − r + 1) r Valid for x < 1, n ∈
(1 + x )n = cases
1 + nxwhere
+ this is not
x + …+ x + . .…
.
2! r!
for all x.
Table 6.1
117

ACTIVITY 6.3
(i) What happens when you differentiate these series, term by term?
(ii) What do you notice about the powers in the series for sin x and cos x?
How does this relate to the symmetry of the graphs of sin x and cos x?
These standard series can be used to find Maclaurin series for related functions.
Example 6.13
(i) Find the Maclaurin expansion for e–2x up to the term in x4.
(ii) Find the general term for the expansion.
(iii) For what values of x is the expansion valid?
Solution
2 3 4
(i) e x = 1 + x + x + x + x + ...
2! 3! 4!
Substituting –2x for x:
( −2x )2 ( −2x )3 ( −2x )4
e −2 x = 1 + ( −2x ) + + + + ...
2! 3! 4!
2 3 4
= 1 − 2 x + 4 x − 8 x + 16 x + ...
2 6 24
3 4
= 1 − 2x + 2x − 2 4 x +
2 x + ...
3 3
r r
(ii) General term = ( −2x ) = ( −2) x r
r! r!
(iii) Since the expansion for e is valid for all values of x, this expansion is
x
also valid for all values of x.
Sometimes a Maclaurin series can be found by adapting one or more

known Maclaurin series. An example you will have already verified is that of
differentiating the series for sin x to obtain the series for cos x. It is important to
question whether this is a justifiable method:
n Is it valid to integrate or differentiate an infinite series term by term?
n Can you form the product of two infinite series by multiplying terms?
n Is the series obtained identical to the series that would have been obtained
by evaluating the derivatives?
Answering these questions in detail is beyond the scope of this book, but you
may take it that the answer to all of them is, ‘Yes, subject to certain conditions.’
In the work in this book you may safely assume the conditions are met, but
strange things can happen with infinite series in other situations.
118

ACTIVITY 6.4
Try these suggested methods of deriving new series, and explain why they work.
6
(i) The Maclaurin series for In(1 + x) can be found by integrating the terms of
the binomial series for 1 . Why is the constant of integration zero?

1+ x
(ii) The start of the Maclaurin series for
e x can be found by multiplying
1+ x
together the first four terms of the series for ex and (1 + x), then discarding
all terms in x4 and higher powers.
Exercise 6.6
① (i) Use the first four terms of the Maclaurin series for cos x to calculate an
approximate value for cos 0.1.
Note (ii) Use your calculator to find cos 0.1 and find the percentage error in
Make sure that your answer to (i).

you are working in ② The Maclaurin series for ex is 1 + x + 1 x 2 + 1 x 3 + … + 1 x r + …
radians. 2! 3! r!
(i) Use this to calculate 1 correct to 5 decimal places, stating how
e
many terms you need to use to be sure.
(ii) Use the ex function on your calculator to calculate the percentage
error in this approximation.
③ (i) Write down the cubic approximation to sin x.
(ii) Use this approximation to rewrite the equation sin x = x2 as a
polynomial equation.
(iii) By solving this polynomial equation, show that an approximate root of
the original equation is x = 15 − 3.
④ Given the Maclaurin expansion for sin x above, find sin 2 approximately using
the expansion as far as the term in x5. What is the percentage error here?
Now find sin 3 approximately using the expansion as far as the term in x5 .
What is the percentage error here?
Comment on your answers.
⑤ (i) Write down the first four non-zero terms in Maclaurin series for cos u.
(ii) Substitute u = 2x in this series to obtain the first four non-zero terms
in the Maclaurin series for cos 2x.
⑥ Use known Maclaurin series to find the Maclaurin series for the following
functions as far as the term in x4.
(i) sin 3x
(ii) ln(1 + 2x)
ex
1
(iii) 2
⑦ The Maclaurin series for ln(1 + x) is valid for –1 < x ≤ 1 only; by drawing
graphs of y = ln(1 + x) and several successive approximations show that this
is plausible.
⑧ Find the Maclaurin expansion for f(x) = tan x up to the term in x3.
119

n approximate rule used by builders to find the length, c, of a circular arc

⑨ A
ABC is
c = 8b − a ,
3
where a and b are as shown in Figure 6.5.
B
b
A C
a
θ θ
O
Figure 6.5
(i) ()
If O is the centre of the circle, show that b = 2r sin θ and a = 2r sin(θ).
2
(ii) Using the cubic approximation to sin x, show that 8b – a = 6r θ. Hence
verify the rule.
π
(iii) Find the percentage error caused by using this rule when θ = .
3
⑩ Use known Maclaurin series to find the Maclaurin series for the following
functions as far as the term in x4.
(i) sin2 x (ii) ln(1 + sin x)
(iii) e–x sin x (iv) esinx
⑪ (i) Write down the first four terms of the series for 1 .
1− x
(ii) By comparing with part (i), find an expression for the sum of the series
1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 2+…
⑫ A curve passes through the point (0, 2); its gradient is given by the
dy
differential equation dx = 1 – xy. Assume that the equation of this curve can
be expressed as the Maclaurin series
y = a0 + a1x + a2x2 +a3x3 + a4x4 +…
(i) Find a0
(ii) Show that a1 + 2a2x + 3a3x2 +4a4x3 +… = 1 – 2x – a1x – a2x3 – a3x4 –….
(iii) Equate coefficients to find the first seven terms of the Maclaurin series.
(iv) Draw graphs to compare the solution given by these seven terms with
a solution generated (step by step) on a computer.
⑬ In this questions give all numerical answers to 4 decimal places.
(i) Put x = 1 in the expansion
2 3 10 Approximately 1000 terms
ln (1 + x ) ≈ x − x + x − … − x would be needed to obtain an
2 3 10 estimate of ln 2 accurate to
and calculate an estimate of ln 2. 3 d.p. by this method.
(ii)
terms.
( 2 )
Show that ln 2 = − ln 1 − 1 and hence estimate ln 2 by summing six
(iii) Write down the series for ln(1 + x) – ln(1 – x) as far as the first three
non-zero terms and estimate in 2 by summing these terms using a
suitable value of x.
120

⑭ (i) Write down the Maclaurin expansions of

θ
(a) cos θ
(b) sin (c) cos θ + i sin θ
giving your answers in ascending powers of θ.

6
(ii) Substitute x = iθ in the Maclaurin series for ex and simplify the terms.

(iii) Show that your answers to (i)(c) and (ii) are the same, and hence
ei θ = cos θ + i sin θ.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
➤ know what is meant by a sequence and a series
➤ find the sum of a series using standard formulae for ∑r, ∑r2 and ∑r3
➤ find the sum of a series using the method of differences
➤ use proof by induction to prove given results for the sum of a series
➤ use proof by induction to prove given results for the nth term of a sequence
➤ use proof by induction to prove given results for the nth power of a matrix
➤ know that a Maclaurin series may converge only for a restricted set of values of x
➤ recognise and use the Maclaurin series of standard functions: ex, ln(1 + x),
sin x, cos x and (1 + x)n.
KEY POINTS
1 The terms of a sequence are often written as a1, a2, a3, … or u1, u2, u3, …
The general term of a sequence may be written as ar or ur (sometimes the
letters k or i are used instead of r). The last term is usually written as an or un.
2 A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence. The sum Sn of the first n terms of
a sequence can be written as
n
Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + … + an = ∑ar .
r =1
3 Some series can be expressed as combinations of these standard results:

n n n
∑r =
1
2
n(n + 1) ∑r 2
=
1
6
n (n + 1)(2n + 1) ∑r 3
=
1 2
4
n (n + 1) .
2
r =1 r =1 r =1
4 To prove, by induction, that a statement involving an integer n is true for all

n > n0, you need to:
n prove that the result is true for an initial value n = n0 (usually n = 1)
n assume that the result is true for some general value n = k and find the
target expression (the result when n = k +1)
n prove (algebraically) that if the result is true for n = k then it is true for
n=k+1
n argue that since the result is true for n = n0 and if the result is true for n = k
then it is true for n = k + 1, it must be true for n = n0 + 1, n = n0 + 2, …
n conclude the argument with a precise statement about what has been
proved.
121

5 Maclaurin series which are valid for all x:

2 3 r
ex = 1 + x + x + x + … + x + …
2! 3! r!
3 5 7
( −1)r x 2r + 1
sin x = x − x + x − x + … + +…
3! 5! 7! ( 2r + 1) !
2 4 6
( −1)r x 2r
cos x = 1 − x + x − x + … + +…
2! 4! 6! ( 2r ) !
6 Maclaurin series valid for –1 < x ≤ 1:
2 3
( −1)r − 1 x r
ln (1 + x ) = x − x + x − … + +…
2 3 r
7 Maclaurin series where validity depends on n:

n (n − 1) 2 n (n − 1)…(n − r + 1) r
(1 + x )n = 1 + nx + 2!
x +…+
r!
x +…
If n is a positive integer: the series terminates after n + 1 terms, and is valid
for all x.
If n is not a positive integer: the series is valid for |x|< 1;
also for |x| = 1 if n ≥ 0;
and for x –1 if n ≥ 0.
FUTURE USES
n You will develop the work on Maclaurin series further in the A-Level Further
Mathematics Year 2 textbook.
122

7 Further calculus
If I feel unhappy, I do
mathematics to become Discussion point
happy. If I feel happy, ➜ What plane shape would need to be rotated through 360° to produce a solid in
I do mathematics to keep the shape of an egg?
happy.
Alfred Renyi, 1921–1970
1 Volumes of revolution
When the shaded region
y
in Figure 7.1 is rotated
2
by 360° about the x-axis
the solid obtained, the
truncated cone illustrated 1.5
in Figure 7.2, is called a f (x) = x

solid of revolution. 1
0.5
–0.5 O 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 x
Figure 7.1
123

Volumes of revolution
y
2
1.5
0.5
–0.5 O 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 x
–0.5
–1
–1.5
–2
Figure 7.2
If the line y = x in Figure 7.1 is replaced with a curve then the calculation is harder.
y = f (x)
O a b x
Figure 7.3
You already know that you can use integration to calculate the area under a
curve. In Figure 7.3, each of the rectangles has a height of y (which depends on
Discussion points
the value of x) and a width of δx, where δx is small.
➜ How could you use x =b
the formula for the The total area of the rectangles is given by ∑ y δ x.
volume of a cone to x =a
work out the volume As the rectangles become thinner, the approximation for the area becomes more
of this solid? accurate. In the limiting case, as δ x → 0, the sum becomes an integral and the
➜ Do you know expression for the area is exact.
formulae that will b
allow you to find the
volumes of all other
A = ∫a y d x
solids of revolution? The same ideas can be used to find the volume of a solid of revolution.
Look at the shaded region in Figure 7.4, and the solid of revolution it would
form when rotated 360° about the x-axis in Figure 7.5. When the green strip is
rotated, it forms a disc.
124

y
3
7
2
Chapter 7 Further calculus

1
O 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
Figure 7.4
The green disc shown in Figure 7.5 is approximately cylindrical, with radius y
and thickness δx so its volume is given by:
δV = π y δ x .
2
The volume of the complete solid is then approximately the sum of all of these
discs, and this approximation will be better as the thickness of the discs gets
smaller.
V ≈ ∑ δV
x =b
V ≈ ∑
x =a
π y 2δ x

y
3
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–1
–2
–3
Figure 7.5
The limit of this sum as δ x → 0, becomes an integral, and you then have an
exact formula for the volume of revolution:
b
V = ∫π y 2 dx
a
125

Example 7.1
The region between the curve y = x2, the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and
x = 3 is rotated through 360º about the x-axis.
Find the volume of revolution which is formed.
Solution
y
y = x2
This region is to be rotated

about the x-axis to form a
solid of revolution.
O 1 3 x
Figure 7.6
b
Using the formula V = ∫π y 2 dx Replacing y with x².
a
3
( )
2
V = ∫ π x2 dx
1
3
= π ∫ x 4 dx
1
3
 5
= π x 
 5 1 Depending on the circumstances, you may
π want to write this as 152 cubic units (to 3 s.f.).
= (243 − 1) Unless a decimal answer is required, it is
5
common to leave π in the answer, and so keep
142π
= the answer exact.
5
Rotation around the y-axis

You can also form a solid of revolution by rotating a region about the y-axis.
It is common to describe a volume created by rotating about the x-axis
as Vx, and one created by rotating about the y-axis as Vy. The diagram in
Figure 7.8 shows the solid which is obtained when a region between part of
the curve from Figure 7.7 and the y-axis is rotated through 360° about the
y-axis.
126

y y
3 3
7
2 2

1 1
O 1 2 3 4 5 x –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 x
The formula for the volume can be obtained in a similar way, so that

Vy = ∫ π r 2 dy
The limits in this case are y-values rather than x-values.
y= p
Vy = ∫ y =q π x 2 d y

Since the integration is with respect to y, the limits can just be written as p and q.
∫q π x2 dy
p
Vy = You would need to write x in terms of y so that
you can integrate with respect to y.
Example 7.2
The region between the curve y = x2, the y-axis and the lines y = 2 and y = 5
is rotated around the x-axis. Find the volume of revolution obtained.
Solution
y
8
6
y = x2 y
2
2
–2 O 2 4 6 8 x –2 O 2 4 6 x
Figure 7.10
Figure 7.9
127

Using V = ∫π x 2 dy
q
5
V = ∫π y dy Notice that x² = y.
2
5
 y2 
= π 
 2 2
= π 25 − 4
2 2( )
= 21π cubic units
2
Exercise 7.1
① Name six common objects which could be generated as solids of revolution.
② Figure 7.11 shows the line y = 3x.
y
y = 3x
O 6 x

Figure 7.11
(i) Describe the solid obtained by rotating the purple region by 360º
around the x-axis.
x2
(ii) Use the formula V = π ∫ y 2 dx to calculate the volume of the solid.
x1
(iii) Describe the solid obtained by rotating the red region by 360º around
the y-axis.
y2
(iv) Use the formula V = π ∫ x 2 dy to calculate the volume of the solid.
y1
Use the formula for the volume of a cone to show that both your
(v)
answers are correct.
③ Figure 7.12 shows the region under the curve y = 1 between x = 1 and x = 2.
x
y
1
y= x
O 1 2 x
Figure 7.12
128

Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed by rotating this region
through 360° about the x-axis.
④ A region is bounded by the lines y = x + 2, the x-axis, the y-axis and the
7
line x = 2.
(i) Draw a sketch to show this region.

(ii) Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region through
360° about the x-axis.
⑤ A region is bounded by the curve y = x² – 1 and the x-axis.
360° about the x-axis.
⑥ A region is bounded by the curve y = x , the y-axis and the line y = 2.
360° about the y-axis.
⑦ (i) S ketch the graph of y = (x – 3)2 for values of x between x = –1 and
x = 5.
Shade in the region under your curve, between x = 0 and x = 2.
(ii) Calculate the area of the shaded region.
(iii) The shaded region is rotated about the x-axis to form a volume of
revolution. Calculate this volume.
⑧ A mathematical model for a large plant pot is obtained by rotating the part
of the curve y = 0.1x2 which is between x = 10 and x = 25 through 360º
about the y-axis and then adding a flat base. Units are in centimetres.
(i) Draw a sketch of the curve and shade in the area of the cross section of
the pot, indicating which line will form its base.
(ii) Garden compost is sold in litres. How many litres will be required to
fill the pot to a depth of 45 cm? (Ignore the thickness of the pot.)
⑨ Figure 7.13 shows the curve y = x2 – 4. y
The region R is formed by the line y = 12, 14
the y-axis the x-axis and the curve 12

y = x2 – 4, for positive values of x. 10
(i) Make a sketch copy of the graph and 8
shade the region R. 6
The inside of a vase is formed by rotating 4
the region R through 360º about the
2
y-axis. Each unit of x and y represents
2 cm. −6 −4 −2 O 2 4 6 x
−2
(ii) Write down an expression for the
volume of revolution of the region R −4
about the y-axis.
Figure 7.13
(iii) Find the capacity of the vase in litres.
(iv) Show that when the vase is filled to

5 of its internal height it is three-
6
quarter full.
129

⑩ Figure 7.14 shows the y

circle x2 + y2 = 25 and
A B y=4
the line y = 4. 4
(i) Find the coordinates
of the points A and 2
B where the circle
and line intersect.
(ii) A napkin ring is −6 −4 −2 O 2 4 6x
formed by rotating x2 + y2 = 25
−2
the shaded area
through 360º about
the y-axis. Find −4
the volume of the
napkin ring.
Figure 7.14
⑪ The area bounded by
the curve y = xa, where a is a positive real number, the x-axis and x = 1 is
rotated about the x-axis. The volume generated is 1. Find the value of a.
⑫ y
B
A
θ
x
Figure 7.15
Rotating region A around the x-axis produces 3 times the volume
produced by rotating region B around the y-axis. Find the value of θ.
⑬ When y = 1 is rotated around the x-axis, for 1⩽ x ⩽ a, the resulting solid
x
is a ‘trumpet’ shape which is sometimes called ‘Gabriel’s Horn’ or
‘Torricelli’s Trumpet’.
(i) Find, in terms of a, the volume of the shape bounded by y = 1 , x = 1,
x
x = a and the x-axis, when rotated around the x-axis.
(ii) Show whether the volume of the ‘trumpet’ is defined as a → ∞, and, if
defined, find its value.
⑭ The function f(x) describes a semicircle, radius r, at a distance R above the origin:
f (x ) = r 2 − x2 + R
Use this function, and a similar function describing the other half of the circle,
and your knowledge of volumes of revolution, to prove that the volume of a
torus, as shown in Figure 7.16, is 2π2r2R or equivalently, (2πR) × (πr2).
130

y y
6
r 7
4
r

2 R
R
O x x
–4 –2 2 4 6
–2
–4
–6
Figure 5.16
2 The mean value of a function

Sometimes you may need to find out the mean (average) value of a function
over a particular domain.
Figure 7.17 shows a curve y = f(x). The area under the curve between x = a and
x = b is shaded.
y = f(x)
O a b x
Figure 7.17
The green rectangle has been drawn so that it has the same area as the shaded
region.
The height of this rectangle is the mean value of f(x) for a ⩽ x ⩽ b.
b
The area of the shaded region is given by ∫ f ( x )d x . This is the same as the
a
area of the rectangle.
The width of the rectangle is b – a.
So the mean value of the function f(x) on the interval [a, b] is given by
1 b
b−a a ∫ f ( x )d x .
‘On the interval [a, b]’ is another way
of saying ‘for a ⩽ x ⩽ b’.
131

The mean value of a function
ACTIVITY 7.1
y
y = x2
O 1 2 3 x
Figure 7.18
Discussion point
Figure 7.18 shows the curve y = f(x), where f(x) = x².
➜ How is finding the (i) Find the area under the curve between x = 1 and x = 3. Use your answer to
mean of a function find the mean value of the curve over this interval.
similar to finding the (ii) Find the mean of f (1), f (2) and f (3).
mean value of a set
(iii) Find the mean of f (1), f (1.5), f (2), f (2.5), f (3).
of numbers?
How is it different? (iv) Use a spreadsheet to find the mean of larger numbers of equally spaced
points on the curve.
(v) Compare your results with your answer to (i).
Example 7.3
Calculate the mean value of the function f(x) = x2 on the interval [3, 10].
Solution
10
1
10 − 3 ∫
Mean value = x 2 dx
3
10
 3
= 1 x 
7  3 3
(
= 1 1000 − 27
7 3 3 )
= 139
3
Sometimes the mean value is not very informative. For example, a periodic,
oscillating function like f(x) = sin x will have a mean value of 0, over the period 0 to
b
2π. If instead you use the root mean square value, defined as b −1 a ∫ (f (x )) dx,
2
you get a measure of how far away the function is from zero on average.This might
remind you of the root mean square deviation in statistics (it has a very similar
structure). Notice that the function is squared before it is integrated, and the square
root occurs at the very end of the process.When the function is periodic this root
mean square value is usually calculated over an interval of a whole number of
periods and is useful in many applications in physics and statistics.
132

Exercise 7.2
① Find the mean value of f ( x ) =
1
x between x = 0 and x = 5.
7
② Find the mean value of f ( x ) = 2 for 1 ⩽ x ⩽ 4.
x
③ Find the mean value of f (x) = (x – 1)3 on the interval [0, 2].
(i)

(ii) Explain your answer to (i) with the aid of a sketch graph.
④ Show that the mean value of y = ax from 0 to b is the same as the mean
value of y = bx from 0 to a, where a and b are any positive real numbers.
⑤ Find the mean value of the following functions over the given sets of values
for x. In each case, draw the graph of the function and indicate the mean
value of the function on your graph.
(i) y = 4 – x2 on the interval [–2, 2]
(ii) y =
1 on the interval [1, 4]
x
(iii) y =
1 on the interval [1, 3]
x
⑥ Find the mean value of f(x) = (x – 1)4 on the interval [0, 2].
(i)
(ii) Find the mean value of f(x) = (x – 1)4 on the interval [0, 1].
(iii) Explain with the aid of a sketch graph why your answers to (i) and (ii)
are the same.
⑦ Figure 7.19 shows the curve y = x2 – 2x + 2. The area under the curve
between x = 0 and x = 2 is approximated by two rectangles.
y
y = x2 – 2x + 2
O 1 2 x

Figure 7.19
(i) Find the total area of the two rectangles.
(ii) Find the mean of the heights of the two rectangles.
(iii) Repeat parts (i) and (ii) using four rectangles.
(iv) Repeat parts (i) and (ii) using eight rectangles.
(v) Find the exact value of the area under the curve between x = 0 and
x = 2, and the mean value of the function f(x) = x2 – 2x + 2 for
0 ⩽ x ⩽ 2 and comment on your results.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
➤ derive formulae for and calculate the volumes of solids generated by rotating
a plane region about the x-axis
➤ derive formulae for and calculate the volumes of solids generated by rotating
a plane region about the y-axis
➤ evaluate the mean value of a function on a given interval.
133

The mean value of a function
KEY POINTS
b
∫ a π y dx .
2
1 Volume of revolution about the x-axis: V =
a b x
Figure 7.20
q
∫ p π x dy .
2
2 Volume of revolution about the y-axis: V =
p
x
Figure 7.21
3 The mean value of a function f(x) on the interval [a, b] is given by
1
b−a ∫ f ( x )dx.
y
y = f(x)
FUTURE USES
n The volume
of revolution
is required in
mechanics in order a b x
to find the centre of
mass of a solid of
revolution. Figure 7.22
134

8 Complex numbers and geometry
The power of
mathematics is often
to change one thing
into another, to change
geometry into language.
Marcus du Sautoy
Figure 8.1 The Mandlebrot set
Discussion point
➜ Figure 8.1 is an Argand diagram showing the Mandlebrot set. The black area
shows all the complex numbers that satisfy a particular rule. Find out about
the rule which defines whether or not a particular complex number is in the
Mandlebrot set.
135
883316_08_AQA_Maths_Y1_135-162.indd 135 8/12/17 6:09 PM

The modulus and argument of a complex number
1 The modulus and argument

of a complex number
Figure 8.2 shows the point representing z = x + yi on an Argand diagram.
Im
x + yi
O x Re
Figure 8.2 Using

Pythagoras’
The distance of this point from the origin is x 2 + y 2 . theorem.
This distance is called the modulus of z, and is denoted by |z|.
So, for the complex number z = x + yi, |z| = x 2 + y 2 .
Notice that since zz ∗ = ( x + iy )( x − iy ) = x 2 + y 2 , then z = zz ∗ .

2
Example 8.1
Represent each of the following complex numbers on an Argand diagram.
Find the modulus of each complex number, giving exact answers in their
simplest form.
z1 = −5 + i z2 = 6 z 3 = −5 − 5i z4 = −4i
Solution
Im
7
6
5
4
3
2
z1
1 z2
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Re
–1
–2
–3
–4 z4
–5
z3
–6
Figure 8.3
136

z1 = (−5) + 1 = 26
2
8
z2 = 62 + 02 = 36 = 6
Chapter 8 Complex numbers and geometry

(−5) + (−5) = 50 = 5 2
2 2
z3 =
0 2 + (−4 ) = 16 = 4
2
z4 =
Notice that the modulus of a real number z = a is equal to a and the modulus of
an imaginary number z = bi is equal to b.
Prior Knowledge
Figure 8.4 shows the complex number z on an Argand diagram. The length r
You need to be familiar represents the modulus of the complex number and the angle θ is called the
with radians, which argument of the complex number.
are covered in the
A-Level Mathematics
book. There is a brief Im
When describing
introduction/reminder complex numbers,
on page 239 of this it is usual to give the
book. angle θ in radians.
z
θ
O Re
Figure 8.4
The argument is measured anticlockwise from the positive real axis. By
convention the argument is measured in radians.
However, this angle is not uniquely defined since adding any multiple of 2π to θ
gives the same direction. To avoid confusion, it is usual to choose that value of θ
The argument for which −π < θ ≤ π , as shown in Figure 8.5.
of zero is
undefined. This is called the principal argument of z and is denoted by arg(z). Every
complex number except zero has a unique principal argument.
Discussion point
➜ For the complex number z = x + yi, is it true that arg(z) is given by
arctan ()
y
x
?
Figure 8.5 shows the complex numbers z1 = 2 − 3i and z 2 = −2 + 3i. For both
y
x 2 2 ( )
z1 and z2, = − 3 and a calculator gives arctan − 3 = −0.98 rad.
137

Im
z2
θ2
–2 0 θ1 2 Re
–2
z1
Figure 8.5
The argument of z1 is the angle θ1 and this is indeed −0.98 radians.

However, the argument of z2 is the angle θ2 which is in the second quadrant.
It is given by π − 0.98 = 2.16 radians.
Always draw a diagram when finding the argument of a complex number. This
tells you in which quadrant the complex number lies.
Example 8.2 For each of these complex numbers, find the argument of the complex
number, giving your answers in radians in exact form or to 3 significant
figures as appropriate.
(i) z1 = −5 + i (ii) z 2 = 2 3 − 2i (iii) z 3 = −5 − 5i (iv) z4 = −4i .
Solution
(i) z1 = −5 + i
Im
z1
1
α θ z1 is in the
–5 O Re second quadrant.

Figure 8.6
α = arctan ( 51 ) = 0.1973...
θ = arg( z1 ) = ...
so arg( z1 ) = π − 0.1973... = 2.94(3s.f.)
(ii) z 2 = 2 3 − 2i
Im
z2 is in the
O θ fourth quadrant.
2√ 3 Re
–2 z2

Figure 8.7
138

 2  π
θ = arctan  =
2 3  6 8
As it is measured in a clockwise direction,
arg( z 2 ) = − π .
6

(iii) z 3 = −5 − 5i
Im
z3 is in the third
quadrant.
–5 α Re
θ
–5
z3

Figure 8.8
α = arctan ( 55 ) = π4
So, θ = π − π = 3π
4 4
Since it is measured in a clockwise direction,
arg( z 3 ) = − 3π .
4
(iv) z4 = −4i
Im
z4 lies on the negative
imaginary axis.
O Re
z4

Figure 8.9
On the negative imaginary axis, the argument is − π

2
π
arg( z4 ) = − .
2
139

The modulus-argument form of a complex number

In Figure 8.10, you can see the relationship between the components of a
complex number and its modulus and argument.
Im
r
y
θ
O x Re
Figure 8.10
y
Using trigonometry, you can see that sin θ = and so y = r sin θ .
r
Similarly, cos θ = x so x = rcos θ .
r
Therefore, the complex number z = x + yi can be written
z = r cosθ + r sin θ i
or
z = r (cosθ + i sin θ ) .
The modulus–argument This is called the modulus-argument form of the complex number and is
form of a complex sometimes written as (r, θ).
number is sometimes
called the polar form, as
the modulus of a complex You may have noticed in the earlier calculations that values of sin, cos and tan
number is its distance for some angles are exact and can be expressed in surds.You will see these values
from the origin, which is in the following activity – they are worth memorising as this will help make
also called the pole. some calculations quicker.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Copy and complete this table. Use the diagrams in Figure 8.11 to help you.
Give your answers as exact values (involving surds where appropriate), rather
than as decimals.
π π π
6 4 3
sin
cos
tan
Table 8.1
2 2 1
1 1 1
Figure 8.11
140

T ACTIVITY 8.2
Most calculators can convert complex numbers given in the form (x, y) to the
8
form (r, θ ) (called rectangular to polar, and often shown as R → P) and from
(r, θ ) to (x, y) (polar to rectangular, P → R).

Find out how to use these facilities on your calculator.
Does your calculator always give the correct θ, or do you sometimes have to add
or subtract 2π?
Example 8.3 Write the following complex numbers in modulus-argument form.

(i) z1 = 3 + 3i (ii) z 2 = −3 + 3i
(iii) z 3 = 3 − 3i (iv) z4 = −3 − 3i .
Solution
Figure 8.12 shows the four complex numbers z1, z2, z3 and z4.
( 3)
2
For each complex number, the modulus is + 32 = 2 3
 3  π
α1 = arctan  =
 3 3
π
( π
⇒ arg( z1 ) = π , so z1 = 2 3 cos 3 + i sin 3
3 )
3 3 ( ( )
By symmetry, arg( z 3 ) = − π , so z 3 = 2 3 cos − π + i sin − π
3 ( ))
 3 π
α 2 = arctan  =
 3  6
6 6 6 (
⇒ arg( z 2 ) = π − π = 5π , so z 2 = 2 3 cos 5π + i sin 5π
6 )
5π
( ( )
5π
By symmetry, arg( z4 ) = − 5π , so z4 = 2 3 cos − 6 + i sin − 6
6 ( ))
Im
3 z1
z2 2
α2 α1
−3 −2 −1α4 O
α3 1 2 3 Re
−1 α3 = α1
by symmetry.
z4
−2
α4 = α2
by symmetry. −3 z3
Figure 8.12
141

Exercise 8.1 ① The Argand diagram in Figure 8.13 shows three complex numbers.
Im
5
z2
4
3
2
1
z1
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Re
–1
–2
–3 z3
Figure 8.13
Write each of the numbers z1, z2 and z3 in the form:

(i) a + bi
r (cosθ + i sinθ ), giving answers exactly or to 3 significant figures where

(ii)
appropriate.
② Find the modulus and argument of each of the following complex numbers,
giving your answer exactly or to 3 significant figures where appropriate.
3 + 2i
(i) (ii) −5 + 2i (iii) −3 − 2i (iv) 2 − 5i
③ Find the modulus and argument of each of the complex numbers on this
Argand diagram.
Im
z4
3
z1
2
1
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re
–1
–2
z2
–3
z3
Figure 8.14
Describe the transformations that map z1 onto each of the other points on
the diagram.
④ Write each of the following complex numbers in the form x + yi, giving
surds in your answer where appropriate.
(i)
( ( )
4 cos − π + i sin − π
2 2 ( ))
(ii) 7 ( cos 3π + i sin 3π )
4 4
142

(iii)
(
3 cos 5π + i sin 5π )
6 6
8
(iv)
( ( ) 6 ( ))
6
⑤ For each complex number, find the modulus and argument, and hence

write the complex number in modulus-argument form.
Give the argument in radians, either as a multiple of π or correct to 3
significant figures.
(i) 1 (ii) –2 (iii) 3i (iv) –4i
⑥ For each of the complex numbers below, find the modulus and argument,
and hence write the complex number in modulus-argument form.
Give the argument in radians as a multiple of π.
(i) 1 + i (ii) −1 + i (iii) −1 − i (iv) 1 − i
⑦ If z = 3 + 4i, and w = 1 + a i, and z = w + 1, find the possible values for a.

⑧ For each complex number, find the modulus and principal argument, and
hence write the complex number in modulus-argument form.
Give the argument in radians, either as a multiple of π or correct to 3
(i) 6 3 + 6i (ii) 3 − 4i (iii) −12 + 5i
(iv) 4 + 7i (v) −58 − 93i

⑨ Express each of these complex numbers in the form r (cos θ + i sin θ )
giving the argument in radians, either as a multiple of π or correct to 3
(i)
2 (ii)
3 − 2i (iii)
−2 − 5i
3−i 3−i 3−i
⑩ Represent each of the following complex numbers on a separate Argand
diagram and write it in the form x + yi , giving surds in your answer where
appropriate.
π
(i) z = 2, arg(z ) = π (ii) z = 3, arg(z ) =
3
2
5π π
(iii) z = 7, arg(z ) = (iv) z = 1, arg(z ) = −
6 4
2π
(v) z = 5, arg(z ) = − (vi) z = 6, arg(z ) = −2
3
⑪ Given that arg (5 + 2i) = α , find the argument of each of the following in
terms of α.
(i) −5 − 2i (ii) 5 − 2i (iii) −5 + 2i
(iv) 2 + 5i (v) −2 + 5i
143

Multiplying and dividing complex numbers in modulus-argument form
⑫ The complex numbers z1 and z2 are shown on the Argand diagram in

Figure 8.15.
Im
5
z1
4
3
2
z2
1
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Re
Figure 8.15
(i) Find the modulus and argument of each of the two numbers.
z
(ii) (a) Find z1z2 and 1 .
z2
z
(b) Find the modulus and argument of each of z1z2 and 1 .
z2
(iii) What rules can you deduce about the modulus and argument of the
two complex numbers and the answers to part (ii)(b)?
2 Multiplying and dividing complex

numbers in modulus-argument form
Prior knowledge
You need to be familiar with the compound angle formulae. These are covered in the
A-Level Mathematics book, and a brief introduction is given on page 242 of this book.
ACTIVITY 8.3
What is the geometrical effect of multiplying one complex number by another?
To explore this question, start with the numbers z1 = 2 + 3i and z 2 = iz1.
(i) Plot the vectors z1 and z 2 on the same Argand diagram, and describe the
geometrical transformation that maps the vector z1 to the vector z 2 .
(ii) Repeat part (i) with z1 = 2 + 3i and z 2 = 2iz1.
(iii) Repeat part (i) with z1 = 2 + 3i and z 2 = (1 + i)z1.
You will have seen in Activity 8.3 that

Im
z1z2
multiplying one complex number by
another involves a combination of an
enlargement and a rotation.
r 1r 2
r1 z1
θ2
θ1
O Re
Figure 8.16
144

You obtain the vector z1z2 by enlarging the vector z1 by the scale factor |z2|,
and rotate it anticlockwise through an angle of arg (z2).
So to multiply complex numbers in modulus-argument form, you multiply their
8
moduli and add their arguments.
z1z 2 = z1 z 2

You may need to add or
subtract 2π to give the
arg ( z1z 2 ) = arg ( z1 ) + arg ( z 2 ) principal argument.

