Course : PG Pathshala - Biophysics

Paper 6 : Radiation Biophysics

Module 6 : X-ray Tube and Generator
Content Writer : Dr. Sunil Dutt Sharma, RP&AD, BARC, Mumbai
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6.1. Objective

The objective of this module is to explain the followings:

(i) Components of a medical diagnostic x-ray tube

(ii) Structure of cathode - filament and focusing cup
(iii) Relation between filament and tube current
(iv) Structure of anode – stationary and rotating
(v) Effect of anode angle on focal spot size
(vi) Construction and utility of tube envelope, tube housing and collimation
(vii) Design and working of x-ray generator
(viii) Automatic exposure control (AEC)

6.2. Introduction

As discussed in module 5, x-rays are produced when energetic electrons interact with target
and convert their kinetic energy into electromagnetic radiation (x-rays). This task can be
accomplished in a device called x-ray tube where an electron source (cathode), a target (anode), and
an evacuated path for electron acceleration is available. In addition, a source of energy is required to
accelerate the electrons (generator). This module describes in detail the design and working principles
of various components of a medical diagnostic x-ray tube and its generator.

6.3. X-ray tube

For production of bremsstrahlung and characteristic x-rays, it is required that energetic

electrons should hit a target. The x-ray tube provides an environment for production of x-rays and
mainly consists of a cathode, an anode, and a glass or metal envelope to maintain the required interior
vacuum for acceleration of electrons. In addition, the x-ray tube assembly also consists of a properly
shielded housing, a coolant oil bath and collimators for defining the x-ray field.

Fig. 6.1. Schematic diagram of an x-ray tube showing cathode, anode and a closed evacuated envelope
required for producing x-rays (this figure is taken from Ref. 2).

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 Fig. 6.1 is the schematic diagram of an x-ray tube which shows cathode, anode, and an
evacuated envelope. The electrons are released from the heated filament that are accelerated across a
high voltage onto the target. The stream of accelerated electrons is called the anode or tube current. X-
rays are produced due to the interaction of accelerated electrons with the target. The x-rays emerge
from the target in all directions but are restricted by collimators to form a useful beam. Sufficient
vacuum is maintained inside the closed envelope to prevent the electrons from interacting with gas
molecules. As can be seen in the figure, the two main circuits operate within the x-ray tube – the
filament circuit and the tube voltage circuit.

6.3.1. Structure of cathode

The cathode is a source of electrons in the x-ray tube. It is a helical filament of tungsten wire
(typical diameter of 0.3 mm) surrounded by a focusing cup and electrically connected to the filament
circuit (Fig. 6.2). The filament circuit provides a voltage up to about 10 Volts to the filament
producing a current up to about 7 Ampere through the filament. The electrical resistance heats the
filament and releases electrons through the process of thermionic emission. The electrons released
from the filament flow through the vacuum of the x-ray tube under the influence of positive voltage of
the anode. To minimise the evaporation of tungsten from the hot surface the filament temperature is
kept at a lower level (2700 K) except during operation of the tube. The magnitude of tube current
depends on the magnitude of filament current (and filament temperature). A small amount of thorium
is added with the tungsten filament to increase the efficiency of electron emission and for prolonging
the filament life.

Fig. 6.2. The structure of x-ray tube cathode (the figure is taken from Ref. 2)

6.3.1.1. Types of focusing cup

The focusing cup (also called cathode block) surrounds the filament and shapes the electron
beam width. The voltage applied to the focusing cup is typically equal to the voltage applied to the
filament (unbiased focusing cup). This shapes the lines of electrical potential to focus the electron
beam to produce a small interaction area (called focal spot) on the anode. A biased x-ray tube uses an
insulated focusing cup with a more negative voltage than the filament (Fig. 6.3). The isolation of the
focusing
cup from the filament and application of a negative bias voltage (about -100 V) creates a tighter
electric field around the filament which reduces spread of the electron beam by increasing the
repelling electric fields surrounding the filament and modifying the electron trajectories which results
in a smaller focal spot. The width of the focusing cup slot determines the focal spot width and the
length of filament determines the focal spot length. X-ray tubes with two focal spots usually employ
two separate filament/cup assemblies (cathode blocks).

