Cswip 3 1 Wis5 Handout 2009 PDF

CSWIP 3.
1
WELDING INSPECTION
COURSE
HANDOUTS
\
CSWIP 3.1
WELDING INSPECTION
DAY 1
CSWIP Welding Inspection
Welcome
Course reference WIS 5
Course Topics
• Roles and duties of a • Heat treatments
Welding Inspector • Weldability of steels
• Welding defects • Joint design
• Mechanical Testing • Welding procedures
• Welding process • Welder qualification
• Welding symbols • Stress and distortion
• Non-destructive testing • Macro examination
• Inspection reporting • Codes and standards
• Welding terms • Welding consumables
• Welding safety • Thermal cutting
Course Assessment
Exam after the course No continuous

is completed assessment
CSWIP Certificate Scheme
Certification Scheme for Welding & Inspection Personnel
~
UKAS
!'(RSONNfl
nRHnC\TtON
02S
10,000 certificate holders
CSWIP Certificate Scheme I,

i
.LeveI1: 3.0 Visual Welding Inspector l-
.LeveI2: 3.1 Welding Inspector
.Level 3: 3.2 Senior Welding Inspector

[
For further examination
information please see website
www.c5wip.com
CSWIP 3.1 Examination
Closed book exam
Any code that is required/or tile examination wlll be provided on

the examination day with the exception ofyour chosen code.
Before attempting the examination. you must provide the
following
1. Two passport size photographs. with your name and
signature on reverse side.
2. Eye test certificate, the certificate must show near vision and
colour tests.
3. Completed examination From, you can print from the
website WWIN.twisea.com.
4. Your current CV I Resume, your CV must be emailed or
faxed to the following for evaluation by the examination
manager.
E-mail: Shajprem@twisea.com
Fax; +60 3 61572378

Theory part 82: Specific welding technology. 4
questions from 6. Question 1 compulsory
1 Hour 15mins
(0. Theory part A2: 30 multi-choice questions,

Q general welding technology
30mins
(0. Practical part a2: Inspection of a plate butt weld

Q code provided.
1 Hour: 15 mins
o
1 Hour45mins
Practical part b2: Inspection of a pipe butt weld
your chosen code e.g API 1104
tf!':. Practical part C2: Inspection 2 macro samples

~ code ISO 5817
4Smins
• Oral: Discussion of general welding theory
Notification of Examination Results
For every section to be

awarded the certificate
2 copies of certificates and an identity card sent to

delegates 'sponsor
CSWIP 3.1 Renewals
5 years 10 years
CV assessment Renewal examination
Certification Scheme for

Welding & Inspection Personnel
~
UKAS
erR)"""".
n~TIH<.·~"tlN
recognised worldwide
TWI Headquarters
CSWIP Secretariat Tel: + 44 (0) 1223 891162

TWI Certification Ltd FBI.: +44 (0) 1223 894219
GrantaPark E-mail: twicertilication@twi.co.uk
Great Abington
Cambridge CBI 6AL, UK
Welding Inspection
Responsibilities & Duties
of welding inspector
Course Reference WIS 5
Visual inspection requirements

BSEN 970
• requirements for welding inspection
personnel
• recommendations about conditions
suitable for visual inspection
• the use of gauges /Inspection aids that
. may be needed/helpful for inspection
• guidance about when inspection may be
required during the stages of fabrication
• guidance about information that may be
need to be included in the inspection
Main Responsibilities
• Code compliance
• Workmanship control
• Documentation control
Personal Attributes
Honesty
Integrity
• Knowledgeable
• Good communicator
• Physically fit.
Duties of a Welding Inspector
• Before Welding.
before assembly.
after assembly.
• During welding.
I
!'
• After welding.
Welding Checklist
Before Welding Commences
Familiarization to the relevant code and specification

Check welding equipment and calibration certificates
Material identification,size,type and condition
Consumables type,size,condition,storage and
handling
Reviewiwitness WPS and POR test and record
Joint preparation( check)
Welder qualification test( Reviewiwitness)
Welding process involved
Check pre-heating before welding ( if required)
Welding Checklist
During Welding
Check weather condition

Check clearance for welding/welder
Check welder identification for weld
Check consumables as per WPS used
Check welding parameters as per WPS used
Check distortion control
Check interpass cleaning
Check run out length ( travel speed)
Check interpass temperature
Check usage of line up clamps
Maintain daily log book
Welding Checklist
Welding Completion
• Perform visual inspection

• Weld and welder identification ( check)
Post weld heat treatment ( if required)
• Non-destructive Testing (witness)
• Acceptance standards of NOT
Repairs (if any)
• Dimensional check ( as per drawing)
Document control - welding reports etc
Welding Checklist
In the event of repair
• Authorization for repair

Removal and preparation for repair
• Testing of repair - visual and NOT
Summary
It is the duty of a Welding Inspector to ensure all the
welding and associated actions are carried out in
accordance with the specification and any applicable
procedures.
A Welding Inspector must:
Observe
To observe all relevant actions related to weld quality
throughout production.
Record
To record, or log aU production inspection points
relevant to quality, including a final report showing all
identified imperfections
Compare
To compare all recorded infonnation with the
acceptance criteria and any other relevant clauses in the
applied application standard
Welding Inspectors Equipment
Measuring device e.g flexible tape, steel rule
Temperature indicating crayons
Welding gauges e.g. TWI multi-purpose gauge
Voltmeter
Ammeter
Magnifying glass
Torch/flash light
Welding Inspection Gauges
An explanation on the
use of these gauges
will be give in the
practical sessions
Fillet Weld Gauges
!
I
!
I
TWI Multi-purpose Welding Misalignment Gauges

Gauge
AmpNolt Meter
Volt
Any
Welding Inspection
Terms and definitions
Course Reference
WISS
Terminology and Definitions
Welding:
An operation in which two or more parts
are united by means of heat ,pressure or
both in such a way that there is a
continuity in the nature of the metal
between these parts
A Weld:
Is a union of pieces of metal made by welding
A Joint:
A configuration of members
Introduction
Types of joints
••
*
Butt joint T joint Corner joint
Edge joint Cruciform joint Lap joint
Types of weld
8uttweld
Ina T-,lolnt
Types of welds
Fillet weld Plug weld
Compound weld
)
Penetration point of view
Full penetration weld Partial penetration weld
Features of completed weld
Features of completed weld
Parent
Types of preparation
Open square edge
Single V preparation Double V preparation
Included angle
Single U preparation
Double U preparation
Single V with backing strip
Single bevel preparation

Double bevel preparation
SingleJ preparation
Double J preparation
Size of butt welds
~~tual throat I
lehness
Actual throat = Design throat + excess weld metal

Size of butt welds
al throat thickness _ Design

hroatthlckness
Full penetration butt weld ground flush
weld between two plates with different

thickness
Size of fillet weld
Full penetration fillet weld
Size of fillet weld
a = Design throat thickness

z = Leg length (min size)
a=O,7Q7x z. or z=1,41xa.
Types of fillet weld Horizontal
Convex fillet weld Concave fillet weld Asymmetrical fillet

weld
Throatsymbolized with'S' instead of 'a' symbol
Deep penetration fillet weld
Types of fillet weld
Double bevel compound fillet weld
WELDING POSITIONS
Welding position designation
Butt welds in plate (see ISO 6947) !
,/)/7 /27
Ftat- PA Overhead - PE
~\
1\
~
/ Vertical
up - PF
I 1/1
I> Vertica0 Horizontal - PC
/ down - PG""
Fillet welds on plate (see ISO 6947)
~~v Ftat- PA Horizontal - PB Overhead - PO
emu cruD
Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG
Butt welds in pipe (see ISO 6947)

~
~ )l ) ~) )J
fAJJ
Flat - PA
Vertical~ - PF Vertical down - PG
axis: horizontal axis: horizontal
axis: horizontal pipe: fixed pipe: fixed
pipe: rotated
~ ~ i
Horizontal - PC
axis: Inclined at 45° axis: inclined at 45° axis: vertical
pipe: fixed pipe: fixed pipe: fixed
J
Fille! welds on pipe (see ISO 6947)

I~
F~ ~ ~
axis: inclined at 45°
pipe: rotated
Horizontal - PB
axis: vertical
pipe: fixed
Overhead - PO
axis: vertical
pipe: fixed
"'~, J~.o" 10~

axis: horizontal
pipe: rotated
axis: horizontal
pipe: fixed
axis: horizontal
pipe: fixed
Welding Positions
ISO
Horizonkl:l vedietll Horizofllal- \'ertital
P6 PB
Horizontal ~P"'C+---~~----I-PC Horizootot
PO
H(lrQ{lntol overOwd
PE
Overhead
Welding Positions
PA 1G/1F Flat I Downhand
PB 2F Horizontal-Vertical
PC 2G Horizontal
PD 4F Horizontal-Vertical (Overhead)
PE 4G Overhead
PF 3G/5G Vertical-Up
PG 3G/5G Vertical-Down
H-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Upwards)
J-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Downwards)
Welding position
l-,~7
<H~stOjl~
~-=f~;!
,~
R,rn,tion
Tolerances in the welding positions

Welding Inspection
Weld imperfection/Defects
Definitions - ace. BSEN ISO 6520 • 1
Imperfection: any deviation from the ideal weld.
Defect : an unacceptable imperfection
Classification of Imperfecllons - ace. 8S EN ISO 6520 ·1
Defects which may be detected by visual inspection can be

grouped under six headings
Cracks Imperfect shape and
Cavities dimension
Solid inclusion Miscellaneous
Lack of fusion and imperfections
penetration
Cracks
Cracks
Cracks that may occur in welded materials are caused

generally by by many factors and may be classified by
shape and position, cracks are classed as planar.
Classified by Shape Classified by Position

HAZ
• Longitudinal
Centreline
• Transverse Crater
• Branched FUsion zone
• Chevron Parent metal
Process Cracks
Hydrogen cracking (HAl and weld metal)
Hot cracking
Lamellar tearing
Intergranular corrosion (weld decay)

Cracks
Solidification cracking Lamellar Tearing
Transverse crack Longitudinal crack
Cavities
Gas pore
Description: a gas cavity of essentially spherical shape trapped
within the weld metal
Causes:
• Damp fluxes! corroded electrode
-Grease/hydrocarbon/water contamination of
prepared surface
-Air entrapment in gas shield
-Too high arc voltage/arc length
-Incorrect/insufficient deoxidant in electrode,
filler or parent metal
Gas Cavities
Cluster porosity Herring bone porosity

Worm holes
Description: elongated or tubular cavities form by

entrapped gas during the solidification of the weld
metal; the can occur singly or in groups
Surface porosity
Crater Pipe
A shrinkage cavity at the end of a weld run; the main cause is
Causes:
-Lack of welder skill due to using processes with
too high current.
-Inoperative crater filler- slope out (GTAWffIG)
Crater Pipe/Cracks
Solid inclusion
Solid inclusion
Definition: Solid foreign substances entrapped in the

weld metal
,I Solid inclusion I
I
I Slag
inclusion
I I
1
Flux
inclusion
I l 1
ox;de
inclusion
I I Metallic
inclusion
J
ITungsten I
I Linear I i'solatedJ lClusteredl I Coeeer I
I Other metal I
Slag Inclusions
Slag trapped during welding. the imperfection is of an irregular
shape and thus differs in from a gas pore
Causes:
·Heavy millscale!rust on work surface
-Incomplete slag removal from underlying surface of
multipass weld
-Slag flooding ahead of the arc
-Entrapment of slag in work surface
-Unfused flux due to damage coating
Tungsten inclusion
Particle of tungsten can become embedded during
TlG welding. This imperlection appears as a light
area on radiographs due to the fact that tungsten is
denser than the surrounding metal and absorbs
larger amounts of x /gamma radiation
Lack of fusion and penetration

Lack of fusion and penetration
Definition: lack of union between the weld metal and the

parent metal or between the successive layer of weld
metal
I
Lack of fusion I
I
I I
Lack of Lack of Lack of root
sidewall interun fusion or
fusion fusion penetration
Lack of sidewall fusion
Lack of union between the weld and the parent metal at one or
Causes :
-Low heat input to weld
-Molten metal flowing ahead of are
-Oxide or scale on weld preparation
-Excessive inductance in GMAW dip transfer welding
Lack of inter- run fusion
A lack of union along the fusion line betw(!en the weld beads, _
Causes :
-Low are current resulting in low fludity of weld pool
-Too high travel speed
-Inaccurate bead replacement
Incomplete root penetration
The difference between the actual throat and nominal

penetration
Call5es:
-Excessively thick f,~'j;,iiiii~;;;;;:;;;;;;:;;:;;.il"~ to cur back
ro,,'
sound metal in a 'back gouging'operation
'Low hear input
-Excessive inductance in GMAW dip transfer
-SMAWelectrode too large( low current density)
• Use of vertical down welding
Incomplete root fusion
One face of the root not melted. When examined from the root
side, you can cfearlysee one of the root edges unmelted
Call.'les:
• same as forthe root of penetration
Imperfect shape and dimension

Undercut
An ir,;:~~~:~~~~~;;a~t~th~.:;:tO~.~O[f;a,:ru~:.n in the parent metal or in
Causes:
-Melting; of lop edge due too high welding currenl (especially at free edge) or higb
travel speed
-Attempting a HV lillet weld leg lengtb >9.0 MM
•Excessive/Im:orrect weaving
·Incorrect electrode angle
Excess Weld Metal ( Reinforcement)
Reinforr:ement is the extra metal which produces convexifyin fillet

welds and a welds thickness than the parent metal plate in butt welds.
Causes :
-Excess arc energy (GMAW,SAW)
-Shallow edge preparation
-Faulty electrode manipulation
-Incorrect electrode size
Excessive Penetration
Projection-of the root penetration bead beyond a specified limit
Causes:
-Weld input energy too high
-Incorrect weld preparation i.e excessive root gap, thin edge
preparation, lack of backing
-Use electrode unsuited to welding position
-Lack of welder skill
Overlap(cold lap)
An Imperfection at th.'.;~:;';~;;~~~=:~;7.~~~:;o~~n" on to
the surface 0 to it
Causes:
Poor electrode manipulation
High energy inputlIow travel speed causing surface
flow of fillet weld
Incorrect positioning of weld
Electrode having too high a fluidity
Linear Misalignment
Misalignment between two welded pieces such that while their

su,,,o,,. "I,n. '".r:;~~~"",;:n~ot~l~n~th~e required same plane
Causes:
Inaccuracies in assembly procedures or distortion
from other welds
Excessive 'out of nat ness' in hot rolled plate or
sections
Angular Misalignment
Misalignment between two welded pieces such that their sumce

plane are not paralfel or at th~ iqtended angle
Causes:
Same as for linear misalignment
Underfill/Incomplete Filled Groove
A continuous or intermittent channel in the s~tface of a

weld due to insufficient deposition of weld filler metal
Causes:
-Insufficient weld metal
-Irregular weld bead surface
Irregular width
Excessive variation in width of the weld
Causes:
·Severe arc blow
• Irregular weld bead surface
Root concavity
A shallow groove that occurs due to the shrinkage at the
root of a butt weld
Causes:
-Insufficient arc power to produce positive bead
-Excessive backing pressure (GTAW)
-Lack of welder skill
-Slag flooding in backing bar groove
Root concavity
Root concavity
Burn Through
A localized col/apse of the weld pool due to

excessive penetration resulting in a hole in the root
High Amps/volts
Small Root face
Large Root Gap
Slow Travel Speed