You can prove these results using the compound angle formulae.
z1z 2 = r1(cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) × r2 (cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2 )
= r1r2 (cos θ1 cos θ 2 + i cos θ1 sin θ 2 +i sin θ1 cos θ 2 − sin θ1 sin θ 2 )
= r1r2 [(cos θ1 cos θ 2 − sin θ1 sin θ 2 ) + i( cos θ1 sin θ 2 +sin θ1 cos θ 2 )]
The identity
cos(θ1 + θ 2 ). The identity
= r1r2 [(cos(θ1 + θ 2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ 2 )]
sin(θ1 + θ 2 ).
So, z1z 2 = r1r2 and arg( z1z 2 ) = θ1 + θ 2 .
z
Dividing complex numbers works in a similar way.You obtain the vector 1 by
z2
enlarging the vector z1 by the scale factor 1 , and rotate it clockwise through an
angle of arg(z ). z2
This is equivalent 2
to rotating it So, to divide complex numbers in modulus-argument form, you divide their
anticlockwise through
an angle of −arg(z2). moduli and subtract their arguments.
z1 z
= 1
z2 z2
z 
arg  1  = arg ( z1 ) − arg ( z 2 ).
 z2 
z
You can prove this easily from the multiplication results above by letting 1 = w ,
z2
so that z1 = wz 2 .
z
Then z1 = w z 2 , so w = 1
z2
and arg( z1 ) = arg(w ) + arg( z 2 ), so arg(w ) = arg( z1 ) − arg( z 2 ).
Example 8.4 The complex numbers w and z are given by w = 2 cos π + i sin π and ( )
( )
4 4
z = 5 cos 5π + i sin 5π .
6 6
w
Find (i) wz and (ii) in modulus-argument form. Illustrate each of these on
z
a separate Argand diagram.
Solution
w = 2 arg(w ) = π
4
z =5 arg(w ) = 5π
6
(i) wz = w z = 2 × 5 = 10
This is not in the range
arg(w ) + arg(z) = π + 5π = 13π −π < θ ≤ π .
4 6 12
145

Multiplying and dividing complex numbers in modulus-argument form
13π 11
so arg(wz ) = 12 − 2π = − 12 π Subtract 2π to obtain
the principal argument.
( ( )
wz = 10 cos − 11π + i sin − 11π
12 12 ( ))
Im
4
z
2 w
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 O 2 4 6 8 Re
–2
wz
–4
–6
Figure 8.17
w
(ii) wz = = 2
z 5
arg(w ) − arg( z ) = π − 5π = − 7π
4 6 12
5 ( ( )
wz = 2 cos − 7π + i sin − 7π
12 12 ( ))
Im
z 3
2
w
1
–4 –2 O 2 4 Re
wz
–1
Figure 8.18
Exercise 8.2
① The complex numbers w and z shown in the Argand diagram are w = 1 + i
and z = 1 − 3i
Im
3
2
w
1
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re
–1
–2
z
–3

Figure 8.19
146

(i) Find the modulus and argument of each of the complex numbers w and z.
(ii) Hence write down the modulus and argument of
(a) wz
8
(b)
w
z
w on a copy of the Argand diagram.

(iii) Show the points w, z, wz and
z
( π
② Given that z = 2 cos + i sin
4
π
4 ) ( )
and w = 3 cos π + i sin π , find the
3 3
following complex numbers in modulus-argument form
w z 1
(i) wz (ii)
z (iii)
w (iv)
z
③ If z = 1 + b i, w = −2 + d i, and zw = z + w + 2 − 9i, find b and d.
④ The complex numbers z and w are defined as follows:
z = −3 + 3 3i
w = 18, arg ( w ) − π
6
Write down the values of
(i) arg( z ) (ii) |z| (iii) arg( zw ) (iv) |zw|.
( ) ( ( )
⑤ Given that z = 6 cos π + i sin π and w = 2 cos − π + i sin − π , find
6 6 4 4 ( ))
the following complex numbers in modulus-argument form:
(i) w2 z5
(ii)
3 4
(iii) w z
(iv) 5iz (v) (1 + i ) w
⑥ Find the multiplication scale factor and the angle of rotation which maps
(i) the vector 2 + 3i to the vector 5 − 2i
(ii) the vector −4 + i to the vector 3i.
⑦ Prove that, in general, arg  1  = − arg[ z ].What are the exceptions to this
z 
rule?
−1 + i
⑧ (i) Find the real and imaginary parts of .
1 + 3i
(ii) Express −1 + i and 1 + 3i in modulus-argument form.
(iii) Hence show that cos 5π = 3 − 1, and find an exact expression for
12 2 2
sin 5π .
12
⑨ Prove that for three complex numbers w = r1(cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) ,
z = r2 (cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2 ) and p = r3 (cos θ 3 + i sin θ 3 ) , wzp = w z p
and arg(wzp ) = arg(w ) + arg( z ) + arg( p ) .
147

Loci in the Argand diagram
3 Loci in the Argand diagram

To recap, a locus is the set of locations that a point can occupy when constrained
by a given rule. The plural of locus is loci.
Loci of the form z − a = r

Figure 8.20 shows the positions for two general complex numbers z1 = x1 + y1i
and z 2 = x 2 + y 2 i .
Im
x2 + y2i
y2 – y1
x1 + y1i
x2 – x1
O Re
Figure 8.20
You saw earlier that the complex number z2– z1 can be represented by the vector
from the point representing z1 to the point representing z2 (see Figure 8.24). This
is the key to solving many questions about sets of points in an Argand diagram, as
shown in the following example.
Example 8.5 Draw Argand diagrams showing the following sets of points z for which
(i) z =5
(ii) z − 3 = 5
(iii) z − 4i = 5
(iv) z − 3 − 4i = 5
Solution
(i) z = 5
Im
|z| = 5 means that the
distance of z from the
origin is 5 units. So z
lies on a circle, centre
the origin and radius 5.
O 5 Re
Figure 8.21
148

(ii) z − 3 =5
Im |z − 3| = 5 means that
8
the distance of z from
the point 3 on the real
axis is 5 units. So z lies

on a circle, centre 3 and
radius 5.
–2 O 3 8 Re
Figure 8.22
(iii) z − 4i = 5
Im
9i
|z − 4i| = 5 means that

the distance of z from
4i the point 4i on the
imaginary axis is 5 units.
So z lies on a circle,
centre 4i and radius 5.
O Re
–i
Figure 8.23
(iv) z − 3 − 4i = 5
z − 3 − 4i can be written as z − ( 3 + 4i ) .
Im
|z − (3 + 4i)| = 5 means
that the distance of z
3 + 4i from the point 3 + 4i is
5 units. So z lies on a
circle, centre 3 + 4i and
radius 5.
O Re
Figure 8.24
Generally, a locus in an Argand diagram of the form z − a = r is a circle, centre

a and radius r.
In the example above, each locus is the set of points on the circumference of the
circle. It is possible to define a region in the Argand diagram in a similar way.
149

Example 8.6 Draw Argand diagrams showing the following sets of points z for which
(i) z < 5
(ii) z − 3 > 5
(iii) z − 4i ¯ 5
Solution
(i) z <5
Im |z| < 5 means that all the

points inside the circle are
included, but not the points
on the circumference of the
circle. The circle is shown
as a dotted line to indicate
that it is not part of the locus.
O 5 Re
Figure 8.25
(ii) z−3 >5
Im
|z − 3| > 5 means that all
the points outside the circle
are included, but not the
points on the circumference
of the circle.
–2 O 3 8 Re
Figure 8.26
150

(iii) z − 4i ¯ 5
Im 8
9
|z 2 4i| ø 5 means that all the

points inside the circle are
included and also the points
4 on the circumference of the
circle. The circle is shown as
a solid line to indicate that it
is part of the locus.
O Re
–1
Figure 8.27
Loci of the form arg (z − a) = θ
ACTIVITY 8.4
π
(i) Plot some points which have argument .
4
Use your points to sketch the locus of arg( z ) = π .
4
Is the point –2 – 2i on this locus?
How could you describe the locus?
(ii) Which of the following complex numbers satisfy arg( z − 2) = π ?
4
(a) z = 4
(b) z = 3 + i
(c) z = 4i
(d) z = 8 + 6i
(e) z = 1 – i
(iii) Describe and sketch the locus of points which satisfy arg( z – 2) = π .
4
In Activity 8.4 you looked at the loci of points of the form arg ( z – a ) = π where
4
a is a fixed complex number. On the Argand diagram the locus looks like this.
Im
The point z = a is not part of the
locus, because the argument of
zero is not defined.
θ
a
O Re
Figure 8.28
The locus is a half line of points from the point a and with angle measured θ
from the positive horizontal axis, as shown in Figure 8.28.
151

Example 8.7 Sketch the locus of z in an Argand diagram when
(i) arg ( z − 3) = 2π
3
(ii) arg ( z + 2i ) = π
6
π
(iii) arg ( z − 1 + 4i ) = − 4 .
Solution
(i) This is a half line starting from z = 3, at an angle 2π .
3
Im
2
3
O 3 Re

Figure 8.29
(ii) This can be written in the form arg ( z − ( −2i )) = π so it is a half line
6
π
starting from −2i at an angle 6 .
Im
O Re
6
−2

Figure 8.30
(iii) This can be written arg ( z − (1 − 4i )) = − π so it is a half line starting

4
π
from 1 − 4i at an angle − 4 .
Im
O 1 Re
–4
–4

Figure 8.31
152

Example 8.8 Sketch diagrams that represent the regions represented by
(i) 0 ¯ arg ( z − 3i ) ¯ π
8
3
π
(ii) − arg ( z − 3 + 4i ) ¯ π .
4 ¯ 4

Solution
(i) This is the region between the two half lines starting at z = 3i, at angle
0 and angle π .
3
Im
3
3
O Re
Figure 8.32
(ii) arg ( z − 3 + 4i ) can be written arg ( z − ( 3 − 4i )) so this is the region

between two half lines starting at 3 − 4i at angles − π and π .
4 4
Im
O 3 Re
4
–4
–4
Figure 8.33
Loci of the form z − a = z − b
ACTIVITY 8.5
On an Argand diagram, mark the points 3 + 4i and –1 + 2i. Identify some points
that are the same distance from both points.
Use your diagram to describe and sketch the locus z – 3 – 4i = z + 1 – 2i .
153

Generally, the locus z − a = z − b represents the locus of all points which lie
on the perpendicular bisector between the points represented by the complex
numbers a and b.
Example 8.9 Show each of the following sets of points on an Argand diagram.
(i) z − 3 − 4i = z + 1 − 2i
(ii) z − 3 − 4i < z + 1 − 2i
(iii) z − 3 − 4i > z + 1 − 2i
Solution
(i) The condition can be written as |z − ( 3 + 4i )|=|z − ( −1 + 2i )|.
The distance of z from the point

3 + 4i is equal to the distance of
Im z from the point –1 + 2i, so the
locus is the perpendicular bisector
of these two points.
3 + 4i
–1 + 2i
O Re
Figure 8.34
(ii) | z − 3 − 4i|<|z + 1 − 2i|
Im
In this case the locus includes all the points

closer to the point 3 + 4i than to –1 + 2i. So the
locus is the shaded area. The perpendicular
3 + 4i
bisector itself is not included in the locus, so
it is shown as a dotted line.
–1 + 2i
O Re
Figure 8.35
154

(iii) z − 3 − 4i > z + 1 − 2i
Im
8
In this case the locus includes all the points
closer to the point –1 + 2i than to 3 + 4i, and

also all the points which are the same distance
3 + 4i from the two points. So the locus is the shaded
area as well as the perpendicular bisector,
–1 + 2i which is shown as a solid line to indicate that
it is part of the locus.
O Re
Figure 8.36
Example 8.10 Draw, on the same Argand diagram, the loci

(i) z − 3 − 4i = 5
(ii) z = z − 4i .
Shade the region that satisfies both z − 3 − 4i ¯ 5 and z ¯ z − 4i.
Solution
(i) z − 3 − 4i can be written as z − ( 3 + 4i ) so (i) is a circle
centre 3 + 4i with radius 5.
(ii) z = z − 4i represents the perpendicular bisector of the line between
the points z = 0 and z = 4i.
Im
|z – 3 – 4i| 5 represents the circumference

and the inside of the circle. |z| |z – 4i|
represents the side of the perpendicular
4 bisector that is nearer to the origin including
the perpendicular bisector itself. The shaded
2 area represents the region for which both
conditions are true.
O 3 Re
Figure 8.37
on’t get confused between loci of the forms z − a = r and

D
z−a = z−b.
z − a = r represents a circle, centred on the complex number a, with
radius r.
z − a = z − b represents the perpendicular bisector of the line
between the points a and b.
155

Exercise 8.3
① For each of parts (i) to (iv), draw an Argand diagram showing the set of
points z for which the given condition is true.
(i) z = 2 (ii) z − 2i = 2
(iii) z−2 = 2 (iv) z+ 2 + 2i = 2
② For each of parts (i) to (iv), draw an Argand diagram showing the set of
(i) arg ( z ) = π
3
(ii) (
arg z + 1 + )
3i = π
3
(iii) (
arg z − 1 + )
3i = 2π
3
(iv) arg ( z − 1 − 3i ) = − 2π
3
③ For each of parts (i) to (iv), draw an Argand diagram showing the set of
(i) z−8 = z−4 (ii) z − 2 − 4i = z − 6 − 8i
(iii) z + 5 − 2i = z + 3i (iv) z + 3 + 5i = z − i
④ Write down the loci for the sets of points z that are represented in each of
these Argand diagrams.
(i) Im
5
4
3
2
1
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Re
–1
–2
–3
Figure 8.38
(ii) Im
5
4
3
2
1
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Re
–1
–2
Figure 8.39
156

(iii)
8
Im
6
5
4

3
2
1
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Re
–1
–2
Figure 8.40
⑤ Write down, in terms of z, the loci for the regions that are represented in
each of these Argand diagrams.
(i)
Im
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Re
–1
Figure 8.41
(ii) Im
2
1
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Re
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
Figure 8.42
157

(iii)
Im
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 Re
–1
Figure 8.43
⑥ Draw an Argand diagram showing the set of points z for which

z − 12 + 5i ¯ 7 . Use the diagram to prove that, for these z, 6 ¯ z ¯ 20.
⑦ For each of parts (i) to (iii), draw an Argand diagram showing the set of
(i) arg ( z − 3 + i ) ¯ − π
6
3π
(ii) 0 ¯ arg ( z − 3i ) ¯ 4
(iii) − π < arg ( z + 5 − 3i ) < π3

4
⑧ On an Argand diagram shade in the regions represented by the following
inequalities.
(i) z −3 ¯2
(ii) z − 6i > z + 2i
(iii) 2 ¯ z − 3 − 4i ¯ 4
(iv) z + 3 + 6i ¯ z − 2 − 7i .
⑨ Shade on an Argand diagram the region satisfied by the inequalities

π
z − 1 + i ¯ 1 and − 3 < arg ( z ) < 0.
158

⑩
Im
4
8
3
2

1
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 Re
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
Figure 8.44
(i) For this Argand diagram, write down in terms of z

(a) the loci of the set of points on the circle
(b) the loci of the set of points on the straight line.
(ii) Using inequalities, express in terms of z the shaded region on the

Argand diagram.
⑪ Sketch on the same Argand diagram
(i) the locus of points z − 2 + 2i = 3
(ii) the locus of points arg ( z − 2 + 2i ) = − π

4
π
(iii) the locus of points arg ( z − 2 + 2i ) = .
2
Shade the region defined by the inequalities z − 2 + 2i ¯ 3
arg ( z − 2 + 2i ) > − π and arg ( z − 2 + 2i ) > π .
4 2
⑫ You are given the complex number w = − 3 + 3i .
(i) Find arg (w) and |w − 2i|.
(ii) On an Argand diagram, shade the region representing complex
numbers z which satisfy both of these inequalities:
π 2π
|z − 2i|¯ 2 and 2 ¯ arg z ¯ 3
Indicate the point on your diagram which corresponds to w.
⑬ Sketch a diagram that represents the regions represented by
z − 2 − 2i ¯ 2 and 0 ¯ arg( z − 2i) ¯ π .
4
⑭ By using an Argand diagram, determine if it is possible to find values of z
for which z – 2 + i > 10 and z + 4 + 2i ¯ 2 simultaneously.
⑮ What are the greatest and least values of z + 3 − 2i if z − 5 + 4i ¯ 3?
⑯ You are given that z − 3 = 2 z − 3 + 9i .
(i) Show, using algebra with z = x + yi, that the locus of z is a circle and
state the centre and radius of the circle.
(ii) Sketch the locus of the circle on an Argand diagram.
159

LEARNING OUTCOMES
➤ find the modulus of a complex number
➤ find the principal argument of a complex number using radians
➤ express a complex number in modulus-argument form
➤ multiply and divide complex numbers in modulus-argument form
➤ represent multiplication and division of two complex numbers on an Argand

diagram
➤ represent and interpret sets of complex numbers as loci on an Argand
diagram:
➤ circles of the form |z – a| = r
➤ half lines of the form arg (z – a) = θ
➤ lines of the form |z – a| = |z – b|
➤ represent and interpret regions defined by inequalities based on the above.
KEY POINTS
1 The modulus of z = x + yi is z = x + y . This is the distance of the
2 2
point z from the origin on the Argand diagram.

2 The argument of z is the angle θ, measured in radians, between the line
connecting the origin and the point z and the positive real axis.
3 The principal argument of z, arg (z), is the angle θ, measured in radians, for
which −π < θ ¯ π , between the line connecting the origin and the point z
and the positive real axis.
2
4 For a complex number z, zz∗ = z .
(
5 The modulus–argument form of z is z = r cosθ + i sin θ , where r =| z |)
and θ = arg( z ). This is often written as (r, θ).
6 For two complex numbers z1 and z2:
z1z 2 = z1 z 2 arg ( z1z 2 ) = arg ( z1 ) + arg ( z 2 ) .
z1 z z 
= 1 arg  1  = arg ( z1 ) − arg ( z 2 ) .
z2 z2  z2 
7 The distance between the points z1 and z2 in an Argand diagram is z1 − z 2 .
8 z − a = r represents a circle, centre a and radius r.
z − a < r represents the interior of the circle, and z − a > r represents
the exterior of the circle.
9 arg ( z − a ) = θ represents a half line starting at z = a at an angle of θ from
the positive real direction.
10 z − a = z − b represents the perpendicular bisector of the points a and b.
FUTURE USES
n Work on complex numbers will be developed further in A-Level Further
Mathematics.
n Complex numbers will be needed for work on differential equations in A-Level
Further Mathematics, in particular in modelling oscillations (simple harmonic
motion).
160

① (i) Show that 8
1 (r + 3)(r + 4)(r + 5) − 1 (r + 2)(r + 3)(r + 4) = 1 (r + 3)(r + 4)
6 6 2 .
[2 marks]
(ii) Use the result in part (i) to show that
n
∑ 21(r + 3)(r + 4) = 61 (n + 3)(n + 4)(n + 5) − 10 . [4 marks]
r =1
(iii) Find the sum of the first 20 terms of the series

4 × 5 + 5 × 6 + 6 × 7 + ... [2 marks]
② (i) Find the first three terms of the Maclaurin expansion of e .
–2x
[2 marks]
(ii) Hence find an approximate value for the root of the equation
e–2x = 3x. [3 marks]
MP ③ Prove by induction that 7n + 22n + 1 is divisible by 6 for all n ∈ N.[7 marks]
M ④ Figure 1 shows the distance of the Moon from the Earth on each day
in January 2016. Day 0 is 1 January, Day 1 is 2 January and so on. A
spreadsheet has been used to fit a polynomial trend line to the data.
Distance of Moon from Earth

410
405
400
km (Thousands)
395
390
385
380
375
370
365
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Day

Figure 1
The equation of the trend line is

y = –0.884x4 + 53x3 – 840x2 + 1332x + 403 991
where y is the distance from the Moon to the Earth in km and x is the
day number. This is used as a model for the distance of the Moon from the
Earth.
(i) Explain why y = –0.884x4 + 53x3 – 840x2 + 1332x + 403 991 is not a
suitable model for the distance of the Moon from the Earth
in the long term. [1 mark]
(ii) Use the model to find the mean distance of the Moon from
the Earth in the time period Day 0 to Day 30. [3 marks]
(iii) A website gives the average distance between the Moon and
the Earth as 384 400 km. Compare this value with your answer to
(ii) and comment. [1 mark]
161

⑤ Figure 2 shows the curve y = 1 − x . The shaded region bounded by the

curve and the coordinate axes is rotated through 360° about the x-axis.
y
y = 1 − √x
O x

Figure 2
Find the volume of the solid obtained. [4 marks]

MP ⑥ Let z1 = a + bi and z 2 = c + di .
(i) Find z1z 2 . [2 marks]
(ii) Write down z1 and z 2 . [1 mark]
(iii) Prove that z1z 2 = z1 z 2 . [4 marks]
⑦ Im z B
A
π
3
P
O Re z
On the Argand diagram above, the point P is at 3 + 3i.

(i) The circle centred on P represents a locus of points on the Argand
diagram. Write down its equation as a locus in terms of z.
[2 marks]
(ii) Write down the equation of the locus of points represented
by the half-line from P through A. [2 marks]
(iii) The sector PAB has area 3π . Find the equation of the locus
8
of points represented by the half line from P through B. [4 marks]
⑧
(i) Prove that cosh 2x = 2 cosh2 x – 1. [2 marks]
(ii) Hence solve the equation cosh 2x – 5 cosh x = 2.
Give your answers in exact form. [4 marks]
162

9 Polar coordinates
Let no-one ignorant of

geometry enter my door.
Inscription over the entrance
1 Polar coordinates
to the Academy of Plato,
This nautilus shell forms a shape called an equiangular spiral. How could you
c.430–349 BC
describe this mathematically?
You will be familiar with using Cartesian coordinates (x, y) to show the position of
a point in a plane.
Figure 9.1 shows an alternative way to describe the position of a point P by giving:
n its distance from a fixed point, O, known as the pole
n the angle θ between OP and a line called the initial line.
163

Polar coordinates
Discussion points θ
➜ Is it possible to provide O
Initial line
more than one set of
polar coordinates Figure 9.1
(r, θ ) to define a given
point P? The numbers (r, θ ) are called the polar coordinates of P.
➜ If so, in how many
ways can a point be
The length r is the distance of the point P from the origin.
defined? The angle θ is usually measured in radians, in an anticlockwise direction from
the initial line which is drawn horizontally to the right.
At the point O, r = 0 and θ is undefined. Each pair of polar coordinates (r, θ )
gives a unique point in the plane.
You may have noticed that adding or subtracting any integer multiple of 2π to
the angle θ does not change the point P.
For example, the point in Figure 9.2 below could be expressed as
( )( 3
7π
)(
3, π , 3, 3 , 3, 13π and so on.
3 )
y
4
−4 −3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 4 x
−1
−2
−3
−4
Figure 9.2
This means that each point P can be written in an infinite number of ways.
164

ACTIVITY 9.1 9
π
Check by drawing a diagram that the polar coordinates 5, 6 , 5, ( )(
13π
6 and )
(5, − 11π
)
all describe the same point.
( )
6
3π in three other ways.
Chapter 9 Polar coordinates

Give the polar coordinates for the point 6,
4
If you need to specify the polar coordinates of a point uniquely, you use the
principal polar coordinates, where r > 0 and −π < θ < π. T his is similar to the
convention used when writing a complex number in modulus-argument form.
Converting between polar and Cartesian

coordinates
It is easy to convert between polar coordinates (r, θ ) and Cartesian coordinates
(x, y ).
y
r
y
θ
O x x
Figure 9.3
From Figure 9.3 you can see:

y
x = rcos θ y = r sin θ r= x 2 + y 2
tan θ= x .
You will see later how you can use these equations to convert the equations of
polar curves into Cartesian ones and vice versa.
3 − 3
Note that tan π = 3 = 1 = − 1 . So the points (1, 3 ) and (−1, − 3 ) both
3
give the same value for tan θ. Alternatively, you can say that tan θ = 3 gives two
solutions for θ in the interval −π < θ < π. (The value 3 is not special in this
regard; tan θ = k gives two solutions for θ in the interval −π < θ < π for all k.)
So you need to be careful to find the right quadrant for θ, and this usually means
quickly sketching a diagram.
Example 9.1
(i) Find the Cartesian coordinates of the following points:
(2π
(a) 4, 3 (b) ) 12, − π
6 ( )
(ii) Find the polar coordinates of the following points:
(
(a) − 3,1 ) (b) (4, −4)
165

Polar coordinates
Solution y
First draw a diagram to represent the P

coordinates of the point: 4
� 2�
(i) (a) –3 3
O x
4 cos π = 2 so x = −2
3
4 sin π = 2 3 so y = 2 3
3 Figure 9.4
(4, 23π ) has Cartesian coordinates (−2, 2 3).

y
(i) (b)
12 cos π = 6 3 so x = 6 3
6
12 sin π = 6 so y = −6
6
O –�6 x
(12, −π
6 ) has Cartesian coordinates 12
P
(6 3, −6). Figure 9.5 Since θ is negative, P is

below the x-axis.
(ii) (a)
( 3)
2
r = + 12 = 2 y
tan α = 1 so α = π and θ = 5π 1
3 6 6
(− 3,1) has polar α
θ
( )
5π –√ 3 O x
coordinates 2, 6 .
(ii) (b)
Figure 9.6
r = 42 + 42 = 4 2
π π
tan α = 4 so α = 4 so θ = −
4 4
π
(
(4, −4 ) has polar coordinates 4 2, − 4 . )
y
O α 4 x
–4
Figure 9.7
166

Exercise 9.1
① Find the Cartesian coordinates of the following points:
9
(i)
( )
8, − π
2
(ii) 8, −
3π
4 ( )
(iii)
( )
8, π (iv) 8,
5π
6 ( )

3
② Find the principal polar coordinates of the following points, giving answers
as exact values or to three significant figures as appropriate:
(i) (5, −12) (ii) (−5, 0)
(iii) (− 3, −1) (iv) (3, 4)
③ Plot the points with polar coordinates A 5, 5π , B 3, − 3π ,

6 4 ( ) ( )
(
C 5, − π and D 3, π .
6 )4 ( )
Write down the name of the quadrilateral ABCD. Explain your answer.
( ) (
④ Plot the points with polar coordinates A 3, π , B 2, 7π , C 3, − 4 π
5 ) ( )
( )
10 5
3π
and D 4, − 10 .
Write down the name of the quadrilateral ABCD. Explain your answer.
⑤ 20
5 1
18
12
Double score
9
4
14
13
Treble score
11
10 6
8
15
16
7 2
19 17
3
Figure 9.8
The diagram shows a dartboard made up of six concentric circles. The radii
of the six circles are 6, 16, 99, 107, 162 and 170 mm respectively.
The smallest circle at the centre is called the inner bull and the next circle
is called the outer bull. If a dart lands in either of these two regions it scores
50 or 25 points respectively.
The areas that get a double score or treble score are labelled. If a dart lands
in one of these two rings it doubles or trebles the sector number.
The initial line passes through the middle of the sector labelled 6 and angles
θ are measured in degrees from this line.
(i) Find the score in the region for which 16° < r < 99° and
27° < θ < 45°.
(ii) Give conditions for r and θ that define the boundary between sectors
10 and 15.
(iii) Give conditions for r and θ for which the score is:
(a) treble 14 (b) 17 (c) double 18.
167

Sketching curves with polar equations
( )( )(
⑥ The three points with polar coordinates 3, π , 6, π , 2 3, π form a
6 4 3 )
triangle. Find the area of the triangle to 3 s.f.
( )
⑦ One vertex of an equilateral triangle has polar coordinates A 4, π . Find
4
the polar coordinates of all the other possible vertices B and C of the
triangle, when:
(i) the origin O is at the centre of the triangle
(ii) B is the origin
(iii) O is the midpoint of one of the sides of the triangle.
⑧ The diagram shows a regular pentagon

y
OABCD in which A has Cartesian
C
coordinates (5, 2).
B
(i) Show that OB = 8.71, correct to
2 decimal places.
(ii) Find the polar coordinates of the 5
D
vertices A, B, C and D, giving angles
in radians. A
(iii) Hence find the Cartesian coordinates
of the vertices B, C and D. O 5 x
In parts (ii) and (iii) give your answers Figure 9.9
correct to two decimal places.
2 Sketching curves with polar

equations
You will be familiar with using Cartesian equations such as y = 2x2 + 5 to
represent the relationship between the coordinates (x, y) of points on a curve.
Curves can also be represented using the relationship between polar coordinates
(r, θ ) of points on the curve. The polar equation r = f (θ ) is sometimes simpler
than the Cartesian equation, especially if the curve has rotational symmetry. Polar
equations have many important applications, for example in the study of orbits.
Example 9.2 shows three ways to produce the curve with a specific polar
equation r = f (θ ).
Example 9.2 Investigate the curve with polar equation r = 10 cos θ.
Solution
Method 1 – Plotting points
Start by making a table of values – this table has values of θ that increase in
π
intervals of 12 , which gives a convenient number of points.
π π π π 5π π 7π 2π 3π 5π 11π
 0 3 π
12 6 4 12 2 12 3 4 6 12
r 10 9.7 8.7 7.1 5.0 2.6 0 −2.6 −5.0 −7.1 −8.7 −9.7 −10
Figure 9.10
168

If you take values of θ from 0 to −π (instead of from 0 to π) you get the same
Note
Notice that some of
π
points again; for example, θ = − 12 ⇒ r = 9.7 which is the same point as 9
the values of r have
turned out to be
( −9.7, 11π .
12 )
negative. Although the Plotting the points gives the curve shown in Figure 9.11. This curve looks

distance from the origin
like a circle. Methods 2 and 3 will both prove that it is in fact a circle.
cannot be negative,
mathematicians
sometimes interpret
this by thinking about
the distance being
measured in the
opposite direction. So Note that if values are taken
the point for which θ=0 from −π to π the point will
10
θ = 7π and r = −2.6 is
move twice around the circle.
12
equivalent to the point
for which θ = − 5π and
12
r = 2.6.
Figure 9.11
Method 2 – Convert to Cartesian form

If r ≠ 0 then
Multiply both sides by r.
r = 10 cos θ
⇔ r2 = 10 r cos θ You know from earlier that
⇔ x2 + y2 = 10 x. x 2 + y 2 = r 2 and x = r cos θ .
This can be rearranged to the Cartesian form ( x − 5) + y 2 = 25 which

2
shows that the curve is a circle, centre (5, 0), radius 5.

If r = 0 then x = y = 0 which also satisfies x2 = y2 = 10 x.
Method 3 - Using geometrical reasoning
This method involves working backward from the answer.
The circle shown in Figure 9.12 has centre (5, 0) and radius 5.
P
θ
O 10 A θ=0
Figure 9.12
If P is the point with polar coordinates (r, θ) then triangle OPA is a right
angle. Using trigonometry, r = 10 cos θ as required, and the same argument
applies to points on the lower semicircle as the cosine function is even, i.e.
cos θ = cos (−θ).
169

ACTIVITY 9.2 T
Find out how to use a graphical calculator or graphing software to draw a curve
from its polar equation.
Check that you can adjust the scales on the axes so that, for the curve
r = 10 cos θ from Example 9.2, you get a circle not an ellipse.
ACTIVITY 9.3 T
Sketch the curves with polar equations:
r=7
θ = π
3
The results from the Activity can be generalised:
• r = a is a circle centre O, radius a
• θ = k (−π < k < π) is a half line starting at the origin making an angle k with
the initial line.
Example 9.3 Describe the motion of a point along the curve r = 1 + 2 cos θ as θ increases
from 0 to 2π.
Solution
The curve is shown in Figure 9.13.
Step 2 Step 1
As θ increases to 2�, r As θ increases from 0 to � ,
3 2
decreases to zero since r decreases from 3 to 1.
( )
cos 2� = – 1.
3 2
�
θ= 2
Step 3
2�
The curve touches the line θ = 3
B
2� 1
θ = 3 at the origin.
A θ=0
Step 4 O 1 3 θ = 2�
For θ between 2� and 4� ,
3 3
r is negative, with r = –1
at θ = �. 4�
θ= 3
Step 5 3�
θ= 2 Step 6
The curve touches the line 3�
r increases to 1 at θ = 2
θ = 4� at the origin. and then to 3 at θ = 2�.
3
Figure 9.13
170

This double loop is one of a family of curves called limaçons (snail curves).
The diagram in Example 9.3 uses the convention that the parts of the curve
for which r < 0 are shown by a broken line, whereas sections where r > 0 are
9
shown by a solid line. In some applications it is physically impossible for r to
be negative so it is worth distinguishing such portions in this way.

