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Energy and Buildings 43 (2011) 1222–1230

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Energy and Buildings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enbuild

The influence of orientation of a gas-fired direct radiant heater on radiant

temperature distribution at a work station
Edyta Dudkiewicz ∗ , Janusz Jezowiecki
Wroclaw University of Technology, Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wybrzeze Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Radiant temperature has crucial significance in the evaluation of thermal conditions in a structure heated
Received 10 June 2010 by high-temperature gas-fired radiant heaters. Its value can be influenced by various factors. The article
Received in revised form presents the methods of calculating radiant temperature encountered in the literature and contains an
21 December 2010
analysis of the relation of radiant temperature and the mounting angle of the radiant heater as well as
Accepted 23 December 2010
the relation of its power output and dimensions of the burning surface, based on the authors’ research.
Formulae are given for calculation of radiant temperature and their correct usage is indicated. An example
Keywords:
of distribution of radiant temperature in a hall heated by six gas-fired direct radiant heaters with the
Heating
Infrared heater
power output of 12 kW is presented.
Thermal comfort Examinations of gas-fired radiant heaters conducted so far provide insufficient information about
Radiant temperature creating thermal conditions at work stands heated by high temperature radiant heaters located in indus-
Work station trial spaces. Hence, the results presented here are of special importance as they refer to parameters
characterizing the thermal comfort of people in large capacity halls.
© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In buildings with large cubic capacity, especially in halls des-
tined for commerce, production, recreation or exhibition, one tends
to use the floor area to the maximum. Such buildings often have
window walls down to floor level and do not have partition walls.
These features, as well as the type of activities carried out, make
it difficult to use heating with traditional radiators in such build-
ings. Another problem is the upward movement of warm air, which
causes air temperature in the human-occupied zone to be too low.
Different temperatures in specific areas of the hall may also be
required. Therefore an advantageous solution in such large capacity
halls can be radiant heating systems using gas-fired direct radiant
heaters suspended above the occupied zone, i.e. under the ceiling or
near the outer walls. Systems using gas-fired direct radiant heaters
eliminate the problem that occurs with convection heating, related
to the upward movement of warm air. Partitions and people are
heated by means of electromagnetic waves, whereas the air in the
room is heated indirectly, as a result of heat emission by elements
that have already been heated. This way proper temperature is
maintained in the occupied zone, whereas the heated air moves
upwards at a minimum rate. The radiant heater system also has
little thermal inertia and does not require constant operation. The
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +48 71 320 30 97; fax: +48 71 320 35 32.
E-mail addresses: edyta.dudkiewicz@pwr.wroc.pl (E. Dudkiewicz),
janusz.jezowiecki@pwr.wroc.pl (J. Jezowiecki).
source of thermal energy for such radiant heaters is natural gas with
high methane content, nitrogen rich gas or liquid gas (propane).
Gas-fired direct radiant heaters can be suspended under the build-
ing’s supporting structure by means of chains, wires, ropes or steel
structural section holders, and their low weight poses no threat to
the building’s structure [1,2].
In a hall heated by radiant heaters, with regard to the com-
fort of people, specification of heat radiation shape is vital. In the
literature there can be found mainly results of tests of thermal com-
fort in indoor spaces heated by radiation with the use of thermally
active surfaces with surface temperature below 300 ◦ C. Those pub-
lications are quoted in Ref. [3]. Principles and limitations related
to the use of radiant heating are given in Refs. [4,5], whereas the
research with the use of gas-fired infrared radiant heaters which
mainly aimed to indicate their most advantageous location in order
to obtain even distribution of radiation intensity on a heated floor is
described in Ref. [6]. The regulatory guide [7] and articles [8,9] pro-
vide the formula that enables calculation of sensible temperature
to in relation to the manner of mounting gas-fired direct radiant
heaters in a hall. There are also available publications concerning
energy efficiency of the system with radiant heaters [10,11] and
providing the principles of mounting radiant heaters that guarantee
their safe operational use [12].
The principles of arrangement of gas-fired direct infrared
heaters that have an influence on even distribution of thermal
radiation and on the required sensible temperature in the occu-
pied zone are given and explained in Refs. [13,14]. The regulatory
guides of radiant heater manufacturers, including [15,16], present