BUrn through
Miscellaneous
Stray arclArc strikes
Local damage to the surface of parent metal adjacent to the
weld, resulting from arcing or striking the arc outside the weld
groove. The result is in form of random areas of fused metal
where the electrode, the holder, or current return clamp have
accidentally touched the work
Causes:
Poor Access to work
Missing insulation on electrode holder or torch
Failure to provide an insulated resting place for the
electrode holder or torch when not in use
Loose current return clamp
Spatter
Globules of weld or filler metal expelled during welding

and adhering to the sulface of parent metal or solidified
weld metal
Causes:
High arc power
Magnetic arc blow
Incorrect setting for GMAW process
Damp electrodes
Mechanical Damage
Mechanical qamage can be defined as any surface
material aamage cause during the manufacturing
process.
This can included damage caused by:
• Grinding
• Hammering _ __
• Chiselling
• Chipping
• Breaking off welded attachments (torn surfaces)
• Using needle guns to compress weld capping runs

Root Coking/Oxidized Root
Loss or insufficient back

purging gas
Most commonly occurs

when welding
stainless steels
Purging gases include

argon, helium and
occasionally nitrogen
CSWIP 3.1
WELDING INSPECTION
DAY 2
Welding Inspection
Welding Processes
Welding Processes chart
Fusion
Pressure
Weldiug
I
Welding
Resistance Solid state
\
I
I Welding
I I
IWelding
I
I r Arc II Oxy fuel III Electroslag Thermit I Power
II Welding II II I
1 Welding Welding Welding Beam
Welding
IMMA Jl:!!QJIMIG.MAG II SAW IPAW I _,_

.FCAW ,---t=; r::-!::::-.
~~
Fusion Welding Factors
Requirements:
Power source characteristic
Constant voltage or flat characteristic

Constant current or drooping arc
j"~~
0J;mImlvcli!9~
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Welding Processes
Manual Metal Arc Process (MMA)

Manual Metal Arc Process (MMA)
MMA welding power source

POWER 'Input: 240 V ( single phase) or
SOURCE: 415V
o( three phase supply)
'Output: AC (D.C.V. 80 V) or DC
(D.C.V. SO V) or both
°DC for site work as it is SAFER
o( (ower a.c.v.) Also for shop
welding
'Usually, only current adjustment
control is required.
TYPES: oTransformer-AC only

oTransformer! Rectifiers -AC and
DC
·Petroll Diesel driven
generators/Alternators - Site work
6~verters-AC (square wave) and
Process variables
• Weldi.ng current
• Current type and polarity
• Travel speed
• Electrode angle
• Arc length
• OCV (open circuit voltage)
Type of flux covering
The three main electrode covering types
used in MMA welding
• Rutile - general purpose
• Basic - low hydrogen
• Cellulose - deep penetration/fusion
MMA electrode covering functions

Provide a ~aseous shield to prevent
atmospheric contamination of the weld metal
and increase penetration
Provide deoxidizers and scavengers to refine
the weld metal
Provide a slag blanket that protects the hot
weld metal from air, prevent excessive grain
growth in the weld, support weld pool for
positional welding and shape the surface of
the weld
• Add alloying element to achieve desired
microstructure/properties
Provide stabilisers to help ignite the
arc,stabilise the arc in Ac operation and
minimise spatter
Type of coverings
• Cellulose covering:
• Flour and wood pulp are common
constituent
• Resultant thin slag layer
• Coarse weld profile
• Excellent penetration
• Can weld in vertical down position - fast
travel speed!
does not require backing or drying (
excessive heat will damage electrode
covering)
• Restricted to stove pipe welding!
Type of covering
Rutile:
Based on titanium oxide
Easy to strike arc, less spatter, easy to
remove slag, excellent for positional
welding
Produce finely rippled regular welds; also
concave fillet welds - increase fatigue life!
Can be dried
Needs a reasonable proportion of
combined water to keep the covering
intact- if moisture is driven off, the binding
of the flux will suffer
• ~~?Jo~~~"Fontents is 25 - 30 mlll00g of
Type of coverings
Acid covering:
Contains large quantities of Fe and Mn oxide -
need deoxidants to preseNe mechanical
properties of the weld deposits (especially
toughness)
the slag cannot remove impurities from the weld
pool- susceptible to solidification cracking.
high in hydrogen - susceptible to cold cracking
produces flat smooth welds,with deep
penetration
Fast freezing/easy to detach slag - used for
pOSitional welding
Does not require backing or drying
Limited use due to poor mechanical properties
Type of coverings
Basic covering:
Contain calcium compoundsJike calcium flouride
and calcium carbonate - a.k.a. "lime - coated"
"basic" refers to the chemical behaviour of the
flux- low sulphur and oxygen content in the weld
metal
Can contain iron powder - increased efficiency
(but less slag - poor positional capabilities)
Have the lowest level of hydrogen ( less than
15mll100g of weld metal)
Needs backing to perform correctly ( at
approximately 3500 C for 2.5 hours); after baking,
maintain at minimum 1200 C to prevent moisture
pick up
Cannot be reba ked indefinitely
MMA Welding Basic Equipment
-IPo,•• r source
-IHoldio,o oven
-"ft'''''source
Return
visor/filter cables
glass
Static characteristic
Constant Current Characteristic
Volts
ocv Large change in voltage
Large arcl-_ _ _ _ _--r'l. amperage

gap
Small
arc gap
Amps
MMA welding power source
Factors to be considered when

selecting a MMA power source:
-Type of current required
-Amperage required
-The primary type of power source
- The position in which welding will
be done
MMA welding parameter
Welding current
approx. 35A1mm of diameter
govemed by thickness, type of joint and welding position
IToo low HAmperage H Too high I
Poor starting spatter

Slag inclusion excess
penetration
Weld bead contour high undercut
Lack of fusion/penetration bumthrough
MMA welding parameters

Arc length = arc vO';:.lt"a-".ge:::..-_~
IToo low I ~v~o~~ta~rCg~e:Jr--_'LIT~O~O~h~i9~h!J1
1.1
-Arc can be ·spatter

extinguished
·Porosity
.Il stubbing"
-Excess
penetration
-Undercut
-Surn-through
• Polarity: DeEP generally gives deeper penetration
MMA welding parameter
Travel speed
Travel
IToolow I IToo high I
speed
-Wide weld bead -Lack of root
contour fusion
-Lack of -Incomplete root
penetration penetration
-Surn - through ·Poor bead
profile, difficult
slag removal
MMA welding parameters
Type of current
Voltage drop in welding cables is lower with AC
Inductive looses can appear with AC if cables are
coiled
Cheaper power source for AC
No problems with arc blow with AC
DC provides more stable and easy strike arc,
especially with low current - better positional weld,
thin sheet applications
Welding with a short arc length ( low arc voltage) is
easier with DC - better mechanical properties
DC provides a smoother metal transfer - less spatter
Typical imperfection
• Slag inclusion
• Undercut
• Lack of root fusion or penetration
• Arc strikes
Hydrogen cracking
Overlap
• Porosity
• etc
Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages- - Disadvantages
• Field or shop use • High welder skill required
• Range of consumables • Slag inclusion
• All positions • Low deposition rate and
• Portable operating factor
• Simple equipment • High level of fumes

• suitable for restricted access
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
USA:GTAW
TIG power source

Power source • Transformer or alternators for AC - aluminium
415v50Hz3phase alloy
~r . -Rectifiers or generator for DC - steels
240vsingle phase -Transformer I rectifier for ACIDC
input -Inverter for ACIDC ~ more portable but
expensive
Torch Sizes I types vary depending on current I
application
Torch hose Flexible - carry current. gas ,cooling water
Retumlead Notethat in OCEN current actually flows from this

lead
Inert gas supply Correct type for application (Ar,He,ArlHe mixture)
(cylinder & ArIH2 for austenitic stainless steel and Ni alloys
regulator)
Flowmeter To deliver correct gas flow( velocity) depending on
(graduated in the welding position and joint configuration.
Itrfmin)
Process variables
Welding current
Current type and polarity
Travel speed
Shape of tungsten electrode tip and vertex angle
Shielding gas flow rate
Electrode extension
TIG Welding Bas,ic Equipment
source
Inverter
control panel
cable
electrodes
TIG Torch Assembly
housing
shielding
OnlOff
switch
diffuser
Spar. c."amic·
shielding cup
Electrode tip for DC EN
Penetration
increase
1
Iincrease
Electrodetip Idecrrse I Electrodetip

prepared for low prepared for high
current welding current welding
Bead
width
increase
Electrode tip for AC
Electrode tip ground

and then conditioned
TIG electrode
Requirements forthe electrode material:

low electrical resistance
high melting point
• good thermal conductivity
• good emission of electron
Tungsten electrode types
Pure tungsten electrodes:

• Symbol acc.BSEN ISO 6848 - WP
colour code - green
Max 0.5% impurities
low current carrying capacity
Maintain a clean ball end - good arc stability
with AC - used for AC welding of AI and Mg
alloys
poor arc initiation and arc stability with DC
Used on less critical applications
Low cost
Thoriated tungsten electrodes:

Symbol acc.BSEN ISO 6848 - WTh 10,20,30
colour code - red,yellowlgreenlviolet
Th02 content: 0.8 - 1.2% 11.7 - 2.2%,2.8 -
3.2%
20% higher current capacity compared to
pure tungsten electrodes - longer life -
greater resistance to contamination
Thermionic - arc ignition,more stable arc
Maintain a sharpend tip - recommended for
DC EN
Th is slightly radioactive

Ceriated tungsten electrodes:
Symbol acc.BSEN ISO 6848 - WCe 20
colour code - grey
Ce02 content: 1.8% - 2.2%
Operate successfully with AC or DC
Ce not radioactive
Lathaniated tungsten electrodes:

Symbol acc.BS EN ISO 6848 - WLa 10/15/20
Colour code - blackigoldlblue
La,o, content: 0.8-1.2% 1.3-1.7% 11.8-
2.2%
Operating characteristics similar with ceriated
electrode
Zirconiated tungsten electrodes:

Symbol acc.BSEN ISO 6848 - WZr 3/8
colour code - brown /white
Zro, content: 0.15 - 0.5% /0.7 - 0.9%
Operating characteristics fall between those
of pure and thoriated electrodes
Retains a balled end during welding - good
for AC welding
High resistance to contamination - preferred
for radiographic quality welds
Choosing the proper electrode/polarity
Current type & polarity OCEN DeEP

AC
Heat balance 70% at work 35% at work
50% at work
30% at electrode 65% at electrode
60% at electrode
Penetration Deep, narrow Wide, Shallow
Moderate
Oxide cleaning action no y••
Yes, every
Halfcycle
Electrode capacity Excellent Poor
Good
Shielding gasses for TIG welding
Argon
Obtained by fractionally distillation or liquefied
air - lower cost and greater availability
Heavier than air - lower flow rates
Low thermal conductivity - wide top bead
profile
For the same arc current produce less heat
than helium - reduce penetration, wider HAZ
To obtain the same arc power ,argon requires
a higher current - increased undercut
Helium
-obtained by separation (fractionation) from
natural gas - costly lower availability
-lighter than air - require higher flow rates
compared with argon (2-3 times)
-higher ionisation potential - poor arc stability
with AC less for forgiving for manual welding
-for the same arc current produce more heat
than argon - increased penetration, welding of
metals with high melting point or thermal
conductivity
-To obtain the same arc power ,helium requires
a lower current

HydrogEm
-not an inert gas - not used as a primary
shielding gas
-increase heat input - faster travel speed
and increased penetration
-better wetting action - improved bead
profile
-produce a cleaner weld bead surface
-added to argon (up to 5%) - only for
austenitic stainless steels and nickel
alloys
oFlammable and explosive
. Nitrogen
-not an inert gas
-high availability - cheap
-added to argon ( up to 5%) - only for
back purge for austenitic stainless steels
and copper alloys; also for duplex
stainless steels
onot used for mild steels (induced ageing!)
-Strictly prohibited in case of Ni and Ni
alloys due to porosity problem
;.
TIG torch set - up
Electrode
extension
IToo I Electrode IToo large I

Ismail I extension
·overheating
-Low electron
-Tungsten
emission
inclusion
'Unstable arc
Types of current
DC • can be DCEN or DeEP
• DCEN gives deep
penetration
AC -- ·can be sine or square wave
-Require a HF current
'Provlde cleaning action
Pulsed - -requires special power
current source
olowfrequency- up to 20
pulsesfsec
obetterweld pool control
Pulsed current
Pulse Background -Usually peak current is
~ time current
2-10 times
1 background current
-Useful on metals
sensitive to high heat
input
-Reduced distortions
CUrrem TIme
-One set ofvariables can be used -Incase of dissimilar
in all positions equal thickness can be
·Used for bridging gaps in open achieved
root joints
·Require special power source
TIG typical defects
Most welding defects with TIG are caused by a lack
of welder skill, or incorrect setting of the
equipment i.e. current, torch manipulation, welding
speed, gas flow rate,etc
Tungsten inclusions (low skill Of wrong vertex angle)
Surface porosity (loss of gas shield mainly on site)
Crater pipes ( bad weld finish technique i.e. slope
out)
Oxidation of SIS weld bead, or root by poor gas
cover
Root concavity ( excess purge pressure in pipes)
Lack of penetration/fusion ( widely on root runs)
Advantages Disadvantages
• High quality • High skill factor required
• Good control • Small consumable range
• All positions • High protection required
• Low hydrogen • Low productivity
• Minimal cleaning • High ozone levels
• Easily automated ·Expensive and complex
Metal Active/Inert Gas (MAG/MIG)