ACTIVITY 9.4
This is the curve r = 2 cos 3θ.
• How do the constants 2 and 3 in the
equation relate to the shape of the
curve?
• Copy the sketch of the curve. Use
arrows to show how a point would 2
move around the curve as the value
of θ varies from 0 to π.
Use a graphical calculator or graphing
software to investigate the curve
r = k sin nθ where k and n are positive
Figure 9.14
and n is an integer.
The type of curve shown in Activity 9.4 is called a rhodonea (rose curve).
Exercise 9.2
① Sketch the curve given by the equations:
TECHNOLOGY
(i) r = 5
Use a graphical
(ii) θ = − 3π calculator or graphing
4
(iii) r = 3 cos θ software to check your
graphs in this exercise.
(iv) r = 2 sin θ
Remember that the
(v) r = 3θ for the interval 0 < θ < 2 π scales used on the axes
② Using the relationships x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, can affect how the shape
y of the graph appears.
r = x + y , tan θ = , convert the five
2 2
x
equations in question 1 into their Cartesian versions.
π
③ Make a table of values of r = 8 sin θ for θ from 0 to π in intervals of 12 ,
giving answers to two decimal places where appropriate.
Explain what happens when π < θ < 2 π.
By plotting the points, confirm that the curve r = 8 sin θ represents a circle
that is symmetrical about the y-axis.
Write down the Cartesian equation of the circle.
④ Where does r = θ meet x = y? Gives the solutions in both polar and
Cartesian form.
⑤ Sketch the curves with equations r = 3 cos 2θ and r = 3 cos 3θ for the values
of θ from 0 to 2π.
State the number of petals on each of the curves.
By considering the interval 0 < θ < 2 π, explain why the curve r = 3 cos nθ
has 2n petals when n = 2 but only n petals when n = 3.
171

he curve r = 4θ for −2 π < θ < 2 π is called the spiral of Archimedes.
⑥ T
π
Draw the curve.
⑦ A curve with polar equation r = a (1 + cos θ ) is called a cardioid.
(i) Draw the curve when r = 8. How do you think the curve got its
name?
(ii) Sketch the curve with polar equation r = a (1 − cos θ) when a = 8.
How does the shape of your graph compare to that in part (i)?
b
⑧ Prove that r = a and r = , where a and b are non-zero constants,
cos θ sin θ
are the polar equations of two straight lines. Find their Cartesian equations.
⑨ Example 9.3 introduced the family of curves of the form r = a + bcos θ
called limaçons.
(i) Use a graphical calculator or a computer with graph-plotting software
to draw the curves r = k + 3 cos θ for k = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
(ii) Investigate the shape of the curve r = a + b cos θ for other values of a
and a and use this to define the shape of the curve when:
a=b
a<b
a>b
a > 2b
(ii) Investigate how the shape of the curve differs for polar curves of the
form r = a + b sin θ.
⑩ A lemniscate has the equation r 2 = a 2 cos 2θ or r 2 = a 2 sin 2θ.
Taking r > 0 initially, sketch these curves for 0 < θ < 2 π explaining clearly
what happens in each interval of π radians.
4
What happens if you consider values where r < 0?
⑪ The straight line L passes through the point A with polar coordinates ( p, a)
and is perpendicular to OA.
(i) Prove that the polar equation of L is r cos(θ − α) = p.
(ii) Use the identity cos(θ − α) ≡ cos θ cos α + sinθ sin α to find the
Cartesian equation of L.
⑫ Sketch the curves r = sin 3θ and r = 2 sin θ on the same diagram. They meet
at the origin; give the polar coordinates of where else they meet, if both
these coordinates are positive and less than π.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
➤ understand and use polar coordinates
➤ convert from polar to Cartesian coordinates and vice versa
➤ sketch curves with simple polar equations in the form r = f (θ).
172

KEY POINTS 9
1 To convert from polar coordinates to Cartesian coordinates x = r cos θ ,
y = r sin θ .
2 To convert from Cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates r = x2 + y2 ,

y
θ = arctan ( ±π if necessary).
x
( )
3 The principal polar coordinates r, θ are those for which r > 0 and
−π < θ < π .
FUTURE USES
n If you study the Further Pure with Technology option you will use graphing
software to plot, describe and generalise polar curves and find gradients and arc
lengths of these curves.
173

10
4 Rational functions and further
algebra
Every picture is worth a

The graph in Figure 10.1 shows how the population of rabbits on a small island
thousand words.
changes over time after a small group is introduced to the island.
Traditional Chinese proverb
Number of rabbits
Time (years)
Figure 10.1
Discussion point
➜ What can you conclude from the graph?
Good diagrams not only help writers to communicate ideas efficiently, but they also
help students and researchers to discover and understand relationships.
174

A sketch graph should show the essential features of the graph, such as where it
cuts the axes, the nature and position of turning points, any symmetry, and the
behaviour of the graph as x or y tends to infinity. Approximate locations rather 10
than exact positions are often used.
In this chapter you will learn to find the key features of a curve by looking at its
Chapter 10 Rational functions and further algebra

equation, and to use them to sketch the curve. Although calculus methods are
available, they are often not needed.
Throughout this chapter you will find it helpful to use a graphical calculator or
graphing software to check your sketches. However, you should aim to be able
to produce your own sketch graphs without being dependent on technology.
To be able to sketch the graph of a function accurately without using a machine
demonstrates a good appreciation of the behaviour of that function. Learning to
draw such sketches will help you realise how various functions behave, and why
they behave like that.
If you have a graphical calculator, take the time to explore its graph-plotting capabilities,
especially the way you can adjust the horizontal and vertical scales in the window, and
how to zoom in and out. Beware; sometimes older technology will struggle with, for
example, y = 1 , drawing an unwanted line across x = 0 on your screen.
x
1 Graphs of rational functions

n
A rational number is defined as a number which can be expressed d where the
numerator, n, and the denominator, d, are integers, and d ≠ 0. In a similar way a rational
function is defined as a function which can be expressed in the form N( x ) , where the
D( x )
numerator, N(x), and denominator, D(x), are polynomials, and D(x) is not the zero
polynomial.This section concentrates on how to sketch graphs of rational functions.
Think about the graph of y = 1 . If you translate it three units to the right and
x
two units up you obtain the graph of y = 1 + 2 which can be rearranged
x−3
as y = 2 x − 5 (see Figure 10.2).
x−3
y y
1
y= x 2x − 5
y= x−3
O x 2
O 3 x
Figure 10.2
Asymptotes
Imagine yourself moving along the curve y = 2x − 5 from the left. As your x-
x−3
coordinate gets close to 3, your y-coordinate tends to −∞, and you get closer and
closer to the vertical line x = 3, shown dashed.
175

Graphs of rational functions
If you move along the curve again, letting your x coordinate increase without
limit, you get closer and closer to the horizontal line y = 2, also shown dashed.
These dashed lines are examples of asymptotes. An asymptote is a straight line
which a curve approaches tangentially as x and/or y tends to infinity. The line
x = 3 is a vertical asymptote; the line y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote. It is usual
for asymptotes to be shown by dashed lines in books. In their own work, people
often use a different colour for asymptotes.
N( x )
In general the line x = a is a vertical asymptote for the curve y = if
D( x )
D(a) = 0 and N(a) ≠ 0. The signs of the numerator N(x) and the denominator
D(x) when x is close to a enable you to determine whether y tends to positive or
negative infinity as x tends to a from left or from right. This is shown in
Step 2 below.
ACTIVITY 10.1
What are the vertical asymptotes of the graphs of the following?
(i) y = 1 (ii) y = x−2 (iii) y = 2

x+2 ( x − 1)( x + 2) (2x − 1)( x 2 + 1)
Check your answers by sketching each graph using graphing software or
graphical calculator.
So the graph of a rational function can have vertical asymptotes; it can also have
3x 2 − 1
horizontal asymptotes. Consider y = 2 . As x gets larger, whether in the
x +x +1
positive or negative direction, the x2 terms dominate, and you can neglect the x,
2
the 1 and the -1 terms. This leaves you with y = 3x2 , or y = 3. This becomes a
x
horizontal asymptote for the curve.
y=3
3x2 − 1
y= x2 + x + 1
Figure 10.3
176

The essential features of a sketch graph
Shown below are the steps used in building up a graph of 10
y = x+2
( x − 2)( x + 1)

Step 1 Find where the graph cuts the axes
The y intercept is where the graph cuts the y-axis.You find it by evaluating y when
x+2
x = 0. In the case of the equation y = ( x - 2)( x + 1) , the y intercept is (0,-1).
The x intercept is where the graph cuts the x-axis. To find it, you put y = 0, and
solve the resulting equation, getting, in this case, just one root, x = −2.You now
know that this graph passes through (0, −1) and (−2, 0) and does not cut the
axes anywhere else.
ACTIVITY 10.2
3x + 1
Where does the graph of y =
x − 2 cut the axes?
Step 2 Find the vertical asymptotes and examine the behaviour of the
graph either side of them
x+2
The denominator of ( x − 2)( x + 1) is zero when x = −1 or 2, but these values
do not make the numerator zero, so the vertical asymptotes are the lines x = −1
and x = 2.
ACTIVITY 10.3
What is the vertical asymptote of the graph of y =
3x + 1 ?
x−2
Behaviour of the graph either side of the asymptote x = −1

To examine the behaviour near x = −1, look at the three terms (x + 2),
(x – 2) and (x + 1), paying particular attention to their signs (see Figure 10.4).
When x is slightly less than −1 Vertical

(x + 2) is positive asymptotes
(x − 2) is negative
(x + 1) is negative and close to zero y
(x + 2)
so that y = is large and positive.
(x – 2)(x + 1)
You can make y as large as you like by −2 −1 O 1 2 x
taking x sufficiently close to −1 −1
⇒ as x tends to −1 from the left y → +∞
When x is slightly more than −1

(x + 2) is positive
(x − 2) is negative
(x + 1) is positive and close to zero
(x + 2)
so that y = is large and negative.
(x – 2)(x + 1)
You can make |y| as large as you like by
taking x sufficiently close to −1
⇒ as x tends to −1 from the right y → −∞
Figure 10.4
177

Behaviour of the graph either side of the asymptote x = 2

You can use a similar method to examine the behaviour of the graph as it
approaches its other vertical asymptote, x = 2.You will find that y → ∞ from the left
and y → +∞ as x → 2 from the right. Figure 10.5 shows the details obtained so far.
y → +∞ as x → 2 from the right
−2 −1 O 2 x
−1
y → −∞ as x → 2 from the left

Figure 10.5
Step 3 Examine the behaviour as x tends to infinity

You can write x → ∞ to mean ‘x tends to infinity’, i.e. x becomes very large
in a positive sense. Similarly x → −∞ means ‘x tends to negative infinity’, i.e. x
becomes very large in a negative sense.
ACTIVITY 10.4
Find the value of y =
x+2 when x is
( x − 2)( x + 1)
(i) 100 (ii) 1000 (iii) 10 000
(iv) −100 (v) −1000 (vi) −10 000
What do you think happens to y as x → ∞?
What happens to y as x → ∞ ?
When x is numerically very large (either positive or negative) the 2 in the

numerator and the −2 and the 1 in the denominator become negligible
compared to the values of x. So as x → +∞,
y= x+2 x = 1
( x − 2)( x + 1) → x 2 x → 0.
This means that the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.
ACTIVITY 10.5
(i) What are the signs of (x + 2), (x – 2) and (x + 1) for
(a) large, positive values of x
(b) large, negative values of x?
(ii) What is the sign of y for
(a) large, positive values of x
(b) large, negative values of x?
178

From Activity 10.5, you now know that y → 0 from above as x → ∞, and y → 0
from below as x → –∞. This additional information is shown in Figure 10.6.
y
10
The x-axis is a
horizontal asymptote

−2 −1 O 2 x
−1
Figure 10.6
In the same way, if the numerator of any rational function is of lower degree
than the denominator, then y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.
If the numerator has the same degree as the denominator, then as x → ± ∞, y tends
to a fixed rational number. So there is a horizontal asymptote of the form y = c.
ACTIVITY 10.6
3x + 1
How does the graph of y = x − 2 behave as x → ± ∞?
Step 4 Complete the sketch

The sketch is completed in Figure 10.7. Notice that this leads to the conclusion
that there is a local maximum between x = –1 and x = 2, and a local minimum to
the left of x = –2. You do not know the exact x-coordinate or the y-coordinate
Note of either the minimum or the maximum. Additionally, it has not been shown that
You will learn to there are no other turning points (see below for more on that subject).
differentiate functions
If you need to locate the stationary points precisely you can differentiate; then solve
of this form in A-Level
dy
Further Mathematics = 0. This would tell you that there are only two turning points, at x = 0 and at
Year 2.
dx
x = –4.
y x+2
y=
(x – 2)(x + 1)
−2 −1 O 2 x
−1
Figure 10.7
ACTIVITY 10.7
Use your answers from the earlier discussion points to sketch the graph of
y = 3x + 1. Check your sketch using graphing software or a graphical calculator.
x−2
179

How many turning points?

The sketch of y = x+2 was based on the information shown here
( x − 2)( x + 1)
in Figure 10.8.
y
y
−2 −1 O 2 x
−1 −2 −1 O 2 x
−1
Figure 10.8 y
y
y
Discussion
−2 −1 points
O 2 x
−1 −2 −1 O 2 x
−1 know that Figure
➜ Can −1beO sure that there
−2 you
−1
2 are x ➜ How do you
only two turning points, as shown 10.9(b), with additional turning
in Figure 10.9(a)? points, is wrong?
y
(a) (b) y
y
−2 −1 O 2 x
−1 −2 −1 O 2 x
−2 −1 O 2 x −1
−1
Figure 10.9
y
−2 −1 O 2 x
One way to do this −1 would be to differentiate y = x+2 and then put
( x − 2)( x + 1)
y = 0.
However, you may not have met differentiating rational functions, and
furthermore there is usually no need to find the actual coordinates of the
turning points. An easier approach is to think about how many times the graph
could meet a horizontal line with equation y = c, where c is a constant.
The x-coordinate of the points where the graph of y = x+2 meets the
( x − 2)( x + 1)
line y = c satisfies the equation y = x+2 c.
( x − 2)( x + 1) =
To solve this equation, you could multiply both sides by (x – 2) (x + 1), getting
x + 2 = c (x – 2) (x + 1)
which is a quadratic equation in x (unless c = 0).
180

It may have no real roots, corresponding to line A in Figure 10.10 not meeting
the curve or one real root, (i.e. repeated roots) – see line B or two distinct real
roots – see lines C and D. 10
The quadratic equation cannot have more than two roots: a horizontal line
cannot meet the curve in more than two places. But lines E and F each meet the

curve four times, a clear contradiction.
y
E
D
−2 −1 O 2 A x
B
F
C
Figure 10.10
Discussion point
➜ Explain how this argument also tells you that the local maximum point
on the curve must be lower than the local minimum point.
You already know that you have a (local) maximum between x = –1 and
x = 2 and a (local) minimum to the left of x = –2. Each additional turning point
increases (by 2) the number of times the curve meets a horizontal line which
already intersects the curve. So you cannot have additional turning points.
Example 10.1
( x − 2)(6 − x )
(i) Sketch the graph of y = ( x + 1)( x − 4) .
(ii) Explain how you know that the graph has no turning points.
Solution
(i) Step 1
When x = 0, y = −2 × 6 = 3
2 × −4
When y = 0, x = 2 or 6
The graph cuts the axes at (0, 3), (2, 0) and (6, 0).
Step 2
The vertical asymptotes of the curve are x = –1 and x = 4.
To look at the behaviour near the asymptotes, a table like the one
below may be helpful.
181

x slightly x slightly x slightly x slightly

less than –1 more than –1 less than 4 more than 4
(x – 2) – – + +
(6 – x) + + + +
(x + 1) – + + +
(x – 1) – – – +
( x − 2)(6 − x ) −x + = − −x + = + +×+ = − +×+ = +
( x + 1)( x + 4) −x − +x − +×− +×−
Table 10.1
The table shows that y is negative immediately to the left of the asymptote
x = –1, and positive immediately to its right; and y is negative immediately
to the left of the asymptote x = 4, and positive immediately to its right.
The information so far is shown in Figure 10.11.
y
–1 O 2 4 6 x
Figure 10.11
Step 3
( x − 2)(6 − x )
→ −x2 = −1.
2
As x → ± ∞, y =
( x + 1)( x − 4) x
So y = –1 is a horizontal asymptote.
For large positive values of x (e.g. try x = 100) y > –1, so y → –1 from
above as x → ∞.
For large negative values of x (e.g. try x = –100) y < –1, so y → –1
from below as x → –∞.
Figure 10.12 shows this additional information.
y
–1 O 2 4 6 x
–1

Figure 10.12
182

Step 4
The sketch is completed in Figure 10.13. 10
y

Discussion points
3
➜ In Example
10.1, was all
the information
obtained from −1 O 2 4 6 x
steps 1, 2 and 3 −1
necessary?
➜ Could you have
drawn the sketch Figure 10.13
without all this
information? ( x − 2)(6 − x )
(ii) The equation y = is equivalent to a quadratic in x,
( x + 1)( x − 4)
so each horizontal line (except the asymptote y = –1) will cross the
graph at most twice.
There cannot be any stationary points.
The range of values taken by a function

Earlier you saw that it is possible to justify the number of turning points on a
graph by considering the number of places where the graph meets a horizontal
line of the form y = c.
It is possible to extend this idea to find the range of possible values of a function,
and hence to find the coordinates of turning points without using calculus.
x+2
At the beginning of this chapter the graph of ( x − 2)( x + 1) was sketched,
see Figure 10.14.
−2 −1 O 2 x
−1
Figure 10.14
Discussion point x+2

This graph meets the horizontal line y = c where c = ( x − 2)( x + 1)
➜ How many roots
can this equation ⇒ c(x − 2) (x + 1) = x + 2
have?
⇒ cx2 − cx − 2c = x + 2
⇒ cx2 − (c + 1)x − 2c − 2 = 0
The condition for the quadratic equation cx2 − (c + 1)x − 2c − 2 = 0 to have
real roots is
183

(c + 1)2 − 4c (−2c − 2) > 0
c2 + 2c + 1 + 8c 2 + 8c > 0
9c 2 + 10c + 1 > 0
(c + 1) (9c + 1) > 0
c < 1 or c > − 91
The expression x+2 cannot take any values between –1 and – 91 .
( x − 2)( x + 1)
If you drew the lines y = –1 and y = – 91 on the sketch graph, the line y = –1
would touch the local maximum, and the line y = – 91 would touch the local
minimum.
Therefore, the local maximum has y-coordinate –1, and the local minimum has
y-coordinate – 1 .
9
y
−2 −1 O 2 1 x
y=−9
−1
y = −1
Figure 10.15
You can then find the x-coordinate of each turning point by substituting the
y-coordinates into the quadratic equation yx2 − (y + 1)x − 2y − 2 = 0.
For the local maximum y = −1 ⇒ −x2 − (−1 + 1)x + 2 − 2 = 0
⇒ x2 = 0
Discussion point
The local maximum has coordinates (0, −1).
( )
➜ Why must the 1 1 2
quadratic equation For the local minimum y = – 1 ⇒ − 9 x2 – − 9 + 1 x + 9 − 2 = 0
9
you have to solve
to obtain the ⇒ – 91 x2 – 8 x – 16 = 0
x-coordinates 9 9
of the turning ⇒ x + 8x + 16 = 0
2
points always be a
perfect square? ⇒ (x + 4)2 = 0
⇒ x = −4
(
The local minimum has coordinates − 4, − 91 . )
Using symmetry
Recognising symmetry can help you to draw a sketch.
If f(x) = f(–x) the graph of y = f(x) is symmetrical about the y-axis. Examples
include functions containing only even powers of x.
184

Example 10.2
(i) Sketch the graph of y = f(x), where f(x) = x2 + 1 .
2
(ii) The equation f(x) = k has no real solutions.

x +2 10
What can you say about the value of k?

Solution
(i) Step 1
1
When x = 0, y = , so the graph passes through 0, 1 .
2 2 ( )
No (real) value of x makes x2 + 1 = 0, so the graph does not cut the
x-axis.
Step 2
No (real) value of x makes x2 + 2 = 0, so there are no vertical asymptotes.
Step 3
x2 + 1 → x2
As x → ± ∞, =1
x2 + 2 x2
So y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote.
Since the denominator is larger than the numerator for all values of x,
y < 1 for all x.
So y → 1 from below as x → ± ∞.
As f(x) contains only even powers of x, the graph is symmetrical about
the y-axis (see Figure 10.16).
y
1
1
2
−3 O 3 x

Figure 10.16

1
Symmetry considerations tell you that the graph is stationary at 0, 2 . ( )
As, x2 + 1 .= y is a quadratic in x for any particular value of y, no
2
x +2
horizontal line will cross the graph more than twice, so you cannot
Differentiation will also have any more turning points.
( )
confirm that 0, 1 is
2 (ii) Solutions of the equation f(x) = k occur where the horizontal line
the only stationary point. y = k meets the curve y = f(x).
1
From the sketch of y = f(x), you can see that if k , or k > 1, then
2
the line y = k will not meet the curve and so there are no solutions to
the equation f(x) = k.
185

Inequalities
Exercise 10.1
For questions 1 to 3:
Step 1 Find the coordinates of the point(s) where the graph cuts the axes.
Step 2 Find the vertical asymptote(s).
Step 3 State the behaviour of the graph as x → ±∞.
Step 4 Sketch the graph.
2 x+2 4x − 1
① (i) y= x−3 (ii) y = (iii) y = 2x + 5
2x − 3
2 1 x
② (i) y= (ii) y= y
(iii) = x2 − 4
( x − 3)2 x +1
2
(2x − 3)(5x + 2) x 2 − 6x + 9 x 2 − 5x − 6
(i) y = y = y =
③ ( x + 1)( x − 4) (ii)
x2 + 1
(iii)
( x + 1)( x − 4)
( x − 2)( x + 1)
④ (i) Rearrange y = as a quadratic equation in x.
x2
(ii) Write down the condition for this equation to have real roots, and
deduce the maximum value of y for real x.
(iii) Find the value of x corresponding to this value of y.
( x − 2)( x + 1)
(iv) Sketch the graph of y = , showing the coordinates of the
turning point. x2
⑤ (i) Find the set of possible values of 6x2 + 6 for real x.

x +3
(ii) Sketch the graph of 2 6 x + 6 , giving the coordinates of the turning
points. x +3
x( x − 1)
⑥ Sketch the graph y = for various values of a.
( x − 2)( x − a )
x( x − 1)
How many roots are there for ( x − 2)( x − a ) = 0 as a varies?
⑦ Draw the graph y = x 2 + ax + 1 in the cases where:

2
x + bx + 1
(i) a < 2 and b = 2
(ii) a > 2 and b < 2

(iii) a < 2 and b > 2
2 Inequalities
An inequality is a statement involving one of the relationships <, >,  or .
There are two types of inequality:
n those whose truth depend on the value of the variable involved
n those which are always true.
For example: the statement x2 > 4 is true if and only if x < −2 or x > 2,
whereas the statement (x − 3)2 + y 2  0 is true for all real values of x and y.
186

This section deals with the first type of inequality, in which the task is to find
the set of values for which the inequality is true. This is called solving the
inequality. 10
There are some basic rules for manipulating inequalities.
Rule Example (based on ‘is greater than’)

1 you may add the same number to x>y⇔x+a>y+a
each of an inequality.
2 you may multiply (or divide) both If p is positive x > y ⇔ px > py
sides of an inequality by the same
Discussion point positive number.
➜ Give an example 3 If both sides of an inequality are If n is negative: x > y ⇔ nx < ny
to show that multiplied (or divided) by the same
inequalities may
negative number the inequality is
not be subtracted.
reversed.
4 You may add (but not subtract) a > b and x > y ⇒ a + x > b + y
corresponding sides of inequalities of
the same type.
5 Inequalities of the same type are x > y and y > z ⇒ x > z
transitive.
Table 10.2
The same basic rules apply to each of inequalities >, <,  and .
An obvious method of solving an inequality such as f(x) > 0 is to use the graph
of y = f(x): the solution is then the set of values of x for which the graph is
above the x-axis. If you have already drawn the graph, or it is required for
another purpose, this is a quick and easy method.
Example 10.3 x+2

Solve the inequality ( x - 2)( x + 1)  0.
Solution
The graph of y = x+2 was sketched on p 183.
( x - 2)( x + 1)
y
−2 −1 O 2 x
−1
Figure 10.17
187

Inequalities
From Figure 10.17, you can see that the graph lies below the x-axis for
values of x less than –2, and also for values of x between the two vertical
asymptotes, x = –1 and x = 2.
The solution is x  –2 or –1 < x < 2.
This solution is shown in Figure 10.18.
x = −2 is included in the x = −1 and x = 2 are not included,
solution set, since f (−2) = 0. since the function is undefined at
This is indicated by the y these points. These are indicated
solid circle at x = 2 by open circles
−2 −1 O 2 x
−1
Figure 10.18
If a graph is not required, it may be quicker to use an algebraic method. As the

value of x changes, a function f(x) can only change its sign as x passes through
a value where f(x) = 0 or where f(x) is undefined. These values of x are known
g( x )
as critical points. In the case of a function of the form f (x) = , the critical
h( x )
points occur when g(x) = 0 or h(x) = 0.You can then find out whether each
factor is positive or negative in each region, and hence whether or not the
inequality is true in each region.
Taking the inequality from Example 10.3, you can see how this works in practice
in Example 10.4.
Example 10.4
Solve the inequality x+2  0.
( x - 2)( x + 1)
Solution
The critical points are x = –2 (where the numerator is zero),
x = –1 and x = 2 (where the denominator is zero). First note that x = –2 is
included in the solution set, but x = –1 and x = 2 are not.
x < –2 –2 < x < –1 –1 < x < 2 x>2
(x + 2) – + + +
(x – 2) – – + +
(x + 1) – – – +
( x + 2) − =− + =+ + =− + =+
( x − 2)( x + 1) −×− −×− −×+ +×+
Table 10.3
The solution is x  –2 or –1< x < 2.
188

Inequalities of the form g(x)  h(x)
To solve g(x)  h(x), you could draw the graphs of y = g(x) and y = h(x) 10
and find the values of x where the graph of g(x) intersects or is lower than the
graph of h(x).

Alternatively, you can rearrange the inequality so that it is all on the
left-hand side; then use either a graphical or algebraic method. In the next
example, three different methods are shown.
Example 10.5
Solve the inequality x + 2 > 3 .
x
Solution 1
Since both sides of the inequality are simple functions, it is easy to sketch
graphs of y = x + 2 and y = 3 .
x
y
3
y= x
y=x+2
3
y= x
Figure 10.19
3
To find the points where the graphs intersect, solve the equation x + 2 = x .
x (x + 2) = 3
x2 + 2x – 3 = 0 Note that x = 0 is not included in
the solution, since 3 is undefined
(x + 3) (x – 3) = 0 x
at this point.
x = –3 or 1
From the graph, the solution is –3  x < 0 or x  1.
Solution 2
x +2> 3
x
3
⇔ x + 2− x >0
⇔ x + 2x − 3 > 0
2
x
⇔ ( x + 3)( x − 1) > 0
x
189

Inequalities
The critical points are x = –3, x = 1 and x = 0. Notice that x = –3 and x = 1

are included in the solution set, but x = 0 is not.
x < –3 –3 < x < 0 0<x<1 x>1
(x + 3) – + + +
(x – 1) – – + +
x – – – +
( x + 3)( x − 1) −×− = − +×− =+ +×− = − +×+ =+
x − − + +
Table 10.4
The solution is –3  x < 0 and x  1.
Solution 3
( x + 3)( x − 1)
As in Solution 2, rearrange the inequality to obtain x  0.
If this were an equation, you could multiply both sides by x, provided that
x ≠ 0.
However, as this is an inequality, multiplying both sides by x is a problem;
x could be positive or negative, and if it is negative you must reverse the
inequality.You could consider the two cases separately, but this is rather
cumbersome; a better method is to multiply both sides by x2, which is always
positive, provided that x ≠ 0.
Multiplying by x2 gives x (x + 3)(x – 1)  0, x ≠ 0.
This cubic graph is easy to sketch.
y
–3 1 x
This point is
available as a
This point is not
solution point
available as a
solution point
Figure 10.20
From the graph the solution is –3  x < 0 or x  1.
In the next example, both sides of the inequality are rather more complicated
expressions, so sketching graphs of both functions would involve quite a lot
of work. However, either of the methods shown in Solution 2 and Solution 3
of Example 10.5 work well.
190

Example 10.6
Solve the inequality 2x − 1 < 9 .
x −1 x +1 10
Solution 1
2x − 1 < 9 ⇔ 2x − 1 − 9  0

x −1 x +1 x −1 x +1
(2x − 1)( x + 1) − 9( x − 1)
⇔ <0
( x − 1)( x + 1)
2x 2 − 8x + 8
⇔ ( x − 1)( x + 1) < 0
2( x − 2)2
⇔ ( x − 1)( x + 1) < 0
The critical points are x = 2, x = 1 and x = –1. Note that x = 2 is included

in the solution but x = 1 and x = –1 are not.
x < –1 –1 < x < 1 1<x<2 x>2
(x – 2) 2
+ + + +
(x – 1) – – + +
(x + 1) – + + +
2( x − 2)2 + + =− + =+ + =+
< 0− × − = + −×+ +×+ +×+
( x − 1)( x + 1)
Table 10.5
The solution is –1 < x < 1 or x = 2.
Solution 2
2( x − 2)2
As in Solution 1, rearrange the inequality to obtain ( x − 1)( x + 1) < 0 .
Multiply by (x – 1)2 (x + 1)2, provided x ≠ ±1:
2(x – 1) (x + 1) (x – 2)2  0
A sketch of y = 2(x – 1) (x + 1) (x – 2)2 gives you the solution
–1 < x < 1 or x = 2.
y
−1 O 1 2 x
Figure 10.21
191

Inequalities
Solving cubic and quartic inequalities

Example 10.7
Solve the inequality (x – 1) (3 – x) (2x – 1) > 0.
Solution
It is helpful to sketch the graph y = (x – 1) (3 – x) (2x – 1) here.
0.5 1 3
Figure 10.22
From the graph, you can see that (x – 1) (3 – x) (2x – 1) > 0 is true if and
only if x < 0.5 or 1 < x < 3.
Example 10.8
Solve 6x2 + 5x – 8  3 .
x
Solution 1
This is 6x2 + 5x – 8 – 3  0, or 6x + 5x − 8x − 3 < 0.
3 2
x x
If f (x) = 6x3 + 5x2 – 8, Thus f (x) = (x – 1) (6x2 + 11x + 3).
then f(1) = 0, so x – 1
is a factor of f(x) by the = (x – 1)(3x + 1)(2x + 3)
factor theorem. ( x − 1)(3x + 1)(2x + 3)
So you need to solve < 0.
x
( x − 1)(3x + 1)(2x + 3)
You can sketch the graph of y =
x
y
O x
Figure 10.23
Notice that x = 0
Thus, the solution is − 3 < x < − 1 ,0 < x < 1. is not part of the
2 3
solution.
Solution 2
Multiply 6x2 + 5x – 8 – 3  0 by x2 (x ≠ 0) which is always positive.
x
This gives 6x + 5x – 8x 2 – 3x  0
4 3
x(6x3 + 5x 2 – 8x – 3)  0
x(x –1)(6x2 + 11x + 3)  0
x(x –1)(3x + 1)(2x + 3)  0
Sketching y = x(x – 1)(2x + 3)(3x + 1) is also straightforward.
192

−3/2 −1/3 1
You need to exclude x = 0 from the
solution because when multiplying
10
through by x² you assumed that x = 0 .
Figure 10.24

3 1
From the graph, the solution is −  x  − , 0 , x  1.
2 3
Example 10.9
Solve 2x4 + 6x2 > 9x3 − 11x + 6.
Solution
This rearranges to 2x4 − 9x3 + 6x2 + 11x − 6 > 0.
If f(x) = 2x4 − 9x3 + 6x2 + 11x − 6, then f(−1) = f(2) = f(3) = 0,
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)(2x − 1) > 0. Using the factor
theorem to factorise
Once again y =(x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)(2x − 1) is the left-hand side.
not hard to sketch.
−1 0.5 2 3
Figure 10.25
So the solution is x < −1, 0.5 < x < 2, 3 < x.
Exercise 10.2
① (i) Sketch the graph of y = (x + 3)(x − 1)(2x − 7).
(ii) Hence solve the inequality (x + 3)(x − 1)(2x − 7) > 0.
② (ii) Sketch the graph of

x + 2.
x −1
(ii) Hence solve the inequality
x + 2  0.
x −1
③ (i) Sketch the graphs of y = x and y = 2x + 3 on the same axes.
2
(ii) Hence solve the inequality x2 < 2x + 3.

8
④ (i) Sketch the graphs of x2  and y = x2 on the same axes.
x
8
(ii) Hence solve the inequality x2  .
x
1
(i) Sketch the graph of y = x3 and y =
⑤ x on the same axes
(ii) Hence solve the inequality xy3 = 1.
x
⑥ Solve the inequality 2x − 3 < 4x + 3.
3x − 1
⑦ (i) Solve the equation x2 − x = x − x2 + 2.
(ii) Hence solve the inequality x2 − x < x − x2 + 2.
193

Inequalities
⑧ Sketch the curves y = 2x − 3 and y = 2x − 3.

(i)
x
(ii) Hence solve the inequality 2 x − 3 > 2 x − 3.
x
⑨ (i) Show that
1 < 9x +2 8x + 3 < 11.

2
x +1
Sketch the graph of y = 9x +2 8x + 3 , giving the coordinates of the
2
(ii)
turning points. x +1
⑩ (i) Solve the inequality (x + 2) (x − 3) < 4x.

4x
(ii) Hence solve the inequality x + 2 < .
x −3
⑪ Solve these inequalities.
x+3 2x − 1 1
(i)  2
(ii)
2x − 1 x+3 2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
➤ sketch the graph of a rational function of the form
ax ++ bb or
ax ax22 ++ bx
ax
or 22
bx ++ cc
cx ++ dd dx
cx dx ++ exex ++ ff
(including cases where some of these coefficients may be zero) by:
➤ identifying horizontal and vertical asymptotes
➤ finding intersection points with the axes and other straight lines
➤ examining what happens as x or y tends to infinity
➤ use symmetry to help you sketch a curve

➤ use quadratic theory rather than calculus to find the possible values of a
function
ax 2 + bx + c and to find its stationary points
dx 2 + ex + f
➤ understand how simple inequalities work, and how to solve them, including
cubic and quartic inequalities
ax + b , ex + f
solve inequalities like algebraically and graphically.
➤
cx + d
194

KEY POINTS 10
1 A rational function is a function which can be expressed in the form y =
N( x ) ,
D( x )
where the numerator, N(x), and the denominator, D(x), are polynomials, and

D(x) is not the zero polynomial.
N( x )
2 To sketch the graph of y = follow these steps,
D( x )
Step 1 Find the intercepts, that is where the graph cuts the axes.
Step 2 Examine the behaviour of the graph neat the vertical asymptotes;
these are the lines x = a if D(a) = 0 and N(a) ≠ 0.
Step 3 Examine the behaviour as x → ± ∞.
Step 4 Show what you have found in Steps 1, 2 and 3 on a sketch graph
and compete the sketch.
3 Inequalities of the form f(x) > 0 (or f(x) < 0) can be solved by sketching
the graph of y = f(x) and finding those parts of the graph which are above
(or below) the x-axis.
4 If you want to multiply (or divide) both sides of an inequality by some number,
you need to know its sign:
− if p is positive: x > y ⇔ px > py
− if n is positive: x > y ⇔ nx > ny.
5 Inequalities of the form f(x) < 0 or f(x) > 0 can also be solved by finding the
critical points (the points where the function is either zero of undefined) and
testing whether the inequality is true in each region.
6 An alternative approach to solving an inequality involving a rational function
is to multiply by the square of the denominator (as this is automatically
positive).
195

11 The determinant of a matrix
The grandthing
The grand thing
is toisbetoable
be
able to reason backwards.
to reason backwards.
Arthur Conan Doyle Discussion points
➜ What is the same
about each of the
triangles in the
diagram?
➜ How many of the
yellow triangles are
needed to cover the
large purple triangle?
Figure 11.1 Sierpinski triangle.

The diagram in Figure 11.1 is called a Sierpinski triangle. The pattern can be
continued with smaller and smaller triangles.
196

Prior knowledge 1 The determinant of a matrix
You need to have covered
Figure 11.2 shows the unit square, labelled OIPJ, and the parallelogram OIPJ
11
the work on matrices
and transformations  5 4 
formed when OIPJ is transformed using the matrix  .
 1 2 
from Chapter 1.
Chapter 11 The determinant of a matrix

y
3 P
6.5 units2
J
2
4 units2
J P 8 units2
1
I
2.5 units2
O 1I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
Figure 11.2
What effect does the transformation have on the area of OIPJ?

The area of OIPJ is 1 unit².
To find the area of OIPJ, a rectangle has been drawn surrounding it. The area
of the rectangle is 9 × 3 = 27 units².The part of the rectangle that is not inside
OIPJ has been divided up into two triangles and two trapezia and their areas are
shown on the diagram.
So, area OIPJ = 27 − 2.5 − 8 − 6.5 − 4 = 6 units².
The interesting question is whether you could predict this answer from the
 5 4 
numbers in the matrix  .
 1 2 
You can see that 5 × 2 − 4 × 1 = 6. Is this just a coincidence?
To answer that question you need to transform the unit square by the general
 a b 
2 × 2 matrix  and see whether the area of the transformed figure
 c d 
is ad − bc units². The answer is, ‘Yes’, and the proof is left for you to do in the
activity below.
Hint
You are advised to use ACTIVITY 11.1
the same method as  a b 
the example above but The unit square is transformed by the matrix  .
 c d 
replace the numbers by
the appropriate letters. Prove that the resulting shape is a parallelogram with area ad − bc units2.
It is now evident that the quantity ad − bc is the area scale factor associated with the
 a b 
transformation matrix  . It is called the determinant of the matrix.
 c d 
The are several ways to denote the determinant of a matrix M: det (M), det M, |M|
and ∆.
197

The determinant of a matrix
Example 11.1 A shape S has area 8 cm². S is mapped to a shape T under the transformation
 
represented by the matrix M = 1 −2 .
 3 0 
Find the area of shape T.
y
S
x
Figure 11.3
Note Solution The area scale

In Example 11.1, it does factor of the
 1 −2  transformation
not matter what shape S det  = (1 × 0) − ( −2 × 3) = 0 + 6 = 6
looks like; for any shape  3 0  is 6 ...
S with area 8 cm², the
area of the image T will Area of T = 8 × 6 … and so the area of the original
always be 48 cm². shape is multiplied by 6.
= 48cm 2
Example 11.2 (i) Draw a diagram to show the image of the unit square OIPJ under the
 
transformation represented by the matrix M =  2 3  .
 4 1 
(ii) Find det (M).
(iii) Use your answer to part (ii) to find the area of the transformed shape.
Solution
    
(i)  2 3   0 1 1 0  =  0 2 5 3 
 4 1  0 0 1 1   0 4 5 1 
y
P′
5
I′
4
2
J P
1
J′
O 1I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
Figure 11.4
198

11
 2 3 
(ii) det  = (2 × 1) − (3 × 4) = 2 − 12 = −10
 4 1 
(iii) The area of the transformed shape is 10 square units.