Fig. 6.3. The illustration of unbiased and biased focussing cup on the electron trajectory (the figure is
taken from Ref. 2).

6.3.1.2. Relation between filament and tube currents

The filament current determines the filament temperature and thus the rate of thermionic
electron emission. As the electrical resistance to the filament current heats the filament, electrons are
emitted from its surface. When no voltage is applied between the anode and the cathode of the x-ray
tube an electron cloud (space charge cloud) builds around the filament. Applying a positive high
voltage to the anode with respect to the cathode accelerates the electrons toward the anode and
produces a tube current. Small changes in the filament current can produce relatively large changes in
the tube current as shown in Fig. 6.4.

Fig. 6.4. The relation between filament current and the tube (or anode) current (the figure is taken
from Ref. 2).
 The space charge cloud shields the electric field for tube voltages below 40 kVp and only a
portion of the free electrons are instantaneously accelerated to the anode. Under this condition, the
operation of the x-ray tube is space charge limited which places an upper limit on the tube current
regardless of the filament current (Fig. 6.4). Above 40 kVp, the space charge cloud effect is overcome
by the applied potential difference and the tube current is limited only by the emission of electrons
from the filament. The tube current is typically five to ten times less than the filament current in the
emission limited range. Higher kVp produces slightly higher tube current for the same filament
current. However, beyond a certain kVp, saturation occurs whereby all the emitted electrons are
accelerated toward the anode and a further increase in kVp does not significantly increase the tube
current.

6.3.2. Structure of anode

The anode of an x-ray tube is a metal target electrode which is maintained at a positive
potential difference relative to the cathode. As we know that only a small fraction of electron energy
is emitted as x-rays and remaining as heat, x-ray production must be limited to avoid the damage to
the x-ray tube due to heating. Tungsten is the most widely used anode material because of its high
melting point (3370
C) and high atomic number (Z = 74). A tungsten anode can handle substantial heat deposition without
cracking or pitting of its surface. A metal alloy containing 10% rhenium and 90% tungsten provides
added resistance to surface damage. The high atomic number of tungsten provides better
bremsstrahlung production efficiency. Molybdenum (Z = 42) and rhodium (Z = 45) are used as anode
materials in mammographic x-ray tubes because of their useful characteristic x-rays for breast
imaging.

6.3.2.1. Types of anode

There are two types of anodes used in medical diagnostic x-ray tubes, namely stationary
(fixed) and rotating anodes. The simplest type of x-ray tube has a stationary anode which consists of a
tungsten insert embedded in a copper block (Fig. 6.5). The copper block mechanically supports the
tungsten target and also removes heat efficiently from the tungsten target due to its higher heat
conductivity. However, the small target area limits the heat dissipation rate and hence limits the
maximum tube current and thus the x-ray flux. The stationary anode x-ray tubes are available in
dental x-ray units, portable x-ray machines, and portable fluoroscopy systems.

Fig. 6.5. Configuration of stationary anode x-ray tube (the figure is taken from Ref. 2).

Because of their greater heat loading and consequent higher x-ray output capabilities rotating
anodes are used in majority of medical diagnostic x-ray tubes. In this configuration, accelerated
electrons impart their energy on a continuously rotating tungsten target, spreading thermal energy
over a large area and mass of the anode disc. The anode disc is mechanically supported within the
evacuated x-ray tube by a bearing-mounted rotor assembly which consists of copper bars arranged
around a cylindrical iron core. The rotor is surrounded by a series of electromagnets outside the x-ray
tube envelope which is called stator and this combination of rotor and stator is an induction
motor. For
operating the anode, alternating current is passed through the stator windings to produce a rotating
magnetic field which induces an electrical current in the copper bars of the rotor. This current induces
an opposing magnetic field which pushes the rotor and causes it to spin. The anode rotation speeds are
typically 3,000 to 3,600 revolutions per minute (rpm) for low speed and 9,000 to 10,000 rpm for high
speed rotations. Low or high speeds of the rotating anodes are achieved by supplying, respectively, a
single-phase (60 Hz) or a three-phase (180 Hz) alternating current to the stator windings. The
operation of rotating anode x-ray machines is interlocked with the rotation speed of anodes so that the
x-ray tube will not be energized unless the anode is up to its full speed. This is the reason of a short
delay (about 1 to 2 seconds) in the production of x-rays when the x-ray tube expose button is pushed.