0378-7788/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.12.030
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E. Dudkiewicz, J. Jezowiecki / Energy and Buildings 43 (2011) 1222–1230 1223

the principles of arranging the devices so as to provide the required

Nomenclature thermal conditions in the whole large capacity hall.
A basic parameter that determines the conditions of thermal
a length of the radiant heater burning surface [m] comfort in a hall heated by radiation is radiant temperature [17].
b width of the radiant heater burning surface [m] In order to check the field of thermal radiation, it is advisable to
e total density of the stream of emission sent into verify the distribution of radiant temperature in the indoor space,
space by the radiating surface element dF1 and, in the case of heating individual work stations in a hall, to
e␤ density of the stream of emission falling on the irra- verify thermal conditions at those stations. Article [3] presents the
diated surface element dF2 formulae for calculating radiant temperature and radiant temper-
fs relation of the human body surface emitting heat by ature asymmetry in relation to the temperature inside the indoor
means of radiation into the space emitting heat by space and location of the radiant heater, developed based on the
means of convection authors’ research. Location of the radiant heater with regard to the
Fi radiating surface [m2 ] analysed point is described by the inclination angle of the radi-
Fc area of partitions in the lower part of the indoor ant heater, distance in a horizontal projection along and across the
space [m2 ] radiant heater, mounting height of the radiant heater and area of
Fc area of partitions in the upper part of the indoor its heating surface.
space [m2 ] No information can be found in the literature on creating ther-
h height between the irradiated surface and the mal conditions at a work stand heated by gas-fired direct radiant
sphere element [m] heaters. It is only known that endeavours should be made to create
N the index of unevenness of radiant temperature dis- a uniform heat field and to ensure thermal comfort for employ-
tribution [%] ees. Therefore, investigations made on radiant temperature are
R distance between elements of surface: radiating especially important for halls heated by radiant heaters with high-
(index 1) and irradiated (index 2) temperature heating surfaces. Radiant temperature distribution
tc temperature of partitions in the lower part of the in a high-bay area is mainly dependent on the arrangement of
indoor space [◦ C] heaters in the room. In order to ensure uniform distribution of
tf floor temperature [◦ C] this temperature, the effective range of the heater’s influence along
tg temperature of partitions in the upper part of the its longitudinal and transverse axes needs to be known. Radiant
indoor space [◦ C] temperature, though, can also be related to the dimensions of
Ti temperature of the irradiated surface [K] the radiating surface, the direction in which the radiant heater is
tih temperature of the burning surface of the radiant suspended, the distance and location of the place where thermal
heater [◦ C] radiation is registered, and also to the angle of suspension of the
to sensible temperature [◦ C] radiant heater. Therefore further experimental research has been
tp air temperature in the zone occupied by people not carried out in order to specify the influence of those parameters on
exposed to thermal radiation [◦ C] radiant temperature. The article presents the results.
tr room radiant temperature [◦ C] Several formulae are available in the literature to calculate radi-
tw temperature of outer walls [◦ C] ant temperature as an index of human thermal comfort in a room.
X radiant temperature in a given point [◦ C] Hence, it is necessary to know the proper formula adapted to the
Xsr arithmetic mean of radiant temperatures in the hall specific conditions in a given room where such temperature is
[◦ C] determined. This analysis has been performed in this paper.
Consequently, the article provides the results of research on all
Greek letters
parameters possibly affecting the value of radiant temperature.
˛k factor of heat transmission by means of convection
[W/(m2 K)]
˛s factor of heat transmission by means of radiation
2. Method for calculation of radiant temperature
[W/(m2 K)]
ˇ the angle formed by normal to the plane of an ele-
All surfaces – not only heating surfaces (directly radiating) but
ment of a particular surface and straight line R that
also non-heating ones, that emit secondary heat after absorption of
connects both elements
original radiation – have a thermal influence on the whole indoor
ϕC,i view factor between human C and the radiating sur-
space. The final result depends on the size and temperature of the
faces Fi with temperature Ti
0
surface as well as on the distance and location of the place where
ϕj,i view factor between a sphere element and the radi-
thermal radiation is received. The resultant influence of radiant
ating surface F heat exchange equals the sum of thermal influence of individual
0
ϕA,f view factor between a sphere element located in surfaces with temperatures Ti . All these radiating surfaces, sur-
point A and the floor rounding the indoor space, can be substituted with a single surface
0
ϕA,w view factor between a sphere element located in with so-called radiant temperature, for which the thermal effect of
point A and the outer wall radiation will be the same as in reality [18].
0
ϕA,ih view factor between a sphere element located in Radiant temperature should be measured at the height of a
point A and the radiant heater human head, as it is the part of the human body most sensitive
0
ϕA,f view factor between a sphere element located in to radiation [17,19]. According to Ref. [17], the height of a human
point A and the ceiling head is assumed to be 1.30 m above the floor for a sitting person
and 1.70 m for a standing person. According to Ref. [20] however,
Subscripts the corresponding heights are 0.60 m and 1.10 m, being the heights
i,j symbols for the irradiated surface and the radiated of the centre of gravity of the body of a sitting or standing person
surface. respectively.
Radiant temperature with reference to a man situated at a speci-
fied point of an indoor space is calculated according to the following
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1224 E. Dudkiewicz, J. Jezowiecki / Energy and Buildings 43 (2011) 1222–1230