Notice that the determinant is negative. Since area
cannot be negative, the area of the transformed shape
is 10 square units.
The sign of the determinant does have significance. If you move anticlockwise
around the original unit square you come to vertices O, I, P, J in that order.
However, moving anticlockwise about the image reverses the order of the
vertices i.e. O, J, P, I. This reversal in the order of the vertices corresponds to
the negative determinant.
Discussion point
➜ Which of the following transformations reverse the order of the vertices?
(i) rotation
(ii) reflection
(iii) enlargement
Check your answers by finding the determinants of matrices representing
these transformations.
Matrices with determinant zero

Figure 11.5 shows the image of the unit square OIPJ under the transformation
 6 4 
represented by the matrix T =  .
 3 2 
Notice that the image points

y
all lie on the line y = 1 x.
2
6
P′
4
I′
J′
2
J P
−2 O I 2 4 6 8 10 x
Figure 11.5
The determinant of T = (6 × 2) − (4 × 3) = 12 − 12 = 0.
This means that the area scale factor of the transformation is zero, so any shape is
transformed into a shape with area zero.
199

The determinant of a matrix
In this case, the image of a point (p, q) is given by

 6 4   p   6 p + 4q   2(3 p + 2q ) 
   = .
 
 3 2   q  =  3 p + 2q   3 p + 2q 
     
You can see that for all the possible image points, the y-coordinate is half the
x-coordinate, showing that all the image points lie on the line y = 1 x.
2
In this transformation, more than one point maps to the same image point.
For example, (4, 0) → (24, 12)
(0, 6) → (24, 12)
(1, 4.5) → (24, 12).
Exercise 11.1 ① Match each matrix with its determinant.

 1 2   −1 1   2 1   −1 1 
Matrices:  , , ,
 2 1   1 −1   1 2   1 −1 
Determinants: 2, 3, 0, −3
② For each of the following matrices:
(a) draw a diagram to show the image of the unit square under the
transformation represented by the matrix
(b) find the area of the image in part (a)
(c) find the determinant of the matrix.
 3 −2   4 0   4 −8   5 −7 
(i)
 4 1  (ii)
 −1 4  (iii)
 1 −2  (iv)
 −3 2 
 x − 3 −3 
③ The matrix  has determinant 9.
 2 x − 5 
Find the possible values of x.
④ (i) Write down the matrices A, B, C and D which represent:

A – a reflection in the x-axis
B – a reflection in the y-axis
C – a reflection in the line y = x
D – a reflection in the line y = − x
(ii) Show that each of the matrices A, B, C and D has determinant of –1.
(iii) Draw diagrams for each of the transformations A, B, C and D to
demonstrate that the images of the vertices labelled anticlockwise on the
unit square OIPJ are reversed to a clockwise labelling.
⑤ A triangle has area 6 cm². The triangle is transformed by means of the
 
matrix  2 3  .
 −3 1 
Find the area of the image of the triangle.
200

 a 0 
⑥ The two-way stretch with matrix
 0 d 
preserves the area (i.e. the
11
area of the image is equal to the area of the original shape).
What is the relationship connecting a and d?

 a b   a −1 
⑦ The matrix  has determinant 1. The matrix  has
 1 4    b 2 
determinant 5. Find the values of a and b.
⑧ Figure 11.6 shows the unit square transformed by a shear.

y
J P J′ P′
1
I′
O 1I 2 3 4 x
−1
Figure 11.6
(i) Write down the matrix which represents this transformation.

(ii) Show that under this transformation the area of the image is always
equal to the area of the object.
 4 −6 
⑨ The plane is transformed by the matrix M =  .
(i) Draw a diagram to show the image of
 2 −3 
the unit square under the transformation represented by M.
(ii) Describe the effect of the transformation and explain this with
reference to the determinant of M.
 5 −10 
⑩ The plane is transformed by the matrix N =  .
(i) Find the image of the point (p, q).
 −1 2 
(ii) Hence show that the whole plane is mapped to a straight line and
find the equation of this line.
(iii) Find the determinant of N and explain its significance.
⑪ A matrix T maps all points on the line x + 2y = 1 to the point (1, 3).
(i) Find the matrix T and show that it has determinant of zero.
(ii) Show that T maps all points on the plane to the line y = 3x .
(iii) Find the coordinates of the point to which all points on the line
x + 2y = 3 are mapped.
 a b 
⑫ The plane is transformed using the matrix  where ad − bc = 0 .
 c d 
Prove that the general point P(x, y) maps to P on the line cx − ay = 0 .
⑬ The point P is mapped to P on the line 3y = x so that PP is parallel
to the line y = 3x .
(i) Find the equation of the line parallel to y = 3x passing through the
point P with coordinates (s, t).
(ii) Find the coordinates of P, the point where this line meets 3y = x .
201

The inverse of a matrix
(iii) Find the matrix of the transformation which maps P to P and show
that the determinant of this matrix is zero.
 5 3   3 2 
⑭ M =  and N =  .

 4 2   −2 1 
(i) Find the determinants of M and N.
(ii) Find the matrix MN and show that det(MN) = det (M) × det (N).
2 The inverse of a matrix

The identity matrix
 1 0 
Whenever you multiply a 2 × 2 matrix M by  the product is M. It
 0 1 
makes no difference whether you pre-multiply, for example,
 1 0   4 −2   4 −2 
   = 
 0 1   6 3   6 3 
or post-multiply
 4 −2   1 0   4 −2 
   = .
 6 3   0 1   6 3 
ACTIVITY 11.2  1 0 
The matrix  is known as the 2 × 2 identity matrix.
(i) Write down the  0 1 
matrix P which Identity matrices are often denoted by the letter I.
represents a
reflection in the For multiplication of matrices, I behaves in the
x-axis. same way as the number 1 when dealing with Similarly, the 3 × 3 identity
(ii) Find the matrix P². the multiplication of real numbers.  1 0 0 
(iii) Comment on your
matrix is  0 1 0  .
The transformation represented by the identity
answer.  0 0 1 
matrix maps every points to itself.
Example 11.3 (i) Write down the 2 by 2 matrix A which represents a rotation of
90° anticlockwise about the origin.
(ii) Write down the 2 by 2 matrix B which represents a rotation of
90° clockwise about the origin.
(iii) Find the product AB and comment on your answer.
Solution
(i)  0 −1 
A =
 1 0 
 0 1 
(ii) B=
 −1 0 
 0 −1   0 1   1 0 
(iii) AB =    = 
 1 0   −1 0   0 1 
AB represents a rotation of 90° clockwise followed by a rotation of
90° anticlockwise. The result of this is to return to the starting point.
202

To undo the effect of a rotation through 90° anticlockwise about the origin, you
need to carry out a rotation through 90° clockwise about the origin. These two
transformations are inverses of each other. 11
Similarly, the matrices which represent these transformations are inverses of each other.
 0 1   0 −1 

In Example 11.3, B =   is the inverse of A =  , and vice
versa.  −1 0   1 0 
Finding the inverse of a matrix

If the product of two square matrices, M and N, is the identity matrix I, then
N is the inverse of M and M is the inverse of N.You can write this as N = M−1
and M = N−1.
 a b   p q 
Generally, if M =   you need to find an inverse matrix   such
 c d   r s 
     
that  a b   p q  =  1 0  .
 
 c d   r s   0 1 
ACTIVITY 11.3
 a b   d −b 
Multiply  by .
 c d   − c a 
What do you notice?
 a b 
Use your result to write down the inverse of the general matrix M =  .
 c d 
How does the determinant |M| relate to the matrix M−1?
You should have found in the activity that the inverse of the matrix
 a b 
M=  is given by
 c d 
1  d −b 
M–1 = ad − bc  .
 −c a 
If the determinant is zero then the inverse matrix does not exist and the matrix
is said to be singular. If det(M) ≠ 0 the matrix is said to be non-singular.
If a matrix is singular, then it maps all points on the plane to a straight line (or
the origin). So an infinite number of points are mapped to the same point on the
straight line. It is therefore not possible to find the inverse of the transformation,
because an inverse matrix would map a point on that straight line to just one other
point, not to an infinite number of them.
A special case is the zero matrix, which maps all points to the origin.
203

Example 11.4
 11 3 
A=
 6 2 
(i) Find A–1.
(ii) The point P is mapped to the point Q (5, 2) under the transformation
represented by A. Find the coordinates of P.
Solution
(i) det(A) = (11 × 2) – (3 × 6) = 4
1  2 −3 
A–1 = 4 
 −6 11 
 5  1 2 −3   5 
(ii) A –1  =    
 2  4 −6 11   2 
 4 
= 1 
4 −8 
A maps P  1 
to Q, so A–1 = 
maps Q to P.  −2 
The coordinates of P are (1, –2).
As matrix multiplication is generally non-commutative, it is interesting to find

out if MM–1 = M–1M. The next activity investigates this.
ACTIVITY 11.4
 11 3 
(i) In Example 11.4 you found that the inverse of A =  is
 6 2 
A–1 = 1
 2 −3  .
4  −6 11 
Show that AA–1 = A–1A = I.
 a b 
(ii) If the matrix M =
 c d  , write down M and show that MM = M M = I.
–1 –1 –1
The result MM−1 = M−1M = I is important as it means that the inverse of a

matrix, if it exists, is unique. This is true for all square matrices, not just 2 × 2
matrices.
204

Discussion points
➜ How would you reverse the effect of a rotation followed by a reflection? 11
➜ How would you write down the inverse of a matrix product MN in terms of
M−1 and N−1?

TECHNOLOGY The inverse of a product of matrices
Investigate how to use Suppose you want to find the inverse of the product MN, where M and N are
your calculator to find non-singular matrices. This means that you need to find a matrix X such that
the inverse of 2 × 2 and X(MN) = I.
3 × 3 matrices.
X(MN) = I ⇒ XMNN–1 = IN–1 Post-multiply by N–1
Check using your
calculator that ⇒ XM = IN–1 Using NN–1 = I
multiplying a matrix
by its inverse gives the ⇒ XMM–1 = N–1M–1 Post-multiply by M–1
identity matrix.
⇒X=N M –1 –1
Using MM–1 = I
So (MN)–1 = N–1M–1 for matrices M and N of the same order. This means that
when working backwards, you must reverse the second transformation before
reversing the first transformation.
Exercise 11.2
 
① For the matrix  5 −1 
 −2 0 
(i) find the image of the point (3, 5)
(ii) find the inverse matrix
(iii) find the point which maps to the image (3, -2).
② Determine whether the following matrices are singular or non-singular.
For those that are non-singular, find the inverse.
 6 3   6 3   11 3   11 11 
(i)
 −4 2  (ii)  4 2  (iii)
 3 11  (iv)  3 3 
 2 −7   −2a 4a   −2 4a 
(v) (vi) (vii)
 0 0   4b −8b   4b −8 
−1 −1
 1 0   2 0 
③ What is (i)  0 1  ? (ii)  0 2  ?
−1 −1
 −3 0   k 0 
(iii)  0 −3  ? (iv)  0 k  ?
 5 6   
④ M=   and N =  8 5  .
 2 3   −2 −1 
Calculate the following:
(i) M−1 (iii) MN (v) (MN)−1 (vii) M−1N−1
(ii) N−1 (iv) NM (vi) (NM)−1 (viii) N−1M−1
205

⑤ The diagram shows the unit square OIPJ mapped to the image OI′P′J′
under a transformation represented by a matrix M.
y
P′
5
4
I′
3
J′ 2
J P
1
–3 –2 –1 0 1I 2 3 x

Figure 11.7
(i) Find the inverse of M.
(ii) Use matrix multiplication to show that M−1 maps OI′P′J′ back to OIPJ.
 1−k 2 
⑥ The matrix  is singular.
 −1 4 − k 
Find the possible values of k.
 2 3   7 2 −9 10 
⑦ Given that M =  and MN =  , find the
 −1 4 
  2 −1 −12 17 
matrix N.
⑧ Triangle T has vertices at (1, 0), (0, 1) and (−2, 0).
 3 1 
It is transformed to triangle T′ by the matrix M =  .
 1 1 
(i) Find the coordinates of the vertices of T′.
Show the triangles T and T′ on a single diagram.

(ii) Find the ratio of the area of T′ to the area of T.
Comment on your answer in relation to the matrix M.
(iii) Find M–1 and verify that this matrix maps the vertices of T′ to the
vertices of T.
 a b 
⑨ M =  is a singular matrix.
 c d 
(i) Show that M² = (a + d )M .
(ii) Find a formula which expresses Mn in terms of M, where n is a positive
integer.
Comment on your results.
 a b 
⑩ The matrix R =  has determinant −1. Show that R−1 = R.
 c − a 
Matrices that are equal to their inverses are known as self-inverse. Give
some examples of transformations that are self-inverse.
206

⑪ Given that PQR = I, show algebraically that
(i) Q = P–1 R–1 11
(ii) Q–1 = RP.
 3 1   12 −3 
Given that P =   and R = 
 1 2   2 −1 

(iii) use part (i) to find the matrix Q
(iv) calculate the matrix Q–1

(v) verify that your answer to part (ii) is correct by calculating RP and
comparing it with your answer to part (iv).
LEARNING OUTCOMES
➤ find the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix
➤ know what is meant by a singular matrix
➤ understand that the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix represents the area scale

factor of the corresponding transformation, and understand the significance
of the sign of the determinant
➤ find the inverse of a non-singular 2 × 2 matrix
➤ understand the significance of a zero determinant in terms of transformations
➤ use the product rule for inverse matrices.
KEY POINTS
 
1 If M =  a b  then the determinant of M, written det(M), |M|, det M or Δ is
 c d 
given by det(M) = ad − bc .
2 The determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix represents the area scale factor of the
transformation.
  1  d −b 
3 IfMM ==  a b  then M−1 =  .
 c d  ad − bc  −c a 
4 If N and M are square matrices of the same order, then' (MN)−1 = N−1M−1.
5 A matrix is singular if the determinant is zero. If the determinant is non-zero
the matrix is said to be non-singular.
6 If the determinant of a matrix is zero, all points are mapped to either a straight
line or the origin (in two dimensions).
7 If A is a non-singular matrix, AA−1 = A−1A = I.
207

12 Vectors and 3D space
I pulled out, on the spot,

a pocket book, which still Discussion points
exists, and made an entry,
➜ A zip wire can be modelled as a straight line. How can you find the equation of a
on which, at the very line in three dimensions?
moment, I felt it might be ➜ How could you work out the distance between the two zip wires?
worth my while to expend
the labour of at least ten (or
it might be fifteen) years to
come. But then it is fair to
say that this was because I Prior knowledge
felt a problem to have been You need to be able to use the language of vectors, including the terms magnitude,
at that moment solved, an direction and position vector. You should also be able to find the distance between two
intellectual want relieved, points represented by position vectors and be able to add and subtract vectors and
which had haunted me for multiply a vector by a scalar.
at least fifteen years before. • A vector quantity has magnitude and direction.
William R. Hamilton, writing • A scalar quantity has magnitude only.

on 16th October 1858, about • Vectors are typeset in bold, a or OA, or in the form OA .
his invention of quarternions
on 16th October 1843
208

They are handwritten either in the underlined form a, or as OA OA.
• Unit vectors in the x, y and z directions are denoted by i, j and k respectively.
• The resultant of two (or more) vectors is found by the sum of the vectors.
12
A resultant vector is usually denoted by a double-headed arrow.

• The position vector OP of a point P is the vector joining the origin to P.
Chapter 12 Vectors and 3D space

• The vector AB = b – a, where a and b are the position vectors of A and B.
• The length (or modulus or magnitude) of the vector r is written as r or as |r|.
r = ai + bj + ck ⇒ r = a2 + b2 + c 2
1 Finding the angle between two

vectors
In this section you will learn how to find the angle between two vectors in two
dimensions or three dimensions.
Example 12.1
y
P(3, 5)
Q(7, 1)
θ
O x
Remember that OP denotes
the
vector from O to P, and
OP is the magnitude

Figure 12.1 (length) of OP.
Find the angle POQ.
Solution
2 2 2
OP + OQ − PQ
Using the cosine rule: cos θ =
2 × OP × OQ
 3 
OP =   so OP = 32 + 52 = 34
 5 
 7 
 so OQ = 7 + 1 =
2 2
OQ =  50
 1 
 7   3   4 
PQ = OQ − OP =  − = so PQ = 42 + 42 = 32
 1   5   −4 
so cos θ = 34 + 50 − 32 Using
2 × 34 × 50 Pythagoras’
theorem.
θ = 50.9°
209

Finding the angle between two vectors
 a1 
More generally, to find the angle between OA = a =  and
 a2 
 b1 
OB = b =   , start by applying the cosine rule to the triangle OAB in
 b2 
Figure 12.2.
y
Discussion point B
(b1, b2)
➜ How else could you
A
find the angle θ?
(a1, a2)
a b
O x
Figure 12.2
2 2 2
OA + OB − AB OA , OB and AB
cos θ =
2 × OA × OB are the lengths of the
①
vectors OA, OB and AB.
Also from the diagram:

OA = a = a12 + a22 and OB = b = b12 + b22 ②
and
 b1   a1   b1 − a1 
AB = b − a =   −  = 
 b2   a 2   b2 − a 2 

so AB = (b1 − a1 )2 + (b2 − a2 ) ③
2
ACTIVITY 12.1
a1b1 + a 2b2
By substituting ② and ③ into ① show that cos θ =
2 2
a b
2 2
where a = a1 + a 2 and b = b1 + b2 .
The activity above showed that for Figure 12.2

a b + a 2 b2
cos θ = 1 1 .
a b
The expression on the numerator, a1b1 + a2b2, is called the scalar
product of the vectors a and b, which is written a.b. This is
So cos θ = a . b . sometimes
a b called the
This result is sometimes written a.b = a b cos θ. dot product.
Using the column format, the scalar product can be written as:
 a1   b1 
a.b =   .  = a1b1 + a2b2 .
 a 2   b2 
210

Note
1 The scalar product, unlike a vector, has size but no direction. 12
2 The scalar product of two vectors is commutative. This is because
multiplication of numbers is commutative. For example:
       
( )( ) ( ) ( )

 3  .  1  = 3 × 1 + −4 × 5 = 1 × 3 + 5 × −4 =  1  .  3 
 −4   5   5   −4 
The scalar product is found in a similar way for vectors in three dimensions:
 a1   b1 
 a   b 
 2  .  2  = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
 a3   b3 
This is used in Example 12.3 to find the angle between two vectors in three
dimensions.
Example 12.2 The position vectors of three points A, B and C are given by
 2   0   8 
     
a =  5  , b =  7  and c =  0  . Find the vectors AB and CB
 −1   3   3 
     
and hence calculate the angle ABC.
Solution
A(2, 5, −1)
θ
B(0, 7, 3) C(8, 0, 3)
Figure 12.3
 0   2   −2 

AB = b − a =  7  − 5  = 2 
     4 
 3   −1   
 0   8   −8 

CB = b − c =  7  − 0  = 7 
     
 3   3   0 

The angle ABC is found using the scalar product of the vectors AB and CB .
   −8 
 −2 .  
.
AB CB =  2   7  = 16 + 14 + 0 = 30
 4
   0 

AB = ( −2 )2 + 2 2 + 4 2 = 24 and CB = ( −8 )2 + 7 2 + 0 2 = 113

AB.CB = AB CB cos θ
211

⇒ 30 = 24 113 cos θ
30
⇒ cos θ =
24 113
⇒ θ = 54.8°
A(2, 5, −1)
Discussion point
➜ For the points A, B
and C in Example
12.2, find the scalar
product
of
the vectors θ
BA and BC, B(0, 7, 3) C(8, 0, 3)
and comment on
Figure 12.4
your answer.
Notice that AB and CB are both directed towards the point B, and BA and

BC are both directed away from the point B (as in Figure 12.4). Using either
pair of vectors gives the angle ABC. This angle could be acute or obtuse.

However, if you use vectors AB (directed towards B) and BC (directed away
from B), then you will obtain the angle 180° − θ instead.
A
180−θ θ
B
Figure 12.5
Perpendicular vectors
If two vectors are perpendicular, then the angle between them is 90°.
Since cos 90° = 0, it follows that if vectors a and b are perpendicular then a.b = 0.
Conversely, if the scalar product of two non-zero vectors is zero, they are
perpendicular.
Example 12.3 Two points, P and Q, have coordinates (1, 3, -2) and (4, 2, 5).
Show that angle POQ = 90°
(i) using column vectors
(ii) using i, j, k notation.
Solution
 1   4 
   
(i) p =  3  , q =  2 
 −2   5
   
212

 1   4 
  
p.q =  3  .  2 
 −2   5 
 12
   
= (1 × 4) + (3 × 2) + (−2 × 5)

= 4 + 6 − 10
=0
So the angle POQ = 90°.
(ii) p = i + 3 j − 2k , q = 4 i + 2 j + 5k Multiply out the brackets.
p.q = ( i + 3 j − 2k ).(4 i + 2 j + 5k )
Since i, j and k
= 4 i.i + 14 i. j − 3i.k + 6 j. j + 11 j.k − 10k.k are unit vectors,
i.i = j.j = k.k = 1.
= 4 + 6 − 10
Since i, j and k are
=0 all perpendicular,
So the angle POQ = 90°. i.j = i.k = j.k = 0.
Exercise 12.1
① Find:
 2   1   2   −1 
(i)  3  .  −2  (ii)  3  .  2 
 1   4   1   −1 
(iii)  2  . 0  (iv)  2  .  4 
 3     3   0 
   −1     
② Find the angle between the vectors p and q shown in Figure 12.6.
y
q = −3i + 5j
p = 2i + 3j
O x
Figure 12.6
③ Find the angle between the vectors:
(i) a = 3i + 2 j − 4 k and b = −2i + j − 3k
(ii) a = −3i − 2 j + 4 k and b = −2 i + j − 3k
(iii) a = 3i + 2 j − 4 k and b = 2 i − j + 3k
213

④ Find the angle between the following pairs of vectors and comment on
your answers.
 3   6   3   −9 
       
(i)  −2  and  −4  (ii)  −2  and  6 
 5   10   5   −15 
       
 2   4 
   
⑤ Find the value of α for which the vectors  5  and  −5  are
 −1   α
   
perpendicular.
 α   α 
 
⑥ Given the vectors c =  5  and d =  α  are perpendicular, find the
   2
 3   
possible values of α .
⑦ A triangle has vertices at the points A(2, 1, –3), B(4, 0, 6) and C(–1, 2, 1).
Using the scalar product, find the three angles of the triangle ABC and
check that they add up to 180°.
 5 
 
⑧ The point A has position vector a =  2  .
 3 
 
Find the angle that the vector a makes with each of the coordinate axes.
⑨ The room illustrated in Figure 12.7 has rectangular walls, floor and ceiling.
A string has been stretched in a straight line between the corners A and G.
G F
z string
E
(0, 0, 3) D
C B
(0, 4, 0)
spider
O (0, 0, 0) A x
(5, 0, 0)
Figure 12.7
The corner O is taken as the origin. A is (5, 0, 0), C is (0, 4, 0) and D is
(0, 0, 3), where the lengths are in metres.
A spider walks up the string, starting from A.
(i) Write down the coordinates of G.

(ii) Find the vector AG and the distance the spider walks along the string
from A to G.
(iii) Find the angle of elevation of the spider’s journey along the string.
214

⑩ Figure 12.8 shows the design for a barn. Its base and walls are rectangular.
Q (2, 5, 4)
12
H
G (4, 5, 3)

(2, 1, 4)
P
E
(0, 0, 3) F
C B (4, 5, 0)
(0, 0, 0)
O A
Figure 12.8
(i) Write down the coordinates of the other vertices of the barn.
(ii Determine whether the section EPF is vertical and hence state the type
of quadrilateral formed by the roof sections PFGQ and PQHE.
(iii) Find the cosine of angle FPE and hence find the exact area of the
triangle FPE.
The engineer plans to increase the strength of the barn by installing
supporting metal bars along OG and AH.
(iv) Calculate the acute angle between the metal bars.
⑪ If (a + 2b).c − ( 3a + c).b = 5a.b − 3a.c show that b.c = 4a. ( 2b − c) .

⑫ Three vectors a, b and c have magnitudes 5, 2 and 3 respectively.
Using this information, and the properties of the scalar product, simplify
(a + b + c).a − ( b + c).c − a.b .
⑬ Two vectors are given by a = a1i + b1 j + c 1k and b = a2 i + b2 j + c 2 k .
Using the fact that i. j = j.k = k.i = 0, show algebraically that
a.b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3.
⑭ y (b1, b2)
B
A
(a1, a2)
a b
O x
Figure 12.9
(i) Write down the compound angle formula for cos (A − B).
a b + a 2b 2
(ii) Hence show that cos θ = 1 1
a b
How would you usually write the numerator of the right-hand side?
215

The vector equation of a line
2 The vector equation of a line

Lines in two dimensions
Before looking at the equation of a line in three dimensions, Activity 12.2 looks
at a new format for the equation of a line in two dimensions. This is called the
vector equation of the line.
ACTIVITY 12.2
The position vector of a set of points are given by
 2   2 
r =  + λ
 −1   4 
where λ is a parameter that can take any value and A is the point (2, −1).
 4 
(i) Show that λ = 1 corresponds to the point B with position vector  3  .
 
(ii) Find the position vectors of the points corresponding to values of λ
1 3
of −2, −1, 0, 2 , 4 , 2, 3.
(iii) P
lot the points from parts (i) and (ii) on a sheet of graph paper and show
they can be joined to form a straight line.
(iv) What can you say about the position of the point if:
(a) 0 < λ < 1
(b) λ > 1
(c) λ < 0?
 2   2 
This activity should have convinced you that r =   + λ is the
 −1   4 
 2 
equation of a straight line passing through the point (2, –1). The vector  4 
 
determines the direction of the line.You might find it helpful to think of this as
shown in Figure 12.10.
Starting from the origin, you can ‘step’ on to the line at a given point A. All
other points on the line can then be reached by taking ‘steps’ of different sizes (λ)
in the direction of a given vector, called the direction vector.
216

r= ( ) ()
2
−1
+λ
2
4
12
and then
2 Move to the point A

2
with position vector 2 . 3 Move λ steps of
4
(i.e.
–1
in the direction AB). λ need
not be a whole number and
may be negative.
1 Start at the
origin.
3 B(4, 3)
–1 O 1 2 3 4 5
–1 A(2, –1)
–2
Figure 12.10
You should also have noticed that when:
λ =0 corresponds to the point A
λ = 1 corresponds to the point B, one ‘step’ along the line away from A
0 < λ < 1 corresponds to points lying between A and B This is shown by

the green line in
Figure 12.10
λ > 1 corresponds to points lying beyond B
λ < 0 corresponds to points beyond A, in the opposite direction to B.
The vector equation of a line is not unique. In this case, any vector parallel, or
 
in the opposite direction to,  2  could be used as the direction vector, for
 4 
 1   3   20 
example,  2  ,  −6  or  40  . Similarly, you can ‘step’ on to the line at
   
any point, such as B(4, 3).
 2   2 
So the line r =  −1  + λ  4  could also have equation
   
 2   1   4   2 
r =  + λ  or r =  + λ , for example.
 −1   2  
 3   4 
217

In general, the vector equation In two dimensions the

of a line in two dimensions is given by: equation of a line usually
looks easier in Cartesian
r = a + λd form than in vector form.
However, as you are about to
where a is the position vector of a point A on see, the opposite is the case
the line and d is the direction vector of the line. in three dimensions where
Sometimes a different letter, such as μ or t is used the vector form is much
easier to work with.
as the parameter instead of λ.
ACTIVITY 12.3
r = a + λd
is written in the form
 x   a1   d1 
=
 y   a  + λ  
   2   d2 
(i) Write down expressions for x and y in terms of λ.
(ii) Rearrange the two expressions from part (i) to make λ the subject.
By equating these two expressions, show that the vector equation of the
line can be written in the form
y = mx + c
where m and c are constants.
Lines in three dimensions

The same form for the vector equation of a line can be used in three
dimensions. For example:
 3   2 
r =  4  + λ 3 
   6 
 1     3 
 4 
represents a line through the point with position vector   with direction
 1 
 2 
 3 
vector  .
 6 
 x   x   3   2 
 y   y  =  4  + λ 3 
Writing as   gives      6  . This equation contains
 z   z   1   
the three relationships
x = 3 + 2λ y = 4 + 3λ z = 1 + 6λ
Making λ the subject of each of these gives: This form is not easy to
work with and you will
often find that the first
y−4
λ = x−3 = = z−1 step in a problem is to
2 3 6 convert the Cartesian form
into vector form.
218

This is the Cartesian equation of a line in three dimensions.
 d1 
 
12
Generally, a line with direction vector d =  d 2  passing through the point A
 a1   d 3 
 

with position vector a =  a2  has the Cartesian equation
 a3  The direction vector of the
line can be read from the
x − a1 y − a2 z − a3 denominators of the three
= =
d1 d2 d3 expressions in this equation; the
point A can be determined from
the three numerators.
Special cases of the
Cartesian equation of a line
In the equation
x − a1 y − a2 z − a3
= =
d1 d2 d3
it is possible that one or two of the values of di might equal zero. In such cases
the equation of the line needs to be written differently.
 0 
For example, the line through (7, 2, 3) in the direction  5  would have
equation  
 2 
y−2
λ = x−7 = = z−3
0 5 2
The first fraction involves division by zero, which is undefined. The expression
x−7
0 comes from the rearrangement of x − 7 = 0λ and so you can write this
as x − 7 = 0 or x = 7 .
So the equation of this line would be written
y−2
x = 7 and λ = = z−3
5 2
Note that all three of the di could not equal zero as it is not possible for a line to
have a zero direction vector.
Example 12.4 Write the equation of this line in vector form:

x−4 = y−3 = z+6
3 −2 4
Solution
y−3 z+6
λ = x−4 = =
3 −2 4
λ = x − 4 ⇒ x = 3λ + 4
3
y−3
λ = ⇒ y = −2λ + 3
−2
λ = z + 6 ⇒ z = 4λ − 6
4
219

 x   3λ + 4   4   3 
So r =  y  =  −2λ + 3  ⇒r = 3

 + λ  −2 
     4 
 z   4λ − 6   −6   
Example 12.5
Find the Cartesian form of the equation of the line through the point
A(7, –12, 4) in the direction 2i − 2j − 3k.
Solution
 7   2 
The line has vector form r = a + λ d =  −12  + λ  −5 .
 4   −3 
   
This leads to the equations
x = 7 + 2λ y = −12 − 5λ z = 4 − 3λ
which can be rearranged to give the Cartesian equation
y + 12
λ = x−7 = = z−4
2 −5 −3
The intersection of straight lines in two

dimensions
You already know how to find the point of intersection of two straight lines
given in Cartesian form, by using simultaneous equations.
You can also use vector methods to find the position vector of the point where
two lines intersect.
Example 12.6
Find the position vector of the point where the following lines intersect.
 2   1   6   1 
r =  + λ  and r =  + µ
 3   2   1   −3 
Notice that different letters are

used for the parameters in the
two equations to avoid confusion.
Solution
When the lines intersect, the position vector is the same for each of them.
 x   2   1   6   1 
r =
y  =  3  + λ  2  =  1  + µ  −3 
 

220

This gives two simultaneous equations for λ and µ.
2+λ=6+µ 12
3 + 2λ = 1 − 3µ
Solving these gives λ = 2 and µ = −2. Substituting in either equation gives

 4 
r =
 7 
which is the position vector of the point of intersection.
The intersection of straight lines in three

dimensions
n Hold a pen and a pencil to represent two distinct straight lines as follows:
n hold them to represent two parallel lines;
n hold them to represent two lines intersecting at a unique point;
n hold them to represent lines which are not parallel and which do not
intersect even if you were to extend them;
n Hold them to represent lines that coincide.
In three-dimensional space two or more straight lines which are not parallel and
which do not meet are known as skew lines. In two dimensions, two lines either
coincide, intersect in a single point, or are parallel. In three dimensions, there are
four possibilities for two lines: they can coincide, intersect in a single point, be
parallel, or skew. This is illustrated in the following examples.
Example 12.7
The lines l1 and l2 are represented by the equations
y+6 y−7
l1 : x − 1 = = z + 1 l2 : x − 9 = = z−2
1 2 3 2 3 −1
(i) Write these lines in vector form.