Fig. 6.6. Construction details of rotating anode (the figure is taken from Ref. 2).

Rotor bearings are heat sensitive, located in the high vacuum environment of the x-ray tube
and hence heat insensitive, non-volatile lubricant is required. A molybdenum stem is used for
attaching the anode to the rotor/bearing assembly because of its very poor heat conductivity. In this
arrangement, the anode is thermally isolated and is cooled by radiative emission. For dissipating the
heat energy transferred to x-ray tube insert from the hot anode as infrared radiation, the x-ray tube
insert is surrounded by oil bath.

6.3.2.2. Anode angle and focal spot

As has been shown in Fig. 6.1, the anode is inclined to the x-ray tube axis while the central
ray of x-ray beam is perpendicular to the x-ray tube axis. The angle of the target surface with respect
to the central ray in the x-ray beam is called anode angle (angle  in Fig. 6.7). The anode angles in
medical diagnostic x-ray tubes range from 6 to 22 depending on their task (except some
mammography machines) and the common anode angles is 10 to 16.

The focal spot size of an x-ray tube can be defined in two different ways, namely actual focal
spot size (i.e. electronic focus) and the effective focal spot size. The area on the anode struck by the
electrons is called actual or electronic focal spot size and it is determined by the length of the cathode
filament and the width of the focusing cup.
 Fig. 6.7. Anode angle and focal spot size of a rotating anode x-ray tube (taken from Ref. 2).

The effective focal spot size is the length and width of the focal spot as projected down the
central ray in the x-ray beam (Fig. 6.8). The effective focal spot width is equal to the actual focal spot
width and hence it is not affected by the anode angle. However, the anode angle causes the effective
focal spot length to be smaller than the actual focal spot length. This shortening of the focal spot
length is called the line focus principle. The relation between effective and actual focal spot lengths is
given by the following equation:

fL,effective = fL,actual x sin 

where, fL,effective is effective focal length, fL,actual is actual focal length, and  is anode angle. Three
combinations of anode angle and filament length is chosen to fulfil the requirements of x-ray beam in
various medical diagnostic applications (Fig. 6.8).

Fig. 6.8. Anode angle and effective focal spot size (the figure is taken from Ref. 2).
 The length of effective focal spot varies with the position in the image plane along anode to
cathode direction. The projected length of the focal spot shortens towards the anode side of the x-ray
beam whereas it lengthens towards the cathode side of the x-ray beam. However, the width of
effective focal spot does not change appreciably with the position in the image plane. Hence, nominal
focal spot size is specified at the central ray of the x-ray beam which is a perpendicular line from the
focal spot to the image receptor/x-ray tube axis. Thus, reduction in anode angle to obtain smaller
effective focal spot size is limited by the size of the field of view required because the x-ray beam is
cut off by the anode. The heel effect (self-absorption of some the x-rays by the anode towards the
anode side of the x-ray beam) is another limiting factor in obtaining the smaller focal spot size. This is
because of the fact that some of the x-rays produced at depth inside the anode is absorbed by the
anode itself (i.e. self- absorption) due to the distance passed in the anode material. This loss of x-rays
is higher for the x-rays emerging near the anode side of the x-ray beam and resulting in an
inhomogeneous x-ray intensity across the beam which is called the heel effect.

6.3.3. Tube envelope, tube housing and collimation

The x-ray tube envelope is commonly made up of glass. However, tube envelopes in high
performance tubes are made up of glass-metal or ceramic-metal. The tube envelope also contains a
thinner exit window for the x-rays to minimize the absorption of x-rays in this area. For a
mammography tube the exit window is a beryllium (Z = 4) window due to its less absorption than
glass. The tube envelope maintains the required vacuum in the x-ray tube.

The x-ray tube is a vacuum-tight glass envelope surrounds other components required for the
efficient production of x-rays. The tube is mounted inside a metal housing that is grounded
electrically. Oil surrounds the x-ray tube to (i) insulate the housing from the high voltage applied to
the tube, and
(ii) absorb heat radiated from the anode. Shockproof cables that deliver high voltage to the x-ray tube
enter the housing through insulated openings. A bellows in the housing permits heated oil to expand
when the tube is used. Often the bellows is connected to a switch that interrupts the operation of the x-
ray tube if the oil reaches a temperature exceeding the heat storage capacity of the tube housing. A
lead sheath inside the metal housing attenuates radiation emerging from the x-ray tube in undesired
directions.