Metal Activellnert Gas (MAG/MIG)
USA:GMAW
Schematic of mig/mag welding equipment
MIG/MAG Welding Basic Equipment
External wire External

feed ,,~;t...jF= wire feed
control panel motor
Transformerl
Power Rectifier
control panel
1Skgwire
Power return cable
Welding
gun for
assembly
MIG/MAG Internal Wire Drive
Internal wire drive Plain top roller
Half grooved Wire

bottom roller guide
Static characteristic
Constant Voltage Characteristic
Small change in voltage = large change in
amperage
OCV
Changes in
arc length'"
The self
adjusting
arc.
Volts
Amps
MIG/MAG Torch Head Assembly

Torch body
Nozzles or Spotweldlng
shrouds spacer
Torch liner
TEFLON or NYLON
• best feeding property
·insensitive against heat
-high consumption. because
very soft
GRAPHITE
• has much lower consumption
·pretty hard
·sensitive against heat
·use a bronze spiral in the
torch neck
Metal Transfer Modes for MIG/MAG

• Dip transfer or short circuiting
• Transfer occur due to the short circuits between
wire and weld pool - high level of spatter - needs
inductance control to limit current rise
• Can use pure CO, or Ar - CO, mixtures as
shielding gas
• Metal transfer occur only when arc is extinguished
• Requires low welding current/arc voltage - low
heat input process - low residual stress and
distortions
• Used for thin materials and all positions
Dip Transfer/Short circuiting

Spray Transfer
• Transfer occurs in minute droplets ~No contact
between wire and pool
• Require argon rich shielding gas ( minimum 80 %)
• Metal transfer occur in small droplets ~Iarge
volume of weld pool
• Requires high welding current/arc voltage ~ high
heat input process ~high residual stress and
distortions
• Used for thick materials and flat/horizontal welds
Spray transfer
Globular Transfer
• Transfer occur due to the gravity or short circuits
between drops and weld pool
• Requires CO2 or Helium shielding gas
• Metal transfer occur in large drops ( diameter
larger than that of electrode ) ~ severe spatter
• Require slightly higher welding current/arc voltage
than that for dip transfer ~ high heat input process
~ high residual stress and distortions
• Non desired mode of transfer!
Globular transfer

Pulsed Transfer
• Controlled metal transfer -+ one droplet per pulse _no
contact between droplets and weld pool
• Require special power sources
• Metal transfer occur in small droplets (diameter equal to
that of electrode)
• Require moderate welding currenUarc voltage _ reduced
heat input -+ smaller residual stress and distortions
compared to spray transfer
• Pulse frequency controls the volume of weld pool -+ used
fOf root runs and out of position welds
Pulsed transfer
Pulsed transfer
J :'::' P... curron; T~~~~~n

--- -- ----- -- --------- / Av:r:!::~:nt
___ - ______ - __ - - - - - - / reading)
\ / Background
~ current
L---------------------------~TI·m'
(sec)
The effect of inductance
Maximum inductance VS Minimum

inductance
-Max. pinch effect --+
-Min. pinch effect increased spatter
-reduced spatter
-Colder arc -+ use only for
-Hotter arc -I- more arc stability when welding
penetration wide gaps
-More fluid weld pool -Convex weld,more spatter
-Recommended on rtnlproved weld poaT)
thicker materials and ~trOI /
stainless steel
·RecommenCled on thin
materials
MIG/MAG shielding gases

0" y !S0~/C
if.::.-/?, f<&;.. - {,fY21; 1V-J

~ ~(~1l.-W)
Ar Ar-He He co,
Gas compositjon effect on weld bead profife
·Ar: higher density than airjlow thermal conductivity - t the arc

has a high energy inner conejgood wetting at the toes;low
ionisation potential
·He: lower density than air;high thennal conductivity ..... uniformly
distributed arc energy;parabolic profile;high ionisation potential
-C02 cheap;deep penetration profile;cannot supportspray
transfer;poorwetting;hlgh spatter
Thermal Conductivity: The ease with which a gas

can dissipate heat.
High Thennal Low Thermal
Conductivity Conductivity
I~··<·'
Anode
".-.~~
Cathode(w} Cathode{-}
Gases for dip transfer

CO 2 carbon steels only; deep penetration; fast welding speed;
high spatter level
At + up to 25% CO2 : carbon and low alloy steel;mlnimum
spatter; good wetting and bead contour
90% He + & 7.5% Ar + 2.5% CO2 : stainless steel;minimise
undercut;small HAl
Ar: AI ,Mg,Cu,Ni and their alloys on thin sections
Ar + He mixtures: AI,Mg,Cu,Ni and their alloys on thicker
sections ( over 3 mm)
Gases for spray transfer
At + ( 5 -18)% CO2 ;carbon steels minimum spatter;good
wetting and bead contour
At + 2% O2 or CO2 ;stainless steel;improved arc stability;
provides good fusion
Ar:AI,Mg,Cu,Ni and their alloys
Ar + (25 - 30) % N2:Cu alloys;greaterheat input
MIG/MAG filler material
Chemical composition of the solid ~

wire orthe weld metal in case of
composite electrodes
Minimum UTS of weld metal (kSi~
standard number " \
rfJ/.""W""S,--,-A--'-S'=-.-:-1S,.-::E=R-=7'=-O-=S,..--:6'---,
Designated an
electrode I rod ( ER lOr _ _- '
only an electrode (E)
Solid (s)or
composite te) wire
J
MIG/MAG process variables

• Welding current
·[ncrease depth and wfdth

-Increase deposition rate
• Polarity N<O£I""""
, -. .
E""',
flo.....
..
i·' ;·~,' · J",·1t
~
-,
_,'
P _ k ,," ..
r,,"nQW'
MIGIMAG process variables
• Arc voltage
-Increase are length

'Reduced penetration, Increased
width
'Excessive voltage can cause
porosity. spatter and undercut
• Travel speed
.....-.u._..,..ed
'Reduce penetration and width,
Increase undercut
MIGIMAG process variables

• Gun (torch) angle
_'11on
~
Undercut
Deep _tim Shallow
E>ccess weld "",101 Ma.1mum MocJo,oI. M'I~-;;;;;;
:sev•.., Mod.rot. Mkdm..
The eNect of toreh angle
,n'lI ~.ft . . . . . .,........ ~
• Electrode extension • Increase extension
MIGIMAG typical defects

Silica inclusions ( in Fe steels) due to poor
interun cleaning
Lack of fusion ( primarily with dip transfer)
Porosity ( from loss of gas shield on site etc)
Solidification problems ( cracking, centre line
pipes, crater pipes) especially on deep narrow
welds
Most welding imperfections in MIG/MAG are caused by lack of

welder skill or incorrect settings of the equipment
The use of low quality wires will cause wire feed problems
Worn contact tips will cause poor power pick up ,or transfer
Bad power connection will cause a loss of voHage in the arc
• High productivity • lack of fusion (dip)
• Easily automated • Small range of
• All positional (dip &
consumables
pulse)
• Material thickness • loss of gas shield/site
range • Complex equipment
• Continuous electrode • High ozone level
Flux Cored Arc Welding

Insulated extension
G--Fluxcore
o-Wirejoint
I~Es~t==~cu::""~:ntcarrying
\\1Tlfj#,-_~g:u:.i1;d tube
oflux
core
wires
'-__ M.,... droplets

weld metal covered with thin
and slag slag coating
Submerged-arc (SAW)
Submerged-arc (SAW)
Schematic diagram of SAW
Transformerl
Rectifier
carriage
control unit
Welding
carriage
Electrode
Principles of operation
• -Factors that determine whether to use

SAW
• Chemical composition and mechanical
properties required for the weld deposit
• Thickness of base metal to be welded
• Joint accessibility
• Position in which the weld to be made
• Frequency or volume of welding to be
performed
" '
• SAW methods
Semiautomatic - for relatively small
diameter electrodes and moderate
travel speed
Mechanised - the majority of
applications
• Automatic - for mass production
( e.g. pipes)
SAW methods features

semi automatic Mechanised Automatic
Start and
maintains the machine machine machine
arc
Feed the
'electrode machine machine machine
Controt the heat person machine machine

Input
Provide
travel person machine machine
speed
SAW equipment
Power sources can be:

Transformer for AC
• Transformer - rectifiers for DC
Static characteristics can be :

Flat (CV) - most of the power sources
Drooping (CC)
"."<.
SAW equipment
Flat (CV) power sources:

• Most commonly used supplies for SAW
• Can be used for both semiautomatic
and automatic welding
• Self - regulating arc - simple wire feed
speed control
• Wire feed speed controls the current
and power source controls the voltage
• Application for DC are limited to 1DDDA
due to severe arc blow ( also thin wires)
SAW equipment
Drooping (CC) power sources:
can be used for both semiautomatic and
automatic welding
• non self- regulating arc ->must be used
with a voltage - sensing variable wire
feed speed control
• more expensive due to more complex
wire feed speed control
• arc voltage depends upon wire feed
speed whilst the power source control
the current
• cannot be used for high speed welding
on thin . I"
SAW filler material
Welding wires
-supplied on coils, reels or drums
-random or line winding
CourtlI!sy of Unco/n Electrk Courtesy of UncoIn EIedrio: Courtesy of ESAS AS

coil (approx. reel (approx. drum (approx.
25 kg) 300 kg) 450 kg)
SAW filler material
Welding wires
Supplied on coils, reels or drums
• Random or line winding
Welding wire can be used to weld:

Carbon steels
Low alloy steel
Creep resisting steel
Nickel base alloys
Special alloys for surfacing applications
Welding wire can be :

Solid wire
• Metal cored wire
SAW filler material

Welding wires:
Carbon and low alloy wire are copper coated
Stainless steel wires are not coated
Wire must be clean and free from oil and dust
Copper coated functions:

To assure a good electrical contact between
wire and contact tip
To assure a smooth feed of the wire through
the guide tube, feed rolls and contact tip
(decrease contact tube wear)
To provide protection against corrosion
Sub-arc (SAW) Fluxes
Fused SAW Agglomerated SAW

Fluxes Fluxes
SAW filler materials
Welding fluxes:
Are granulated mineral compounds mixed
according to various formulations
Shield the pool from the atmosphere
Clean the molten weld pool
Can modify the chemical composition of the
weld metal
Prevents rapid escape or heat from welding
zone
Influence the shape of the weld bead (wetting
action)
Can be fused,aglomerated or mixed
Must be kept warm and dry to avoid porosity

Fused flux advantages:
good chemical homogeneity
Normally not hygroscopic ~ easy storage
and handling
Readily recycled without significant change in
particle size composition
Fused flux disadvantages:
Difficult to add deoxidiser and ferro - alloys
due to segregation or extremely high loss
High temperature needed to melt ingredients
limit the range of flux compositions

Agglomerated flux advantages:
easy addition of deoxidisers and alloying elements .
Usable with thicker layer of flux when welding
Colour identification
Agglomerated flux disadvantages:

Tendency to absorb moisture
Possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading to
porosity
Possible change in flux composition due to segregation
or removal of fine mesh particles
Mixed fluxes:
Two or more fused or bonded fluxes are mixed in any ratio
necessary to yield the desired results
Mixed flux advantages:
Several commercial fluxes may be mixed for highly critical or
proprietary welding operations
Mixed flux disadvantages:

Segregation of the combined fluxes during shipment. storage and
handling
Segregation occurring in the feeding and recovery systems during
welding
Inconsistency in the combined flux from mix to mix
SAW operating variables
Welding current
Welding voltage
Travel speed
Electrode extension
Width and depth of the layer of flux
Welding current
-controls depth of penetration and
the amount of base metal melted
Welding current
-too high current ... excessive excess weld metal (waste of
electrode) ... increase weld shrlngkage and cause greater
distortions
'excesslve high current ..... digging an::,undercut,bumthrough;aJso
a high and narrow bead__ solidification cracking
·too low current ... Incomplete fusion or Inadequate penetration
.excesslve low "" ...... nl ..... "n..t"hIA ""'
·Usually DCEP_ deep

penebation, better
resistance to porosity
·OCEN increase deposition
rate but reduce penetration
(surfacing)
·AC used to avoid arc blow;
can give unstable arc
Welding voltage 'Weldlng voltage controls arc

length
·Increase In voltage produce a
flatter and wider bead
·Increase In voltage Increase
flux consumption
-Increase in voltage tend
reduce porosity
·And Increase In voltage may
help bridging an excessive root
g.p
An increase voltage can increase pick- up of alloying

elements from an alloy flux
Welding voltage
lowV<>lts
-Low voltage produce a
" stiffer" arc-) improves
penetration in a deep
weld groove and resists
arc blow
-Excessive arc voltage
produce a high narrow
bead---> difficult
-Excessively arc voltage
produce a "hat - shaped"
bead--->tendency to crack
Travel speed
-increase in travel speed decrease the

heat input ---> less filler metal applied per
unit length ---> less excess weld metal --->
weld bead becomes smaller
• • ,.......,.,
Effect of Arc Travel speed
--
$.4ll1m'''''''U "IOtumf$./loC 201Ilrn/8f!e
(-""
(All ott. .... p-.... ",,'ct...., unch::ongo<ll