(ii) Hence find whether the lines meet, and, if so, the coordinates
of their point of intersection.
Solution
 1   1 
(i) The equation of l1 is r = −6 + λ  2
  
 −1   3 
   
 9   2 
The equation of l2 is r =  7  + µ  3 
   −1 
 2   
221

 X 
(ii) If there is a point  Y  that is common to both lines then
 Z 
 
 X   1   1   9   2 
 Y  =  −6  + λ 2  = 7  + µ 3 
 Z   −1   3     − 
       2   1 
for some parameters λ and µ.
This gives the three equations
X = λ + 1 = 2µ + 9 ①
Y = 2λ − 6 = 3µ + 7 ②
Z = 3λ − 1 = −µ + 2 ③
Equation ① tells us λ = 2µ + 8, so equation ② then tells us

4µ + 16 − 6 = 3µ + 7 or µ = −3, which gives λ = 2.
If these values for λ and µ also satisfy equation ③, then the lines meet.
Using equation ③, when λ = 2, Z = 6 – 1 = 5 and when µ = −3,
Z = 3 + 2 = 5.
As both values of Z are equal this proves the lines intersect.
Using either λ = 2 or µ = −3 in equations ①, ② and ③ gives
X = 3, Y = –2, Z = 5 so the lines meet at the point (3, –2, 5).
Example 12.8 Prove that the lines l1 and l2 are skew, where:
 1   1 
l1 : −6 + λ  2
  
 −1   3 
   
 9   2 
 
l2 : 8 + λ  3 
   −1 
 2   
Solution
If there is a point (X,Y, Z) common to both lines then
 X   1   1   9   2 
 Y  =  −6  + λ 2  = 8  + λ 3 
 Z   1   3     − 
       2   1 
for some parameters λ and µ.
222

X = λ + 1 = 2µ + 9
Y = 2λ − 6 = 3µ + 8 ②
①
12
Z = 3λ − 1 = −µ + 2 ③

Equation ① tells us λ = 2µ + 8, so equation ② then tells us
4µ + 16 − 6 = 3µ + 8, or µ = −2, which gives λ = 4.
Substitute these values into equation ③
Using λ = 4, Z = 3 × 4 − 1 = 11;
using µ = −2, Z = 2 + 2 = 4.
Therefore the values µ = −2, λ = 4 do not satisfy the third equation and so
the lines do not meet. As the lines are distinct, the only other alternatives are
that the lines are parallel or skew.
 1   2 
Look at the direction vectors of the lines:  2  and  3  . Neither of
 
 3   −1 
these is a multiple of the other so they are not parallel and hence the two
lines are not parallel. So, lines l1 and l2 are skew.
Finding the angle between two lines

Figure 12.11 shows two lines in two dimensions, with their equations given in
vector form.
6
5
4
0 2
r= +λ 3
3 1
2 3 1
r= +λ
1 –3
1
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 12.11
The angle between the two lines is the same as the angle between their direction
 2   1 
vectors,   and  −3  . So you can use the scalar product to find the angle
 1   
between the two lines.
223

Example 12.9  0   2 
Find the acute angle between the lines r =  + λ and
 3 
  1 
 3   1 
r = + µ
 1   −3  .
Solution
 2  1 
 .   = (2 × 1) + (1 × −3) = 2 − 3 = −1
 1   −3 
 2   1 
ACTIVITY 12.4  1  = 2 2 + 12 = 5 and  = 2 2 + ( −3)2 = 10
 −3 
Find the Cartesian
forms of the two −1
equations in Example cos θ =
5 10
12.9. How can you find
the angle between them θ = 98.1°
without using vectors?
So the acute angle between the lines is 180° − 98.1° = 81.9°
The same method can be used for lines in three dimensions. Even if the lines do
not meet, the angle between them is still the angle between their direction vectors.
The lines l and m shown in Figure 12.12 are skew. The angle between them is
shown in the diagram below by the angle θ between the lines l and m', where
m', is a translation of the line m to a position where it interests the line l.
l
Line m is in front of line l, so m'

has been moved 'into' the page θ
in order to intersect with line l.

m′
m
Figure 12.12
Example 12.10  1   2   2   3 
 
Find the angle between the lines r = 0 + λ  −1  and r =  −1  + µ 0 
 4   −1   3   
       1 
Solution
The angle between the lines is the angle between their direction vectors
 2   3 
 −1  and  0 .
 −1   
   1 
Using a.b = a b cos θ ,

 2   3 
 −1  .  0  = 2 2 + ( −1)2 + ( −1)2 32 + 0 2 + 12 cos θ
 −1   1 
   
⇒ 6+0−1= 6 10 cos θ
 
⇒ θ = cos −1  5  = 49.8°
 6 10 
224

Exercise 12.2
12
① Find the equation of the following lines in vector form:
 
(i) through (3, 1) in the direction  5 
 −2 
 
through (5, –1) in the direction  0 

(ii)
 4 
(iii) through (–2, 4) and (3, 9)
(iv) through (0, 8) and (–2, –3)
② Find the equation of the following lines in vector form:

 3 
(i) through (2, 4, –1) in the direction  6 
 
 4 
 1 
(ii) through (1, 0, –1) in the direction  0 
 0 
(iii) through (1, 0, 4) and (6, 3, –2)  
(iv) through (0, 0, 1) and (2, 1, 4)
③ Write the equations of the following lines in Cartesian form

 2   3   1   1 
(i) r =  4  + t 6  (ii) r =  0  + t 3 
 −1     −1   4 
   4     
 3   1   0   2 
(iii)  
r = 0 + t 0  (iv)  
r = 4 + t 0 
   2     4 
 4     1   
④ Write the equations of the following lines in vector form
(i)
x−3 = y+2 = z−1 (ii) x =
y
= z+1
5 3 4 2 3
(iii) x=y=z (iv) x = 2 and y = z
⑤ Write down the vector and Cartesian equations of the line through the
point (3, –5, 2) which is parallel to the y-axis.
⑥ Find the position vector of the point of intersection of each of these pairs
of lines.
 2   1   3   1 
(i) r =  + λ  and r =  + µ
 1   0  
 0   1 
 2   1   1 
(ii) r =  + λ  and r = µ 
 −1   2   1 
 −2   −1     
(iii) r =  + λ  and r =  1  + µ  2 
 −3   3   3   −1 
225

⑦ Decide whether the following pairs of lines intersect or not. If they do

intersect, find the point of intersection; if not, state whether the lines are
parallel or skew.
x−6 y+4 z−2 x − 1 y − 4 z + 17

(i) L1 : = = L 2 : = =
1 −2 5 1 −1 2
x y+1 z−4 x−2 y−5 z+1
(ii) L1 : = = L 2 : = =
5 3 −3 4 −3 2
 2   3   4   −6 
(iii) r1 =  0  + λ  2  r2 =  9  + µ  −4 
 1   1     
     −1   −2 
 9   1   1   1 
(iv) r1 =  3  + λ 2  r =  −4  + µ  −1 
   −3  2    2 
 −4     5   
 2   1   −1   1 
(v) r1 =  3  + λ  1  r2 =  −3  + µ 3 
 1   −2   −1   2 
       
⑧ Find the acute angle between these pairs of lines
 2   1   1   −1 
(i) r =  + λ  and r =   + µ
 5   2   2   3 
 0   −5   2   1 
(ii) r = + λ and r =   + µ

 3   1   −1   1 
 2   1   6   2 
(iii) r =  1  + λ 4  and r =  10  + µ 1 
 3   0     1 
     4   
 4   7   1 
(iv) 
r = λ 1  and r = 0  + µ 2 
 4     −1 
   −3   
x − 4 = y − 2 = z + 1 and x − 5 y − 1
(v)
−4 = = z
3 7 2 8 −5
⑨ To support a tree damaged in a gale a tree surgeon attaches wire ropes to
four of the branches, as shown in Figure 12.13.
He joins (2, 0, 3) to (–1, 2, 6) and (0, 3, 5) to

(–2, –2, 4).
Do the ropes, assumed to be straight, meet?
Figure 12.13
226

⑩ Show that the lines
y − 24
12
L1 : x + 7 = = z+4
4 −7 4
y + 10
L2 : x − 3 = = z − 15
2 2 −1

x + 3 y−6 z − 6
L3 : = =
8 −3 2
form a triangle and find the length of its sides.
⑪ Figure 12.14 shows a music stand, consisting of a rectangle DEFG with a
vertical support OA.
G B F
D A E
Figure 12.14
Relative to axes through the origin O, which is on the floor, the coordinates of
various points are given, with dimensions in metres, as A(0, 0, 1), D(–0.25, 0, 1)
and F(0.25, 0.15, 1.3).
DE and GF are horizontal. A is the midpoint of DE and B is the midpoint of
GF.
1
C is on AB so that AC = 3 AB.
 0 
 0.15 
(i) Write down the vector AD and show that EF is
 
(ii) Calculate the coordinates of C.  0.3 
(iii) Find the equations of the lines DE and EF in vector form.
⑫ Figure 12.15 illustrates the flight path of a helicopter H taking off from an
airport.
The origin O is situated at the base of the airport control tower, the x-axis
is due east, the y-axis due north and the z-axis vertical.
The units of distance are kilometres.
The helicopter takes off from the point G.
227

Finding distances
The position vector r of the helicopter minutes after take-off is given by

r = (1+ t) i + (0.5 + 2t) j + 2t k
z
H
y (N)
θ
Cotrol G F
O
tower
x (E)
Figure 12.15
(i) Write down the coordinates of G.

(ii) Find the angle the flight path makes with the horizontal (this is shown
as angle θ in the diagram).
(iii) Find the bearing of the flight path (i.e. the bearing of the line GF).
The helicopter enters a cloud at a height of 2 km.

(iv) Find the coordinates of the point where the helicopter enters the cloud.
A mountain top is situated at M(5, 4.5, 3).

(v) Find the value of t when HM is perpendicular to the flight path GH.
Find the distance from the helicopter to the mountain top at this time.
3 Finding distances
Sometimes you need to find the distance between points, lines and planes. In this
section you will look at how to find:
n the distance from a point to a line, in two or three dimensions
n the distance between parallel or skew lines.
Finding the distance from a point to a line

Figure 12.16 shows building works at an airport that require the use of a crane
near the end of the runway. How far is it from the top of the crane to the flight
path of the aeroplane?
plane
taking off
runway crane
Figure 12.16
To answer this question you need to know the flight path and the position of the
top of the crane.
Working in metres, suppose the position of the top of the crane is at P(70, 30, 22)
228

−10  5
12
   
and the aeroplanes take off along the line l: r =  20  + λ 4  as illustrated in
   
Figure 12.17.  2   3

⎫5⎫

M
d =⎪ 4 ⎪⎫
3
⎫
P(70, 30, 22)

θ
A
(–10, 20, 2)
Figure 12.17
The shortest distance from P to the straight line l is measured along the line
which is perpendicular to l. It is the distance PM in Figure 12.17.
The following example shows how you can find this distance.
Example 12.14 −10  5

   
The line l has equation r =  20  + λ 4  and the point P has coordinates
   
(70, 30, 22).  2   3
The point M is the point on l that is closest to P.
(i) Express the position vector m of point M in terms of the parameter λ .

Hence find an expression for the vector PM in terms of the parameter λ .

(ii) By finding the scalar product of the vector PM with the direction
vector d, show that λ = 10 and hence find the coordinates of point M.
(iii) Find the distance PM.
Solution
−10 + 5λ 
 
(i) m =  20 + 4 λ 
 
 2 + 3λ 
−10 + 5λ − 70   −80 + 5λ 
   
PM =  20 + 4 λ − 30  = −10 + 4 λ 
   
 2 + 3λ − 22  −20 + 3λ 

(ii) PM.d = 0 Since M is the point on l closest to
 −80 + 5λ   5  P, PM is perpendicular to l and so PM
    is perpendicular to d.
 −10 + 4 λ  .  4 = 0
 −20 + 3λ   3

5(−80 + 5λ ) + 4(−10 + 4 λ ) + 3(−20 + 3λ ) = 0

−400 + 25λ − 40 + 16 λ − 60 + 9 λ = 0
50λ = 500
λ = 10
229

Finding distances
−10 + 5λ  40 
   
m =  20 + 4 λ  = 60 
   
 2 + 3λ   32 
−30 
 
(iii) PM =  30 
 
 10 

PQ = 10 ( −3)2 + 32 + 12 = 10 19

Finding the distance between two parallel lines

The distance between two parallel lines l1 and l2 is measured along a line PQ
which is perpendicular to both l1 and l2, as shown in Figure 12.18.
l1
P
l2
Figure 12.18
You can find this distance by simply choosing a point P on l1, say, and then
finding the shortest distance from P to the line l2.
Example 12.15
Two straight lines in three dimensions are given by the equations:
2 1 4  −2 
       
l1: −3 + λ −3 and l 2: 2 + µ  6 
       
0 2  1 −4 
(i) Show that the two lines are parallel.
(ii) Find the shortest distance between the two lines.
Solution
 1  −2 
   
(i) The direction vectors of the two lines are d1 =  −3 and d 2 =  6 .
 2  −4 
Since d 2 = −2d1 the two lines are parallel.    
You could use any value
 4
for μ.  
(ii) Choose a point P on l2 by setting λμ = 0 which gives p =  2 .
 1
 
Let the point Q be the point on l1 that is closest to P.
 2+λ 
 
q = −3 − 3λ 
 2λ 
 
 2 + λ  4   −2 + λ 
     
PQ = −3 − 3λ  −  2  = −5 − 3λ 
 2λ   1  2λ − 1 
     
230

1
 
PQ is perpendicular to d1 = −3 , so
12
2
 
 −2 + λ   1 

   
−5 − 3λ  ⋅ −3 = 0
 2λ − 1   2 
   
−2 + λ − 3(−5 − 3λ ) + 2(2λ − 1) = 0
14 λ = −11
λ =−
11
14
 −2 − 11  − 39 
 14   14 
   
PQ =  −5 + 3 × 11  = − 37 
14 14
   
 ( )
 2 × − 11 − 1 − 36 
14   14 
299 ≈ 4.62 units.
The shortest distance is PQ =
14
Finding the distance between skew lines

Two lines are skew if they do not intersect and are not parallel.
Figure 12.19 shows two skew lines l1 and l2. The shortest distance between the
two lines is measured along a line that is perpendicular to both l1 and l2.
1
The common P1
perpendicular of l1 and l2 P Drop perpendiculars
is the perpendicular from from the points on l1 to
l1 that passes through ′1 π to form l′1, which is the
the point Q, the point of
projection of l1 on π.
intersection of l2 and l′1. Q
Q1
� 2
π is the plane containing
Figure 12.19
l′1 parallel to l1.
ACTIVITY 12.5 Figure 12.20 shows the lines l1 and l2 and two parallel planes. l1 and l2 have
Explain why PQ is
equations r = a1 + λ d1 and r = a 2 + µd 2 respectively. A1 and A2 are points on
shorter than any other the lines l1 and l2 with position vectors a1 and a2 respectively.
line, such as P1Q1 π1 contains l1 and is parallel to l2
joining lines l1 and l2.
π2 contains l2 and is parallel to l1
231

Finding distances
d1
1
P A1
�1
d2 n
Q
θ �2
A2
2
Figure 12.20
Then PQ, the common perpendicular of l1 and l2 has the same length as any
other perpendicular between the planes, such as A2N. If angle A1A2N = θ then
PQ = A 2 N = A 2 A1 cosu = ( a 2 − a 1 )⋅nˆ
where n̂ is a unit vector parallel to A2N, i.e. perpendicular to both planes.

Notice that the modulus function is used to ensure a positive answer: the vector
n̂ may be directed from π1 to π2 making ( a 2 − a 1 )⋅nˆ negative.
You can find the vector n̂ by first solving the equations n⋅d1 = 0 and n⋅d 2 = 0
to find a vector n that is perpendicular to both planes, and then finding the
unit vector in the direction of n by dividing by n .
Example 12.16 8 1

   
Find the shortest distance between the lines l1: r =  9  + λ 2  and
6 1    
    −2  −3
l 2 : r =  0  + µ  −1
   
−2  −2 
Solution
Line l1 contains the point A1(8, 9, − 2) and is parallel to the vector
d1 = i + 2 j − 3k.
Line l2 contains the point A 2 (6, 0, −2) and is parallel to the vector
d2 = i − j − 2k .
 n1 
 
Let n = n2  be perpendicular to both planes.
n 
 3
 n1   1 
   
So n2  ⋅  2  = 0 ⇒ n1 + 2n2 − 3n3 = 0 (1)
n  −3
 3  
 n1   1 
   
and n2  ⋅  −1 = 0 ⇒ n1 − n2 − 2n3 = 0 (2)
n  −2 
 3  
232

Subtracting equation (2) from (1): ⇒ 3n2 − n3 = 0
⇒ n3 = 3n2 12
Taking n2 = 1 gives n3 = 3 and n1 = 7
 7 7 

so n =  1 and n̂ = 1  1
 
 3 59  
 3
 8   6   2
a1 − a 2 =  9  −  0  =  9 
     
 −2  −2  0 
 2  7
So the shortest distance = 1  9  ⋅  1
59    
 0   3
= 23 ≈ 2.99 units
59
Exercise 12.3
① Calculate the distance from the point P to the line l.
y −5 z +1
(i) P(1, −2, 3) l: x − 1 = =
2 2 −1
4  6
   
(ii) P(2, 3, −5) l: r =  3 + λ −7
   
4  6
x − 6 y − 5 z − 11
(iii) P(8, 9, 1) l: = =
12 −9 −8
② Find the distance from the point P to the line l.
(i) P(8, 9) l : 3x + 4 y + 5 = 0
(ii) P(5, −4) l : 6 x − 3y + 3 = 0
(iii) P(4, −4) l: 8x + 15y + 11 = 0
2 1
   
③ A line l1 has equation r =  0  + λ −2 .
   
−1  −1
(i) Write down the equation of a line parallel to l1 passing through the
point (3, 1, 0).
(ii) Find the distance between these two lines.
 1  3 2 1
       
④ (i) Show that the lines r =  2 + λ 0  and r =  1 + µ  1  are skew.
       
4  2 0  −1
(ii) Find the shortest distance between these two lines.
⑤ Find the shortest distance between the lines l1 and l2.

In each case, state whether the lines are skew, parallel or intersect.
y−3 z−4 y −9 z −1
l1: x − 2 = = l :x−2 = =
(i)
1 2 2 and 2 2 −2 1
233

Finding distances
y+2 z−7 y +6 z −1
l1: x − 8 = = l :x−2 = =
(ii)
4 3 5 and 2 2 −6 −9
−5 8  5 5
       
(iii) l1: r =  6  + λ 6 and l 2 : r = 8 + µ 1
       
1  3  3 1
2  1 4 −2 
       
(iv) l1: r =  3  + λ  1 and l 2 : r =  0  + λ −2 
       
−1 2 −1 −4 
⑥ (i) Find the shortest distance from the point P(13, 4, 2) to the line
 2  1
   
l: r =  −8  + λ −2 .
   
−21 3
(ii) Find the coordinates of the point M which is the foot of the
perpendicular from P to the line l.
P
Figure 12.21
⑦ In a school production some pieces of the stage set are held in place by
steel cables. The location of points on the cables can be measured, in metres,
from an origin O at the side of the stage.
Cable 1 passes through the points A(2, −3, 4) and B(1, −3, 5) while cable
2 passes through the points C(0, 3, −2) and D(2, 3, 5).
Find the vector equations of the lines AB and CD and determine the
(i)
shortest distance between these two cables.
One piece of the stage set, with corner at E(1, 6, −1), needs to be more
firmly secured with an additional cable. It is decided that the additional
cable should be attached to cable 2.
If the additional cable available is three metres long, determine
(ii)
whether it will be long enough to attach point E to cable 2.
⑧ The point P has coordinates (4, k, 5) where k is a constant.
1 1
   
The line L has equation r =  0  + λ  2 
   
−4  −2 
4  7
   
The line M has equation r = k  + µ  3 
   
5 −4 
(i) Show that the shortest distance from the point P to the line L is
1 5(k 2 + 12k + 117)
3 .
(ii) Find, in terms of k, the shortest distance between the lines L and M.
(iii) Find the value of k for which the lines L and M intersect.
(iv) When k = 12, show that the distances in parts (i) and (ii) are equal. In
this case, find the equation of the line which is perpendicular to, and
intersects, both L and M.
234

LEARNING OUTCOMES 12
➤ form the equation of a line in three dimensions in vector or Cartesian form

➤ find the angle between two lines
➤ know the different ways in which two lines can intersect or not in three-
dimensional space
➤ find out whether two lines in three dimensions are parallel, skew or intersect,
and find the point of intersection if there is one
➤ find the distance from a point to a line in two or three dimensions
➤ find the distance between to two parallel lines
➤ find the shortest distance between two skew lines.
KEY POINTS
1 In two dimensions, the scalar product
  a a     bb 
a.ab.b==  1  . .  1 ==aa11bb11 ++ aa22bb22 == aa b cosθ .
1 1
 
 a2a2     bb2 2 
 a1  b1 
 a   b 

2 In three dimensions, a.b =a.b a= b2.  =1 a1b1=+ aa12bb12 + aa23bb23 == aa bbcos
 . 1 cosθ.θ
2
 a2  b 
 a3   b3  2 
  
3 The angle θ between two vectors a and b is given by
cos θθ =
cos
a.b
a b
⋅
where a b = a1b1 + a2b2 (in two dimensions)
a⋅ b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 (in three dimensions).
4 The vector equation of a line is given by:

r = a + λd
where a is the position vector of a point A on the line and d is the direction
vector of the line. Sometimes the a different letter, such as μ or t is used as
the parameter instead of λ.
 d1 
5 The line with direction vector d =
  passing through the point A with
 d2 
 a1   d 3 
position vector a =  a2  has the Cartesian equation
 
 a3 
x − a1 y − a2 z − a3
λ = = =

d1 d2 d3
235

Finding distances
6 If two straight lines have equations

r1 = a1 + λ d1
r2 = a 2 + µd 2
the angle between the lines is found by calculating the scalar product d1.d 2
7 There are four possibilities for the arrangement of the lines. They either
coincide, intersect in a single point, or are parallel, or skew.
8 The shortest distance from the point P, with position vector p, to the line
r = a + λb is
( p − a ).b
(a − p) + λ b ,where λ =
b.b
9 In three dimensions there are three possibilities for the arrangement of the
lines. They are either parallel, intersecting or skew.
10 The shortest distance between two parallel lines can be found by choosing
any point on one of the lines and finding the shortest distance from that point
to the second line.
P
A d
Figure 12.22
11 The shortest distance between lines r1 = a + λb and r2 = c + μd is

(c - a). n
, where n is perpendicular to b and d (n∙b = 0 and n∙d = 0).
n
236

① (i)
Describe the transformation represented by the 12
 1 0 
matrix A =  . [1 mark]
 0 −1 
(ii) Describe the transformation represented by the
 −1 0 
matrix B =  . [1 mark]
 0 1 
(iii) Determine BA and describe the transformation it represents. [2 marks]
(iv) Determine (BA)–1. What do you notice? Explain your

answer in terms of the transformation represented by BA. [3 marks]
② (i) Sketch the graph of the function y = f(x),
where f ( x ) = x−3 . [5 marks]
( x + 1)( x − 2)
(ii) Find the range of values for k for which the line y = k does
not intersect the graph. [5 marks]
(iii) Hence
give the coordinates of the turning points of the graph. [2 marks]
③ Solve the inequality 3x − 1 < x − 1. [4 marks]
x+3
T PS ④ Figure 1 shows a circle with centre C and radius a. O is a point on a
diameter so that OC has length 1 a. Q is a point on the circle such that the
2
angle QCO is ϕ. The tangent to the circle at Q intersects the line CO at A.
P is the foot of the perpendicular from O to this tangent. The distance OP
is r and the angle POA is θ.
Referred to the system which has its origin at O and its initial line in the
direction OA, the point P has polar coordinates (r, θ).
Q
P
a
r
C O θ
1a A
2

Figure 1
(i) Show that θ = ϕ for 0 ¯ θ ¯ π . [1 mark]

2
(ii) Show that, as ϕ varies with 0 ¯ φ ¯ π , the path of P
2
has polar equation.
(
r = a 1 − 1 cos θ .
2 ) [4 marks]
237

(iii) Draw a diagram showing a case where π < θ < π and explain why
2
π
the polar equation given in (ii) is still valid for 2 < θ < π .
Explain further why the polar equation given in (ii) is valid for
all
0 ø θ ø 2π. [4 marks]
(iv) Sketch the path of P. (You may use your calculator.) [2 marks]
(v) Show that the cartesian equation of the path of P is given by

(
x2 + y2 = a x2 + y2 − 1 x ,
2 )
where O is the origin of the cartesian coordinates, the x-axis is in the
direction OA and the y-axis is perpendicular to OA. [2 marks]
⑤ (i) Show that the straight lines L and M are perpendicular but do not
intersect.
L: x −1 = y+3 = z −1
1 3 −2
x − 3 y − 2 z +1 [8 marks]
M : = =
5 1 4
PS (ii) Find the shortest distance between L and M. [6 marks]
238

An introduction to radians
Radians are an alternative way to measure angles. They relate the arc length of
a sector to its angle. In Figure 1 the arc AB has been drawn so that it is equal to
the length of the radius, r. The angle subtended at the centre of the circle is one
radian.
B
r 1 radian is sometimes
denoted as 1 , where c refers
c
r to ‘circular measure’.
A
1 radian
r
O
Figure 1
Since an angle of 1 radian at the centre of the circle corresponds to an arc length
r it follows that an angle of 2 radians corresponds to an arc length of 2r and so
on. In general, an angle of θ radians corresponds to an arc length of rθ, as shown
in Figure 2.
arc length rθ
θ
r
Figure 2
The circumference of a circle is 2πr, so the angle at the centre of a full circle is
2πr radians. This is 360°.
2�r
2�
Figure 3
When working in radians,
So 360° = 2π radians angles are often stated as a
180° = π radians fraction or multiple of π.
90° = π radians
2
π
60° = radians
3
45° = π radians
4
π
30° = 6 radians
239
883316_AQA_Maths_Y1_239-241_BM_i.indd 239 8/12/17 11:12 AM

360° = 2π c and so 1 radian is equivalent to 360 ÷ 2 π = 57.3° to one decimal

place.
The fact that one radian is just under 60° can be a helpful reference point.
When a multiple of π is used the ‘c’ symbol is usually omitted, as it is implied
that the measure is radians.
To convert degrees into radians you multiply by π , and to convert radians into
180
degrees you multiply by 180 .
π
Example (i) Express in radians, giving your answers as a multiple of π:

(a) 120° (b) 225° (c) 390°
(ii) Express in radians, giving your answers to 3 significant figures:
(a) 34° (b) 450° (c) 1°
(iii) Express in degrees, giving your answers to 3 significant figures where
appropriate:
(a) 5π (b) π (c) 3.4c

12 24
Solution
π
(i) (a) 60° = radians so 120° = 2π radians
3 3
π
(b) 45° = radians so 225° = 5 × 45° = 5π
4 4
(c) 30° = π radians so 390° = 360° + 30° = 2π + π = 13π
6 6 6
34 × π = 0.593 radians
(ii) (a) 180
450 × π = 7.85 radians
(b)
180
1 × π = 0.0175 radians
(c)
180
(iii) (a) 5π × 180 = 75°
12 π
π 180
(b) × = 7.5°
24 π
(c) 3.4 × 180 = 195°
π
hen working in radians with trigonometric functions on your calculator,

W
ensure it is set in ‘RAD’ or ‘R’ mode.
240

Exercise ① Express the following angles in radians, leaving your answers in terms of π
or to 3 significant figures as appropriate.
(i) 60° (ii) 45° (iii) 150° (iv) 200°
(v) 44.4° (vi) 405° (vii) 270° (viii) 99°
(ix) 300° (x) 720° (xi) 15° (xii) 3°
② Express the following angles in degrees, rounding to 3 significant figures

where appropriate.
π 2π 5π
(i) (ii) (iii) 4c (iv)
9 15 3
π π 11π
(v) (vi) (vii) 1.8c (viii)
7 20 9
(ix)
7π (x) 5π (xi) 9π (xii)
17π
2 4 12
241

The identities sin(θ ± ϕ) and cos(θ ± ϕ)
In Chapters 1 and 8 of this book you use the trigonometric identities known as
the addition formulae or compound angle formulae. The proofs of these
identities are given in the A-Level Mathematics textbook.
These identities are:
sin(θ + φ ) ≡ sin θ cos φ + cos θ sin φ

sin(θ − φ ) ≡ sin θ cos φ − cos θ sin φ
cos(θ + φ ) ≡ cos θ cos φ − sin θ sin φ
cos(θ − φ ) ≡ cos θ cos φ + sin θ sin φ
Note the change of sign in the formulae for the cosine of the sum or difference
of two angles:
cos(θ + φ ) ≡ cos θ cos φ − sin θ sin φ

cos(θ − φ ) ≡ cos θ cos φ + sin θ sin φ
Although these results are often referred to as ‘formulae’, they are in fact
identities (as indicated by the identity symbol ≡) and they are true for all values
of θ and ϕ. However, it is common for the identity symbol to be replaced by an
equals sign when the formulae are being used.
These identities are used:
n in Chapter 1 to look at combinations of two rotations
n in Chapter 8 to look at multiplying two complex numbers in modulus-
argument form.
Example Use the compound angle formulae to find exact values for:
(i) sin15° (ii) cos75°
Solution
(i) sin15° = sin (45° − 30°) = sin 45° cos 30° − cos 45° sin 30°
= 1 × 3− 1 ×1
2 2 2 2
= 3 − 1
2 2 2 2

3 −1 6− 2
= or
2 2 4
(ii) cos 75° = cos (45° + 30°) = cos 45° cos 30° − sin 45° sin 30°
= 1 × 3− 1 ×1
2 2 2 2
6− 2
This is the same as part (i) and so cos 75° = .
4
242
883316_AQA_Maths_Y1_242-243_BM_ii.indd 242 8/12/17 10:52 AM

The exercise below is designed to familiarise you with these
identities.
Exercise
① Use the compound angle formulae to write the following in surd
form:
The identities sin(θ ± ϕ) and cos(θ ± ϕ)

(i) cos15° = cos (45° – 30°)
(ii) sin105° = sin (60° + 45°)
(iii) cos105° = cos (60° + 45°)
(iv) sin165° = sin (120° + 45°)

② Simplify each of the following expressions, giving answers in surd
form where possible:
(i) sin 60° cos 30° − cos 60° sin 30°
(ii) sin 40° cos 50° + cos 40° sin 50°

(iii) cos 3θ cos θ − sin 3θ sin θ
(iv) () () () ()
cos π cos π + sin π sin π
3 6 3 6
(v) 2 sin ( π ) cos ( π ) − 2 cos ( π ) sin ( π )

4 6 4 6
(vi) cos 47° cos13° − sin13° sin 47°
③ Expand and simplify the following expressions:

(i) sin (θ + 45°)
(ii) cos ( 2θ − 30°)
(iii) ( )
sin θ − π
6
(iv) cos ( 3θ + π )
3
243
883316_AQA_Maths_Y1_242-243_BM_ii.indd 243 8/12/17 10:52 AM

Answers
Chapter 1  0 2 1 0   0 0 2 2 
 1 0 2 1   1 0 0 0 
3 (i)   (ii)  2 0 
Discussion point (Page 1) 0 2 0 2 0 1
   
3, 2, 1, 0  1 0 1 0   0 0 2 0 
Discussion point (Page 4) (iii) Q
When subtracting numbers, the order in which the

P 1
numbers appear is important – changing the order
changes the answer, for example: 3 – 6 ≠ 6 – 3.
2
So subtraction of numbers is not commutative. 2
2
The grouping of the numbers is also important,

R
for example (13 – 5) – 2 ≠ 13 – (5 – 2). Therefore S 2
subtraction of numbers is not associative.
1
Matrices follow the same rules for commutativity
and associativity as numbers. Matrix addition is both  7 −4 
4 The matrix is  .
commutative and associative, but matrix subtraction  3 2 
is not commutative or associative. This is true because 5 w = 2, x = −6, y = −2, z = 2
addition and subtraction of each of the individual
elements will determine whether the matrices are
6 p = 1 or 6, q = ± 5
commutative or associative overall.
You can use more formal methods to prove these  a b   p q 
properties. For example, to show that matrix 7 If A =   and P =   , then
 b a   q p 
addition is commutative:
 a+ p b+q 
( ) ( ) (
a b
c d
+
e f
g h
=
a+e b+f
c+g d+h
= ) (
e+a f+b
g+c h+d
=
e f
g h
+
a b
c d ) ( ) ( ) A+P=
 b+q a+ p 
 , which is also
another matrix of the same type.

Addition of numbers is commutative
 1 0 1 4 4 
Exercise 1.1 (Page 4)  0 0 1 0 2 
1 (i) 3 × 2 (ii) 3 × 3 (iii) 1 × 2 8 (i)  
 1 1 0 7 5 
(iv) 5 × 1 (v) 2 × 4 (vi) 3 × 2
 0 1 0 3 3 
 5 −8   3 1 −4 
2 (i) (ii)  4 2 12   1 10 7 
 2 −3  3 1
 0 0 4 2 10 
 −8 5   
(iii)  3 1 1 11 8 
 −3 7  1 2 1 8 6 

 −3 −9 14 
(iv) Non-conformable (v)
 0 0 4   
1 0 0 2 1
 1 1 0 3 2 
 4  (ii)
 
 9 7 −17  0 0 1 1 2
(vi)  12  (vii)  
   10 5 28   0 1 1 2 3 
 20 
City 2 vs United 1
(viii) Non-conformable Rangers 2 vs Town 1
Rangers 1 vs /United 1
(ix)
 −15 8 
 −4 3 
244
883316_AQA_Maths_Y1_244-295.indd 244 8/12/17 7:06 PM

 15 3 7 15   −8 −15 
(iii) (AB)C = 
9 (i)  5 9 15 −3   −12 −28 
 
 19 10 9 3 
 −8 −15 
The matrix represents the number of jackets A(BC) = 
(iv)
left in stock after all the orders have been  −12 −28 
Answers
dispatched. The negative element indicates (AB)C = A(BC) so matrix multiplication is
there was not enough of that type of jacket associative in this case
in stock to fulfil the order. To produce a general proof, use general
 20 13 17 20  matrices such as
(ii)  15 19 20 12   a b   e f 
  A=  , B =  g h  and
 19 10 14 8   c d   
 12 30 18 0   i j 
C=  .
(iii)  6 18 24 36   k l 
 
 30 0 12 18   a b  e f   ae + bg af + bh 
 =
h   ce + dg cf + dh 
AB =  ,
The assumption is probably not very  c d   g
realistic, as a week is quite a short time.
 e f  i j   ei + fk ej + fl 
Discussion point (Page 8) = =
h   k gj + hl 
BC
The dimensions of the matrices are A (3 × 3), B  g l   gi + hk
(3 × 2) and C (2 × 2). The conformable products
are AB and BC. Both of these products would have and so
dimension (3 × 2), even though the original matrices
 ae + bg af + bh   i j   aei + bgi + afk + bhk aej + b
are not the same sizes. (AB)C =   =
 ce + dg cf + dh   k l   cei + cfk + dgi + dhk cej + c
Activity 1.1 (Page 9)
 ae + bg af + bh   i j   aei + bgi + afk + bhk aej + bgj + afl + bhl 
 2 −1   −4 0    −ce6 + dg−1 =
AB =  =  cf + dh   k 
l   cei + cfk + dgi + dhk cej + cfl + dgj + dhl 
 3 4   −2 1   −20 4 
and
 −4 0   2 −1   −8 4 
BA =  =    ei + fk ej + fl   aei + afk + bgi + bhk aej + a
 −2 1   3 4   −1 6  A(BC) =  a b   =
 c d   gi + hk gj + hl   cei + dgi + cfk + dhk cej + d
These two matrices are not equal and so matrix
 a b  There
multiplication is not usually commutative. ei + fk ej + fl   aei + afk + bgi + bhk aej + afl + bgj + bhl 
=
are some exceptions, for example  ifc d   gi + hk
 gj + hl   cei + dgi + cfk + dhk cej + dgj + cfl + dhl 
 2 0   3 3  Since (AB)C = A(BC) matrix multiplication
C= and D =  then

 0 2   −1 −1  is associative and the product can be written
without brackets as ABC.
 6 6 
CD = DC =   .
 −2 −2 Exercise 1.2 (Page 10)
1 (i) (a) 3 × 3 (b) 1 × 3 (c) 2 × 3 (d) 2 × 4
Activity 1.2 (Page 10) (e) 2 × 1 (f) 3 × 5
 −6 −1  (ii) (a) non-conformable
(i) AB =  −20 4  (b) 3 × 5
 
(c) non-conformable
(d) 2 × 3
 −4 −8 
(ii) BC =  (e) non-conformable
 0 −1 
245

Answers
 21 6 
2 (i)  31 13  ( (
−30−30−15−15
(ii) ) ) 

1
1
1
0
2
1
0
0


10 (i)  
 1 1 0 2 
 −54   0 0 1 0 
(iii) 
 −1 
 4 3  3 4
 3 −56   −25 8  (ii)   M2 represents the
3 AB =   , BA =  2 2 2 2
 20 −73   28 −45   2 1  5number of two-stage
0
  routes between each
AB ≠ BA so matrix multiplication is non-  1 1  0 2
commutative. pair of resorts.
 5 25  (iii) M would represent the number of three-
3
 −7 26 
4 (i)   (ii)  16 22  stage routes between each pair of resorts.
 2 34   
 8 + 4 x −20 + x 2 
11 (i)  8+x
 31 0   26 37 16   3 − 3x 
(iii) 
 65 18  (iv)  14 21 28 
  (ii) x = −3 or 4
 −8 −11 2 
 −4 −11   24 −4 
 28 −18  (iii)  or 
(v) non-conformable (vi)  26   −11 12   −4 −9 
2

 16 25

 12 (i) D= ( 1 1 1 1 )
 −38 −136 −135  DA = ( 299 199 270 175 114 )
5  133 133 100 
   1   
 273 404 369  229
 1   
(ii) F =   , AF = 231
 a b   p q  1  
6 If A =  and P =   , then AP    263 
 b a   q p   1   334 
 1 
 ap + bq aq + bp 
=  , which is also another  
1
 aq + bp ap + bq   
0
matrix of the same type. (iii) S =  0  , DAS = (413),
 
 0 
 2x 2 + 12 −9   
7 (ii) x = 2 or 3 1
(i)  −4 3 

 8 12   18 18   0 
(iii) BA =   or   
 12 15 
1
 8 15  C=  , DAC = (644)
 1 
8 a = 1, b = 4, c = 3, d = 2.  1 
 0 
 4 3   8 7 
9 (i) (a)
 0 1  (b)  0 1   0.95 
 0.95 
 16 15   2n 2n − 1  (iv) P =  ,
(c)  (ii)   1.05 
 0 1   1 
 0  1.15 
 1.15 
DAP = (1088.95) = £1088.95
246

 b   1 0 0  1
x-coordinate is − 12 and the y-coordinate is .
13 (i)  a   2
(ii)  0 0 1
   
 c   0 1 0   1 
 1   2 
 0 1 0   b  Hence, the image of  0  is   and the
  1
 0   
Answers
(iii)  0 0 1 ,  c 
 2 
    image of  1  is
 1 0 0   a 
 
 0 0 1   c  − 1
 a   2  and so the matrix representing an
(iv)  1 0 0  ,  
     1 
 0 1 0   b   2 
 1 0 0  anticlockwise rotation of
(v)  0 1 0  The strands are back in the  1 1  
− 1 1