R
h
a
β1 X

b β2

Y
Fig. 2. View factor between the sphere element dF1 and surface F2 [22] p. 291.

Fig. 1. Heat transfer by means of radiation between two randomly oriented ele- therefore mean radiant temperature can be calculated [20] as the
ments of surface [18].
weighted average of temperatures of all surrounding surfaces in
reference to their area Fj, then:
formula:
 0.25 tr =
t1 F1 + t2 F2 + ... + tj Fj
 F1 + F2 + ... + Fj
(6)
tr = ϕC,i Ti4 − 273 (1)
i Calculation of radiant temperature of an indoor space using the
above formula is only correct if the differences between surface
where ϕC,i is the view factor between the human C and the radiating
temperatures do not exceed 30–40 ◦ C. Larger deviation is accept-
surface Fi with temperature Ti [11].
able for very small or distant surfaces that have very little influence
The view factor ϕC,i used in formula (1) is calculated from the
on radiant temperature of the indoor space [18]. Although gas-fired
proportion of emission stream density e␤ falling on the element of
direct radiant heaters have a relatively small heating surface, they
the irradiated surface dF2 (corresponding to the solid angle dω1,2 )
are high-intensity devices and their influence on radiant tempera-
and total density of emission stream e sent into space by the ele-
ture is significant.
ment of the radiating surface dF1 (Fig. 1). Consequently, using the
A heated structure can be divided with a surface of radiant
Lambert law [21,22], according to which density of a flat surface
heaters into two parts: lower and upper (Fig. 3) [18]. In the lower
emission stream decreases proportionally to the cosine of the angle
part, situated under the surface of radiant heaters, that is in the
of aberration from a direction perpendicular to the surface emit-
occupied zone, proper surrounding temperature should be pro-
ting radiation and using the relation dω1,2 = cos ˇ2 dF2 /R2 [18,21],
vided and partitions with area Fc have temperature tc . Temperature
we derive the following formula for factor ϕ:
tg of surface Fg of the upper zone of the indoor space, assuming that
e␤ dω1,2 e0 cos ˇ1 · dω1,2 1 cos ˇ1 cos ˇ2 the air is removed through ventilation holes in the upper part of the
ϕ1,2 = = = dF2 (2)
e e0   R2 room, is in that case approximately the same as temperature of the
air in the occupied zone tp .
where ˇ are the angles formed by the normal to the plane of an
Applying symbols according to Fig. 3, radiant temperature of the
element of a proper surface and straight line R that connects both
indoor space can be determined analogically to formula (6) in the
elements, and R is the distance between the elements of the sur-
following way:
faces: radiating (index 1) and irradiated (index 2).
Generalising formula (1), mean radiant temperature of the tc Fc + tg Fg
tr = (7)
indoor space is calculated [17,18] in reference to a spherical ele- Fc + Fg
ment from the following formula:
where Fg is the area of those partitions in the upper part of the
j max 0,25 structure whose temperature equals temperature of the air (tg = tp) .

tr = 0
ϕj,i (ti + 273)4 − 273 (3) With a more precise consideration of the temperatures of the
i=1
following surfaces surrounding the structure (Fig. 4):

0 , according to Fig. 2, is calculated [22] from

where the view factor ϕj,i
the following formula:
 a  b 
1
0
ϕj,i = · arctan  2h 2h  (4)
 a 2 b 2
2h
+ 2h
+1

As according to the summation rule [21] the sum of the view

factors equals one:

ϕ1,1 + ϕ1,2 + . . . + ϕ1,i = ϕ1,j = 1 (5)
j Fig. 3. Scheme for calculating radiant temperature from the formula (7) [18] p. 178.
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E. Dudkiewicz, J. Jezowiecki / Energy and Buildings 43 (2011) 1222–1230 1225