Electrode size
-At the same current ---> small electrodes
have higher current density ---> higher
deposition rate
Electrode extension
oControls wire melt rate -+ the longer the
extension, the higher the melting rate
n
,
~~~
EI"'~" ''""';0"
Electrode directly on joInt centerline
Submerged-arc (SAW) welding head arrangement

.. Low weld-metal • Restricted welding
cost positions
• Easily automated • Arc blow on DC
• Low levels of current
ozone
• Shrinkage defects
• High productivity
• Difficult penetration
• No visible arc light
control
• Limited joints
Welding Inspection
Heat Treatments
Heat treatments
Heat treatments of steels are
usually intended for one of the
following purposes:-
·Remove stresses induced by cotd working
·Refine the grain structure
·Decrease the hardness and increase
ductility
·Increase hardness
·Improve machineability
·Improve mechanical properties as a whole
Properties of steel
Mechanical properties :-
.Hardness - a measure of the resistance to penetration
• Tensile strength - a metal's ability to withstand stress
in tension
.Compresive strength-a metal's ability to withstand a
pressing or squeezing together
.Shear strength - a metal's ability to resist a sliding
past type of action
-Fatigue strength - ability to take repeated loading
• Toughness - ability to resist shock
.Ouctility - ability of a metal's to stretches before it
breaks
-Brittleness - metal does not stretches before it
fractures
Heat Treatment of Steels
All heat treatments are basically cycles of three elements
• Heating
• Holding (soaking)
• Cooling
Post weld heat treatments are used to relieve residual stresses

and improve the toughness, controlling the formation of hard
microstructure structures
Pre heat treatments are used basically to increase weldabilty,
control expansion and contraction forces during welding.
Heat Treatments
The relevant variables for heat treatment process,

which must be carefully controlled are as follows.
•The maximum heating rate
•The soak temperature range
•The minimum time at the soak temperature (soak

time)
•The maximum cooling rate
The basic heat treatments are:
• Annealing • Normalising
• Tempering
• Hardening
• Pre-heating
• Stress relieving
·Post heating
The method of applying the heat to the material may vary from
procedure to procedure. e.g flame, electrical resistance and
furnaces
NORMALISING
-rapid heating to soak temperature (100%
Temperatur
,·C austenite)
-short 'soak'tlme at temperature
-coolin air to ambienttemperature
Time
Schematic of a typical normalising heat

beabJlei,t applied to C-t1l1J and sOllie "uw aaoy
steels

QUENCHING & TEMPERING
-rapid heating to soak temperature (100% austenite)
-short 'soak'time at temperature
Temperatur
,·c -rapid cooling by quenching in water or oil
_reheat to tempering temperature, soak & air cool
Time
Schematic of B. typical quenching & tempering heat

Temperatore slab heating temperalure >-
('C) 1~50·C I
,-~~'::':-l---
~~~~~ile+i
ferrite j
(l+ tt ) I
;oo~c·-·-·-·-·-t·-·-~;I·
ferrite + pearlite i
:
TIme
Comparison of the ~control-rotted' (TMCP) and 'as-rolled'

conditions
(= hot rolling)
SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT
_rapid heating to soak temp. (100%
austenite)
Temperalure"C .short 'soak' time at temperature
.rapld cool coonng by quenching into
wateroroJt
Time
Schematic of a typical solution heat treatment

(solution annealing) applied to austenitic stainless
steels

Temperature °C PWHT (C-Mn steels)
-controlled heating rate from
300°C to soak temp.
-minimum soak time at
temperature
_controlled cooling to - 300°C
~.fiaD~' I~.:] ~E:~;:

~_C:o u<oi<O' . . ········ . .I·::~·········· ak I "to,
Lf..}Nw- Time
~Z)'''V ' Schematic afa typical PWHT applied to C-Mn steels
Heat Treatment
Annealing and Normalizing Quenching

·Softens -Hardens
-Weakens the materials -Strengthens
·Causes ductility -Causes brittleness
·Removes internal stresses ·Causes intemal stresses
-Removes distortion trends 'Causes distortion
'Removes cracking trends ·Causes cracking
·Is a slow cooling process -Is a fast cooling process
Heat Treatment
Effects of Tempering
·Hardness - - - - _ -Decreased
-Strength - - - - _ -Decreased
-Toughness - - - - - -Increased
"Brittleness -Decreased
-Ouctility -Increased
-Internal stresses - -Decreased
-Distortion -------·Reduced
-Cracking - - - - - - 'Reduced
Heat Treatments
Stress Relief (PWHTI
• Temperature: 550 to 6aO oe hold for sufficient time
• Cooling: Slow cool in air.
• Result: Relieves residual stresses improves mechanical
properties and increases toughness, may also be used to
reduce hydrogen levels
Post Hydrogen Release
• Temperature: Approximately 150 °C_ 250°C (min 2 hours)
• Cooling: Slow cool in air
• Result: Relieves residual hydrogen
Pre Heat
We can preheat metals and alloys when welding for

a number of reasons: Primarily we use most pre-
heats to achieve one or more of the following:
1. To control the structure of the weld metal

and HAZ on cooling
2. To improve the diffusion of gas molecules
through an atomic structure.
3. To control the effects of expansion and
contraction.
Application of preheat
Control of preheat and interpass
When?
Before and immediately before passage of the arc
Where?
Area for preheating depending on thickness of
material ad also access
Application of preheat
.-----I Work piece f----,
! L thickness It) J !
[t.<t,~o~m~m~~~~~CJ lr7t~>750-m-m-'
-A=4 x t but max. -A- min. 75 mm
SOmm -where practicable, the
_tbe temperature temperature shall be
shall be measured measured on the face
on the surface of opposite to that being
the work piece heated
facing the welder -allow 2 min per every
25 mm of parent metal
-A = distance from thickness for
edge of the bevel temperature
preparation equalisation
Pre Heat
Preheat temperatures are arrived by taking into

consideration the following:
·The Arc energy (heat input)
·The carbon equivalent (GE)
·The combined material thickness
·The hydrogen scale required
(A, B, G, D,E)
Pre Heat
itJ
'"
,
A"'''''''''i1Y 1U:",m')
Pre Heat
Advantages of preheat
• Slows down the cooling rate, which reduces the
risk of hardening
• Allows better opportunity of hydrogen of diffusing
out, thereby reducing the risk of cracking
• Removes moisture from the material being welded
• Improves overall fusion characteristics
• Lowers stresses between the weld metal and
parent material by ensuring a more uniform
expansion and contraction
CSWIP 3.1
WELDING INSPECTION
DAY 3
Welding Inspection
Residual stress and distortion
Nature of residual stresses
Heating and
cooling leads to
expansions and
contractions
OnC<><>lltogln
II""", Tbm,•.,.-g",O
Residual stresses
In case of heated bar,
the resistance of the
surrounding
material to the
expansion and
(~~1 with 1I.....1>In'
contraction leads to !\~""""e<l
the formation of (<l)C<»Ihl.I>Rw".nt

residual stresses Pt.,,;ont
Residual Stress
• Metal contract during solidification and
subsequent cooling.
• If this contraction is prevented or inhibited
residual stress will develop.
The tendency to develop residual stresses
increases when the heating and cooling is
localised.
• Welding is very localised heating and the
presence of liquid and solid metal in contact can
be expected to induce very high levels of residual
Residual Stress
• Residual stresses are very difficult to measure
with any real accuracy measurement.
• Residual stresses are self balancing internal
forces and not stresses induced whilst applying
external load
• Stresses are more concentrated at the surface of
the component.
• The removal of residual stresses is termed stress - -
relieving.
Residual Stress
Residual stresses occur in welds in the following directions
• Along the weld -longitudinal residual stresses
• Across the weld - transverse residual stresses
• Through the weld - short transverse residual stresses
Short Transverse
Factors affecting residual stresses and distortion
Parent material properties

Amount of restrain
Joint design
Fit- up
Welding sequence
Distortion
- Distortion will occur in all welded jOints if the
material are free to move i.e. not restrained
- Restrained materials result in low distortion but
high residual stress
- More than one type of distortion may occur at one
time
- Highly restrained joints also have a higher crack
tendency to joints of a low reslraint
- The action of residual in welded jOints is to cause
distortion
Distortion
-Because welding involved highly localised heating,
non uniform stresses are set up in the component
because of expansion and contraction of the heated
materials.
-Initially, compressive stresses are created in the
surrounding cold parent metal when the weld pool is
formed due to thermal expansion of the hot metal.
-However ,tensile stresses occur on cooling when
the contraction of the weld metal.
Types of distortion
• Longitudinal shrinkage
• Transverse shrinkage
• Angular distortion
• Bowing and dishing
• Buckling
Types of distortion
Distortion
Control of distortion my be achieved in
on of the following way
·Pre- setting of parts
4
Pre- setting
hI
Distortion
'Pre- setting of parts
'Welding jigs and fixtures
Welding Jig and fixtures
Welding jig Flexible clamps
Strong backs with wedges Fullywelded strongbacks

Distortion
Control of distortion my be achieved in on of
the following way
.Welding jigs and fixtures
·Prevention by design
Distortion - Prevention by design
Distortion
Control of distortion my be achieved-in
.Pre- setting of parts
.Welding jigs and fixtures
·Tack welding
6
Distortion - Prevention by tack weld
1
a)$
1
b) $
Cr~
Distortion
·Welding jigs and fixtures
·Tack welding
·Sack to back assembly
Distortion - Prevention by back to back assembly
bj
. I'k<\;jes
Distortion
Control of distortion my be aChieved in
·Pre~ setting of parts
-Welding jigs and fixtures
-Tack welding
-Sack to back assembly
-Stiffening
Distprtipn • Preventipn by stiffening
Distortion
Control of distortion my be aChieved in
-Welding jigs and fixtures
-Prevention by design
-Tack welding
-Back to back assembly
-Stiffening
-Welding procedurejselection of
process,technique,h.input etc
-Welding sequence
Distortion - Prevention by welding sequence
• back step welding
• Skip welding
Distortion - corrective action
Mechanical straightening
• Thermal technique
Thermal technique
Localised heating to correct

distortion
Spot heating
Spot heating for correction buckling
line heating
Line heating to correct angular distortion
Use of wedge shape heating to straighten plate

Wedge shape heating
Wedge shape heating to correct distortion

Weldability ofSteels
Classification of Steel
Steels are classified into groups as

follows:
Plain Carbon Steels
1. Low Carbon Steel 0.01 - 0.3% Carbon
2. Medium Carbon Steel 0.3 - 0.6% Carbon
3. High Carbon Steel 0.6 - 1.4% Carbon
Plain carbon steels contain only iron & carbon as main

alloying elements, traces of Mn. Si, AI, S & P may also be
present
Basic atomic structure for steels
The following basic foundation information on metallurgy

will nofform any part of your CSWIP examination.
A most important function in the metallurgy of steeIs, is
the ability of iron to dissolve carbon in solution
The carbon atom is very much smaller than tbe iron atom and does
Dot replace it in the atomic structure. but fits between it
Iron arbon atoms

atoms
Iron is an element that can exist in 2 types of cubic structures,

depending on the temperature. This is an important feature
.'j
./
IAt temperatures below Ac/r I, (Lef) iron exists like this
a Alpha iron
ti1
~' This structure occurs below 723°C and is
-... : ' body centred, or Bee in structure
_::;O\:. ::::,. It can only dissolve up to 0.02'% Carbon
Also known as Ferrite or Bee iron

ffij'<--:--c---------,--------,-,---,
Compressed representation could appear
like this
IAt temperatures above the Ac/r 3, (UCT) iron exists like this
"( Gamma iron
This structure occurs above the ueT in
Plain Carbon Steels and is FCC in structure.
"888
,: ~-::.. .- It can dissolve up 2.06% Carbon
Also called Anstenite or FCC iron
Compressed representation could appear

like this I
If steel is heated and then cooled slowly in equilibrium, then

exact reverse atomic changes take place
If a steel tbat contains more than 0.3% Carbon is cooled

quickly, then the carbon does not have time to diffuse out of
solution, hence trapping the carbon in the Bee form of iron.
Tbis now distorts the cube to an irregular cube, or tetragon
Tbis supersaturated solution is called Martensite and is

the hardest structure that can be produced in steels
....
LIf some steels are cooled quickly their structure looks like this
(~ Martensite can be defined as:

,
'1Q. -'
:
A supersaturated solution of carbon in
BeT iron (Body Centred Tetragonal)
V' '
(~V It is the hardest structure that can
be thermally produced in steels
~, Compressed representation could appear

like this
The important points of steel

microstructure
Solubility of Carbon in BCC & FCC phases
of steels
Ferrite: a. Low carbon solubility. Maximum
0.02%
Austenite: y High carbon solubility. Maximum
2.06%
Martensite: The hardest phase in steels, which is
produced by rapid cooling from the
Austenite phase It mainly occurs
below 300 ·C
Classification of Steel
An Alloy steel is one that contains more than

Iron & Carbon as a main 'alloying elements
Alloy steels are divided into 2 groups
1. Low Alloy Sleeis < 7% extra alloying elements
2. High Alloy Steels> 7% extra alloying elements

(
Effects of alloying elements

• Carbon: Is the most important alloying elemenLaustenite
stabiliser, increase hardness, tensile and yield
strength,decrease ductility ,malleability and impact strength
• Manganese: combat effect of sulphur by preferential

formation of manganese sulphide (MnS),increases strength
and hardenability
-Silicon: deoxidiser ,improve oxidation resistance
-Molybdenum: strong carbide former, high temperature

strength and creep resistance,resistance to pitting corrosion
and reduce susceptibility to temper embrittlement.
-Chromium: strong fenite stabiliser dissolves in alpha iron and

form carbides;improves strength,hardenability,wear resistance,
corrosion and OXidation resistance
Steel Weld Metallurgy

-Nickel: austenite stabiliser ,fonns solid solution increasing
strength and hardenabilitY,improve toughness at low
temperature
• Aluminium:Deoxidiser,grain refinement
• Sulphur: present as a residual element from

manufacture.Fonns low melting point FeS and make steel
'hot short' and brittle at high temperature. Improve
machineability
Titanium: Elimination of carbide precipitation

Vanadium: fonns carbides and improve creep resistance
and strength.
Copper: Corrosion resistance and strength
Steel Weld Metallurgy
The grain structure of steel will influence its weldability,

mechanical properties and in-service performance. The
grain structure present in a material is influenced by:
-The type and number of elements present in the

material
-The temperature reached during welding and or
PWHT.
-The cooling rate
Cooling Rate
The cooling rate of the weld zone depends on the fOllowing factors:
-Weld heat: Also call arc energy, is the amount of electrical
energy that is supplied to the welding arc
over a given weld length (an inch or mm)
-Thickness of material
·Preheating
Heat Affected Zone
The parent material undergoes microstructure

changes due to the influence of the welding process.
This area, which lies between the fusion boundary and
the unaffected parent material, is called the heat
affected zone (h.a.z.).
Heat Affected Zone
G,~in·,;Ii••H!AZ
Heat Affected Zone
The extent of changes will be dependent upon

the following :-
Material composition
Cooling rate, fast cooling higher hardness
Arc energy, high arc energy wider HAZ
The HAZ can not be eliminated in a fusion weld
Arc energy
Amps = 200 Volts = 32

Travel speed = 240
mm/min
Arc energy= Amps x volts
Travel speed mm/secX 1000
Arc energy- 200 X 32 X 60

240 X 1000
Arc energy = 1,6 kJ/mm
Arc Energy
. High arc energy - slow cooling
• Low toughness
• Reduction in strength
Low arc energy - fast cooling
• Increased hardness
• Hydrogen entrapment
• Lack of fusion
6
Carbon Equivalent
• The CE of steel primarily relates to its hardenability.
• Higher the GE, lower the weldability