 0 0 1 
   2 2 −2 2  
45° about the origin is  .
original order at the end of Stage 6.   1 1 1 1  
  2 2 2 2  
Discussion points (Page 18)
Rotations of 45° clockwise about the origin
   a  and 135° anticlockwise about the origin are also
The image of the unit vector  1  is   and
 0   c  represented by matrices involving ± 1 .
2
 0   b  This is due to the symmetry about the origin.
the image of the unit vector  is .
 1   d  (i) he diagram for a 45° clockwise rotation about
T
the origin is shown below.
The origin maps to itself. y
Activity 1.3 (Page 18) B

B′
The diagram below shows the unit square with
two of its sides along the unit vectors i and j . It is 45°
rotated by 45° about the origin. A
y O x
1 A′
B
A′
B′  1 
 1  
2 
45°
A
The image of  0  is   and the image
O x  − 1 
 2 
 1 
 0   2 
You can use trigonometry to find the images of the of   is   and so the matrix
 1  1
 
unit vectors i and j .  2 
For A′, the x-coordinate satisfies cos45 = x so
1
x = cos45 = 1 . representing an anticlockwise rotation of
2
 1 1 
In a similar way, the y-coordinate of A′ is 1 .  
2 2 2
45° about the origin is  .
For B′, the symmetry of the diagram shows that the
 − 1 1 
 2 2 
247

Answers
(ii) he diagram for a 135° anticlockwise rotation

T  
about the origin is shown below. You can see that the vector i has image  2  and
 0 
y
the vector j is unchanged. Therefore this matrix
B
represents a stretch of scale factor 2 parallel to the
A′ x-axis.
(ii) The diagram below shows the effect of the matrix
135°
A
O x  1 0  on the unit vectors i and j .
 0 5 
B′ y
B′
 
 1  − 1
 2 
The image of  0  is   and the
 1 
 2 
 
 0  − 1
 2 
image of  1  is   and so the matrix
 
 − 1 
 2 
representing an anticlockwise rotation of 45° B

− 1 − 1
 j= ( )
0
1 A′
 2 2 
( )
O 1 A x
about the origin is  . i=
 1 − 1
0

 2 2 
You can see that the vector i is unchanged and
Discussion point (Page 19)
The matrix for a rotation of θ ° clockwise about the  0 
the vector j has image  . Therefore this
 5 
 cos θ sin θ 
origin is  matrix represents a stretch of scale factor 5
 − sin θ cos θ 
parallel to the y-axis.
Activity 1.4 (Page 19)  
The matrix  m 0  represents a stretch of scale
 0 1 
(i) The diagram below shows the effect of the matrix
factor m parallel to the x-axis.
 2 0 
 0 1  on the unit vectors i and j.  
The matrix  1 0  represents a stretch of scale

 0 n 
y factor n parallel to the y-axis.
B′ Activity 1.5 (Page 21)
B
Point A: 6 ÷ 2 = 3
j=
0
1 ( ) Point B: 6 ÷ 2 = 3
( )
O 1 A A′ x
i=
0
248

Point C: 3 ÷ 1 = 3 (c) x′ = x, y′ = y
Point D: 3 ÷ 1 = 3  0 −1 
(d)  
The ratio is equal to 3 for each point.  −1 0 
(iv) (a) y
Exercise 1.3 (Page 24)
Answers
3
1 (i) (a) y
Bʹ 2
6 Aʹ
1
5 Bʹ
4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 x
–1
3 Aʹ
–2
2
–3
1
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 x (b) A′ = (2, –1), B′ = (2, 0)

(c) x′ = x, y′ = y
(b) A′ = (3, 6), B′ = (0, 6)
(c) x′ = 3x, y′ = 3y  0 1 
(d)  
 1 0   −1 0 
(d)
 0 n  (v) (a) y
3
(ii) (a) y
2
3 Bʹ
1 Aʹ
2
1 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 x
–1
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 x –2
–1
–3
–2 Aʹ
Bʹ
–3
(b) A′ = (3, 1), B′ = (0, 1)
(c) x′ = 3x, y′ = y
1
(b) A′ = (1, –2), B′ = (0, –2) 2
(c) x′ = x, y′ = y  3 0 
(d)  
 1 0   0 1 
(d)    2 
 0 −1 
2 (i) Reflection in the x-axis
(iii) (a) y (ii) Reflection in the line y = − x
3 (iii) Stretch of factor 2 parallel to the x-axis and
2
stretch factor 3 parallel to the y-axis
(iv) Enlargement, scale factor 4, centre the origin
1
(v) Rotation of 90° clockwise (or 270°
Bʹ
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 x
anticlockwise) about the origin
–1 3 (i) Rotation of 60° anticlockwise about the
Aʹ
–2
origin
(ii) Rotation of 55° anticlockwise about the origin
–3
(iii) Rotation of 135° clockwise about the origin
(iv) Rotation of 150° anticlockwise about the
(b) A′ = (–2, –1), B′ = (–2, 0) origin
249

Answers
4 (i)  1 n  0   1 
7  p q   1  =  q  ⇒ n = 1, q = 3.
 1 4   1 1 −1 −1   5 −3 −5 3     
 0 1   1 −1 −1 1  =  1 −1 −1 1 
 1 1  1   2 
so the transformed square would look like this: = ⇒ p+ 3 = 0, p = − 3.
 p 
3   1   p + 3 
 
y

 1 1  1   2 
 p  = ⇒ p + 3 = 0, p = − 3.
 3   1   p + 3 
 
 1 3 
D′ A′ 8 (i) A′ (2 3 − 1, 2) (ii)
 
 0 1 
O x 9 We can make six different matrices,

 1 2   1 3   2 1   2 3  3 1   3 2
C′ B′
 0 3  0 2  0 3  0 1   0 2  0 1 
.
The images of (1, 1) under these are respectively;
(ii) The transformation is a shear with the x-axis
(3, 3), (4, 2), (3, 3), (5, 1), (4, 2), (5, 1), which all lie
fixed and the point A(1, 1) has image A′(5, 1).
on x + y = 6.
5 (i) (a) The image of the unit square has vertices
10 A′(4, 5), B′(7, 9), C′(3, 4). The original square and
(0, 0), (1, 5), (0, 1), (1, 6) as shown in the
the image both have an area of one square unit.
diagram below.
y
y
11 (i)
6
A A′
1
4
2
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 x
O 1 2 x
(b) The image of the unit square has vertices C′ B′ C

–1
B
(0, 0), (1, 0), (0.5, 1), (1.5, 1) as shown in
the diagram below.
y (ii) The gradient of A′C′ is 21 , which is the
reciprocal of the top right-hand entry of the
2
matrix M.
1
12 (i) Rotation of 90° clockwise about the x-axis
O 0.5 1 1.5 x
(ii) Reflection in the plane z = 0
(ii) Matrix A represents a shear with the y-axis  −1 0 0 
 1 0 0 
fixed; the point (1, 1) has image (1, 6). A has  (ii)  0 1 0 
13 (i)  0 1 0
shear factor 5.    
Matrix B represents a shear with the x-axis  0 0 −1   0 0 −1 
fixed; the point (1, 1) has image (1.5, 1).
B has shear factor 0.5. 14 ( x, y ) → ( x, x )  1 0 
The matrix for the transformation is  .
 0 −1 0   1 0 0   1 0 
6 (i)  1 0 0 (ii)  0 −1 0 

   
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
 1 0 0   0 0 −1 
(iii)  0 −1 0  (iv)  0 1 0 
   
 0 0 −1   1 0 0 
250

(iii)
 5 0 
15 (i) Any matrix of the form  or  p q   a b   pa + qc pb + qd 
 0 k  U = =

 r s   c d   ra + sc rb + sd 
 k 0 
 0 5  .
and so
Answers
If k = 5 the rectangle would be a square.  pa + qc pb + qd   x   pax + qcx + pby + rdy 
UP =  = 
 2 1 , 1 0 ,  ra + sc rb + sd   y   rax + scx + rby + sdy 
(ii)  
 0 1   1  2 
pa + qc pb + qd   x   pax + qcx + pby + rdy 
UP =  = 
 ra + sc rb + sd   y   rax + scx + rby + sdy  . Therefore UP=P″

 1 2  or  0 1 
   2 1 
 1 0   
 3 3   3  AB represents ‘carry out transformation B followed
0
(iii)
 7 2 ,  2 
,
by transformation A.
 3  
 7 3 3  (AB)C represents ‘carry out transformation C
 0  2 
 2   followed by transformation AB, i.e. ‘carry out C
  followed by B followed by A’.
 3 3  0 3
 2 7   2 BC represents ‘carry out transformation C followed

 3  or  3 3  by transformation B’.
 0   7
 2   2 
A(BC) represents ‘carry out transformation BC
followed by transformation A, i.e. carry out C
Discussion point (Page 28) followed by B followed by A’.
(i) BA represents a reflection in the line y = x.
(ii) The transformation A is represented by the Activity 1.7 (Page 29)
 1 0 
matrix A =  and the transformation  cos θ − sin θ 
 0 −1  (i) A=  ,
 sin θ cos θ 
B is represented by the matrix
 0 −1   cos φ − sin φ 
B =  1 0  . The matrix product B=  
 
 sin φ cos φ 
 0 −1   1 0   0 1  (ii)
BA =  = . cos θ cos φ − sin θ sin φ − sin θ cos φ − cos θ sin φ 
 1 0   0 −1   1 0  BA =  
T
his is the matrix which represents a reflection in  sin θ cos φ + cos θ sin φ − sin θ sin φ + cos θ cos φ 
the line y = x.
 cos (θ + φ ) − sin (θ + φ ) 
(iii) C =  
Activity 1.6 (Page 28)  sin (θ + φ ) cos (θ + φ ) 
 a b   x   ax + by  (iv) sin (θ + φ ) = sin θ cos φ + cos θ sin φ

(i) P′ =  = 
 c d   y   cx + dy 
cos (θ + φ ) = cos θ cos φ − sin θ sin φ

 p q   ax + by   pax + pby + + qdy
qcx(v) 
through angle θ followed by rotation
A rotation
P ′′ = 
(ii)
  cx + dy  =  rax + rby + scx + sdy  angle φ has the same effect as a rotation
through
 r s    
through angle φ followed by angle θ .
 p q   ax + by   pax + pby + qcx + qdy 
P ′′ =    = 
 r s   cx + dy   rax + rby + scx + sdy 
251

Answers
Exercise 1.4 (Page 30)  0 −1 

(ii) PQ =  , reflection in the line
1 (i) A: enlargement centre (0,0), scale factor 3  −1 0 
B: rotation 90° anticlockwise about (0,0)
y = −x
C: reflection in the x-axis
D: reflection in the line y = x  0 −1 
 0 1  (iii) QP =  −1 0 
(ii) BC =  , reflection in the line
 1 0 
(iv) The matrix P has the effect of making the
y = −x coordinates of any point the negative of
 0 −1  their original values,
CB =  −1 0  , reflection in the line i.e. ( x, y ) → (−x, − y )
 
y = −x
The matrix Q interchanges the coordinates,
 0 −1 
DC =  , rotation 90° i.e. ( x, y ) → ( y, x )
 1 0 
I t does not matter what order these two
anticlockwise about (0, 0)
transformations occur as the result will be
 9 0  the same
A2 =  0 9  , enlargement centre (0, 0),
 
 2 −3 
scale factor 9 5 The matrix P is  .
 1 2 
 1 0 
BCB = 
 0 −1  , reflection in the x-axis  1 0 0   1 0 0 
6 (i) J=  0 1 0  K=  0 0 −1 
 1 0     
DC2D =  returns the object to  0 0 −1   0 1 0 
 0 1 
 −1 0 0   0 0 1 
its original position  0 1 0 
L=  0 1 0  M=
   
(iii) For example, B , C or D
4 2 2
 0 0 1   −1 0 0 
 1 0   −1 0  (ii) (a) LJ (b) MJ
2 (i) X =  0 −1  Y= 
   0 1  (c) K 2 (d) JLK
 −1 0   8 −4 
7 (i)  −3 12  (ii) (32, −33)
(ii) XY =  0
 −1  , rotation of 180°
 0 1 
about the origin 8 Possible transformations are B =  ,
 −1 0 
 −1 0  which is a rotation of 90° clockwise about the
(iii) YX =  0 −1  origin, followed by
(iv) When considering the effect on the unit  3 0 
A=  , which is a stretch of scale factor
vectors i and j, as each transformation only  0 1 
affects one of the unit vectors the order of the 3 parallel to the x-axis. The order of these is
transformations is not important in this case. important as performing A followed by B leads
3 a = 2, b = 3, and (1, 1) maps to the point  0 1 
to the matrix  . Could also have
(11, 13).  −3 0 
 0 1   1 0 
 −1 0  B =  0 3  . which represents a stretch of
4 (i) P= Q=  
 0 −1   1 0 
factor 3 parallel to the y-axis, followed by
252

 0 1   1 0 
A =  , which represents a rotation of
 −1 0   1 
(ii)
 −R 1 
90° clockwise about the origin; again the order  2 
is important.
 1 − R1 
 1 0 
Answers
9 (i) PQ =   R1 
 −3 −1  (iii)  1 
 − R2 R2
+1 
 1 0 
(ii) P =  0 −1  represents a reflection in  R1 
 
 1 + R2 − R1 
the x-axis. (iv)  
 1 0   − 1 1 
Q=  represents a shear with the  R2 
 3 1 
y-axis fixed; point B(1,1) has image (1,4). The effect of Type B followed by Type A is
different to that of Type A followed by Type B.
 1 1 
 2 2  13 a =
2 + 2 and b = 1
10 X = 
 1 − 1 
 4 2 ( 2 +2 )
 2 2  D represents an anticlockwise rotation of 22.5°
A matrix representing a rotation about the about the origin.
 cos θ − sin θ  By comparison to the matrix
origin has the form   and so
 cos θ − sin θ 
 sin θ cos θ 
    for an anticlockwise
the entries on the leading diagonal would be  sin θ cos θ 
 
equal. That is not true for matrix X and so this rotation of θ about the origin, a and b are the
cannot represent a rotation. exact values of cos 22.5° and sin 22.5° respectively.
 1 0   1 3   1 3 
11 (i) 
 0 2   2 2   −2 2 
14 (i) P =   Q =  
(ii) A reflection in the x-axis and a stretch of  3 −1   3 1 
scale factor 5 parallel to the x-axis  2 2   2 2 
 5 0   
(iii)  0 −2  1 − 3 
 2 2
(ii) QP =   , which represents
Reflection in the x-axis; stretch of scale factor  3 1 
5 parallel to the x-axis; stretch of scale factor  2 2 
2 parallel to the y-axis. The outcome of these
a rotation of 60° anticlockwise about the
three transformations would be the same
origin.
regardless of the order in which they are
applied.There are six different possible orders.  1 3 
 1 
 2 2 
0 (iii) PQ =   , which represents a
(iv)  5   − 3 1 
 1   2 2 
 0 − 2  rotation of 60° clockwise about the origin.
 1 − R1  15 A reflection in a line followed by a second

12 (i)  0 1  reflection in the same line returns a point to its

original position.
253

Answers

If m = 0.5 then c = 0 so y = 1 x is
In a reflection, all points on the mirror line map to 2
invariant.
themselves.
If m = –2 then c can take any value and so
In a rotation, only the centre of rotation maps to itself. y = −2x + c is an invariant line.
2 1 
Exercise 1.5 (Page 35) 5 A = 
 1 2 
(i)
1 (i) Points of the form ( λ , − 2λ ) (ii) Invariant lines are y = –x and y = x
(ii) (0, 0)  p 
(iii) Any point of the form   maps to itself.

(iii) Points of the form ( λ , − 3λ )  −p 
  x   x 
Solving  4 11  
(iv) (
Points of the form 2 λ , 3λ ) 6 (i) =
 11 4   y   y 
leads
2 (i) x-axis, y-axis, lines of the form y = mx 3x

to the equations y = − 11 and y = − 11x .
3
(ii) x-axis, y-axis, lines of the form y = mx
The only point that satisfies both of these is
(iii) no invariant lines (0, 0).
(iv) y = x , lines of the form y = − x + c (ii) y = x and y = − x
y = − x , lines of the form y = x + c 9

(v) 7 (i) y = x , y = − x
4
(vi) x-axis (ii) y
3 A rotation through 90º about the origin cannot 10 A′ y=x

have any invariant lines, since every line is rotat- 8
ed through 90º. 6 B′
But A becomes a rotation through 180º, and

2
4
y = − –94 x
every line is now invariant. 2 B
C A
 0 −1   0 1  –4 –2 O 2 4 6 8 10 12 x
So A =  according to
 1 0   −1 0 
–2
C′
whether we rotate anticlockwise or clockwise.

8 (i) y = x (ii) y = x
4 (i) Any points on the line y = 1 x , for
2 (iii) y
example (0, 0), (2, 1) and (3, 1.5) y=x
3
(ii) y = 1x 2 C′
2 C B′
1
(iii) Any line of the form y = −2 x + c B
–1 O 1A 2 3 x
(iv) Using the method of Example 1.11 leads to –1 A′
the equations
2m 2 + 3m − 2 = 0 ⇒ m = 0.5 or − 2 11 (i) x ′ = x + a, y ′ = y + b

( 4 + 2m ) c = 0 ⇒ m = −2 or c = 0 (iii) (c) a = −2b

254

Chapter 2 Activity 2.2 (Page 40)
(i) x =2 Natural number (or integer)
Discussion points (Page 39) (ii) x =
9
Rational number
R Real numbers – any number which is not 7
(iii) x = ±3 Integers
complex
(iv) x = −1
Answers
Integer
Q Rational numbers – numbers which can be (v) x = 0, − 7 Integers
expressed exactly as a fraction
Z Integers – positive or negative whole numbers,
including zero
N Natural numbers – non-negative whole
(5 + −15 )(5 − −15 )
numbers (although there is some debate amongst = 25 − 5 −15 + 5 −15 − (−15)
mathematicians as to whether zero should be = 25 + 15
included!)
= 40
Discussion points (Page 40) Discussion points (Page 42)
Any real number is either rational or irrational. This If the numerators and denominators of two fractions
means that all real numbers will either lie inside are equal then the fractions must also be equal.
the set of rational numbers, or inside the set of real
However, it is possible for two fractions to be equal if
numbers but outside the set of rational numbers.
the numerators and denominators are not equal, for
Therefore no separate set is needed for irrational
numbers. example 43 = 68 .
The symbol Q is used for irrational numbers – Exercise 2.1 (Page 43)
numbers which cannot be expressed exactly as a 1 (i) i
fraction, such as π . (ii) –1
(iii) –i
Activity 2.1 (Page 40) (iv) 1
Real
√5
Rational
227
109
Integers
0.33 −13
Natural numbers
7
3.1415
0. 3·
−√ 5 π
255

Answers
2 (i) 9 − i (ii) (a) x = 1, x =3

(ii) −9 + 9i (b) x = 2 ± 2i
(iii) 3 + 9i (c) 2 ± 2i
(iv) −3 − i (iii) The roots all
occur in pairs that are of the
3 (i) 24 + 2i form x = 2 ± k where k is either a real
(ii) −2 + 24i number or a real multiple of i
(iii) 20 + 48i 13 a = −7, b = 11
(iv) 38 − 18i You cannot assume the second root is the
conjugate of 2 + i as the coefficients of the
4 3.5
equation are not real.
5 (i) (a) 52
The second root is 5 − 2i .
(b) 34
(c) 1768 Activity 2.3 (Page 45)
(ii) The answers are wholly real.
z + z * = ( x + yi) + ( x − yi) = 2x which is real
6 25
7 (i) 92 − 60i zz * = ( x + yi)( x − yi) = x 2 − xyi + yxi − y 2 i 2 = x 2 + y 2
−414
(ii) = ( x + yi)( x − yi) = x 2 − xyi + yxi − y 2 i 2 = x 2 + y 2 which is real
zz+* 154i
8 (i) −1 ± i
1 ± 2i
(ii) Discussion points (Page 46)
2 ± 3i
(iii) 1 = 1 × i = i = −i
(iv) −3 ± 5i
i i i −1
1 ± 2i 1 = 1 × i 2 = −1 = −1
(v) i2 i2 i2 1
2
(vi) −2 ± 2i 1 = 1 × i = −i = i
3

9 a = 1 or 4, b = −1 or 3 i3 i3 i3 −1
The possible complex numbers are 1 = 1 × i4 = 1 = 1
1 + 9i, 1 + i, 16 + 9i, 16 + i i4 i4 i4 1
1
10 a = 3, b = 5 or a = −3, b = −5 All numbers of the form 4 n are equal to 1.
i
11 3 + 7i and −3 − 7i
All numbers for the form 41n +1 are equal to – i.
12 (i) y i
1
All numbers of the form 4 n + 2 are equal to −1.
i
1
All numbers of the form are equal to i.
y = x2 − 4x + 8 i4 n + 3
10
y = x2 − 4x + 3 1 (i) 21 + 3 i (ii)
21 − 3 i
50 50 50 50
(iii) −
3 + 21 i (iv)
3 + 21 i
50 50 50 50
y = x2 − 4x + 6
9 + 19 i 9 − 19 i
2 (i) − (ii) −
5 13 13 34 34
9 − 19 i 9 + 19 i
(iii) − (iv) −
13 13 34 34
94 + 158 i 204 + 253 i
3 (i)
25 25 (ii)
625 625
4 (i) 6 (ii) 85
0 5 10 x
(iii) 12 (iv) 45
(v) −4 (vi) 45
5 (a + bi)(b + ai)=(a2 + b2)i and so has an
imaginary part but no real part, since a and
b are non-zero. So Jo is correct.
256

6 (i) 2 (ii) 3 (ii)
(iii) 2 − 3i (iv) 6 + 4i Im
(v) 8 + i (vi) −4 − 7i 5 + 4i
4
7 True because both z + z and zz are real.
∗ ∗ 2 + 3i
3
8 (i) 0 (ii) 0 2 2i
Answers
(iii) –39 (iv) −46 + 9i 1
(v) −46 − 9i (vi) 52i 7
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Re
348 + 290 i 322 − 65 i –1
9 (i) (ii)
61 61 29 29 –2 –2i
600 + 110 i –3
(iii) − 2 – 3i
3721 3721 –4
5 – 4i
10 (i) 2 – i (ii) 1
35 + 149 i The points representing z and z∗ are reflections
(iii) 3
+ i (iv) −
34 34
23 15 of each other in the real axis.
11 a = − b = −
13 13
a = 9, b = 11 Exercise 2.3 (Page 50)
12
1 Im
10
13 (i) 10 (ii)
89 89
4 4i
2x
14 3
x2 + y2 3 + 2i
2
16 a = 2, b = 2 −5 + i
1
17 z = 0, z = 2, z = −1 ± 3i −2
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Re
18 z = 8 − 6i, w = 6 − 5i –1
–2
Discussion point (Page 47) –3
A complex number has a real component and an 4 − 3i
–4
imaginary component. It is not possible to illustrate −6 − 5i
–5
two components using a single number line.
Activity 2.4 (Page 48) 2 Im

(i)
Im −z = −2 + 4i z* = 2 + 4i
4
5 3
5 + 4i
4 iz* = −4 + 2i iz = 4 + 2i
2 + 3i
2
3
1
2 2i
1 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Re
–7 7 –1
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Re
–1
–2
−iz = −4 − 2i (iz)* = 4 − 2i
–2 –2i –3
–3 –4
–2 – 3i −z* = −2 − 4i z = 2 − 4i
–4 –5
–5 – 4i
–5
The points representing z and –z have half turn

rotational symmetry about the origin.
257

Answers
3 (iii)
Im
n –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
8 1 1
z + w = 11 + 7i Z
n
− i 1 1 + i 2i –2 + 2i –4 –4 – 4i
6 2 2
z = 10 + 5i
4 Distance
w = 1 + 2i z – w = 9 + 3i 1
2 from 1 2 2 2 2 4 4 2
2
origin
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Re
–2
w – z = –9 – 3i
–4
(iv) T
he half squares formed are enlarged by a factor
–6 of 2 and rotated through 45° each time.

–8 8 (i) r = a2 + b2
zz * = ( a + bi )( a − bi ) = a 2 + b 2 = r 2
4 1
(ii) s= c2 + d2
(i) x − 4 x + 3 = 0
2
5
(iii) zw = (a + bi )(c + di ) = (ac − bd ) + (bc + ad ) i
(ii) x 2 − 4x + 5 = 0
Distance from origin of zw is
(iii) x 2− 4 x + 13 = 0
(ac − bd ) + (bc + ad ) = a 2c 2 + b 2d 2 + b 2c 2 + a 2d 2
2 2
(iv) All of the form x − 4 x + k = 0 where
2

k ∈R = (a 2
+ b 2 )(c 2 + d 2 )
6 Im
= a 2 + b 2 c 2 + d 2 = rs
−(z*) = −x + yi z = x + yi
Chapter 3
4x 3 + x 2 − 4x − 1 = 0
Re
Looking at the graph you may suspect that x = 1 is
a root. Setting x = 1 verifies this. The factor theorem
tells you that (x – 1) must be a factor, so factorise the
cubic ( x − 1)(4 x 2 + 5x + 1) = 0. Now factorise the
−z = −x − yi z* = x − yi
remaining quadratic factor: ( x − 1)(4 x + 1)( x + 1) = 0,
so the roots are x = 1, – 14 , –1.
7 (i) 4x 3 + x 2 + 4x + 1 = 0
n –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 This does not have such an obvious starting
1 1 point, but the graph suggests only one real root.
Z
n
− i 1 1+i 2i –2 + 2i –4 –4 – 4i
2 2
Comparing with previous example, you may spot
(ii) Im that x = – 41 might work, so you can factorise giving
(4 x + 1)( x 2 + 1) = 0. From this you can see that the
other roots must be complex. x 2 = −1, so the three
Re roots are x = – 14 , ±i.
258

Activity 3.1 (Page 54) (iv) z
2
− 7z − 12 = 0
Equation Two Sum of Product 4 – 6
roots roots of roots
5 oots are real, distinct and negative (since
(i) R
2
(i) z − 3z + 2 = 0 1, 2 3 2 αβ > 0 ⇒ same signs and α + β < 0 ⇒
Answers
both <0)
(ii) z 2 + z − 6 = 0 2, –3 –1 –6
(ii) α = −β
2
(iii) z − 6 z + 8 = 0 2, 4 6 8 (iii) One of the roots is zeros and the other is − b .
a
2
(iv) z − 3z − 10 = 0 –2, 5 3 –10 (iv) The roots are of opposite signs.
1, 1 3 1 6 Let az 2 + bz + c = 0 have roots a and 2a.
(v) 2 z 2 − 3z + 1 = 0 2 2 2
2 Sum of roots α + 2α = 3α = − b so α = − b
(vi) z − 4 z + 5 = 0 2±i 4 5 a 3a
Discussion point (Page 54) Product of roots α × 2α = 2α 2 = c so
a
( )
2
If the equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0, the sum appears 2× − b = c
3a a
to be – ba and the product appears to be ca .
Then 2b = 9ac as required.
2
Discussion point (Page 55) 7 a = −6, b = −5. The roots for x are 1 and 5,
You get back to the original quadratic equation. while the roots for y are 2 and 3; 2 + 3 = 5 × 1,
5+1=2×3
8 (i) az 2 + bkz + ck 2 = 0
(i)
−3 ± i 31 , −3 ± i 31
4 2 (ii) az 2 + (b − 2ka )z + (k 2 a − kb + c ) = 0
(ii)
2± 7,5± 7 9 (i) For both the sum of the roots and the
3 3
product of the roots to be real, the two
Exercise 3.1 (Page 57) roots must be complex conjugates.
1 (i) α + β = − ,
7 αβ = 3 (ii) z 2 − (5 + 2i) + (9 + 7i) = 0
2
(ii) α + β = 1, αβ = −
1
5 5
2 1 (i) − 3
(iii) α + β = 0, αβ = 2
7 (ii) − 1
2
(Iv) α + β = − 24 , αβ = 0
5 (iii) − 7
2
(v) α + β = −11, αβ = −4
8 2 (i) z 3 − 7z 2 + 14 z − 8 = 0
(vi) α + β = − , αβ = −2
3 (ii) z 3 − 3z 2 − 4 z + 12 = 0
2 (i) z 2 − 10z + 21 = 0 (iii) 2z 3 + 7z 2 + 6z = 0
(ii) z 2 − 3z − 4 = 0 (iv) 2z 3 − 13z 2 + 28z − 20 = 0
(iii) 2 z + 19 z + 45 = 0
2
(v) z 3 − 19z − 30 = 0
(iv) z − 5z = 0
2
(vi) z 3 − 5z 2 + 9 z − 5 = 0
(v) z − 6 z + 9 = 0
2
3 (i) z = 2, 5, 8
(vi) z − 6 z + 13 = 0
2
(ii) z = − 2, 2, 2
3 3
3 (i) 2z 2 + 15z − 81 = 0
(iii) z = 2 − 2 3, 2, 2 + 2 3
(ii) 2 z
2
− 5z − 9 = 0 2 7
(iv) z = , , 5
(iii) 2 z
2
+ 13z + 9 = 0 3 6 3
259

Answers
4 (i) z = w − 3 (ii) 4 z 4 + 20z 3 + z 2 − 60z = 0

(ii) (w − 3)3 + (w − 3)2 + 2(w − 3) − 3 = 0 (iii) 4 z
4
+ 12z 3 − 27z 2 − 54 z + 81 = 0
(iii) w 3 − 8w 2 + 23w − 27 = 0 (iv) z 4 − 5z 2 + 10z − 6 = 0
(iv) α + 3, β + 3, γ + 3
4 (i) z 4 + 4 z 3 − 6z 2 − 4 z + 48 = 0
5 w − 4w + 4w − 24 = 0
3 2
2z 4 + 12z 3 + 21z 2 + 13z + 8 = 0
(ii)
6 Let w = 3z – 1, and so z = w + 1. Thus 5 (i) Let w = x + 1 then x = w − 1
3
an equation with the required roots is new quartic: x 4 − 6x 2 + 9
( ) ( ) ( )
2
27 w + 1 + 9 w + 1 + 3 w + 1 z − 1 = 0, (ii) Solutions to new quartic are x = ± 3
3 3 2
(each one repeated), solutions to original
or (w + 1)3 + (w + 1)2 + (w + 1) – 1 = 0. quartic are therefore: α = β = 3 − 1 and
Multiplying out, this gives w3 + 4w2 + 6w + 2 = 0, γ = δ = − 3 − 1.
and this equation will have the required roots.
6 (i) α = −1, β = 3
7 (i) 2w 3 − 16w 2 + 37w − 27 = 0
(ii) p = 4 and q = −9
+ 24w 2 + 45w + 37 = 0
(ii) 2w 3
(iii) Use substitution y = x − 3α (i.e.
8 The roots are 3 , 2, 5 k = 47 y = x + 3 then x = y − 3) and
2 2 2
9 z = 1 , 1 , − 3 y 3 − 8y 2 + 18y – 12 = 0
4 2 4
10 α = –1, p = 7, q = 8 or α = p = q = 0 7 (i) b
α +β +γ +δ +ε = −
11 Roots are – p and ± −q (note ± −q is not a
αβ + αγ + αδ + αε + βγ + βδ + βε +
necessarily imaginary, since q is not necessarily >0)
γδ + γε + δε =
c
12 (i) p = −8 α + 1 + β
2α ( ) a
αβγ + αβδ + αβε + αγδ + αγε + αδε +
q = 8 1 + αβ +
2
β
2α( ) βγδ + βγε + βδε + γδε = −
d
a
r = −4 β e
αβγδ + βγδε + γδεα + δεαβ + εαβγ =
1
(iii) r = 9; x = 1, , −
9 a
2 4 f
αβγδε = −
r = −6; x = −2, − 1 , 3 a
4 2
13 z = 3 , 7 , − 2
7 3
∑ α = − b
a
14 ac = b d
3 3
z = 1, 3, 9 ∑ αβ = c
a
2 2 2
Exercise 3.3 (Page 64) ∑ αβγ = − d
a
1 (i) − 3
2
3
(ii) ∑ αβγδ = e
a
(iii) 5
2 ∑ αβγδε = −
f
(iv) 2 a
2 1
3 (i) z 4 − 6z 3 + 7z 2 + 6 z − 8 = 0
260

Exercise 3.4 (Page 67) (iii) Im
1 4 + 5i is the other root. −1 + 2i 2

The equation is z – 8z + 41 = 0.
2
2 2 − i, −3 −5 −1 O Re
3 7, 4 ± 2i −1 − 2i −2
Answers
Im
4
12 A false, B true, C true, D true
4 + 2i
2 13 a = 2, b = 2, z = –2 ± i, 1 ± 2i
7 14 z = ±3i, 4 ± 5
O 2 4 6 8 Re
15 (i) α ² = –8 – 6i, α ³ = 26 – 18i
−2 (ii) µ = 20
4 − 2i
(iii) z = –1 ± 3i, − 2
3
4 (i) z = –3 (iv) Im
5
(ii) z = –3, ±
11 i −1 + 3i
2 2 3
5 k = 36, other roots are − 3 ± 3 3 i

2 2 − –23
6 p = 4, q = –10, other roots are 1 + i and –6 −1 O Re
7 z 3 − z – 6 = 0
8 z = 3 ± 2i, 2 ± i −3
−1 − 3i
Im
4 16 b = –9, c = 44, d = –174, e = 448, f = –480

3 + 2i
2 2+i Chapter 4
O 1 2 3 4 Re
2−i
−2
3 – 2i 2
1
x2 + y = 1
9 4
9 (i) w² = –2i, w³ = –2 – 2i, w4 = –4
(ii) p = –4, q = 2
2 a = 4
3
(iii) z = –4, –1, 1 ± i 3 y = x − x2
10 (i) z = ±3, ±3i 4 (i) y = −x2 − x
(ii) Im
4 (ii) y = x2 − x
3i
2
2 9x 2 y
5 − =1
−3 3 8 8
y = 2x (which is a hyperbola).
−4 −2 O 2 4 Re
6
2x − 1
−2
 2 
−3i
7 (
(i) ellipse, ± 2, 0 ,  0, ± ) 

3
11 (i) a ² = –3 – 4i, a ³ = 11 – 2i
(ii) z = –1 – 2i, –5 (ii) parabola, (± 2, 0) , 0, 4
3 ( )
(iii) hyperbola, (± 2, 0)
261

Answers
8 ± 12 5 (i) α + 1, β + 1, γ + 1 satisfy
9 y = 3x − 14 ( y – 1)3 + 3( y – 1)2 – 6( y – 1) – 8 = 0 [1]
5
y 3 – 3 y 2 + 3 y – 1+ 3 y 2 – 6 y + 3 – 6 y
Practice Questions 1 (Page 80)
+6 – 8 = 0 [1], [1]
1 (i) Points plotted at 1 + 2i, −3 + 4i, 4i, 2 y3 – 9 y = 0 [1]
5
[1], [1], [1], [2]
2
(ii) y( y – 9) = 0 [1]
(ii) w , w − w*[1]
2
y( y − 3)( y + 3) = 0 [1]
2 Either y = 0, 3, − 3 [1]
Cubic has real coefficients [1]
(iii) x = −1, 2, − 4 [2]
so 3 – i a root [1]
Sum of 3 + i and 3 – i is 6; sum of all 6 (i) Diagram or calculation showing image
3 roots is 9 [1] of shape/points
so real root is 3 [1] Rotation 90°… [1]
Or … about (0, 0), anticlockwise [1]
z = 3 a root by trying factors of 30 [1] (ii) Rotation 45° anticlockwise about (0, 0),
Factor theorem (z – 3) a factor of cubic [1] when repeated, gives transformation
3 2 2
z – 9z + 28z – 30 = ( z – 3)( z – 6z + 10) [1] corresponding to B. [1]
Roots of quadratic are 3 + i, 3 – i [1] Diagram showing, for example, unit
square or unit vectors rotated by 45°. [1]
3 (i) y
 