Fig. 4. The plan and dimensions of the hall. Scheme for calculating radiant temperature in point A: tf – floor temperature, tw – temperature of outer walls, tih – radiant heater
temperature, tc – ceiling temperature.

tf – floor, tw – outer walls, tih – gas-fired radiant heater, tc – ceil- with radiant temperature values calculated on the grounds of for-
ing, according to formula (3), the formula for radiant temperature mulae (9) and (10). The relative error of obtained values has been
at any point marked for example with A (Fig. 4) in a hall heated by calculated.
infrared radiant heaters will imply the following relation: Radiant temperatures calculated with formula (9) are somewhat

higher than those calculated from the most accurate formula (8).
0
tr = ϕA,f (tf + 273)4 + ϕA,w
0
(tw + 273)4 + ϕA,ih
0
(tih + 273)4 The relative error between the values given by formulae (8) and
0.25 (9) is not higher than 11%, and the highest error is for low radi-
0
+(ϕA,c 0
− ϕA,ih )(tc + 273)4 − 273 (8) ant temperature in the room – lower than that recommended for
workplaces.
where the difference results from covering the ceiling with a surface
The largest effect of a radiant heater on the radiant temperature
of infrared high-temperature radiant heaters [17,22].
is directly below the unit. This is taken into account in formulae
Also there can be found [22] the following formula for radiant
(8) and (9), but not in formula (10) as the relative error between
temperature of the environment:
values calculated from formulae (8) and (10) exceeds 120%. Hence,