• Higher the CEo higher the susceptibility to brittleness
• The CE of a given material depends on its alloying
elements
• The CE is calculated using the following formula
CE = C + Mn + Cr + Mo + V + Cu + Ni
6- 5 15
Hardeoability:The relative ability of a ferrous alloy to fonn
martensite
when quenched from high temperatures.
Weldability
• Weldability can be defined as the ability of a material to

be welded by most of the common welding processes,
and retain the properties for which it has been
designed.
• A steel which can be welded without any real
dangerous consequences is said to possess Good
We/dab/fity.
• The hardenability also influence the weldability.The
hardenability depend on the value of the carbon
equivalent
Factors that effect weldability
the actual chemical composition

the weld joint configuration
the welding process to be used
the properties required from the weldment
Thereforefor material which produce poor weldability it is necessary to

ensure that:
welding procedure specification give welding conditions that do not
cause cracking but achieved the specified properties
welders work strictly in accordance with specified welding conditions.
welding inspector regularly monitorwelders
()
Cracks
Process Cracks
Hydrogen induced cold cracking

(HICC)
Solidification cracking (Hot cracking)
Lamellar tearing
Intergranular corrosion (Weld Decay)
Cracks
.
When considering any type of crack
mechanism, three elements must be
present for it's occurrence:
Stress: stress is always present in weldments,
through local expansion and contraction.
Restraint: may be a local restriction, or through

the plates being welded.
Susceptible microstructure: the structure is often

made susceptible to cracking through welding,
e.g high hardness
Hydrogen
Cracks
Hydrogen cracking
Features of cold cracking

elntergranular or transgranular
-Delayed cracking
Hydrogen cracking
A combination of four factors is necessary to

cause HAZ hydrogen cracking
.'
.~-
Hydrogen Cracking
Characteristics
• Also known as hydrogen induced cold cracking.
delay cracking, underbead cracking and chevron.
• Hydrogen is the major influence to this type of
cracking.
• Source of hydrogen may be from moisture or
hydrocarbon such as grease, paint on the parent
material, damp welding fluxes or from
condensation of parent material
~~ __ .~. _ _ .,J::!y.dLO.ll@J.lLilb.sg[b.e.dJl.Y_tlle.weJd.p.o.oJ.fcOID.tblL~•. ____ .....__ ._~_. __._ _ • _____ ~. ___ ..._~ ___...._~.
arc atmosphere.
Hydrogen Cracking
• During cooling, much of this hydrogen

escapes from the solidified bead by the
diffusion but some also diffuses into the
HAl of the parent metal.
Type of cracking is intergranular along
grain boundaries or transganular
• Requires susceptible grain structure, stress
and hydrogen and low temperature is
reached.
• Most likely in HAZ for Carbon Manganese
steel and in weld metal for HSLA steel.
Hydrogen Cracking
Factors responsible:
Hydrogen cracking occurs when the conditions outlined in 1
- 4 occur simultaneously:
1.Susceptible grain structure - hardness value> 350 V.P.N
That part of HAZ which experiences a high enough
temperature for the parent steel to transform rapidly from
ferrite to austenite and back again,produces microstructures
which are usually harder and more susceptible to hydrogen
embrittlement.
2.Hydrogen level· > 15 ml/100g
This is inevitably present, derived from moisture in the fluxes

used in welding and from other sources.
Hydrogen Cracking
3.Temperature < 20QoC for any steel and < 1500 C for
structural steel.
The greatest risk of cracking occurs when temperatures
near ambient are reached and cracking may thus take place
several hours after welding has been completed (normally
after 72 hours )
4.Stress > 50% yield strength of parent metal
These arise inevitably from thermal contractions during

cooling and may be supplemented by other stresses
developed as a result of rigidity in the parts to be joined.
Hydrogen Cracking
Precautions for controlling hydrogen cracking
• Pre heat, removes moisture from the jOint preparations, and slows down
the cooling rate
• Ensure joint preparations are clean and free from contamination
• The use of a low hydrogen welding process such as TIG or MIG/MAG
• The use of Nickel and Austenitic filler metal
• Ensureall welding is carried out under controlled environmental conditions
• Ensure good fIt~up as to reduced stress
• The use of a PWHT with maintaining the preheat temperature
• Avoid poor weld profiles
• Use [ow hydrogen electrodes and baked as per manufacturerinstruclions
• Control interpass temperature
Hot cracking
(Solidification Cracks or liquation cracking)

HOT CRACKING
-Solidification
cracking
eLiquation
cracking
Causes for bot cracking

• high level of impurities
~ ___ ,_~~ ~P~J: c1eaDliI!.~~.2!!Jointe!:~~ratjon ~-"~~~.~"---~-,-~ ---"-----~--~_~_~ __ ___ __ _____"____
~ ~ ~,, ~~_~_' __ ~_e_~,,~~ ___ _
-High level of restraint
• insufficient weld bead size or shape
Unfavorable depth to width ratio
Schematic of a weld bead with an unfavourable width-to-depth

ratio, ThIs Is responsible for liquid metal being pushed into the
centre of the~nClng columnar dendrites and
becoming the k zan tis ptures
cfi ~ WfD"-2
iii ;
Hot cracking in carbon steel
Characteristics
• Also known as solidification cracking or center line cracking
or crater cracking and liquation cracking (CGHAZ)
·Solidification cracking is intergranular type of cracking that
is along the grain boundaries of the weld metal.
.It occurs during the terminal stages of solidification,when the
stresses developed across the adjacent grains exceed the
strength of the almost completely solidified weld metal.
.Impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous and carbon
pick - up from parent metal increase the risk of cracking
·High joint restraint which produce high residual stress will
increase the susceptibility to this type of cracking.
Solidification Cracking
Occurs during weld solidification process from liquidus
to solidus and at the last area to solidified.
Steels with high sulphur content (low ductility at
elevated temperature) whereby produce hot shortness
to the weld metal
FeS form films at the grain boundaries whereby reduce
the strength of the weld meta\.
Addition of manganese will fo~nd forms
globules instead of films( FeS)~5-=I
Occur longitudinally down center of weld
Welding process that most susceptible to this type of
cracking are SAW and MIG/MAG with spray transfer
due to high dilution rate.
LlQUATION CRACKING
·Phase 1- as a result of heat cycle, liquid films of

(Fe + FeS) eutectic appear near fusion line
·Phase 2 - during cooling,liquid film 6T(Fe +
FeS) eutectic are subjected to tension cracking
Solidification Cracking
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
- Use low dilution welding process
-The use of high manganese and low carbon content fillers
·Control sulphur ,keep below 0.06%
-Maintain a low carbon content
·Minimise the amount of stress I restraint acting on the joint
during welding
•The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of impurities
·Use proper joint design, use Single J instead of single V
·Clean jOint preparations, free from oil, paints and any other
sulphur containing product.
·Joint design selection depth to width ratios
Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar Tearing
Definition: cracking phenomenon that

occur in parent metal due to material
susceptibility and strain across the
Segregations
Steel with Inclusions
.i
Lamellar Tearing
• occur beneath the welds,mainly

in plates ,never in casting
• occur mainly during
production; in sen-ice can occur
as a result of cyclic or impact
loads
• tearing is transgranular with
stepped appearance, parallel to
the fusion boundary and the
plate surface
• the surface of the fracture is
fibrous and 'woody'
Causes for lamellar tearing
• high level of through thickness

stress
•Weld orientation - the fusion
boundary will be roughly parallel to
the plane ofthe inclusion
·Material susceptibility
Lamellar Tearing
Susceptible joint types

Corner butt weld
(single-bevel)
Tee fillet weld Tee butt weld

(double-bevel)
••
Lamellar Tearing
Critical area Critical area
Lamellar Tearing
Precautions for controlling lamellar tearing

The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of
impurities
(z type material)
Reducing the risk of lamellar tearing
Test specimen for-through thickness tensile test
Sp<dm ... _:_ota«>ro.. Sp«Im<n-.d!hoo<"""""'pbc<o ~""" ....... <ruIoo.pl.«t

1hk1a>et>15""",;:,,;:SOmm ro.......,...,.,1D ..... "'''SO.... ro.._ ... SOmm"'''_ .....
Lamellar Tearing
The use of high quality parent materials, low
levels of impurities
(z type material I
Change jOint design
Lamellar Tearing
Modifying a corner joint to avoid lamellar tearin
Susceptible Non·Susceptible
DTI;OD ~D
Prior welding both An open comer joint
plates may be grooved may be selected to
to avoid lamellar avoid lamellar tearing
tearing

Design of fillet welds to avoid lamellar tearing
~.,
.. .. """"",,';'
"
L1
ro",,,,,,,.,,ta"'ofj"'nt!> 1iI....1v .1<>; ..", v<!.d"''';{J".Uld 1» b"

·,uff.. ~ b"'"U,H t .."rh'q
t<l '''''''",t ... ":,,,. 1,..,,,,,11,,,,' f11:urni"!1
.,
Reducing the effective size of a weld will

,__ .. _~_", ____ "' ___ ~ __ __ "~@Jt~J.r<.ILt/J.e_~tb.r...C!.l!gl1:.mlc:.tc_I1.!!S.S_~~.~~_oJ:U~"t "_,,~ __ ,_ _ ~ __ '"_,~~,~_~~ ____ ~ __ "'~~_"_,, ___ "__,~__ "_, __ ,~ ____ ,_ _ "__ "__ ~ _ _ _ ----",
. .
reduce the risk of/amellartearing
Lamellar tearing can be avoided by changing

the joint design
Two layers of weld metal (usually by MMA)

applied to susceptible plate before the T-butt
weld is made
Lamellar Tearing
• (Z t The use of high quality parent materials, low levels
of impuritiesype material)
• Change joint design
• Minimise the amount of stress I restraint acting on the jOint
during welding
The use of buttering runs with low strength weld metal
Hydrogen precautions e.g use low hydrogen electrodes
• Shift welding process such as Electro slag welding
• Use forging or casting joint.
Intergranular corrosion
(Weld Decay)
Characteristics
• Weld decay may occurs in unstabilized austenitic stainless
steels with carbon content above 0.1%
• Also known as knife line attack or crack (stabilise 5.s1eel)
• Chromium carbide precipitation takes place at the critical
range of 450°C-850°C (sensitising temperature)
• At this temperature range carbon is absorbed by the
chromium, which causes a local reduction in chromium
content by promoting chromium carbides.
• Loss of chromium content results in lowering the materials
resistance to corrosion attack allowing rusting to occur
Precautions for intergranular corrosion

• The use of a low carbon grade stainless steel e.g. 304L,
316L, 316ELC with carbon content < 0.03%
• The use of a stabilized grade stainless steel e.g. 321, 347,

348 recommended for severe corrosive conditions and high
temperature operating conditions
Standard grades may require PWHT, this involves heating

the material to a temperature over 110QoC and quench the
material, this restores the chromium content at the grain
boundary, a major disadvantage of this heat treatment is
the high amount of distortion (solution anneal)
• Control the interpass temperature
• Avoid preheatlPWHT (austenitic stainless steel)

Fatigue
Cracks
Fatigue fracture
Fatigue fracture occurs in structures subject to repeated

application of cyclic tensile stress.Crack growth is slow(in some
cases,crack may grow into an area oflow stress and stop
Without failure)
Fatigue Cracks
• Crack growth is slow
• It initia~ from stress con~ntration polnt~

• Load is considerably below the design or yield stress level
• The surface is smooth

• The surface is bounded by a curve
• Bands may sometimes be seen on the smooth surface
'beachmarks' .They show the process of the crack front from the
point of origin
• The surface is 90 0 to the load
• Fatigue crack need initiation + propagation periods

Fatigue Cracks
Secondary mode of failure Fatigue fracture surface

ductile fracture rough fibrous in appearance
Initiation points I weld defects
Fatigue Cracks
A fatigue failure
on a small bore
pipe work
Fatigue improving techniques

• Improved by design
• Hammer/needle peening
• Completely grind excess weld metal
• Full burr grinder
• Disc grinding
• Water jet erode
·PWHT
• Painting
• TIG or plasma dressing
Welding Inspection
Consumables
Welding Consumables
Welding consumables may be:
'Inserts Shielded arc filler wires, lengths or
rolls
'Covered electrodes
'Shielding gases
'Separately supplied flux
'Fusible
Welding Consumables
Welding Consumables
Each consumable is critical in respect to:
·Size
-Classification I Supplier
·Condition
-Handling and storage

-Treatments e.g. baking I drying
Welding Consumable Standards

MMA(SMAW) MIG/MAG IGMAW) TIG (GTAW)
~ • BS 639: Steet electrodes • as 2901: Filler wires
_ • BS EN 499: Steel electrodes • BS EN 440: Filler wires

• AWS AS.9: Filler wires
~ • AWSA5.1 Non-alloyed steel
• BS EN 439: Shielding gases
electrodes
SAW
• AWS AS.S Alloyed steel
• B54165: Wire and fluxes
electrodes
• BS EN 756: Wire electrodes
• AWS A5.4 Chromium electrodes. as EN 760: Fluxes
• AWS AS.17: Wires and fluxes
Welding Consumable MMA

Welding consumables for MMA
-Consist of a core wire typically between 350-450mm in
length and from 2.5-Smm in diameter
-The wire is covered with an extruded flux coating
•The core wire is generally of a low quality rimming steel
•The weld quality is refined by the addition of refining
agents in the flux coating
•The flux coating contains many elements and compounds
that aU have a variety of functions during welding
MMA Welding Consumables
Functions of flux constituents:
• To aid arc ignition
• To improve arc stabitisation.
• To produce a shielding gas to protect the arc
column
• To refine and clean the solidifying weld-metal
• To add alloying elements
• To control hydrogen contents in the weld
• To form a cone at the end of the electrode, which
directs the arc
Common flux types
·Rutile
·Cellulose
·Basic
·Acidic
BS 639 Covered Electrodes
Covered Electrode _ _ _ ...If