 1 − 1 
 2 2
 1 1  [1]
 
−2 O 2 x  2 2 

δ + (δ + 1) = − b ⇒ b 2 = a 2 (δ + (δ + 1))
2
[1], [1] 7
a

3
Asymptotes are y = ± x [1] = a (δ 2 + 2δ (δ + 1) + (δ + 1)2 )
2
2
= a 2 ( 4δ 2 + 4δ + 1)
[1]
( x − 1) ( y + 2)
2 2
(ii) − = 1 [2]
4 9
δ(δ + 1) = c ⇒ ac
a
–6 ± 36 – 20 [1] = a 2 (δ(δ + 1))
4 (i) =
2 (2 + i)
= a 2 (δ 2 + δ ) [1]
= –5 or –1
2+i 2 + i [1] LHS = b 2 − 4ac
–5 ( 2 − i ) − (2 − i)
=
( 2 + i )( 2 − i )
or
( 2 + i )( 2 − i ) [1]
(
= a 2 4δ 2 + 4δ + 1 − 4 (δ 2 + δ ) )

= a 2 (1) [1]
= − ( 2 – i ) or = – 1 ( 2 – i ): both solutions
5 =a 2
[1]
are in the form λ (2 – i) with λ = –1 and = RHS [complete argument, well set out]

λ = −1 [1]
8 (i) Calculations or image correct for
5
(ii) By substituting the roots into the three points [1]
equation. [1] Totally correct plot of (0, 0) (−0.6, 0.8)
(0.2, 1.4) (0.8, 0.6) [1]
262

(ii)  3 4  4 (i) ln(3 + 2 2 ) (ii) ln(1 + 2)
 −5 5  x   x 
    =   1
(iii) ln 3 (iv) ln( −2 + 5)
 4 3  y   y  2
 5 5  (v) ln 2
1
(vi) − ln 5
2
−3x + 4y = x 5 (i) x = ln(3 + 10 ) (ii) ± ln(3 + 2 2 )
Answers
5 5
[1] (iii) 1 ln 3
4x + 3y = y 2 2
5 5
3
y = 2x  6 (i) ln , ln 2
4
 from both equations [1]
y = 2x  (ii) –ln 2
y = 2x is equation of line of invariant (iii) no
solutions
points.[1] 7 x = ln3, y = ln2
(iii) Perpendicular line to this, through origin, is 8 1.62 m
y = −1x [1] 10 arsinh x – arcosh x =
2
 3 4   3 
(
ln x + )
x 2 + 1 – ln x + ( x2 − 1 )
−  x  − x − 2x Now arcosh x is only defined for 1 < x, where
 5 5   5 5 
 4 3   − 1 x  =
  4 3  ln is defined and increasing.
 5   2 x− x 
5  5 10 Thus since ( x 2 + 1) > ( x 2 − 1) ,
arsinh x > arcosh x.
 −x   x  [1] You have (earsinh(x) – earcosh(x))2
=  1  = − 1 
 − 2 x
 2 x  
(( ))

) (
2
= x + ( x 2 + 1) − x + x2 − 1
So y = − 1 x is an invariant line, and is
2 = ( x 2 + 1) + ( x 2 − 1) − 2 (x 2
+ 1)( x 2 − 1)
perpendicular to line of invariant points,
and both go through the origin. [1] = 2x 2 − 2 (x 4
− 4 ).
(iv) Two points marked, where image of As x gets larger, the value –1 here becomes
unit square intersects unit square, at negligible, and so (earsinh(x) – earcosh(x))2 tends to
(0, 0) and (0.5, 1). [1],[1] zero, and so arsinh x tends to arcosh x.
11 You have,
Chapter 5 (
ln x + )
x 2 + 1 = ln ( 2x + 2x 2 − 1 , )
Discussion point (Page 82) and so x + x2 + 1 = 2x + 2x 2 − 1, which
The value of cosh t is always greater than 1. It gives yields x 1 − ( )
2 = ( 2x 2
− 1) − (x 2
+ 1).
the right branch.
Squaring now gives you
Activity 5.1 (Page 89) ( )
x 2 3 − 2 2 = ( 2x 2 − 1) + ( x 2 + 1) − 2 ( 2x 2
− 1) (x 2
+ 1)
(
ar cosh 2 = ln 2 + 3 . This
2 )is one of the roots
( 3 there
− 2 2is) a=second
of
( 2x 2 −root
1) + ( x 2 + 1) − 2 ( 2x 2 − 1) ( x 2 + 1),
the equation cosh x = 2,x but
which is the negative of this. which after simplifying and squaring again gives you
Exercise 5.1 (Page 89) 2x4 = (2x2 – 1)(x2 + 1), or x2 = 1.
2 cosh x = 5, tanh x = 2 The value x = –1 is impossible, so the only
5 possible answer is 1.
2x
3 (ii)
3e + 2e x − 1 = 0 Checking shows that this works.
12 x = ±1.32 (3 s.f.)
263

Answers
13 (i) y
(iii) (a) 31 250, 156 250, 781 250, 3 906 250
(b) u1 = 50, ur +1 = 5ur
(c) ur = 10 × 5
r

y=x
(d) 9.54 × 1014
y = cosh x
4 (i) 25 (ii) –150
O x (iii) 363 (iv) –7.5
5 55
14 (i) a + b, a – b, c all have the same sign and 7
2
b +c >a
2 2 7 (i) ∑(56 − 6r ) (ii) 224
r =1
(ii) a + b, a – b, c all have the same sign and
8 2500
b2 + c2 > a2 or a + b and a – b have
9 (i) –5, 5, –5, 5, –5, 5
opposite signs and b2 + c2 > a2
Oscillating
(iii) b2 + c2 < a2 or a + b and a − b have the
same signs and c has the opposite sign (ii) (a)
0 (b) –5
5 5
(iii) − + ( −1)n
Chapter 6 2 2
10 (i) 0, 100, 2, 102, 4, 104
Even terms start from 100 and increase
Discussion point (Page 94) by 2, odd terms start from 0 and increase
Start at 2 and add 3 each time. by 2.
(ii) 201
(iii) 102
1 (i) 6, 11, 16, 21, 26
Increasing by 5 for each term 11 749 cm
(ii) −3, −9, −15, −21, −27 1 n(n 3 + 1)
12
Decreasing by 6 for each term 2
(iii) 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 13 10, 5, 16, 8, 4 (This will reach 1 at c7 and then repeat
Doubling for each term the cycle 4, 2, 1)
(iv) 8, 12, 8, 12, 8
Oscillating
(v) 2, 5, 11, 23, 47 1 (i) 1, 3, 5 (ii) n²
Increasing
2 (i) 4, 14, 30 (ii) n (n + 1)
2
(vi) 5, 5 , 5 , 5 , 1
2 3 4 1
Decreasing, converging to zero 3 2, 12, 36 (ii) 12 n(n + 1)(3n 2 + 7n + 2)
(i)
4 a = 8, b = 4, c = 3
2 (i) 21, 25, 29, 33
5 n4
(ii) u1 = 1, ur +1 = ur + 4 n n n n
6
(iii) ur = 4r – 3 6∑ (r + 1)(r − 1) = ∑ (r 2 − 1) = ∑ r −∑ 1
2
1 1 1 1
3 (i) (a) 0, –2, –4, −6 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) n(2n + 5)(n − 1)
= −n =
(b) u1 = 10, ur +1 = ur − 2 6 6
7
1 n(n + 1)(n + 2)
(c) ur = 12 − 2r 3
(d) –28 8
1 n(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)
4
(ii) (a) 32, 64, 128, 256
9 1 n(3n + 1)
(b) u1 = 1, ur +1 = 2ur 2
(c) ur = 2
r −1
10 n 2 (4n + 1)(5n + 2)
(d) 524 288 11 (ii) 7 layers, 125 left over
264

12 (i) £227.50 9 8n 3 + 12n 2 + 6n
(ii)
1 n(35(n + 1) + 30I ) 10 (ii) 16n 4 + 32n 3 + 24n 2 + 8n
(ii)
24 1,B = − 1
11 (ii) A =
Discussion point (Page 103) 2 2
As n becomes very large, the top and bottom of (iii)
( 3n + 2)(n − 1)
Answers
n 4n (n + 1)
n + 1 are very close, so the sum becomes very close to (iv) As n → ∞, the sum → 3
1 (it converges to 1). 4
Discussion points (Page 106) Discussion point (Page 107)
As n becomes very large, the expression If she was 121 last year then it would be fine, but we
n(3n + 7) 3n 2 (since terms in don’t know if this is true. If she were able to provide
2(n + 1)(n + 2) becomes close to
2n 2 any evidence of her age at a particular point then we
n² are much bigger than terms in n). So the could work from there, but we need a starting point.
sum becomes very close to 3 it converges to 3 .
2 )2 ) Activity 6.1 (Page 108)
Exercise 6.3 (Page 106) 1 = 1
1× 2 2
1 (ii) (1 – 0 ) + ( 4 – 1) + ( 9 – 4 ) + … + 1 1 = 2
+
[ (n − 2 ) − (n − 3 ) ] +
2 2 1× 2 2×3 3
1 + 1 + 1 = 3
[(n − 1)2 − (n − 2 )2 ] + [n 2 − (n − 1)2 ] 1× 2 2×3 3×4 4
(iii) n2 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 4
1× 2 2×3 3×4 4×5 5
2 (i) First term: r = 1, last term: r = 10
(iii) 20 Activity 6.2 (Page 111)
21
(i) Assume true for n = k, so
(n + 4n + 5 )
( )
2
3 (ii) n (iv) 99 2
2 + 4 + 6 + … + 2k = k + 1 .
2
A + B = An + B(n − 3) For n = k + 1 ,
4
n−3 n n(n − 3) 2+4+6+ … +
( )
⇒ An + B(n − 3) = 3 ⇒ A = 1, B = −1 2
Thus 2k + 2 (k + 1) = k + 1 + 2 (k + 1)
2
k
∑ n(n 3− 3) = n −1 3 − n1 = k 2 + k + 1 + 2k + 2
4
4
( ) (
= 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 ... − 1 + 1 + ... + 1
2 3 4 4 5 k ) = k 2 + 3k + 9
4
( )
2
= k+ 3
= 1+ + −
1 1 1 1 1
− − 2
1 2 3 k−2 k−1 k
= (k + 1 + 1 )
2
n (n + 2) 2
5 (ii)
(n + 1)
2
It is not true for n = 1.
6 (ii) n ( 3n + 5) (ii) It breaks down at the inductive step.
4 (n + 1)(n + 2)
(iii) 0.7401, 0.7490, 0.7499. The sum looks as if Activity 6.3 (Page 118)
it is approaching 0.75 as n becomes large. (i) The series for ex differentiates to the series
7 (ii) 13 for ex, as we might expect.The series for sin x
120 differentiates to the series for cos x, while the
n (n + 3) series for cos x differentiates to the series for
8 (ii)
4 (n + 1)(n + 2) – sin x, again as we might expect.The series for
(iii) 0.249 95..., 0.249 9995… The sum looks as ln(1 + x) differentiates to the series for (1 + x)−1,
if it is approaching 0.25 as n becomes large. while the series for (1 + x)n differentiates to the
series for n(1 + x)n−1.
265

Answers
(ii) The series for sin x involves only odd powers of

x, while the series for cos x involves only even ( 21 − sin 3)
Percentage error = 40 × 100% = 272%
powers. We say that sin x is an odd function, and sin 3
cos x is an even function. This implies that the Although the Maclaurin expansion for sin x
graph of sin x has rotational symmetry of order converges for all x, if x is greater than 1 you need
2 about the origin, while the graph of cos x is to take more terms to give an accurate value.
symmetrical in the y-axis. 2 4 6
5 (i) 1 − u + u − u + ...
2! 4! 6!
Activity 6.4 (Page 119) 4 6
(i) You have that ∫

1
dx = ln(1 + x). The
(ii) 1 − 2x 2 + 2x − 4 x + ...
1+ x 3 45
constant of integration is zero since 6 (i) 3x − x 9 3
2
ln(1 + x) = 0 when x = 0. 8 3
2 4
(ii) 2 x − 2 x + x − 4 x
(ii) You are saying that 3
e x (1 + x )−1 1 1 2 1 x3 + 1 x4
(iii) 1 + x + x +
2 8 48 384
x2 x3 1
8 x + x + ...3
= (1 + x + + + ...)(1 − x + x 2 − x 3 + ...) 3
2 6
x2 x3 9 0.24%
(iii)
= 1+ − + ...
2 3
1
For the expansion of (1 + x)−1 to be valid, 10 (i) x 2 − x 4
3
|x|< 1, which means that x4 terms and higher 1 1 3 1 x4
(ii) x − x + x −
2

will be small and can be discarded. 2 6 12
2 4
(iii) If y = − x + x , then 1 + y is approximately (iii) x − x + x
2 1 3
2! 4! 3
cos x (neglecting terms in x6 and higher). Thus 1 1
(iv) 1 + x + x 2 − x 4
(1 + y)−1 is approximately sec x. 2 8
x 2 + 5x 4 + ... 11 (i) 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + ...
This method gives sec x = 1 +
2 24 1
(ii)
which agrees with the exact series expansion of (1 − x )2
sec x up to this point. 12 (i) a0 = 2
3 4 5 6
Exercise 6.6 (Page 119) (iii) 2 + x − x2 − x + x + x − x

3 4 15 24
1 0.995 004
(i)
(iv)
1.4 × 10−7%
(ii) y
2 0.606 53, 7 terms
(i)
(ii)
0.000 24% 2
x 3 + ... Step by step solution
3 (i) sin x = x −
3! 1
3 2
(ii) x + 6 x − 6 x = 0
sin 2 ≈ 2 − 8 + 32 = 14 . −1 O 1 2 3 x
4 6 120 15 Maclaurin approximation
Percentage error
( )
13 (i) 0.6456
14 − sin 2
15 (ii) 0.6911
= × 100% = 2.64%.
(iii) 2 x + 2 x + 2 x , x = 1 gives ln 2 = 0.6930
3 5
sin 2
3 5 3
sin 3 ≈ 3 − 27 + 243 = 21 .
6 120 40
266

32 π cubic units
Chapter 7 (ii)
5
8 (i) y
62.5
1 For example; ball, tin of soup, bottle of wine, roll
Answers
of sticky tape, dinner plate
2 (i) cone, radius 18 and height 6
10
(ii) 648π cubic units y = 10 (base)
(iii) cone, radius 2, height 6 10 25 x
(iv) 8π cubic units
(ii) 45.9 litres
3 1π
2 y
9 (i)
4 (i) y 12 y = x2 – 4
y=x+2
2 x
(ii) 56 π cubic units –2 O 2 x

3 y
5 (i)
–4
12
y = x2 – 1
(ii)
∫0
π ( y + 4) d y
(iii) 3 litres
–1 1 x 10 (i) A (−3, 4) B (3, 4)
(ii) 36π cubic units
1
16 π cubic units 1 1
 x 2a +1 
11 V = ∫ π y 2dx = ∫0 π =
2a
(ii) x dx  2a + 1 0
15 0
6 (i)
=  1 =1
y

 2a + 1 
2 ⇒ a = π − 1.
y = √x 2
12 θ = 60°.
x a ( )
13 (i) π 1 − 1 cubic units
(ii) π cubic units
(ii) 26 square units

3 Activity 7.1 (Page 132)
(iii) 242 π cubic units Area
(i) = 26 square units, mean value =
5 3
7 (i) 13 = 4.33...
y
3
y = (x –3)2
14
(ii) = 4.66...
3
(iii) 4.5
2 x
267

Answers
Discussion point (Page 132) (iii) 0.549 (3 s.f.)

Finding the mean of a function deals with a continuous y
variable, whereas finding the mean value of a set of
1
numbers deals with a discrete set of data. Finding the y= x
mean of a function involves finding the limit of a sum
of values. 0.549
x
Exercise 7.2 (Page 133) 1 3
1 1.49 (3 s.f.)
2 0.25 6 (i) 0.2
3 (i) 0 (ii) 0.2
(ii) The graph has rotational symmetry about (iii) The graph is symmetrical about x = 1 so
x = 1, so the mean value is 0. the mean value is the same for the intervals
[0, 1] and [1, 2] and therefore also for the
y
y = (x –1)3 interval [0, 2]
y
y = (x – 1)4
1
1 x
1 2 x
4 The mean value of y = ax from 0 to b is
b
dx =  ax  = ab
2
1 b
∫
b–0 0
ax
 2b 0 2
7

(i)
(ii)
3
1.5
while the mean value of y = bx from 0 to a is (iii) 2.75, 1.375
b (iv) 2.6875, 1.343 75
dx =  bx  = ab
2
1 a
∫
a–0 0
bx
 2a  0 2
8
(v) Area = , mean value =
3
4
3
also. The total area of the rectangles is
8 approaching the area under the graph, as
5 (i)
3 more rectangles are used.
The mean height of the rectangles is
y
approaching the mean value of the function,
as more rectangles are used.
4 y = 4 – x2
8
3 Chapter 8
2 2 x
It is not true that arg( z ) is given by arctan ( xy ). For
(ii) 2 example the complex number −1 + i has
( )
3
argument 3π but arctan 1 = − π . A
4 −1 4
y
2 diagram is needed to ensure the correct angle
is calculated.
1 y = x–0.5
O 1 2 3 4 x
268

π π π
(iii) 3
(cos ( 2 ) + i sin ( 2 ))
π π
6 4 3 (iv) 4 ( cos ( − ) + i sin ( − ))

π π
2 2
1 1
( )
sin 3
6 (i) 2 cos π + i sin π
Answers
2 2 2
4 4
cos 3 1 1 (ii) 2 ( cos 3π + i sin 3π )

2 2 2 4 4
1 (iii) 2 ( cos ( −3π ) + i sin ( −3π ))

tan 1 3 4 4
3

(iv) 2 ( cos ( −π ) + i sin ( −π ))
4 4
1 = 4 or 4(cos 0 + i sin 0)
1 z
7 |z|= 5, while |w| 1 + a 2 , and so
z 2 = −2 + 4i or 2 5(cos 2.03 + i sin 2.03) 5 = 1 + a 2 + 1, and so a2 = 15, and a = 15 .
z 3 = 1 − 3i or It is easy to check that both these values work.
10 (cos (−1.25) + i sin (−1.25)) 8 (

π π
(i) 12 cos 6 + isin 6 )
2 (i) |z| = 13 arg (z) = 0.588
(ii) 5 ( cos ( −0.927 ) + i sin ( −0.927 ))
(ii) |z| = 29 arg (z) = 2.76
(iii) |z| = 13 arg (z) = –2.55
(iii) 13 (cos 2.75 + i sin 2.75)
(iv) 65 ( cos1.05 + i sin1.05)
(iv) |z| = 29 arg (z) = –1.19
(v) 12 013 ( cos ( −2.13) + i sin ( −2.13))
3 |z1| = 13 arg(z1) = 0.588
|z 2| = 13 arg(z2) = –0.588 9 (i)
5 (
1 10 cos0.322 + i sin0.322
)
|z 3| = 13 arg(z3) = 2.16
10 ( )
(ii) 130 cos ( −0.266 ) + i sin ( −0.266 )
|z4| = 13 arg(z4) = –2.16
10 ( )
(iii) 290 cos ( −1.63) + i sin ( −1.63)
z1 → z 2 Reflection in real axis
z1 → z 3 Reflection in the line y = −x 10 (i) z = 2i or 0 + 2i
z1 → z4 Rotation of 90° anticlockwise
Im
about the origin
4
4 (i) −4i
3
(ii) − 7 + 7 i 2
2 2 1
(iii) − 3 3 + 3 i –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Re
2 2 –1
(iv) 5 3 − 5i
2 2
(ii) z = 3+ 3 3i
5 (i) 1(cos0 + i sin 0) 2 2
(ii) 2(cos π + i sin π )
269

Answers
Im (vi) z = −2.50 − 5.46i

Im
4
3 1
2
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 Re
1 –1
–2
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Re
–1 –3
–2 –4
–5
–6
(iii) z = −7 3 + 7 i –7
2 2
Im
11 (i) − (π − α ) or α − π (ii) –α
6
(iii) π −α π
(iv) −α
5 2
π
4 (v) +α
2
3
2 12 (i) z1 = 5 arg ( z1 ) = 0.927
arg ( z 2 ) = 3π
1
z2 = 2
4
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 Re z1
–1 (ii) (a) z1z 2 = −7 − i = 1 − 7i
z2 2 2
(b) z1z 2 = 5 2 arg ( z1z 2 ) = −3.00
1 − 1 i
(iv) z =
z1
= 5 2 arg  z1  = −1.43
2 2
Im z2 2  z2 
z z1
3 (iii) z1z 2 = z1 z 2 and 1 =
z2 z2
2
1 arg( z1 ) + arg( z 2 ) = 3.28 which is greater than π,
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Re
but is equivalent to –3.00
–1
i.e. arg( z1 ) + arg( z 2 ) = arg( z1z 2 )
–2
z
arg( z1 ) − arg( z 2 ) = arg  1 
5 5 3i
(v) z = − −
 z2 
2 2
Im Activity 8.3 (Page 144)
(i) Rotation of 90° anticlockwise about the
5
origin
4 Im
3
4
2 2 + 3i
3
1 −3 + 2i
2
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re 1
–1
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Re
–1
–2

270

(ii) Rotation of 90° anticlockwise about the
origin and enlargement of scale factor 2
Im
(iii)
3( ( ) ( ))
12 12
2( ( 4)
5 (iv)
1 cos − + i sin ( − ))
π π
−6 + 4i 4
4
Answers
2 + 3i
3 3 If zw = z + w + 2 – 9i, then
2 (–2 – bd) + i(–2b + d) = 1 + (b + d –9)i.
1 Thus –2b + d = b + d – 9, which implies b is 3.
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Re Now you have 1 = –2 – 3d, and so d = –1.
–1
4 (i)
2π (ii) 6
3
π π
(iii) Rotation of anticlockwise and (iii) (iv) 108
4 2
enlargement of scale factor 2
Im
5 (i) ( ( ) ( ))
2 2
7776 ( cos ( 5 ) + i sin ( 5 ))

6
−1 + 5i π π
5 (ii)
6 6
4
10368 ( cos ( − ) + i sin ( − ))

2 + 3i
3 (iii) π π
12 12
2
30 ( cos ( 2 ) + isin ( 2 ))
1 π π
(iv)
3 3
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Re
–1 (v) 2 2 ( cos 0 + isin 0)

6 (i) Multiplication scale factor377 , angle

Exercise 8.2 (Page 146) 13
1 (i) w = = (πw ) = π
w2 = arg2( w )arg of rotation −1.36 radians (i.e.1.36 radians
4 4 clockwise)
= −( zπ) = − π
2 ( z ) arg
z = 2 z = arg (ii) Multiplication scale factor 3 , angle of
3 3 17
(ii) (a) wz = 2 2 arg (wz ) = − π rotation −1.33 radians (i.e. 1.33 radians
12 clockwise)
(b)
ww == 1 1
zz 22
arg (())
argww ==7π7π
z z 1212
(w )
7 arg z = arg ( w ) − arg ( z ) ⇒ arg z (1)
(iii) Im = arg (1) − arg ( z ) = 0 − arg ( z ) = − arg ( z )
2 The exceptions are complex numbers for which
w both Im( z ) = 0 and Re( z ) ≤ 0
w1
–3 since –180° < arg(z) ≤ = 180°
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Re
–1 wz 8 (i) Real part = −1 + 3

z 4
–2
Imaginary part = 1 + 3
4
2 (i) (
6 cos 7π + i sin 7π
12 12 ) (ii)
( ( )
4 4 ( ))
(ii) 3 cos π
2 ( ( 12 ) + i sin ( 12 )) π
2 ( cos ( π ) + i sin ( π ))
3 3
271

Answers
(iii) (ii) alculating z − 2 for each point and finding

C
−1 + i = ( ( ) ( ))
4 4
the argument of ( z − 2) gives:
z = 4 z − 2 = 2 arg ( z − 2) = 0
2 ( cos ( ) + i sin ( ))
(a)
1 + 3i π π
3 3 (b) z = 3 + i z − 2 = 1 + i arg(1 + i) = π
4
2 ( ( 12 ) ( 12 ))
π
1 cos 5 + i sin 5 π (c) z = 4i z − 2 = 4i − 2 arg (−2 + 4i ) = 2.03
=
π
(d) z = 8 + 6i z − 2 = 6 + 6i arg ( 6 + 6i ) =
4
= −1 + 3 + 1 + 3 i π
4 4 (e) z = 1 − i z − 2 = −1 − i arg ( −1 − i ) = −
4
12 ( )
⇒ cos 5π = 3 − 1
2 2 ( )
π
sin 5 =
12
3 +1
2 2
π
So arg ( z − 2 ) = 4 is satisfied by z = 3 + i
9 For the complex numbers and z = 8 + 6i.
w = r1 ( cosθ1 + i sinθ 1 ) and
(iii) z
– 2 represents a line between the point z
z = r2 ( cosθ 2 + i sinθ 2 ) we have proven that and the point with coordinates (2, 0).
wz = r1r2 (cos(θ1 + θ 2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ 2 ) π
So arg ( z − 2 ) =
So, 4 represents a line of points
from (2, 0) with an argument of π . This is a
wzp = r1r2 [(cos(θ1 + θ 2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ 2 )] × r3 ( cosθ 3 + i sinθ 3 ) half line of points as shown.
4
= r1r2 r3 [cos(θ1 + θ 2 )cosθ 3 + i sin(θ1 + θ 2 )sinθ 3 + Im
i sin(θ1 + θ 2 )cosθ 3 + i 2 sin(θ1 + θ 2 )sinθ 3 ]

{
= r1r2 r3 [ cos(θ1 + θ 2 )cosθ 3 − sin(θ1 + θ 2 )sinθ 3 ]
}
+ i [ cos(θ1 + θ 2 )sin θ 3 + sin(θ1 + θ 2 )cos θ 3 ]
�
4
{
= r1r2 r3 cos (θ1 + θ 2 ) + θ 3  + i sin [(θ1 + θ 2 ) + θ 3 ] } 2 Re
Therefore, |wzp| = |w||z||p| and

The line is a half line because points on the
arg(wzp ) = arg( z ) + arg(w ) + arg( p ). other half of the line would have an argument
of − π as was the case in part (ii)(e).
Activity 8.4 (Page 151) 4
Im Activity 8.5 (Page 153)
(i)
The condition can be written as
z − ( 3 + 4i) = z − (−1 + 2i) .
z − ( 3 + 4i) is the distance of point z from the point
�
4 3 + 4i (point A) and z − ( −1 + 2i ) is the distance of
Re point z from the point −1 + 2i (point B).
Im
arg( z ) = π represents a half line. The locus

4 A
is a half line of points, with the origin as the 3 + 4i
B
starting point. –1 + 2i
−2 − 2i has argument − 3π and so it is not
on this half line. 4 Re

These distances are equal if z is on the perpendicular
bisector of AB.
272

Exercise 8.3 (Page 156) (ii) Im
1 (i) Im
4
3
2
2
1
Answers
O 2 Re –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Re
–1
–2
(iii) Im
(ii) Im
2
1
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Re
–1
2
–2
0 Re
(iv) Im
2
(iii) Im
1
3 0 1
–2 –1 2 3 Re
2 –1
1 –2
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Re
–1
3 (i) Im
–2
–3
(iv) Im
1 O 4 8 Re
1
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 Re
–1
−√2 −√2i –2
(ii) Im
–3
–4 8
4
2 (i) Im
O 2 6 Re
�
3
Re
273

Answers
(iii) Im 7 (i) Im
O 3 Re
2
−1
�
−
6
−5 O Re
−3
(ii) Im
(iv) Im
1 3�
4
−3 O Re
3
−5 O Re
(iii) Im
4 (i) z − (1 + i ) = 3
(ii) arg ( z + 2i ) = 3π �
4 3
3
�
(iii) z + 1 = z − ( 3 + 2i ) −
4
5 (i) z − ( 4 + i ) ≤ z − (1 + 6i )
−5 O Re
(ii) − π ≤ arg ( z + 2 − i ) < 0
4
Im
(iii) z − ( −2 + 3i ) < 4 8 (i)
6 Im
O 3 Re
O 12 Re
A
−5
C
B
(ii) Im
|z| is least at A and greatest at B. Using 6
Pythagoras’ theorem, the distance OC is

(−5) + 12 2 = 13. We know AC = 7 and so
2
2
OA = 13 − 7 = 6.
So, minimum value of |z| is OA = 6 and
O Re
maximum value of |z| is OB = 6 + 14 = 20.

−2
274

(iii) Im
12 (i) 2π , 2
3
(ii) Im
4 w
Answers
2
O 3 Re
O Re
(iv) Im
7
13 Im
5
4
3
−3 O 2 Re 2
1
–2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 Re
–1
−6
–2
9 Im
14 Im
O 1 Re 10
�
3 5
−1
–15 –10 –5 O 5 10 15 20 Re
–5
–10
–15
10 (i) (a) z + 1 + 2i = 3 There are no values of z which satisfy both

(b) z + 6 = z + 4i regions simultaneously.
15 The diagram shows z − 5 + 4i = 3 . The
(ii) z + 1 + 2i ≤ 3 and z + 6 ≥ z + 4i
minimum value is 7 and the maximum
11 Im value is 13.
Im
O 2 Re
−3 O 5 Re
−2 �
−
4
−4
275

Answers
16 (i) Centre is (3, −12), radius 6 (iii) 4 × 5 + 5 × 6 + 6 × 7 + ... to 20 terms

(ii) Im 20
= 2∑ 1 (r + 3)(r + 4) [1]
2
O 3 Re r =1

{
= 2 × 1 (23)(24)(25) − 10
6 }
= 4580 [1]
−12
( −2 x )
2
2 (i) e −2 x ≈ 1 − 2x + = 1 − 2x + 2x 2
2
( −2x )2
e −2 x ≈ 1 − 2x + = 1 − 2x + 2x 2 [1], [1]
2
(ii) 1 − 2 x + 2 x = 3x
2

2 x 2 − 5x + 1 = 0 [1]
1 (i) LHS
x = 5 ± 17 = 2.28 and 0.219 [1]
1 1 4
= (r + 3)(r + 4)(r + 5) − (r + 2)(r + 3)(r + 4)
6 6
Since the expansion is only a good
1 1
= (r + 3)(r + 4)( + 5) − (r + 2)(r + 3)(r + 4)
r approximation near x = 0, the root is
6 6
approximately x = 0.219 [1]
= 1 (r + 3)(r + 4)(r + 5 − r − 2) [1]
6 3 Put n = 1, then 7 + 22 + 1 = 12 so the result is
= 1 (r + 3)(r + 4)(3) true for n = 1. [1]
6 Assume true for n = k, so
= 1 (r + 3)(r + 4) 7k + 2 2k + 1 = 6λ for some λ ∈ N [1]
2
= RHS [1] Consider the expression with n = k + 1.
n n This becomes 7k + 1 + 2 2( k + 1) + 1 = 7(7k + 2 2k + 1) − 7 × 2 2k + 4 × 2 2k
1 1 1
(ii) ∑ ( r + 3)( r + 4) = ∑ { ( r + 3)(kr+ 1+ 4)(2(r k ++1) 5) − ( r +k 2)( r 2+k 3)( r + 4)} 2k
2 6 7 + 2 + 1 6
= 7(7 + 2 + 1) − 7 × 2 + 4 × 2 2k − 6
r =1 r =1
n
∑ 21 (r + 3)(r + 4) =∑ {61 (r + 3)(r + 4)(r + 5) − 61 (r + 2)(r + 3)(r + 4)} So 7k + 1 + 2 2(k + 1) + 1 = 42λ − 7 × 2 2k + 4 × 2 2k − 6

r =1
7k + 1 + 2 2(k + 1) + 1 = 42λ − 7 × 2 2k + 4 × 2 2k − 6
1
1 1
= .4.5.6 − 3.4.5
6 6
= 42λ − 3 × 2 2k − 6 by the assumption.
+ 1 .5.6.7 − 1 4.5.6 [1] Now 42λ − 3 × 2 2k − 6 = 6( λ − 2 2k − 1 − 1)
6 6
+ 1 .6.7.8 − 1 .5.6.7 which is divisible by 6 since k ≥ 1.
6 6 Hence if the result is true for n = k, it is true
+... for n = k + 1. [4]
Since the result is true for n = 1, by the
+ 1 (n + 2)(n + 3)(n + 4) − 1 (n + 1)(n + 2)(n +principle 3) of mathematical induction it is true
6 6
for all n ∈ N.[1]
+ 1 (n + 2)(n + 3)(n + 4) − 1 (n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)
6 6
4 (i) Eventually y will be zero (or negative)
+ 1 (n + 3)(n + 4)(n + 5) [1]
− 1 (n + 2)(n + 3)(n + 4) and that is not realistic. [1]
6 6
1 30 ( −0.884 x 4 + 53x 3 − 840x 2 + 1332x + 403 991) dx
+ 1 (n + 3)(n + 4)(n + 5) − 1 (n + 2)(n + 3)(n + 4) (ii)
30 ∫0
6 6
1 30 ( −0.884 x 4 + 53x 3 − 840
= 1 (n + 3)(n + 4)(n + 5) −301∫.3.4.5 x 2 + 1332x + 403 991) dx [1]
6 60
(Some indication of telescoping) [1] 11 595 390 ÷ 30 = 386 513 km [2]
= 1 (n + 3)(n + 4)(n + 5) − 10 [1]

6
276

(iii) The values are quite close. A suitable (ii) 2 cosh 2 x − 1 − 5cosh x = 2
comment would be, the distances in
January 2016 must be fairly representative, 2 cosh 2 x − 5cosh x − 3 = 0 [1]
or the model is quite good for January
(2 cosh x + 1)(cosh x − 3) = 0
2016.[1]
cosh x = − 1 and cosh x = 3 [1]
Answers
5 Region required is between 2
x = 0 and x = 1 [1]
1 1 1 1 1 Since cosh x ≥ 1, the roots are given by

∫ ∫0 ∫
Volume = π y 2 dx = π (1 − x 2 )2 dy = π (1 − 2x 2 +
0 0
xcosh
)dy x = 3
1 1
1 1
2 2
1
x = ± ln(3 + 8)
∫ π y dx = ∫ π (1 − x ) dy = π ∫ (1 − 2x + x )dy [1] [1], [1]
2 2
0 0 0
1
= π x − 4 x 3 + 1 x 2  Chapter 9
2
[1]
 3 2 0
= 1 π [1] Discussion points (Page 164)

6
There are an infinite number of pairs of polar coordinates
6 (i) z1z 2 = ( a + bi)( c + di) = ac − bd + ( ad + bc )i (r, θ ) to define a given point P.
z1z 2 = (a
+ bi)(c
+ di) = ac − bd + (ad + bc )i [1], [1]
(ii) z1 = a + b , z1 = c + d [1] All the points are in the position shown below:
2 2 2 2
(iii) z1z 2 = (ac − bd )2 + (ad + bc )2 [1]

4
= a 2 c 2 − 2abcd + b 2d 2 + a 2d 2 + 2abcd + b 2 c 2
3
= a c + b d + a d + b c [1]
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2
z1 z 2 = a +b
2 2
c +d =
2 2
(a + b )(c + d )
2 2 2 2
1
z1 z 2 = +b = a 2 c22 ++ bb222)(
d 2 2+ a 2d2 2 + b 2 c 2
z+1 dz 2 == (aa 2 + b cc 2 ++ dd 2 ) = (a 2 + b 2 )(c 2 + d 2 )
2 2 2 2
a c
−4 −3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 4
= a 2 c 2 + b 2d 2 + a 2d 2 =+ ba2 c22c 2 + b 2d 2 + a 2d 2 + b 2 c 2 [1]
−1
⇒ z1z 2 = z1 z 2 [1]
−2
7 (i) z − 3 − 3i = 3 [1], [1]
−3
(ii) arg( z − 3 − 3i) = π [1], [1]
3
−4
1 2 3π [1]
(iii) r θ =
2 8
r = 3⇒θ = π