0.25 formula (10) must not be used to calculate the radiant temperature
0
tr = ϕA,ih (tih + 273)4 + (1 − ϕA,ih
0
)(tp + 273)4 − 273 (9)
in a room heated by gas-fired radiant heaters.
which is a simplification of formula (8) and results from the
assumption that temperatures of all surrounding surfaces are the 4. Measuring method
same as indoor air temperature.
When heating individual work stations in a hall or in an open Examinations were carried out in heating season 2003/2004
space, the influence of vertical partitions on the value of radiant in an industrial hall at Kowalska Street, Wroclaw. The plan and
temperature can be omitted [18]. Taking into account the floor sur- dimensions of the hall are shown in Fig. 4. It is a single-storey slab-
face reflection of radiation as well as secondary heat radiation from on-grade detached building. Its walls, up to 1.4 m high, are made
the heated part of the floor Fc , radiant temperature is calculated out of concrete with heat transfer coefficient U = 1.02 W/(m2 K).
using the following formula: The upper part of the walls is made of double sheet metal filled
0
tr = [ϕA,f 0
tf + (1 − ϕA,f )tp ] (10) in with polyurethane foam with U = 0.5 W/(m2 K). Window joinery
is made out of single wire-reinforced glass. Its heat transfer coef-
0 is the view factor between floor surface F and a spherical
where ϕA,f c ficient U = 3.2 W/(m2 K), while that of the gate is U = 5.1 W/(m2 K).
element at point A located 1 m above the centre of surface Fc (the Measurements were carried out in the middle of the hall.
height of 1 m corresponds to the centre of gravity of the human There has been carried out experimental research [14,23] for
body) [18,20]. 4 sizes of Solgaz gas-fired direct radiant heaters [15] with power
Formula (10), although used for calculation of radiant tempera- output of 6, 9, 12 and 18 kW.
ture, does not include the influence of radiant heaters’ temperature. Radiant heaters were supplied with liquid gas – propane – from
Radiant temperature calculated according to this formula is in fact an 11 kg cylinder standing on the floor below the heater. Gas was
mean temperature of the surrounding non-heating surfaces and fed via a hose 10 mm in diameter and 4 m long. Each heater was
does not correspond to radiant temperature of the surface inter- supplied with electricity via a cable from a 230 V mains outlet. The
preted as the temperature of all surrounding surfaces, including electro-valve was turned on/off via a switch.
heating ones, which includes radiant heaters as well.
Table 1
3. Comparison of radiant temperature values calculated Radiant temperatures calculated according to different methods.
using various methods tr1 from tr2 from
tr1 −tr2
[%] tr3 from
tr1 −tr3
[%]
tr2 tr3
(8) (9) (10)
Table 1 contains a comparison of radiant temperature values [◦ C] [◦ C] [◦ C]
calculated according to the above-mentioned relations which con- 13.58 15.11 10.14 11.28 20.36
stitute the result of using three different methods that include, 17.44 18.36 4.99 12.85 35.68
naturally, the same thermal conditions. Radiant temperature val- 21.02 21.46 2.07 11.93 76.25
25.91 26.65 2.79 11.68 121.76
ues obtained from the most accurate formula (8) are compared
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1226 E. Dudkiewicz, J. Jezowiecki / Energy and Buildings 43 (2011) 1222–1230
Photo 1. View of measuring system and mounting construction used for radiant
heaters.
In order to provide heat stabilization in the hall, high-
temperature radiant heaters were turned on at first for 1 h; a
substantial increase of radiant temperature was observed. Next
readouts were made each hour until stabilization of thermal con-
ditions in the hall as manifested by readings on the monitor screen
from Cu-Constantan thermocouples installed just above the floor
of the hall. Photo 1 is a view of the measuring set-up and mounting
arrangement of radiant heaters.
The research aimed to determine thermal conditions generated
by a single radiant heater. The degree of influence of height and sus-
pension angle of various thermal output radiant heaters on radiant
temperature was specified. Measurements were carried out at the
central point of the hall presented in Fig. 4.
Radiant heaters were mounted on special construction poles,
varying height, location and inclination (20◦ and 30◦ to the floor).
Several measurement series were carried out in which:
- the mounting height of radiant heaters was specified based on
acceptable intensity of radiation density in the occupied zone,
which in turn is related to the power output of a radiant heater
and manner of mounting,
- the angle of 30◦ is the maximum inclination angle enabled by
the radiant heater structure, whereas the angle of 20◦ is usually
recommended by the manufacturer [15],
- during the measurements no activity was carried out in the hall,
and there had not been mounted any devices or elements (beside
those used for measurements) that could have disrupted cor-
rect operation of the radiant heaters and manner of heating the
irradiated surfaces.
- a set of Cu-Constantan thermocouples was used to measure the
floor surface temperature, tpd , measurement accuracy is ±0.1 ◦ C,
- a mercurial laboratory thermometer was used to take mea-
surements of air inside the hall, tp . The mercury container was
wrapped with a protective jacket to protect it against radiation.
Measurement range 0 to +50 ◦ C, measurement accuracy ±0.1 ◦ C.
An infrared thermometer type PT-02LD (manufactured in 1999)
was used for reading surface temperature ti at marked points,
and then the readouts were transferred to the computer mem-
ory. The range of temperatures measured with the infrared
thermometer was −40 to +200 ◦ C, and measurement accuracy
was 0.1 ◦ C.
During examination, no continuous control was possible for
radiation temperature of the radiant heater plate, which may
decrease if gas supply pressure falls. However, if it was the case,
the heater plate changed its colour, and the gas cylinder was then
replaced.
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Table 2
Dimensions of burning surfaces of tested radiant heaters [15].
Radiant heater power [kW] Burning surface dimensions [mm]
6 140 × 590
9 140 × 850
12 140 × 1120
18 280 × 850
While preparing the radiant temperature distributions, a uni-
form distribution of internal air temperature under the heater was
assumed.
A minor effect on radiant temperature could be from solar radi-
ation entering via the window panels.
5. Results of measurements
5.1. Radiant temperature distributions along and across the
radiant heater
The shape of the radiant heater ceramic combustion surface
depends on the manufacturer, and as the radiant heater power out-
put increases, the area of this surface increases as well. Table 2
specifies dimensions of ceramic combustion surfaces of the tested
radiant heaters in reference to their power output. Rectangular
shape of the ceramic combustion surface may suggest that the tem-
perature distribution along its longer side would be different than
that along its shorter side. Therefore the tests included the radiant
temperature distribution under the radiant heaters and the radia-
tion range was determined in two directions: along and across the
radiant heaters. Results can be found in Fig. 5.
The research indicates that the radiant temperature distribu-
tion for a radiant heater of a given power output is very similar in
both directions–temperature distribution curves along and across
almost overlap. However, temperature values decrease unevenly
along with the distance from the centre of the radiant heater. Fig. 6
present diagram of radiant temperature distribution along longer
side of the ceramic combustion surface of the radiant heaters with
power outputs of 6, 9 and 18 kW resulting from the research. Radi-
ant temperature distribution along the shorter sides of radiant
heaters will be similar to the graph along the longer side, as is clear
from Fig. 5 the curves in both directions coincide.
5.2. Relation of radiant temperature and radiant heater
suspension angle
Change of the radiant heater suspension angle influences distri-
bution of radiation intensity, which also implies change of radiant
temperature. Radiant temperature distributions were examined
with various power outputs radiant heaters, and suspended at the
angle of 0◦ , 20◦ and 30◦ to the floor. Fig. 7a presents radiant tem-
perature distribution percentage under radiant heater with 6 kW
suspended at a height of 4 m, in Fig. 7b the radiant heater with
9 kW suspended at a height of 5 m, while in Fig. 7c with radiant
heater with 18 kW suspended at a height 5 m to the floor.
5.3. Diagrams of radiant temperature distribution in a
hall–example
In order to provide required thermal conditions in a room, radi-
ant heaters should be arranged in such a way that they generate the
most even irradiation of the heated surface. According to manufac-
turers’ recommendations [e.g. [15,16]], operation fields of radiant
heaters should cross at the height of at least 1.5 m above the floor,
whereas outer partitions should be irradiated at the height of 2 m
(Fig. 8).
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Fig. 6. Radiant temperature distribution patterns along the longer side of the radiant
heater.