Yield Strength N/mm'-'_ _ _...l.
T
33
1 0
Tensile Strength N/mm2

Toughness --------'
Flux Covering - - - - - - - - - '
Weld Metal Recovery - - - - - - - - - - '
::;:=========J
Iron Powder content
Welding Position
Electrical characteristic
Hydrogen Content - - - - - - - - - - - - - '
E 51 33 B 160 2 0 H
E 51 33 B 160 2 0 H
Compulsory
E 51 33 B 160 2 0 H
Optional
E 51 33 B 160 2 0 H
Compulsory Optional
BSEN499
Covered Electrode
Yield Strength "'hnm,2------'
Tensile Strength N/mm2
Toughness
Chemical composition _ _ _ _ _--l
Flux Covering - - - - - - - - - - '
Weld Metal Recovery - - - - - - - - '
and Current Type
Welding Position - - - - - - - - - - '
Hydrogen Content - - - - - - - - - - '
AWSA5.1
Covered Electrode
Tensile Strength (p.s.i) - - - - - - - '
Welding Position - - - - - - - - - '
Flux Covering - - - - - - - - - - - '
,,
AWS A5.1/5 Alloyed
Electrodes
Example AWS electrode flux types
·Cellulose flux- ends in 0.1

E6010, E6011, E7010, E8011
·Rutile flux-ends in 2,3,4
E5012, E6012, E6013, E6014
·Basic flux-ends in 5.6.8 ,
-------- ----·--Eu01·6;-;-E801·8;-E901·8--~- -·--·-----·--I·-·--···------··--··---···--·-~---·-·--------..-----.-----...----.--.-...- . ~-
•
AWS A5.1/5 Alloyed Electrodes

AWS electrode Type of covering Type of current
dassification
EX010 Cellulose sodium DC positive
E X011 Cellulose Pottasium ACorOC ositive
EX012 n; ;m CorDCei e
Titania Pottasium AC or DC either polarItY
EX014 Titania, Iron powder IACo
EX015 Basic Sodium DC ositiv
E 1 B ; AC orOe ositive
EX018 Basi iron powder AC or DC Dositive
EX022 Iron oxide AC or DC either polarity
EX024 Titania. Hi I AC or DC either polarity_
EX027 Iron oxide Hi h iron AC or DC either olari
EX028 Basic Hi h iron ACorDC ositive
EX048 Basic. High Iron powder AC or DC positive
Manual Metal Arc Electrode Flux Constituents and their Functions
Constituent Primary Function .Secondary

Function
Iron Oxide Slag Fonner Arc Stablllser
Rutile (TItanium Dloxl.de) Slag Fonner Arc Stablllser
Magnesia (Magnesium Fluxing Agent
Oxide)
calcium Fluoride Slag Fonner FluxlngAgent
PotassIum Silicate Arc Stabiliser Binder
Other Silicates Slag Fonners and Fluxing Agent
Binders
Calcium Carbonate Gas fonner Arc Stablllser
Other Carbonates Gas fonners
Cellulose Gas Fonner
Ferro-Manganese Alloying Deoxidiser
Ferro-Chrome Alloying
Ferro·Silicon Deoxldiser
Rutile electrodes
ComposItion of coverlng:-
TItanIum dioxide I rutile) and other hydrated minerals and organic
cellulose materials
CoaUng thickness less than 50% of the core wire dIameter
Characteristics
Easy to use
Smooth weld finish wIth medium penetration
High level of Hydrogen In the weld
Suitable for AC and DC
Thetast freezing of weld metal and fluid slag makes them suitable
for vertical and overhead welding
Fillet weld shape concave profile - good for fatigue application

CeUulose electrodes
Composition of covering:-
• Organic materials containing cellulose with some titanium
oxide Hydrogen releasing
I
Characteristics:-
• Thin easily removable slag
• Considerable envelope of shielding gas
Deeply penetrating arc with rapid bum-off rate
Uses:-
• All classes of mild steel welding in all welding positions
AC and DC electrode positive

Basic electrodes
Composition of covering:-
Calcium or other basic Carbonates and Fluorsparbonded with
sodium or Potassium Silicates
Medium coating
Coating contains little Hydrogen
CO2 releasing
Characteristics
Brown slag easy to remove
Medium ripple on weld metal
Medium penetration
Fillet profile flat or convex
Electrode must be stored underwann dry conditions and dried
before use
TIG Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for TIG
-Consist of a wire and gas, though tungsten electrodes being
classed as non-consumable Filler metal size(dia 1.6-4.0mm)
-The wire needs to be of a very high quality as normally no
extra cleaning elements are added
-The wire is copper coated to resist corrosion (carbon steel)
•The wire normally comes in 1m lengths with the applicable
code stamped onto the wire for traceability
,__ . _., _______ ","·.:rhe..shieldingMgases~usedAare.mainly~Argon~andJ::Ielium,_"~ ___ ,~" ___,___.__ , ____,__ '" __ ~_~_.,, __,____, "____ ~,~__ ~_~, _____ "_,,_""" __ ,_,_,_,_,,~ ,,~_
usually of the highest quality (99.9% pure).

-Ceramic shields, the size and shape depends on application
I
I
TlG filler wire
~
I
I
!
rIG consumable identification is
stamped at the end of the wire
Fusible insert
);
• •
Fusibfe insert to pre placed filler wire for
autogenous nG application
Consumable Insert:
·Used for root run on pipes
-Used in conjunction with TIG welding
·Available for carbon steel,Cr- Mo steel,austenitic Stainless Steel,
·nickel and copper- nickel alloys
oOifferentshapeto suit the application
MIG/MAG Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for MIG/MAG
~Consist of a wire and gas, the same quality as for TIG wires
-The wires are copper coated, main purpose corrosion
resistance and electrical pick-up (carbon steel)
-Wires are available in sizes from 0.6-1.6 mm in diameter
-Most wires are supplied on a 15kg spool, with finer wires
supplied on a 1kg spool
-Gases can be pure CO2 • CO2 +Argon mixes and
Argon+2%02 mixes (Aus .stainless steels).
SOLID WIREAWS 5.18
Designates an electrodes 0'

rod
~
Indicates minimum tensile strength ( with
CO2 )
J
ERXXS-X
Indicates a bare solid electrode or

rod
Specifies chemisby, impact properties aD<.ri'-_ _ _ _..J
hence applications
SAW flux type
Fused
Agglomerated
Any
CSWIP 3.1
WELDING INSPECTION
DAY 4
Welding Inspection
Mechanical Testing
Mechanical Testing
Destructive testing of welded

joints are usually carried out
to:
• Approve welding procedures
• Welders approval
• materials approval
·Consumables approval
Definition of Mechanical Testing
The ultimate means by which the .

mechanical strength and toughness of a
prepared test object can be determined
by subjecting it to mechanical forces
beyond the limits of its own mechanical
resistance
Mechanical Tests
Quantitative test - those used to

measure mechanical properties
The following mechanical tests have
units and are termed quantitative tests
• Tensile tests
• Hardness tests
Mechanical Tests
Qualitative test - those used to assess the
joint quality
The following mechanical tests have no units
and are termed qualitative tests
• Metallographic examination (macro/micro)
• Bend test
• Fillet fracture
• Nick break test
Mechanical Tests Specimens

Tensile Test
Tensile Tests
Different tensile tests include:
• Transverse tensile.
• All-weld metal tensile test
• Cruciform tensile test
• Through thickness test (Short tensile

test)
Transverse Tensile Tests

Object of test:
To measure the transverse tensile strength of ..
a butt joint under a static load to fulfill the
pal'llilet
length
r
Maximum load applied =220 kN.

Least cross sectional area = 25 mm X 12
mm
U.t.s. = Maximum load applied
Least c.s.a.
U.t.s = 220000 N
25mmX 12mm
------- -~~~-. ··-U~i~-;'-733.33~N/;;,;m2~--~--~- ---------.---.. .
-.~- -~--.~ . --.. . . ------.---.'.-~-.'--' ...-...."
Reporting results
• Type of specimen e.g. reduced section
• Whether weld reinforcement is removed
• Dimensions of test specimen
• The ultimate tensile strength in N/mm2 , p.s.i or

Mpa
• Location of fracture.
All weld metal tensile test
Object of fest:
To measure the strength ;yield (proof
strength) and tensile ductility of a
weld metal and normally carried out
by consumable manufacturers to
verify the consumables satisfy the
properties by the standards to which
the consumables are certified
,:.--
All weld metal tensile test
(C) Sq...,....
Round tensile ISpeefmen RoundtensJle $peclmen

from /I welding procedure from an electrode
quslff/catkm test piece clsS!;(ffeatJon test pTece
1-<----1 8.-.,;"
S""OII<o4"..,m..""",... ~
---_._."-""".------"..•.•. _._----
Loacf.extenslon cUlVe for Load~extension curve for a
a steel that shows a steel (or other metal) that

distinct yield pOint at the does not show a distinct
elastic limit yield pointj proof stress;s a
measure of the elastic limit
Ductility measurements
~,;,"yJ;;Q
Original gauge length = 50mm
c:~.<i _;
Increased gauge length = 64
Elongation % '" Increase of gauge length X 100

! <Iof9l~: Original gauge length
('_elelogl!
"J 1Il'''"lItIo
Elongation % '" j!X 100
••
Elongation= 28%
All-Weld Metal Tensile Tests
Reporting results
• Dimensions of test specimen
• The u.t.s, yield strength or proof in

N/mm 2 , p.s.i or Mpa
• Elongation %
Charpy Impact Test
Charpy Impact Test

Object of Test
To determine the amount of energy absorbed
in fracturing a standardised test pieces at
specified temperature and to determine
brittleness vs ductility
Specimens are usually taken in groups of three
to record average and individual value for energy

absorbed
2. Test temperature should be specified by specification.
3. Test results are give in joules (foot pound)
4. Tough specimens absorb more energy than brittle

specimen
Charpy Impact Test specimen size
Typ/cal notch positions forCharpy V-notch test spec/mens from

double-Vee butt welds
Testmethods
Impact specimen on the anvil

showlflg the hammer position at
Charpy Impact Test
~::=;~3~1DD% DuctileMachined
notch
Large reduction
In area, shear
lips
I';'~,,"- Randomly
tom, dull gray
fracture
surface
Ductile/Brittle Transition Curve
Transition Temperature
(-2D°C)
Uppershelf 1 ductile fracture

_____ ~~:'!'Y __ ~ _________,-,_~_~_J..--"O"%",,-,,'b,,,,,,lin""''l'L-l
j
brittle fracture
(100% crystallinity)
Test Temperature(°C)
Charpy Impact Test
Reporting results and acceptance criterion

• Location and orientation of notch
Testing temperature
• Energy absorbed in joules
• Description of fracture (brittle or ductile)
• Lateral expansion
• Dimensions of specimen
• Amount of crystallinity
Acceptance criteria for the results
Lateral expansion
% crystallinity
nofjlatetai-.expanSlori a * b i: ·late~ expanSion

brittle TracWre duGfilo- irac:p..Jrt7
Hardness Testing
Test objective
Measurements (hardness) made to measure the
metal resistance to plastic deformation and this is
determined by measuring the resistance to
indentation by particular type of indentor
-Determined by
-Load applied
-How load is applied
-Configuration of
penetrator
Hardness Testing
Various Methods
·Vickers
·Srinell
·Rockwell
Hardness Testing
Hardness value are shown on test reports as a number followed by

letters indicating the test method; for example:
240 HV10 =hardness 240,vickers method,10 kg indentor load
22 HRC =hardness 22,Rockwell method, diamond cone indentor(
scale C)
238 HaW = 238 hardness,Brinell method, tungsten ball indentor
Vickers Hardness Testing
·Square based pyramid diamond indentor

.Indenter pressed into specimen with a
load of between 1 and 1OOkg for 15
seconds
·Length of diagonals measured using
adjustable shutters and a built in
Vickers method of testing
Vickers Hardness Testing
D is the mean diflgonal of

the indentation in miHimetsrs
Brinell Hardness Testing
-Hardened steel ball of given diameter is

subjected for a given time to a given load
-Load divided by area of indentation gives
Brinell hardness in kg/mm2
-More suitable for on site hardness testing
Brinell Hardness Testing
Fore.:.
d,
Rockwell Hardness Testing
-Measure the hardness by the depth on.

indentation made by a constant load
impressed upon the indentor
-Most common indentor is a diamond,
ground to 120 degree cone with spherical
apex that has 0.2 mm radius. (hard
materials)
-For soft steel and non ferrous, a hardened
steel ball is used with sizes of 1.6 mm,3.2
mm,5.0 mm and 12.5 mm.
Rockwell Hardness Testing
Crack tip open displacement
Test obj ective

·Measurements of materials properties or
fracture toughness or resistance to brittle
fracture
.Fracture toughness enables engineers to carry
out fracture mechanic analyses such as:-
• calculating the size of crack that would initiate a
brittle fracture under a certain stress condition at
particular temperature
• the stress that would cause a certain sized crack
to give a brittle fracture at a particular temperature
CTOD specimen
CTOD specimen
The schematic illustrate the main features of

CTOOtest
Bend Tests
Test objective
To measure soundness and ductility of welded joint and
routinely taken from welding procedure qualification and
welder qualification test.
1. Face bend
2. Rootbend
3. Side bend (Generally for materials above 12mm
thickness)
4. Longitudinal bend
Plunger Type Bending Jig

Wrap Around Bending Jig
Test method
Bend Tests
Bend Tests
Reporting results
Thickness and dimensions of specimen
Direction of bend (root, face or side)
Angle 01 bend (90',120',180')
Diameter of former. (typical 4T)
Appearance of joint after bending e.g. type and location

of any flaws.
Fillet Weld Fracture Test
Object of test
To determine the quality/soundness of fillet weld by
fracturing test pieces and examining the fracture
surfaces
1. Specimens are cut to the required length
2. Asaw cut approximately 2mm in depth is
applied along the fillet welds length
3. Fracture is usually made by striking the
specimen with a single hammer blow
4. Visual inspection for defects
Fillet Weld Fracture Test - test method
rn.mmarslroke
movIng press
Lj
Fillet Weld Fracture Test
Reporting results
Thickness of parent material
Throat thickness
Location of fracture
Appearance of joint after fracture
Depth of penetration
__ ,,_,.""~'_~'''''~',M'_
Defects
___ __
.,~,_~_~ ~
present
__
,,~.
on_fracture
_
~~,~,.
surfaces
__.. __ .. _, _ _
~,, ,~ ~ " ... ~ .....,.. '."'~~"~.~". ____ " _" _ _~ ... _ .. ~" ..."._" _ _ ,~,,,~,, ... _,,_,,,_,, __,~~~~,,_.~.,, .. ",N,_~. _ ' ..... __ ~" .. ~",_.~_"_,,~_ _ ~.~,_,I,,
Butt weld fracture test' Nick - Break' Test
Object of test
To determine the quality/soundness of butt
weld by fracturing test pieces and examining
the fracture surfaces
Specimen are cut transversely to the weld
A saw cut approximately 2.0 mm - 3.0 mm along
the specimen at face and root
Testing normally made by striking the specimen
with a single hammer blow
Visual inspection for defects
Nick Break Test