Fig. 6.9. Arrangements of x-ray beam collimator optical system.

 X-ray beam collimators are required to define and adjust the size and shape of the x-ray beam
emerging from the exit port of the x-ray tube. The collimator assembly usually contains two pairs of
collimating blades (adjustable parallel-opposed lead shutters) and is attached to the tube housing at the
exit port with a swivel joint. In the collimator housing, an optical beam reflected by a mirror (of low
x- ray attenuation) mimics the x-ray beam (Fig. 6.9). The light field and x-ray field is aligned to meet
the standard specifications.

Figure 6.9 shows a simplified diagram of an x-ray tube assembly including rotating anode and
heated filament.

Fig. 6.9. A simplified diagram of an x-ray tube assembly having rotating anode and heated filament
(taken from Ref. 3)

6. 4. X-ray Generator

The x-ray generator is the power source of the x-ray tube which provides electrical power
and signals required for the operation of the x-ray tube (filament heating circuit, high voltage
to anode, motor drive circuit for stator windings) and controls the operational conditions of x-
ray production and operating sequence of exposure during medical examinations. Fig. 6.10
shows the schematic diagram of the basic components of the x-ray generator. It supplies
current at a high voltage to the x-ray tube (20 to 150 kV) needed for x-ray production. Transformers
are principal components of x-ray generators which helps in converting the low voltage supply into
high voltage. The operational control is often accomplished by a microprocessor system but
electromechanical devices are also in use. Modern generators provide control of the anode
temperature by monitoring the power applied to the tube and calculating the cooling times required
according to the tube rating charts.

The high-voltage section of an x-ray generator contains a step-up transformer, typically with a
primary-to-secondary turns ratio of 1:500 to 1:1000. In this range, a tube voltage of 100 kVp requires
an input peak voltage of 200 V to 100 V, respectively. The center of the secondary winding is usually
connected to ground potential (center tapped to ground). Center tapping to ground does not affect the
maximum potential difference applied between the anode and cathode of the x-ray tube, but it limits
the maximum voltage at any point in the circuit relative to ground to one half of the peak voltage
applied to the tube. Therefore, the maximum voltage at any point in the circuit for a center-tapped
transformer of 150 kVp is -75 kVp or +75 kVp, relative to ground.
Fig. 6.10. A schematic diagram showing the basic components of the x-ray generator (taken from
Ref.2). AEC is automatic exposure control.

The x-ray generators have circuitry which is designed to protect the x-ray tubes from
potentially damaging overload conditions. Combinations of kVp, mA, and exposure time delivering
excessive power to the anode are identified by this circuitry, and such exposures are prohibited. Heat
load monitors calculate the thermal loading of the anode, based on kVp, mA, and exposure time,
considering the duration for cooling. Some x-ray systems are equipped with sensors that measure the
temperature of the anode and protect the x-ray tube and housing from excessive heat by prohibiting
the exposures that may damage the tube.

Circuit designs of x-ray generator includes single-phase, three-phase, constant potential, and
high-frequency inverter generators. Step-up transformers are used to generate high voltage, step-down
transformers to energize the filament, and rectifier circuits to ensure proper electrical polarity at the x-
ray tube. The alternating current (AC) is converted to direct current (DC), and the voltage between
filament and target is kept near its maximum value. The conversion of AC to DC is called
rectification.

Single-phase generator uses a single-phase input line voltage source and produces either a
single-pulse or a two-pulse DC waveform, depending on the high-voltage rectifier circuits. Three-
phase generators use a three-phase AC line source (3 voltage sources) each with a single-phase AC
waveform oriented one-third of a cycle (120) apart from the other two (0, 120, and 240). Three
separate high- voltage transformers are wired in a delta configuration. A bridge rectifier on the high-
voltage side in each circuit produces two pulses per cycle for each line, resulting in 6 pulses per cycle
for a three-phase six-pulse generator. Addition of a group of three transformers in a wye transformer
configuration and additional bridge rectifiers provides 12 pulses per cycle in the three-phase 12-pulse
generator.