Fig. 5. Radiant temperature distribution patterns along and across the radiant
heaters suspended at the height of 5 m and power outputs of: (a) 6 kW, (b) 9 kW, (c)
18 kW.

Radiant temperature distribution patterns presented in Figs. 5–7

concern systems with one radiant heater. They indicate advanta-
geous solutions in terms of obtaining an even thermal field. Hall
interiors, though, can be heated by a couple or even several radi-
ant heaters. In that case, in order to visualise the thermal field, it
is necessary to present radiant temperature distribution patterns
in the indoor space on a grid placed 1.7 m above the floor [17,19].
Principles for building such a grid with radiant temperature values Fig. 7. Radiant temperature distribution patterns in relation to the radiant heater
suspension angle.
are described in [3].
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Table 3
Value of N index in specific points of the grid.

X,Y N X,Y N X,Y N X,Y N X,Y N X,Y N

1.5 8% 2.5 7% 3.5 6% 4.5 3% 5.5 13% 6.5 4%

1.4 7% 2.4 4% 3.4 4% 4.4 1% 5.4 10% 6.4 4%
1.3 20% 2.3 0% 3.3 2% 4.3 2% 5.3 11% 6.3 17%
1.2 2% 2.2 8% 3.2 5% 4.2 2% 5.2 10% 6.2 1%
1.1 3% 2.1 9% 3.1 5% 4.1 6% 5.1 11% 6.1 3%

The diagram in Fig. 10 implies that the radiant heaters generate

Fig. 8. Principle of arrangement of radiant heaters in a hall [15] p. 9, [16].
quite even distribution of radiant temperature tr with only a slight
drop in the central part of the hall.

5.4. Index of unevenness of radiant temperature distribution N

Mounting height of the radiant heater often results from the

Fig. 9. Calculation grid to determine the radiant temperature distribution in the hall
with six radiant heaters [23] p. 30.
Fig. 9 presents the arrangement of six Solgaz radiant heaters
[15] in an industrial hall encompassed by the research [23] as well
as the calculation grid set 1.7 m above the floor, with 4-m long
square sides, with specific points marked. In the hall 12 kW radi-
ant heaters are mounted at the height of 5.5 m along the longer
partitions. All the radiant heaters are inclined at the angle of 20◦
to the floor and oriented towards the centre of the hall. The floor
and the walls up to 1.7 m are covered by the radiation. For these
conditions, based on measurements, radiant temperature values
tr at each point of the grid were calculated according to formula
(8) [3,17,22]. A diagram of radiant temperature distribution can be
found in Fig. 10. The diagram also indicates calculated values of
minimum (11.4 ◦ C) and maximum (16.1 ◦ C) radiant temperature.
Mean radiant temperature in the hall was 14.3 ◦ C.
structural conditions of a hall. The literature [6,13] provides a
nomograph that enables specification of necessary parameters of
selection and arrangement of infrared radiant heaters. This nomo-
graph enables reading of factor ϕ, which determines the degree
of unevenness of radiation intensity, that is the unevenness of the
thermal field. It is recommended that the value of factor ϕ be less
than 12% [6,13]; however, no principles for calculation of that factor
have been given. Therefore in order to evaluate the thermal field in
the hall heated by the gas-fired infrared radiant heaters, the article
for the first time introduces the N index to the subject literature
as the parameter to determine the degree of unevenness of radiant
temperature distribution. It is described by the following formula:
100 · X
N = 100 − (11)
Xsr
in which X is the value of radiant temperature at a given point and
Xsr is the arithmetic mean from the obtained values of radiant tem-
perature in the hall. The larger the N index value, the more uneven
is the thermal field in the hall.
The N values calculated from formula (11) at specific points of
the grid (Fig. 9) are presented in Table 3. It implies that the index
of unevenness of radiant temperature N is larger than 12% only at
three points (points 1.3, 5.5, 6.3 situated near the outer partitions
of the hall).
6. Discussion
The results of the conducted research enabled evaluation of the
influence of orientation of a gas-fired direct radiant heater on the
generated distribution of radiant temperature.
Figs. 5 and 6 imply that along with the increase of radiant heater
power output, radiant temperature decreases more intensively
with the distance from the centre of the radiant heater. Radiant
temperature values for 3 power outputs of radiant heaters mea-
sured directly under the radiant heaters and 5 m away from the
radiant heater are compiled in Table 4. As shown by this table as
well as Figs. 5 and 6, for radiant heaters with different power out-
puts the differences in radiant temperature are significant directly