Notch c::ut by hacksaw~
,--3mm
1\ ]Eomm
__l..........-3mm
Approkimately 230 rnm
~
'.
I
Alternative nlC::k.break test specimen,

notc:h applied all way around the
specimen
Nick Break Test
Reporting results
Thickness of parent material
Width of specimen
Appearance of joint after fracture
Depth of penetration
Defects present on fracture surfaces
Macro I Micro
Object
Macro/microscopic examinations are used to give a visual
evaluation of a cross-section of a welded joint
Carried out on full thickness specimens
The width of the specimen should include HAl. weld and

parent plate
They maybe cut from a stop/start area on a welders approval

test
Macro I Micro
,,"
Macro I Micro
Will Reveal
-Weld soundness
-Distribution of inclusions
-Number of weld passes
-Metallurgical structure of weld, fusion

. . . . _-- ·~zone anaH~.z--·-~~~-·---··-~·- ... -~ .. - - -.. ~ ..-.. . . ~- ... -.~- ... ~
-Location and depth of penetration of
-Macro -Micro
• Visual examination for • Visual examination for
defects defects & grain structure
• Cut transversely from the • Cut transversely from the
weld weld
• Ground and polished • Ground and polished

P1200 grit paper
• P 200,P400,P 600 grit paper
• Etched using 2% maximum
• Etched using 2 - 5% nitric acid nitric acid solution
solution • Wash and dry
• Wash and dry • Visual inspection under
• Visual inspection under 10 X 50x and over magnification
magnification • Report on results
• Report on results
Welding Inspection
Welding symbols
BS 499 part 2 Welding

Symbols
Welding Symbols
Weld symbols are used to transfer information from the
design office to the workshop and contain five basic
components
• The arrow line: the arrow line must touch the joint reference area on
the drawing
• The reference line: the reference line must touch the arrow line and
is generally parallel with the bottom of the drawing page
• The symbol: the vertical line in the symbols for a fillet weld,
single/double bevel butts and a J-butt welds must always be on the
left side.
• The dimensions: In most standards the cross sectional dimensions
are given to the left side. and all linear dimensions are give on the
right side
• Supplementary information: such as welding process, weld profile,
NOT and any special instructions
BS 499: part 2. Welding Symbols
I
Other side
R~ceHne /
Arrow side
~Arrowline
Other side Arrow side Both sides

Field weld (site weld) Welding to be eamed out all

round component
(peripheral weld)
;---€)
/The component requires
NOt inspection
~ Additionallnfonnation, the
reference document Is
Included In the box
Peripheral Welds
a b8
~8
a =Design throat thickness

s-= Depth of penetration
b =Leg length
(min material thickness)
a=O.7ofb
b 5
'4V
4mm Design Throat
/
/b. V 6mm Leg
$10
10 mm Depth of Penetration
II
BS 499: part 2. Welding Symbols I
/
t>, n X I Ie) n
I
(e)
= numberofweld elements
=length of each weld element
= distance between each
weld element
r
3 x 50 (50)
~"
\
Il
!
f

n = numberofweld elements
[ =length of each weld element
(e) =d.istance between each
Z weld element
= Weld to be staggered
nt--.. 3 x 50A50)
/ b10V 3 x 50llio} Pitch. ~e) I~ngth (I)
Alldimen sionsin mm I>8J', 3 x llimm
b
~ • -'Ill. /' l=""-=l

,.....OD....-i
h
t:liill.
~ ~L ~
,......9lL....,~,.....oD....-i
BS 499 part 2 Welding Symbols
Butt weld between plates (With Raised ..J \... ~

Edges)
Square Butt Weld
3) Single·V Butt Weld
4) Single·bevel Butt Weld
5) Single·V Butt Weld (With Broad Root
Face)
6) Single·bevel Butt Weld (With Broad
Root Face)
7) Single-U Butt Weld (Parallel or
Sloping Sides)
8) Single J-Butt Weld J.l ~

9) Backing ruo. Bading Weld lJSA CJ ~
10) Fillet Weld b,. ~
11) Plug Weld; Plug/Slot Wekl USA ,---, - -00
12) Spot Weld 0 ~~

13) Seam Weld
=€l=~~
14) Single-V Butt Weld Sleep Flanked 1L ~
15) Single-bevel Butt Weld SteepFI"nked -.JL I~

16) Edge Weld III Jff:>
17) Surfacing
18) Surface Joint
19) Inclined joint
20) Fold Joint
/
'f''
,, ,,,
,
10/\
10
"
I
Partial penetration single·V butt
BS 499: part 2. Numerical Indication of Process
111: . MMA welding with cpvered electrode

121: Sub-arc welding with wire electrode
131: MIG welding wiIh inert gas shield

135: MAG welding with non-inert gas shield
136: Flux core arc welding
141: TIGwelding
311 : Oxy-acetylene welding

72: Electro-slag welding
BS 499: prt. 2 Butt Weld ex: 1
Complete the symbol drawing for the welded cruciform joint
provided below
All welds are welded with the MIG process and fillet welds
with the MMA process
All fillet weld leg lengths 10 mm
Ans BS 499: prt. 2 Fillet Welds ex: 1
I.::
"')]~('l!O.§""
A\O)IU(o)7 VJI1S{lS
Welded arrow side: Three inlennittent fillet

4. welds10mmleglengths,7mmlhmal ~::~;;;~::~/~~=~~
~ ~"~
thlc:kness,lenglh of each weld 15 mm, the
distance between each weld 25 mm.
c;;: ::;;;; ;;;;;;;1
Welded other side: A continuous convex fillet

weld, 15 mmleg length, 10.5 mmthroat
thickness.
BS EN 22553 (ISO 2553)

Welding Symbols
5S EN 22553 (ISO 2553) Welding Symbols
ymu\C_ 2. \
2b
1. = ARROW LINE
2a =REFERENCE LINE
2b =IDENTIFICATION LINE
- - ·~3~"='-WEtD"SYMBOt:'~"·"",,-,~,· ........... ~ ~I~ ~~ ................ ......-.....
~ ~~ .......... ~····~ . . . n ...... _._...............~ ~~_..........
. n n•• _ •• _n'
I
Identificatio~~:~~ ___ _ f
/... R~cel;nes
-"""""'Arrowline
Other side Arrow side

I
------------
~------------
~
Arrow side Otherside
cJ1~n~
8
Others'de ~
~;¢ -..- F
Arrow side
BS EN 22553 (ISO 2553) Welding Symbols
a
17---
/ /
I I
V
V" L-..
d
Field weld (site weld) Welding to be carried out all

round component
(peripheral weld)
;===8
/The component requires
NOT inspection
~
Additlonallnfonnatlon, the
reference document Is
included in the box
Per_ipheral Welds
BS EN 22553: Symbols
a = Design throat thickness

s = Oepth of penetration
z = Leg length
(min material thickness)
a=O.7ofz
s 4mm Design Throat
/Z6 V 6mm Leg

510
10 mm Depth of penetration
n = numberofweld elements
t-> n X 1 (e) I =length of each weld element
=distance between each weld
/
<:_-:_!-=~_"_:-_=-=_"_:-_='=_:-:_::- (e)
element
3 X 50 (50)
n = number of weld elements

I = length of each weld element
(e) = distance between each
weld element
Z = Weld to be staggered
Pitch ~e) ,
lenglh(l)
BS EN 22553. Welding Symbols

All dimensions inmm ~3~l!jlil{9QI
3x8 0
"
~ ,---",,-< / i="'!=l
- ,-""--I
i5lS: 3._l.!JI!U!tIU
3x80 0
~ i="'!=l/~
1-=1---"'--1'------f-""--l
Butt weld between plates (With Raised Edges) J\.... ~

Square Butt Weld
3) Single-V Butt Weld II ~
4) Single-bevel Butt Weld V ~
5) Single-V Butt Weld (Wtfh BtoadRoot Facej
V ~
6) Single-bevel Butt Weld (With Broad Root
Face) y ~
7) Single-U Butt Weld (Paral/e/orSlopingSides)
V ~
Y ~
8) Single J-Butt Weld [J ~

9) Backing run.lJackingWeldUSA CJ ~
10) Fillet Weld L ~
11) Plug Weld; Pfug/sfot Weld USA ,--, /~3'?'
12) Spot Weld 0 ~~

13) Seam Weld =@=~~
15) Single-bevel Butt Weld Steep Flanked ..JL I~

16) Edge Weld III Jf!!:>
17) Surfacing
18) Surface Joint
19) Inclined joint
20) Fold Joint
Shape of weld surface or weld
Flat (Usually finished flush) --

Convex f\
Concave \...J
Toes Shall be ground smooth J..,
Permanent backing strip 1M!
Removable backing strip rMRl
5= penetration depth --------
Partial penetration single-V butt
BS EN 22553. Numerical Indication of Process
111: MMA welding with covered electrode

121: Sub-arc welding with wire electrode
131: MIG welding with inert gas shield
135: MAG welding with non-inert gas shield
136: Flux core arc welding
141: TIGwelding
311: Oxy-acetylene welding
72: Electro-slag welding
Any
BS EN 22553: Butt Weld ex: 2
Complete the symbol drawing for the welded cruciform joint
provided below
All welds are welded with the MIG process and fillet welds
with the MMA process
All fillet weld leg lengths 10
Ans to BS EN 22553 Butt Welds ex: 1
1. Welded arrow side: Single-V butt weld

~
with permanent backing striP. flat weld YZ I
~
profile.
2. Welded other side: Single-U butt weld,
flat weld profile
('j I
3. Welded arrow side: Single-V butt weld depth of
preparation 10 mm
Welded other side: Backing run. (Plate
thickness 15 mm.)
4. Welded arrow side: Single-J but! weld, depth of
preparation 12 mm with a 8 mm
fillel weld superimposed. (plate
thickness 15 mm.)
Welded other side: 12 mm leg length finet weld,
Any
CSWIP 3.1
WELDING INSPECTION
DAY 5
TWI
VOO
Welding Inspection
NDT
Non-Destructive Testing
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Examination of materials and components in such

a way that allows material to be examinated
without changing or destroying their usefulness
_$o)~i!ti'>Mt". Of
1<"'-_'~""~"'~~;"9
Non-Destructive Testing
The four basic methods
Magnetic particle inspection (MT)
Dye penetrant inspection (PT)
Radiographic inspection (RT)
Dye Penetrant Inspection
• Surface breaking defects only detected

• Penetrant applied to the component and drawn into the
defects by capillary action
• Applicable to all non- porous and non absorbing
materials.
• Penetrants are available in many different types
• Water washable contrast
• Solvent removable contrast
• Water washable fluorescent
• Solvent removable fluorescent
• Post-emulsifiable fluorescent

Step 4. Apply developer
After the excess penetrant is been removed, a thin layer
of developer is applied.A penetrant drawn out by reversed
capillary action.

Step 5. Inspection I development time
Inspection should take place immediately after the developer
has been applied .Any defects present will show as a bleed
out during development time.

Step 6. Post·Cleaning
After the inspection has been performed post cleaning is
required to prevent corrosion.
Step 1. Pre·Cleaning
Cleaning preparation is very important on this
method.
Usually solvent removal is been used

Step 2. Apply penetrant
After the application of the penetrant the penetrant is normally
left on the components surface for approximately 15 minutes
(dwell time). The penetrant enters any defects that may be
present by capillary action

Step 3. Clean off penetrant
After sufficient penetration time (dwell time) has been
given,excess removal penetrant stage take place. A damped
lint free tissue with solvent is used to clean the excess
penetrant.
Bleed out viewed

under white light
Oye Penetrant Inspection
.Simple to use .Surface breaking defect
• Inexpensive only
.Quick results • little indication of depths
• Can be used on any • Penetrant and developer
may contaminate
material provided it is
component
not porous
• Surface preparation
• More sensitive than critical
visual inspection • Post cleaning required
• Low operator skill • Not applicable on porous
required material
Magnetic Particle Inspection
'-
• Surface and slight sub-surface detection
• Relies on magnetization of component being tested
• Ferro-magnetic materials only can be tested
• A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen being
tested
• Methods of applying a magnetic field, yoke, permanent
magnet, prods and flexible cables.
• Fine particles of iron powder are applied to the test
area
• Any defect which interrupts the magnetic field, will
________ .create.aJeakage_field,.which.attracts.the.particies •..
• Any defect will show up as either a dark indication or in
the case of fluorescent particles under UV-A light a
green/yellow indication
I
I
I·
I
Electro-
magnet
(yoke) DC
orAC
I
I·
Cl1lcklike
Indication 7'-<---"1dn-
A crack like
indication
, "
Altematively to
contrast inks,
fluorescent inks may
be used for greater
sensitivity. These
inks require a UV-A
light source and a
darkened viewing
area to inspect the
component
Typical sequence of operations to inspect a

weld
·Clean area to be tested
·Apply contrast paint
·Apply magnetisism to the component
·Apply ferro-magnetic ink to the component
during magnetising
• Interpret the test area
• Post clean and de-magnatise if required

.Simple to use .Surface or slight sub-
surface detection only
.Inexpensive
.Magnetic materials
.Rapid results
only
.Little surface .No indication of
preparation defects depths
required .Detection is required
.More sensitive in two directions
than visual
inspection
Radiographic Inspection
· The principles of radiography

· X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test
object
• Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees
dependant upon the density of the material
through which it is travelling
· Thinner areas and materials of a less density
show as darker areas on the radiograph
• Thicker areas and materials of a greater
-~- ·-~~-aensiiYshow~asl1ghterareas onaradiograph . -~ -~ . -... .
-~.~ -.---.~~ . -.. . --.. . .-.. . . . .....
~ -~--- .. -~-.
· Applicable to metals,non-metals and

composites
Industrial Radiography
X - Rays Gamma Rays

Electrically generated Generated by the decay
of unstable atoms
X- Rays
Gamma Rays
Generated by the decay of unstable atoms
Radiation be,....- · /,/f/ quality indicator
Radiographic film Test specimen
quality indicator
Test specimen
Radiographic film with latent image after exposure

Radiographic Sensitivity
~
o
o 0
00
db
17FE12 010 °1 0 10 10 10 I
Step I Hole type IQI Wire type IQI
Image Quality Indicators
Wire Type IQI
Radiographic Techniques
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)