The high-frequency generator is the recent choice for medical diagnostic x-ray systems. A
high- frequency alternating waveform (up to 50,000 Hz) is used for efficient transformation of low to
high voltage. Subsequent rectification and voltage smoothing produce a nearly constant output
voltage. High-frequency has many distinct advantages such as (i) single phase or three-phase input
voltage can be used, (ii) closed-loop feedback and regulation circuits ensure reproducible and accurate
kVp and mA values, and (iii) variation in the voltage applied to the x-ray tube is like three-phase
generator.
 The voltage ripple of a DC waveform is defined as the difference between the peak voltage
and the minimum voltage, divided by the peak voltage and multiplied by 100

% Voltage ripple = [(Vmax – Vmin)/Vmax]x100

A comparison of the voltage ripple for various x-ray generators is shown Table 6.1.

Table 6.1. A comparison of voltage ripple of various x-ray generators.

Type of generator Voltage waveform Voltage ripple

Single-phase 1 pulse 100%
(self-rectified)
Single-phase 1 pulse 100%
(full wave rectified)
3-phase 6-pulse 13 to 25%

3-phase 12-pulse 3 to 10%

High frequency 4 to 15%

Constant potential < 2%

6.5. Automatic Exposure Control

Automatic exposure control (AEC) is a system of optimal choice of technical parameters (kV,
mA) to optimize patient dose and image quality. Manual setting of technique factors (kV, mA) results
in inconsistent exposures and hence optical densities (ODs) vary in screen film and image noise levels
vary in digital systems. Due to this variation in exposure levels/errors several rejects and repeats are
unavoidable and hence it is required to increase exposure consistency and reduce reject and repeat
rates by a technique called AEC. This technique is based on measurement of x-ray flux at the image
receptor and terminate the exposure when sufficient energy of x-ray has been deposited. AEC system
may be advantageous only if it calibrated correctly and used properly used. The calibration of the
system is required due to many factors including energy dependence of the AEC detectors and image
receptors and beam hardening.

6.6. Summary

(i) A medical diagnostic x-ray tube consists of a cathode, an anode, an evacuated glass or metal
envelope, a tube housing and an x-ray beam collimator.
(ii) The cathode is a heated filament of tungsten wires (diameter 0.3 mm) which generates
electrons by the process of thermionic emission
(iii) The focusing cup (also called cathode block) surrounds the filament and shapes the electron
beam width.

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 (iv) The length of filament and width of the focusing cup determines the focal spot of the x-ray
tube
(v) The stream of electrons striking the target is called tube current. The tube current depends
on filament current
(vi) The anode of an x-ray tube is a metal target electrode which is maintained at a positive
potential difference relative to the cathode
(vii) Anode is a made up of either tungsten block or tungsten disc depending on the type of x-ray
tube
(viii) In case of stationary anode x-ray tube, the tungsten block is mounted on a copper rod
(ix) In case of rotating anode, the tungsten disc is mounted on a rotor via a molybdenum shaft
(x) The anode is inclined with respect to x-ray tube axis
(xi) The angle of the target surface with respect to the central ray in the x-ray beam is called
anode angle. The anode angles in medical diagnostic x-ray tubes range from 6 to 22 degrees
depending on their task and the common anode angles is 10 to 16 degrees.
(xii) The effective focal spot size is the length and width of the focal spot as projected down the
central ray in the x-ray beam. The effective focal spot width is equal to the actual focal spot
width and hence it is not affected by the anode angle.
(xiii) The x-ray generator is the power source of the x-ray tube which provides electrical power
and signals required for the operation of the x-ray tube
(xiv) The x-ray generator circuit includes single-phase, 3-phase, constant potential and high
frequency x-ray generators
(xv) High frequency x-ray generator has several distinct advantages and used as common choice
in medical diagnostic x-ray tubes
(xvi) The voltage ripple of a DC waveform is defined as the difference between the peak voltage
and the minimum voltage, divided by the peak voltage and multiplied by 100
(xvii) Voltage ripple is highest in single-phase generator and lowest in constant potential generator
(xviii) Automatic exposure control system is used for optimizing the patient dose and image quality.

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End of module 6