12
[1]
4 (
For example, 6, − π , 6, 7π , −6, − 5π
4 4 )( )( )
⇒ arg( z − 3 − 3i) = π + π = π [1]
5

3 12 12 Exercise 9.1 (Page 167)
So the half-line has equation
1 (i) (0, − 8) (
(ii) −4 2, − 4 2 )
arg ( z − 3 − 3i) = 5π .[1]
12 (
(iii) 4, 4 3 ) (iv) ( −4, 3, 4 )
−x 2 −2 x
(i) 2 cosh x − 1 = 2  e + e  − 1 = 2  e +2+e  −1
x 2x
8 2
 2    1.18)
2 4 (i) (13, (ii) (5, π)
( )
2
−x
 − 1 = 2  e 2 x + 2 + e −2 x  − 1 [1] 5π
h 2 x − 1 = 2  e + e
x
(iii) 2, − (iv) (5, 0.927)
 2   4  6
−2 x
= e +e
2x
+ 1 − 1 = cosh 2x [1]
2
277

Answers
3 y
B = 3 3 sin
3 ()
π − 3 sin π = 9 − 3 = 3.
6 2 2 ()
A
D
 
5
3 Area = 1 ×  3 2 − 3 3  × 3 = 2.47 (3 s.f.).
�
–6 �
–
2  2 
4
–�4
3
–�6
5
x
7 (i) (
B 4, − 5π
12 ) C (4, 1112π )
B(0, 0) and C either ( 4, − π ) or ( 4, 7π )
B
C (ii)
6 12
(iii) The points could be arranged as shown
By symmetry the quadrilateral has two pairs of y
C2
parallel sides.
π + π = 5π so the diagonals do not meet at A
6 4 12 4 �
right angles and therefore the shape is not a –
–�4 3
rhombus. O x
Also the diagonals have lengths 6 and 10 so

the shape is not a rhombus. So ABCD is a B
parallelogram.
C1
4 y
If O is the midpoint of AB then B has
B A
( 4 )
coordinates 4, − 3π and C has coordi-
3�
—
10
2 3
–�5 (
nates either or 4 3, − π or 4 3, 3π .
4 4 ) ( )
�
–5 3�
— x Alternatively the points could be arranged
10
3 as shown below:
C 4 y
D B A
4
–�4
By symmetry AB and BC are the same length; O x
similarly AD and CD are the same length. –�3
The diagonals of the shape meet at right angles. C
ABCD is a kite.
5 (i) 4 If O is the midpoint of BC then B has
(ii) 16 < r < 170 θ = –27 coordinates  4 3 , 3π  and C has
 3 4 
(iii) (a) 99 < r < 107 153 < θ < 171
coordinates  4 3 , − π 
16 < r < 99 –81 < θ < –63
(b)  3 4
and 107 < r < 162 –81 < θ < –63 8 (i) no solution required
(c) 162 < r < 170 45 < θ < 63 (ii) A(5.39, 0.38) B(8.81, 1.01)
C(8.71, 1.63) D(5.39, 2.26)
6 We have
() ()
(iii) A(5.00, 2.00) B(4.63, 7.38)
h = 6cos π − 3cos π = 3 2 − 3 2 . C(−0.52, 8.69) D(−3.43, 4.16)
4 6 2
278

Activity 9.3 (Page 170) k = 1, n = 1
r = 7 is a circle centre (0, 0), radius 7:
2� �
3 3
7
5�
6
Answers
�
–7 7
–7
θ = π is a half line starting at the origin making an

3
Circle, diameter 1
angle π with the initial line:
3
k = 5, n = 1
�
2
�
2� 4 3
–�3 3
2
� �
6 6
4 2 2 4
Activity 9.4 (Page 171) 2

2 is the ‘radius’ of the curve; 3 is the number of petals
on the curve. 4
Starting at 2 on the initial line, a point would move as

shown by the arrows below. Circle, diameter 5
θ = 2� 2
3 k = 1, n = 2
θ=0
1
2 2
�
θ= 2 1 1 2
3
2 1
2
The diagrams below show the curve r = k sin(nθ) for
various values of k and n. ‘Radius’ of rhodonea is 1; four petals
279

Answers
k = 5, n = 2 Exercise 9.2 (Page 171)

1 (i) Circle centre O, radius 5
4
5� � 5
6 6
2
4 2 2 4
–5 5
2
7� 11�
6 6
4 –5

(ii) Half line from the origin making an angle
‘Radius’ of rhodonea is 5; four petals
− 3π with the initial line.
4
k = 1, n = 3
2
�
6
1 3�
4
2 1 1 2
(iii) Circle symmetrical about the x-axis, passing
1 11�
6 through the origin and the point (3, 0).
‘Radius’ of rhodonea is 1; three petals
k = 1, n = 4 3
�
1

6
(iv) Circle symmetrical about y-axis, passing
through the origin and the point (0, 2).
2 1 1 2
2
� 1
6
‘Radius’ of rhodonea is 1; eight petals
Generally, r = k sin(nθ) has ‘radius’ of k (for k > 1. For

n > 1 the curve has n petals if n is odd and 2n petals
when n is even. For k = 1, n = 1 the curve is a circle
of diameter 1 passing through the origin and the point
(0, 1), symmetrical about the y-axis.
280

(v) Spiral starting from the origin.
20 10
10
Answers
20 10 10 20 −10
10
5
20
4
2 r = 5 suggests you use r =

(i) x 2 + y 2 , so you
2
have the circle x2 + y2 = 25.
(ii) θ = −3π implies tanθ = –1, and so you
4 4 2 2 4
have the line y = x.
2
(iii) r = 3cosθ implies r2 = 3r cosθ, which implies
x2 + y2 = 3x, which is a circle.
4
(iv) r = 2 sinθ implies r2 = 2r sinθ, which implies
r = 3 cos 2θ
x2 + y2 = 2y which is a circle.
y
(v) r = 3θ implies x 2 + y 2 = 3 arctan  x  , 4
 
which is not simple! Clearly this curve is
better expressed in polar coordinates. 2
π π π π 5π π 7π 2π 3π 5π 11π
3 θ 0
12 6 4 3 12 2 12 3 4 6 12
π
4 2 2 4
r 0 2.07 4 5.66 6.93 7.73 8 7.73 6.93 5.66 4 2.07 0
2
The same values would be repeated for
π ø θ  2π; the values of r would be negative 4
and so would form a separate loop around the
circle. r = 3 cos 3θ
The circle has centre (0, 4), radius 4 so the
Cartesian equation is x2 + (y – 4)2 = 16. r = 3 cos 2θ has four petals and r = 3 cos 3θ has
4 x = y implies r cosθ, so tanθ = 1 or r = 0. three petals.
Thus r = 0 or θ = π + nπ , and the polar Substituting in values at intervals of π (say)

4 6
shows that for r = 3 cos 3θ the entire curve is
coordinates of solutions are π + nπ , π nπ or
4 4 ( ) generated twice, once every π radians; for r = 3
cos 2θ the entire curve is generated once in the
(0, 0).
interval 0 < θ < 3π.
The Cartesian solutions are
6
( )(
π + nπ 
)
 π
 4 + nπ O 4 8
4  or (0, 0).
 , 
 2 2 
281

Answers
7 (i) The curve has a heart shape, hence the

name cardiod.
5
O 16
5 5

5
(ii) The curve is a reflection of the curve in
part (i) in the ‘vertical axis’.
r = 4 + 3 cos θ
20
5� 10
6
5
20 10 10 20
7� 10 5 5
6
20 5

r = a secθ ⇒ r = a ⇒ r cos θ = a ⇒ x = a
8
cosθ r = 5 + 3 cos θ
r = b cosec θ ⇒ r = b ⇒ r sin θ = b ⇒ y = b
sinθ 10
9 (i)
5
5
10 5 5 10
5 5
5
5
r = 2 + 3 cos θ 10
r = 6 + 3 cos θ

5
10
5 5
5
10 5 5 10
r = 3 + 3 cos θ
10
r = 7 + 3 cos θ

282

(ii) (a) a = b Cardioid Let (r, θ ) be a point on the line L that is
(b) a < b Limacon has a ‘loop’ inside perpendicular to OA. In triangle OPA,
p
(c) a < b Limacon has a ‘dimple’ cos(θ – α) = r ⇒ r cos(θ – α) = p.
(d) a > 2b Convex limacon (ii) r cos(θ – α) = p ⇒ r cosθ cos α + r sin θ
sinα = p ⇒ xcos α + y sin α = p
Answers
(iii) The
shape is the same but the curves are
now symmetrical about the y-axis rather 12
than the x-axis.
2
10 Values of r are only defined in the intervals
5π 7π
0 < θ < π , 3π < θ < 4 and 4 < θ < 2π 1.5
4 4
(the value of r2 is negative in the other intervals). 1
Where the curve is defined, one half of each
loop is created for each interval of π .
0.5
4
Taking negative square roots instead of positive
square roots produces the same curve. For –0.5
example, when θ = 0, r = –a when taking the
negative square root; this is equivalent to the –1
point (π, a) obtained when taking the positive
square root. r = sin(3θ) in red, r = 2sinθ in blue
You can say sin(3θ) = sin(2θ + θ) = sin(2θ)cosθ
+ sinθ cos(2θ) = 2sinθ cos2θ + sinθ (2cos2θ – 1)
= sinθ (4cos2θ – 1).
So you need to solve 2sinθ = sinθ (4cos2θ – 1).
So either sinθ = 0, which gives you the origin, or
–a a 4cos2θ = 3, which gives you that cosθ = ± 3 .

2
π 5 π
That gives you that θ = 6 or
6
7 π 11π
(the solutions and give negative r),
6 6
and the points you want are 1,

6 ( ) ( )
π or 1, 5π .
6
Chapter 10
The population of rabbits fluctuates but eventually
approaches a stable number.
–a a
(i) The graph has two separate branches.
(ii) Curves
(iii) They can only draw a finite number of pixels.

11 (i) P(r, θ) (− 13 , 0), (0, − 21 )
α A( p, α)
θ–
α Initial line
O
L
283

Answers
Activity 10.3 (Page 177) Discusssion points (Page 183)

x=2 The information about the behaviour near the verti-
y → – ∞ as x → 2 from the left. cal asymptotes was not needed. The sketch could be
Y → ∞ as x → 2 from the right. drawn just from points where the graph crosses the
axes, the behaviour as x → ± ∞, and the position of
Activity 10.4 (Page 178) the vertical asymptotes.
(i) 0.0103
(ii) 0.001 003 Discussion point (Page 183)
(iii) 0.000 100 03 0, 1 or 2
(iv) –0.0097
(v) –0.000 997 Discussion point (Page 184)
(vi) –0.000 099 97 At a turning point the graph touches the horizontal
As x → ∞, y → 0 from above. line, resulting in a repeated root.
As x → –∞, y → 0 from below.
(i) (a) All are positive
1 (i) (
Step 1 0, − 2
3 )
(b) All are negative Step 2 x = 3
(ii) (a) Positive Step 3 y = 0
(b) Negative Step 4
y
As x→–∞, y → 3 from below.
As x → ∞, y → 3 from above.
O
Activity 10.7 (Page 179) 3 x
y – 23
3
– 13
O –1 2 x 2
2 (ii) Step 1 (0, − 3 ), (−2, 0)
3
Step 2 x = 2
1
Step 3 y = 2
Step 4 y
If the local maximum were higher than the local
minimum, it would be possible to draw horizontal 1
2
lines which cut the graph in more than two places.
O 3 x
2
Discusssion point (Page 181)
1 1
(iii) Step 1 (0, − 5 ), ( 4 , 0)
5
Step 2 x = − 2
Step 3 y = 2
If the local maximum is higher than the local min- Step 4 y
imum point, then there will be a horizontal line
cutting the curve in four places, as in the diagram. 2
But we have already established that any horizontal O x
–5
2
line can cut the curve in at most two places, and we
have a contradiction.
284

2 (i) Step 1 0, 2 ( 9) (ii) Step
1 (0, 9), (3, 0)
Step 2 none
Step 2 x = 3 Step 3 y = 1
Step 3 = 0 Step 4
Step 4 y
Answers
y
9
2
9
1
O 3 x
3 3 O x
(iii) Step
1 (0, 2 ), (6, 0)
(ii) Step 1 (0, 1)
Step 2 x = −1
Step 2 none
Step 3 y = 1
Step 3 = 0
Step 4
Step 4
y
y 3
2
1
1
O 4 6 x
O x
4 (i) (y – 1)x2 + x + 2 = 0
(iii) Step 1 (0, 0) 9
(ii) Maximum value of y = 8
Step 2 x = 2, x = –2 (iii) x = –4
Step 3 = 0 (iv) y
Step 4 –4, 9
8
1
y
−1 O −2 x
–2 O 2 x
3 3 2
3 (i) Step 1 (0, 2 ), ( 2 , 0), (− 5 , 0)
6x + 6
Step 2 x = 4, x = −1 5 (i) –1 < <3
x2 + 3
Step 3 y = 10 (ii) y
Step 4 (1, 3)
2
y
−1 O x
(−3, −1)
–1 O 4 x
285

Answers
6 y 2 (i) y
2
a = –3
1
O x
1
y −2 O 1 x
2
−2
a=0
O 10 x
(ii) x < –2, x  1

y
2 3 (i) y
a = 0.9
y = x2 y = 2x + 3
–10 O 10 x

If a is not either 0 or 1, then there will be two
−1 O 3 x
roots for the equation, x = 0, 1.
But if a = 0, then the equation has the single (ii) –1 < x < 3
root 1, and if a is 1, then the equation has the
4 (i) y
single root 0.
y = x2
7 (i)
y
2
a = –1, b = 2 8
y= x
O 2 x
O 10 x
(ii) y
4
2 (ii) x  0, x ˘ 2
a = 3, b = –1
O 10 x 5 (i) y
y = x3
(iii)
y
5 1
y= x
a = –1, b = 3
–2 O x x
−1 O 1
–5

For example 23
15 (ii)
x > –1 or 0  x < 1
1
Subtracting gives 1  –2 which is not true. 6 −  x  0 and 1  x
4 3
7 (i) Equation becomes x2 – x – 1 = 0, which
y
1 (i)
has roots (1 ± 5) .
2
(ii) You need to solve x2 – x – 1 < 0, which is
x
−1 O 1 2 when (1 − 5) < x < (1 + 5) , or
2 2
7 – 0.618 < x < 1.618.
(ii) –3  x < 1, x  2
286

8 (i) y The point A(1, 0) is transformed to the point A′(a, c);
y = 2x − 3 the point C(0, 1) is transformed to the point C′(b, d).
B′ has coordinates (a + b, c + d).
2x − 3
y= x
The area of the parallelogram is given by the area of
the whole rectangle minus the area of the rectangles
Answers
O x and triangles.
Area of rectangle = b × c
1
Area of first triangle = 2 × b × d
(ii) here is the curve above the line?

W Area of second triangle = 1 × a × c
2
Certainly for x < 0. When does Area of whole rectangle = (a + b ) × (c + d )
(2x − 3)
2x – 3 = ? When x = 1, Therefore the area of the parallelogram is
x
( )
x = 1.5.
(2x − 3) (a + b ) × (c + d ) − 2 bc + 1 bd + 1 ac = ad − bc .
2 2
So x > 2x – 3 for x < 0,
1 ¯ x ¯ 1.5. Discussion point (Page 199)

(i) A rotation does not reverse the order of the ver-
2
9x + 8x + 3  0 −1 
9 (i) 1¯ tices, e.g. for A =  ,
 1 0 
¯ 11.
x2 + 1
(ii) y det(A) = 1 which is positive.
(2, 11) (ii) A reflection reverses the order of the vertices,
 1 0 
9 e.g. for B =  ,
 0 −1 
det(B) = −1 which is negative.
(− 12 , 1) 3
O x
(iii) An enlargement does not reverse the order of
 2 0 
the vertices, e.g. for C =  ,
10 (i) –1  x  6  0 2 
(ii) x  –1, 3  x  6 det(C) = 4 which is positive
11 (i) x +3 <2
2x − 1
1 Exercise 11.1 (Page 200)
 x < 5.
2 3
(ii) 2 x − 1 <1  1 2   −1 1 
x+3 2 1 det   = –3, det  = 0,
 2 1   1 −1 
–3  x < 5 .
3  2 1   −1 1 
det   =3, det  = 2.
Chapter 11  1 2   −1 −1 
2 (i) (a) y
The triangles are all congruent to each other. 6
B′
256 yellow triangles make up the blue triangle. 5
A′
4
3
The diagram shows the image of the unit square
2
OABC under the transformation with matrix C′ C B
1
 a b  A
 c d  . –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 x
–1
287

Answers
(b) Area of parallelogram = 11 (ii) no solution required

(c) 11 (iii) A y
(ii) (a) y J P
I
6 O I′ x
5
C′ J′ P′
4
B′
3 y
B
2 P′ J′ J P
1 C B
A I′ I
–1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 x O x
–1
A′
–2
(b) Area of parallelogram = 16 C y y=x

(c) 16
(iii) (a) J P′
I′ P
y
I J′
O x
3
2
1 C B
D y y=–x
A A′
J P
–9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–1
B′
–2 I
C′ J′ O x
–3
–4 P′ I′
(b) area of parallelogram = 0 5 66 cm2

(c) 0 6 ad = 1
(iv) (a) 7 4a – b = 1, 2a + b = 5, so adding, a = 1, and b = 3.
 1 3 
y 8 (i)
 0 1 
3
C′ (ii) determinant = 1 so area is preserved
2
1 C B 9 (i) y
A
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–1 3
B′
–2 2
A′ A′
–3 1 C B
–4 A
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–1
(b) area of parallelogram = 11 B′
–2
(c) –11
–3
3 x = 2, x = 6 C′
–4
 1 0   0 1 
4 (i) A=  C =   1
 0 −1   1 0  (ii) he image of all points lie on the line. y = 2 x
T
The determinant of the matrix is zero which
 −1 0   0 −1 
B=  D=  shows that the image will have zero area.
 0 1   −1 0 
288

 5 p − 10q  the final image is the same as the original
10 (i)   object. Hence the matrix for the combined
 − p + 2q  transformation is I.
(ii) y = − 1 x
5 Activity 11.3 (Page 203)
(iii) det(N) = 0 and so the image has zero area
Answers
 a b  d −b   ad − bc 0 
 1 2  =
11 (i) T =  c d   − c  ad − bc 
 3 6  , a   0
det ( T ) = (1 × 6 ) − ( 3 × 2 ) = 0 To turn this into the identity matrix it would need

 x′   1 2   x  to be divided by ad − bc which is the value |M|.
(ii)   =    
 y′   3 6   y  Therefore M −1 = 1  d −b 
ad − bc  − c a 
x ′ = x + 2y
⇒ ⇒ y ′ = 3x ′
y ′ = 3x + 6 y Activity 11.4 (Page 204)
(iii) (3, 9)  11 3   2 −3 
(i) AA −1 = 1   
4 6 2   −6 11 
 x′   a b  x   x′ 
12   =    ⇒   4 0 
 y′   c d  y   y′  = 1 =I
4 0 4 
 ax + by  x ′ = ax + by
=  ⇒ 
 cx + dy  y ′ = cx + dy 2 −3   11 3 
A −1A = 1   
4 −6 11   6 2 
Solving simultaneously and using the fact
ad − bc = 0 gives the result.  4 0 
= 1 =I
4 0 4 
13 (i) y = 3x − 3s + t
(ii)
9
( 3 3 1
P’ 8 s − 8 t, 8 s − 8 t ) (ii) M −1 = 1  d
ad − bc  − c
−b 
a 
 9 
−3
(iii)  8 8  which has determinant  a b  1  d −b 
 3  MM−1 =    
 −1   c d  ad − bc  −c a 
8 8
( 98 × − 81 ) − ( 83 × − 83 ) = 0
 a b   d −b 
= 1   
ad − bc  c d   −c a 
14 Extension material = 1  ad − bc −ab + ab 

 
(i) det (M) = –2, det(N) = 7 ad − bc  cd − dc −cb + ad 
 9 13 
= 1  ad − bc 0   1 0 
(ii) MN =  , det(MN) = –14  = =I
 8 10  ad − bc  0 ad − bc   0 1 
and –14 = –2 × 7
1  d −b  a b 
M−1M =    
Activity 11.2 (Page 202) ad − bc  −c a  c d 
 1 0  1  da − bc db − bd 
(i) P=
 0 −1  = 
ad − bc  −ca + ac −cb + ad


 1 0  1  ad − bc 
(ii) P2 =  =  0 
 0 1  ad − bc  0 ad − bc 
(iii) Reflecting an object in the x-axis twice  
takes it back to the starting position and so =  1 0  = I
 0 1 
289

Answers
Discussion points (Page 205) 1 2 2 

5 (i)
First reverse the reflection by using the transformation 8  −3 1 
with the inverse matrix of the reflection. Secondly,
 2 2   1 −2 
reverse the rotation by using the transformation with (ii) M −1M = 1  = I
the inverse matrix of the rotation. 8  −3 1   3 2 
( MN )−1 = N −1M −1 6 k = 2 or k = 3
 2 1 0 −1 
7
Exercise 11.2 (Page 205)  1 0 −3 4 
1 (i) (10, −6)
8 (i) (3, 1), (1, 1) and (–6, –2)
1 0 1  y
(ii) − 
2  2 5 
3
(iii) (1, 2)
2
 2 −3  B B′ A′
2 (i) non-singular, 1 1
24  4 6  C
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1A 2 3 4 5 x
(ii) singular –1
(iii) non-singular, 1  11 −3  –2
C′
112  −3 11  –3
(iv) singular
(v) singular
(vi) singular (ii) ratio of area T’ to T is 3 : 1.5 or 2 : 1
1  −8 −4a  This is equal to the determinant of the matrix M.
(vii) non-singular,
16 (1 − ab )  −4b −2 
 1 −1 
(iii) M −1 = 1 
provided ab ≠ 1 2  −1 3 
 1 
 1 0  0 9 (i) no solution required
3 (ii)  2 
(i)
 0 1   1  (ii) M n = (a + d )n −1 M
 0 2 
 −a −b 
 1   1  10 The inverse of R is 1

−
3
0
  k
0
 −1  −c a 
(iii) (iv)
 1   1 
 0 − 3   0 k   a b 
=  = R.
 c −a 
4 (i) 1  3 −6  (ii) 1  −1 −5  A reflection is self-inverse, as is a rotation
3  −2 5  2  2 8 
through half a turn. The identity matrix is
 28 19  self-inverse, representing the ‘do nothing’
 50 63 
(iii)  10 7  (iv) transformation.
 −12 −15 
11 (i) No solution required
 7 −19   
(v) 1 (vi) 1  −15 −63  (ii) No solution required
6  −10 28  6  12 50 
 1 
(vii) 1  −15 −63  (viii) 1  7 −19  
0
5   33 6 
6  12 50  6  −10 28  (iii)
 1  (iv)
 5 0 
 6 − 11 
10
290

Chapter 12 5 −17
6 −2, −3
Discussion point (Page 208) 7 52.2°, 33.2°, 94.6°
Could also draw lines perpendicular to the x-axis to 8 35.8°, 71.1°, 60.9°
the points P and Q as shown. 9 (i) (0, 4, 3)
Answers
y  −5 
P(3, 5) (ii)  4 , 5 2
 
 3 
(iii) 25.1°
Q(7, 1) 10 (i) A(4, 0, 0) C(0, 5, 0)
θ
O A B x F(4, 0, 3) H(0, 5, 3)
(ii) EPF not vertical as the points do not have
the same y-coordinate. The roof sections
form trapezia.
Using trigonometry on the two right-angled triangles,
1
(iii) cos θ = − Area = 2 2
find ∠POA and ∠QOB and calculate the difference
3
between these values, which equals θ. (iv) 68.9°
Activity 12.1 (Page 210) 12 16 + ( a − b ) i c

2 2 2 Activity 12.2 (Page 216)
OA + OB − AB
cos θ = (i) no solution needed
2 × OA × OB
 −2   0   2   3   3.5   6   8
(ii)
(a
2
+a 2
) + (b 2
+b2
) − (b − a )  + (b 2
− a2 ) 
2  −9   −5   −1  1   2   7   11
⇒ cos θ =
1 2 1 2 1 1 2  
2 ( a + a )(b + b )
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2
(iii) The
points join to form the straight line
2 ( a1b1 + a2b2 ) a b + a 2 b2 y = 2x – 5.
⇒ cos θ = = 11
2 (a
2
1 + a22 ) (b 2
1 + b22 ) a b (iv) (a) It lies between the point A(2, –1) and
the point B(4, 3).
(b) It lies beyond the point B(4, 3).
(c) It lies beyond A in the opposite
 2   8  direction to the point B.

BA =  −2  BC =  −7 
 −4    Activity 12.3 (Page 218)
   0 
x = a1 + λd1 y = a2 + λd 2
(i)
 2   8  (ii) λ = x − a1 λ = y − a 2
 −2  i  −7  = 30 which is the same answer as d1 d2
    in Example 7.2 d a b − a b d2
 −4   0  y = 2 x + 2 1 1 2 so m =
d1
and
d1 d1
a b − a1b2
Exercise 12.1 (Page 213) c = 2 1
d1
1 (i) −4 (ii) 4
(iii) 1 (iv) 7 Activity 12.4 (Page 224)
2 64.7° y = 1 x + 3 and y =−3x + 8.You can find the angle
3 (i) 66.6° (ii) 113.4° 2
between them by finding the difference between
(iii) 113.4° arctan(gradient) for each line.
4 (i) 0° The vectors are parallel.
(ii) 180° The vectors are in opposite directions
(one is a negative multiple of the other).
291

Answers
Exercise 12.2 (Page 225)  2   0 

 3   5  (iv) r =
 0 + λ 1 

1 (i) r =  + λ    
 1   −2   0   1 
 5   5   3   0 
(ii) r =  + λ
 −1   0  5 r = −5 + λ  1  ; x = 3, z = 2 and y – 5(=λ)
 
   
 5   5   2   0 
(iii) r =
 −1  + λ  5 
 4   5   
6 (i)
 1  (ii)   (iii)  −5 
 0   −2   5   6 
(iv) r =  + λ

 8   −11  7 (i) Intersect at (3, 2, –13)
 2   3  (ii) Lines are skew.

(iii) Lines are parallel.
2 (i) r =
 4  + λ 6  (iv) Intersect at (4, –7, 11)
   
 −1   4  (v) Lines are skew.
8 (i) 45º (ii) 56.3º (iii) 53.6º
 1   1 
(iv) 81.8º (v) 8.7º
(ii) r =
 0  + λ 0 
    9 Do not meet.
 −1   0 
10 5.6, 9, 77
 1   6   −0.25 
 0 + λ 3
 
(iii) r =
    11 (i)  0 
 4   −2   
 0 
 0   2  (ii) C(0, 0.05, 1.1)

(iv) r =
 0  + λ 1   0   1 
     
 1   4  (iii) DE: r = 0 + λ 0 
   
 1   0 
3 (i) x−2 = y−4 = z+1
3 6 4  0.25   0 
(ii) x − 1 =
y
= +1
z EF: r =  0  + µ  1 
3 4    
 1   2 
(iii) x − 3 = z − 4 and y = 0
2 12 (i) (1, 0.5, 0)
x z − 1 (ii) 41.8º
(iv) = and y = 4
2 4
(iii) 027º
 3   5  (iv) (2, 2, 5, 2)
4 (i) r = 
 −2  + λ 3  (v) t = 2; 5 km
  
 1   4 
 0   1  Because it is perpendicular to both l1 and l2.
 0  + λ 2 
(ii) r = Exercise 12.3 (Page 233)
   
 − 1   3  1 (i) 29 (ii) 7 (iii) 2 26
2 (i) 13 (ii) 3 5 (iii) 1
 1 
   3   1 
(iii) r = λ 1  
  3 (i) r = 1 + λ  −2  (ii) 7
 1   0   −1  3
   
292

4 (ii) 1 38 y [2]
2
5 (i) 4, the lines are skew
(ii) 0.4, the lines are skew
3
(iii) 0, the lines intersect 2
−1 O 2 3 x
(iv) 77 , the lines are parallel
Answers
6
6 (i) 570 (ii) M = (6, −16, −9)
x−3 =k
(ii)
 2   −1  ( x + 1)( x − 2)
7 (i) AB: r =  
−3 + λ  0  and x − 3 = kx 2 − kx − 2k
 4   1 
    kx 2 − (k + 1)x − 2k + 3 = 0 [1]
 0   2  Does not intersect if b 2 − 4ac < 0 [1]
CD: r =  3  + λ  0  or (k + 1) − 4k( −2k + 3) < 0 [1]
2
   
 −2   7  k 2 + 2k + 1 + 8k 2 − 12k < 0
equivalent; 6 9k 2 − 10k + 1 < 0 [1]
(ii) 3.08 m – No, the cable is not long enough
(k − 1)(9k − 1) < 0
8 (ii) 7 + k
2
3 1 <k <1
9 [1]
(iii) −10.5
(iii) k = 1 ⇒ x 2 − 2x + 1 = 0 ⇒ ( x − 1)2 = 0
 4   2 
    so coordinates of minimum point are (1, 1)[1]
(iv) r = 12 + a 10
    or equivalent
 5   11  k = 1 ⇒ x 2 − 10x + 25
9
= 0 ⇒ ( x − 5)2 = 0
so coordinates of maximum point are (5, 1 ) [1]
1 (i) Reflection in the line y = 0. [1] 9
3 3 x − 1
(ii) Reflection in the line x = 0. [1] −x+1< 0
x+3
 −1 0 
(iii) BA =  .[1] 3x − 1 + ( − x + 1)( x + 3)
 0 −1  x+3
<0
I t represents rotation of 180° about the −x 2 + x + 2 < 0 [1]
origin.[1] x+3
 −1 0  x2 − x − 2 > 0
(iv) ( BA )
−1
= = BA. [1], [1] x+3
 0 −1 
( x − 2)( x + 1)
rotation of 180° about the origin fol-
A >0
x+3
lowed by another rotation of 180° about the Critical points are x = 2, x = –1 and x = –3 [1]
origin is equivalent to one full turn about
the origin, which has no effect. This means, x < –3 –3 < x < –1 –1 < x < 2 x > 2
the inverse of a rotation of 180° about the x–2 – – – +
origin is another rotation of 180° about the x+1 – – + +
origin.[1] x+3 – + + +
(i) Crosses axes at (3, 0) and (0, 3 )[1] −x + x + 2
2
2 – + – +
2 x+3
Asymptotes are x = –1, x = 2 [1] [1]
and y = 0 [1]
Solution is –3 < x < –1 or x > 2 [1]
293

Answers
4 (i) Angle CQA is 90° since QA is tangent to

So s − 2 = 3s − 5 = −2 s + 2 [1]
the circle. The result follows from angle sum 5 1 4
of triangles CQA and OPA as angle OAP is
s − 2 = 3s − 5
common. [1] 5 1
a a s−2 = 15s − 25 [1]
(ii) OA = CA − so r sec θ = a sec φ − .
2 2 14 s= 23
( 1
Since θ = φ this gives r = a 1 − cos θ .[4]
2 )
s= 23
14
[1]
(iii) For π ≤ θ ≤ π , we have OA = CA +

a
s−2 = − 1
2 2 5 14
but as −1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 0 for π ≤ θ ≤ π , the
2
same equation is required. [2] −2 s + 2 = − 9 , which is not equal to − 1
4 28 14
For −π ≤ θ ≤ 0, the same equation is so there is no point of intersection. [1]
required as the curve is a reflection in the (ii) Suppose A has coordinates
line through COA and cos( −θ ) = cos θ .[2] (s + 1, 3s – 3, –2s + 1).
(iv) Anything like an ellipse with one end B has coordinates (5t + 3, t + 2, 4t – 1) [1]
flattened and with correct common points
 5t − s + 2 
with the circle. [2]
AB =  t − 3s + 5 
( )
[1]
1  
(v) Since r = a 1 − cos θ ,  4t + 2 s − 2 
2
( 1
)
we have r = ar 1 − 2 cos θ = ar − 2 ar cos θ
2 1 For minimum distance, AB is perpendicular
to L.
2
r (
= ar 1
2 )
− 1 cos θ = ar − 1 ar cos θ .
2
[1]

 1   5t − s + 2
 3  .  t − 3s + 5

 = 5t − s + 2 + 3(t − 3s + 5) − 2(4t +
The cartesian equation is  −2   4t + 2 s − 2 
   
 1   5t − s + 2 
x 2 + y 2 = x 2 + y 2 × a − 1 ax.[1]
 3  .  t −2 3s + 5  = 5t −
s + 2 + 3(t − 3s + 5) − 2(4t + 2 s − 2) = 0 [1]
 −2   4t + 2 s − 2 
 1    –14s = –21
5 (i) L is parallel to  3  . M is parallel
 −2  s = 1.5
 
 5  A has coordiantes (2.5, 1.5, –2) [1]
to  1  .[1] AB is perpendicular to M so
 4   5   5t − s + 2 
 
 1  .  t − 3s + 5  = 0
 1   5   4   
   4t + 2 s − 2 
 3  .  1  = 5 + 3 − 8 = 0 so the
 −2   4  42t = –7 [1]
    1
t = −
lines are perpendicular. [1] 6
Suppose x −
1
1 =
y+3 z−1
3
=
−2
= s. (
1 5
6 6
4
B has coordinates 2 , 1 , − 1 .[1]
6 )
A general point on L has coordinates
(s + 1, 3s – 3, –2s + 1) [1]
If there is a point of intersection,
x − 3 = y − 2 = z + 1.
5 1 4
294

An introduction to radians The identities sin (θ ± ϕ) and cos (θ ± ϕ)
Exercise (Page 241) Exercise (Page 243)
1 (i) π (ii)
π (iii) 5π 1 + 3 (ii) − 1 + 3
4 6 1 (i)
3 2 2 2 2
(iv) 10π (v) 0.775 (3 s.f.) (vi)
9π
(iii) − 1 + 3 (iv) 3 − 1
C
9 4
Answers
2 2 2 2
(vii)
3π (viii) 1.73C (3 s.f.) or 11π 1
2 20 2 (i) (ii) 1
2
(ix) 5π (x) 4π (iii) Cos 4θ (iv) 3
3 2
(xi) π (xii) π or 0.0524C (3 s.f.) (v) 3 − 1 (vi) 1
12 60 2 2 2
2 (i) 20° (ii) 24° 1 (sin θ + cos θ )
3 (i)
2
(iii) 229° (3 s.f.) (iv) 300°
3 cos 2θ + 1 sin2θ
(ii)
2 2
(v) 25.7° (3 s.f.) (vi) 9°
3 sinθ − 1 cos θ
(iii)
(vii) 103° (3 s.f.) (viii) 220° 2 2
(iv)
1 cos3 θ − 3 sin3θ
(ix) 630° (x) 900° 2 2
(xi) 405° (xii) 255°
295

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AQA

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Impression number 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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1 Polynomials 53 10 Rational functions and further

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Getting the most from this book

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883316_01_AQA_Maths_Y1_001-038.indd 1 8/12/17 7:14 AM

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883316_01_AQA_Maths_Y1_001-038.indd 5 8/12/17 7:15 AM

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Chapter 1 Matrices and transformations

Multiplying a matrix by the identity matrix has no effect.

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Figure 1.13 Figure 1.14

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