- film inside, source outside
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic
- film outside, source inside (internal exposure)
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
- film outside, source outside (external exposure)
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)
- film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)
'. J
Single wall single image SWSI
IQl's should be placed source side
Single wall single image SWSI panoramic
L--E~~=='-Film----2::?:::::'::::::/
• IQl's are placed on the film side
• Source inside film outside (single
exposure)
Double wall single image DWSI
L--E::::':'S==='-Film _---2::~~/'
• IQI's are placed on the film side
• Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
• Thistechnique is intended for pipe diameters over 100mm
Double wall single image DWSI
Identification
• Unique identifical:ionl
• IQI placing
• Pitch marks A
indicalting readable
IDMR11
Radiograph
Double wall double image OWOI elliptical exposure
c==g;~~~;t Film-C! =::::=:::J

• lal's are placed on the source or film side
• Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
• A minimum of two exposures
• This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than 100mm
Double wall double image DWDI
Identification 4
• Unique identification l
• IQI placing
• Pitch marks
t
1
indicating readable IDMR12
film length
.Advantages .Disadvantages
• Permanent record • Expensive equipment
• Little surface preparation' Bulky equipment ( x-ray)
• Defect identification • Harmful radiation
• Detection on defect
• No material type
depending on orientation
limitation
• Slow results
• Required license to operate
Ultrasonic Inspection
• Sub~surface detection
• This detedion method uses high frequency sound waves,
typically above 2MHz to pass through a material
• A probe is used which contains a pieza electric crystal to
transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses and display the
signals on a cathode ray tube or digital display
• The actual display relates to the time taken for the
ultrasonic pulses to travel the distance to the interface and
back
• An interface could be the back of a plate material or a
defect
• For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be
introduced between the probe and specimen
Ultrasonic Calibration Blocks

Ultrasonic Calibration Blocks
V2 (A4) Block Thickness 12 or 20mm
o
-_. ~~ ~"--.Q_~~"'~,,~~,~,-,,.
11'11"11"1"'1'''1'111'''1'''
VI (A2) Block Thickness 2Smm

w
~~.~,,~" ~~" ,~,~-,~~ ~I----------- -- -_. . ._.-. -......- --- -- - .----- ---- --- -- - --_ ....._......... - -----_...~--,
Ultrasonic testing is a good technique for the

detection of laminations and thickness surveys
Laminations detected using compression probes
~ defect Back wall
'1_~B'j'--'I ____" I-~'

,l ~ defect
U
MaterialThk
20 30 40 $0
Compression Probe CRT Display

Pulse echo Digital
Thickness checking the material
Ultrasonic testing requires high operator for defect
identification
Most weld defects detected using angle probes
Set
initial pulse defect echo
r--r-,Surfacedistance,
sound path
.Advantages .Disadvantages
.Rapid results • Trained and skilled
.Sub-surface detection operator required
• Requires high operator
.Safe skill
.Can detect planar defect .Good surface finish
.Capable of measuring required
• Difficulty on detecting
the depth of defects
volumetric defect
• May be battery powered • Couplant may
.Portable contaminate
• No permanent record
Welding Inspection
Welding procedure and welder
Welding Procedures
What is a Procedure
A systematic method of producing

an aim
D
Therefore, a welding procedure is a
systematic method of producing a
sound weld
Stages in welding procedure and welder approval
Application standard_ ... 1 Development

of procedure I
Contract
~
Project Specification pWPS
-0-
ofl
Drawings
f Approval
-
EN
288,ASMElx,AWS procedure
~
01,1
I
Welder
approval
r Flnalisation
procedure
ofl
bmonms ! Welding procedure specification
prolongation
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prolongation
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Procedure approval
Do all welding procedures need to be written?
Most production welding procedure are formatted on
written documents or computer spreadsheet, but they
need not be written and may be a product of
experience
Do all welding procedures need to be approved?
-Most procedures are approved, but not all
-An approved welding procedure is one that has

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out, produces a weld satisfies a minimum level of
quality for the mechanical, physical or chemical
properties desired
Approval of Welding Procedure

Once the weld has been completed it is usually visually inspected,
then radiography or uHrasonic testing is usually applied
Finally, and most important, mechanical tests are performed to ensure
that the desired level of mechanical properties have been met
If a desired properties have been met, then a procedure qualification
reoord (paR or WPAR) is completed with all the test results, and the
procedure then becomes qualified
From this data, a workable document for production welding is
prepared and called a Welding Procedure Specification (WPS)
A CSWIP 3.2 Senior Welding Inspector is normally

responsible for the testing and approval of welding
procedures
Welding procedure approval terms
Definitions
oEssential variables: variable which influence

the mechanical and metallurgical properties
oRange of approvals: the extent of approvals

for an essential variable
oExamining body: organisation who verifies

compliance
Welding procedure approval terms
Example of extent of approval include:
·Diameter of pipe or thickness of plate

·Welding position. amperage range or number
of runs
·Welding process ( on multi process
procedures only)
·Change of consumable to one of the same
classification (only if the class is given in the
original procedure )
·Heat input range
Welding Procedures
(BS EN ISO 15614)
Welding procedure approval
BS EN ISO 15614 - Specification and

qualification of welding procedure for metallic
materials - welding procedure test
• part 1 - Arc and gas welding of steels and

arc welding of nickel and nickel alloy
• part 2 - arc welding of aluminium and its
alloy
I
Welding Procedures
Producing a welding procedure involves:
• Planning the tasks
• Collecting the data
• Writing a procedure for use of for trial
• Making a test welds
• Evaluating the results
~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~·~Approving~the~procedure
• Preparing the documentation
Welding Procedures
Approving the procedure:
·When the data has been collected, the procedure
must be validated by producing a test weld, weld
procedure test (WPT).
·A number of standards provides information with
regards to approving a procedure, but normally this
will require the WPT to be tested by NDT and
mechanical testing.
-The locations and tests required will be given in the
applicable code or standard
-Most codes and standards provide a report format
to record the results
Welding Procedures
Standards often direct the location of
specimens for testing: Top of
R • b d Face or side
Dot or side en est p;pe'" end tt'llt Tensile lest
Nick-break tes
Tensile test '':::~VT~~~;:::::,Root or side bend test
Faceorside bend - Nick-break test
.~.
Rootorside bend test Faceorside bend test

Nick-break test-::::~~2fL~'S~Nick-break test
Tensile test Tensile test
Face orside bend test ntm Roolor side bend test
Welding Procedures
Object of a welding procedure test

-To give maximum confidence that the welds
mechanical and metallurgical properties meet the
requirements of the applicable code/specification.
-Each welding procedure will show a range to which
the procedure is approved (extent of approval)
-If a customer queries the approval evidence can be
supplied to prove its validity
Welding Procedures
Components of a welding procedure
Parent material
• Type (Grouping)
• Thickness
• Diameter (Pipes)
• Surface condition)
- Welding process
• Type of process (MMA, MAG, TIG, SAW etc)
• Equipment parameters
• Amps, Volts, Travel speed
- Welding Consumables
• Type of consumable/diameter of consumable
• Brand/classification
• Heat treatments/ storage
Welding Procedures
• Joint design
• Edge preparation
• Root gap, root face
• Jigging and tacking
• Type of baking
• Welding Position
• Location, shop or site
• Welding position e.g. 1G, 2G, 3G etc
• Any weather precaution
• Welding Variables
• Run sequences
• Back gouging
-Interpass temperatures
• Thennal heat treatments
• Preheat, temps
• Post weld heat treatments e.g. stress relieving
WELDING PROCEDURE
SPECIFICA TfON
A DOCUMENT PROVIDING IN
DETAIL THE REQUIRED
VARIABLES FOR A SPECIFIC
APPLICATION TO ENSURE
REPEATABILITY.
PROCEDURE QUAL/FICA TfON RECORD(

WPAR)
A RECORD COMPRISING ALL
RELEVANT DATA FROM THE
WELDING OF A TEST PIECE
NEEDED FOR APPROVAL OF A WPS
AS WELL AS ALL RESULTS FROM
THE TESTING OF THE WELD TEST
Welding Procedures
Examination and testing requirements of a WPT for
procedure approval (BS EN 288)
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WELDING VARIABLES
ESSENTIAL VARIABLES
- ESSENTIAL VARIABLES ARE THOSE
IN WHICH A CHANGE, AS DESCRIBED
IN THE SPECIFIC VARIABLES, IS
CONSIDERED TO AFFECT THE
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF THE
WELDMENT
WELDING VARIABLES
NON ESSENTIAL VARIABLES

- NON ESSENTIAL VARIABLES ARE
THOSE IN WHICH A CHANGE, AS
DESCRIBED IN THE SPECIFIC
VARIABLES, MAY BE MADE IN THE
WPS WITHOUT REQUALIFICATION
WELDING VARIABLES
SUPPLIMENTARY ESSENTIAL
VARIABLES
VARIABLES ARE REQUIRED FOR
METALS FOR WHICH OTHER
SECTION SPECIFY NOTCH -
TOUGHNESS TESTS ARE IN ADDITION
TO THE ESSENTIAL VARIABLES FOR
EACH WELDING PROCESS
SHALL
A MANDATORY PRACTICE WHICH WILL

REQUIRED CHANGE OFWPS IF NOT FOLLOWED
SHOULD
A RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
Example:
:Wold;nn Procedure
r:Sp ••cificati.on (WPS)
Welder Approvals
(BS EN 287)
Welder Approval
Once the procedure has been approved it is

then important to test each welder, to
ensure that he has the skill to reach the
minimum level of quality in the weld, as laid
down in the application standard
There is no need to carry out the
mechanical tests of the procedure,
although bend tests are often used to
ensure good sidewall fusion
Normally; visual,x ray,bends,fracture and

macro are used in welder approval tests
Welder approval standards

EN 287 for welder approval
• Part 1 : Steels
• Part 2 : Aluminium and its alloys
• Defines: -
• essential variables
• range of approval
• Testing requirements
• Acceptance requirements
• re tests
• period of validity
Welder Approval
Object of a welder qualification test
-To give maximum confidence that the welder

meets the requirements of the approved procedure
(WPS).
-The test weld should be carried out on the same
material and same conditions as for the site welds
-The welder who carries out the procedure
qualification weld automatically qualify when the
procedure qualifies
WELDER QUAL/FICA TION TEST
- TO DETERMINE THE WELDER'S ABILITY TO

DEPOSIT SOUND WELD METAL.
THE PURPOSE OF THE QUALIFICATION
TEST FOR THE WELDING OPERATOR IS TO
DETERMINE THE WELDING OPERATOR'S
MECHANICAL ABILITY TO OPERATE THE
WELDING EQUIPMENT.
Welder approval
When supervising a welder test the welding

supervisor should :
- Check the welding process, condition of
equipment and test area for suitability
- Check the extraction system, goggles and all
safety equipment are available
-Check materials to be welded are correct and
stamped correctly for the test
-Check glilldels, chipping hammers, wire brush
and all hand tools are available
- Check welding consumables
specification,diameter,and treatment with WPS
Welder approval
-Check the welders name and stamp details .

are correct
- Check that the jOint has been correctly
prepared and tacked, or jigged
- Check that the joint and seam is in the
correct position for the test
-Explain the nature of the test and check that the
welder understands the WPS
-Check that the welder carries out the root run,fill
and cap as per WPS
- Ensure welders indentity and stop start location
are clearty marked
(
,
Welder Approval
Information that should be included on a welders
test certificate are:
1. Welders name and identification number
2. Date of test
3. Standard/code e.g. BS EN 287
4. Test piece details
5. Welding process, welding parameters, amps, volts
6. Welding parameters, amps, volts
7. Consumables, flux type and filler classification details
8. Sketch of run sequence, welding positions
9. Joint configuration details
10. Material type qualified, pipe diameter etc
11. Test results, remarks
12. Test location and witnessed by
13. Extent (range) of approval
Welder Approval
The inspection of a welders qualification test.
• It is normal for a qualified inspectors usually from an
independent body to witness the welding.
• Under normal circumstances only one test weld per welder
is permiHed
• If the welder fails the test weld and the failure is not the fault
of the welder e.g. faulty welding equipment then are-test
would be permitted.
• The testing of the test weld is done in accordance with the
applicable code, but it is not normal to carry out test that test
for the mechanical properties of welds e.g. tensile, charpy
and hardness tests.
Example:
Welder Approval
Qualification
Certification

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CSWIP 3.

Course reference WIS 5

Exam after the course No continuous

10,000 certificate holders

CSWIP Certificate Scheme I,

.LeveI2: 3.1 Welding Inspector

.Level 3: 3.2 Senior Welding Inspector

CSWIP 3.1 Examination

Closed book exam

Any code that is required/or tile examination wlll be provided on

CSWIP 3.1 Examination

(0. Theory part A2: 30 multi-choice questions,

(0. Practical part a2: Inspection of a plate butt weld

tf!':. Practical part C2: Inspection 2 macro samples

Notification of Examination Results

For every section to be

2 copies of certificates and an identity card sent to

CV assessment Renewal examination

Certification Scheme for

CSWIP Secretariat Tel: + 44 (0) 1223 891162

Course Reference WIS 5

Visual inspection requirements

Duties of a Welding Inspector

Before Welding Commences

Familiarization to the relevant code and specification

Check weather condition

• Perform visual inspection

In the event of repair

• Authorization for repair

Welding Inspectors Equipment

Measuring device e.g flexible tape, steel rule

Temperature indicating crayons

Welding gauges e.g. TWI multi-purpose gauge

Welding Inspection Gauges

TWI Multi-purpose Welding Misalignment Gauges

Terminology and Definitions

Butt joint T joint Corner joint

Edge joint Cruciform joint Lap joint

Fillet weld Plug weld

Penetration point of view

Full penetration weld Partial penetration weld

Features of completed weld

Features of completed weld

Open square edge

Single V preparation Double V preparation

Single V with backing strip

Single bevel preparation

Double bevel preparation

Size of butt welds

Actual throat = Design throat + excess weld metal

al throat thickness _ Design

Full penetration butt weld ground flush

weld between two plates with different

Size of fillet weld

Full penetration fillet weld

Size of fillet weld

a = Design throat thickness

Convex fillet weld Concave fillet weld Asymmetrical fillet

Throatsymbolized with'S' instead of 'a' symbol

Deep penetration fillet weld

Types of fillet weld

Double bevel compound fillet weld

Butt welds in plate (see ISO 6947) !

An ir,;:~:~~~;;a~t~th~.:;:tO~.~O[f;a,:ru~:.n in the parent metal or in