Table 4
Values of radiant temperature for radiant heaters with power output of 6, 9 and
18 kW calculated 1.70 m above the floor, under the radiant heater and 5 m away
from it.

Radiant heater power

6 kW 9 kW 18 kW

Radiant temperature under the 18 22 32

radiant heater [◦ C]
Radiant temperature 5 m away 11 12 14
Fig. 10. Distribution of radiant temperatures tr on the calculation grid positioned from the radiant heater [◦ C]
1.7 m above the floor.
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E. Dudkiewicz, J. Jezowiecki / Energy and Buildings 43 (2011) 1222–1230
under those radiant heaters. At the distance of 5 m from the radiant
heater, radiant temperature values differ only slightly. This means
that in the case of mounting large output radiant heaters low over
the floor in a hall, they generate an uneven thermal radiation field
with overheated areas. Therefore it is recommended to mount radi-
ant heaters with large power output (9 kW or more) as high under
the ceiling as possible.
Radiant temperature under a radiant heater suspended parallel
to the floor distributes evenly in any direction. So it is insignif-
icant in terms of radiant temperature distribution whether the
radiant heater is suspended with its shorter or longer side towards
outer partitions. Significant is the power output, though, as in
the case of mounting a large output radiant heater low over
the floor, an uneven thermal field is generated in its operational
zone.
The literature provides different formulae for calculating radi-
ant temperature. The most accurate value of radiant temperature
is obtained from formula (8), which takes into account the tem-
peratures of surrounding surfaces and the radiant heater surface.
In a hall heated by gas-fired radiant heaters with burning surface
temperature reaching 900 ◦ C, it is possible to use formula (9) to
calculate radiant temperature. Comparison shows that radiant tem-
peratures calculated from formula (9) differ by up to 10% from the
values calculated from formula (8). However, the deviation result-
ing from calculation of radiant temperature from formula (10) can
exceed 100%, which suggests that this particular formula should not
be used to calculate radiant temperature in a hall heated by radi-
ant heaters, as it does not include the temperature of the burning
surface of the radiant heaters.
For a radiant heater suspended parallel to the floor, radiant tem-
perature distribution is the same in both directions, whereas in the
case of mounting a radiant heater at a certain angle it has been
observed that as the distance from the centre of the radiant heater
increases, radiant temperature is higher than for a radiant heater
mounted parallel to the floor. As a result of an increase in suspen-
sion angle of the radiant heater, at a distance of several metres
from the radiant heater a higher radiant temperature was obtained
in comparison to a radiant heater mounted at a smaller angle. This
means that a radiant heater mounted at an angle can be suspended
higher over the floor than a radiant heater suspended parallel to
the floor. Furthermore, a radiant heater suspended at a larger angle
to the floor can be mounted even higher and provide proper radi-
ant temperature. A higher suspended radiant heater has a positive
influence on radiant temperature distribution. Increase of suspen-
sion angle of a radiant heater should be correlated with the increase
of its mounting height. The thermal radiation field in the oper-
ational range of a radiant heater suspended at an angle is more
evenly distributed, but also the influence of a radiant heater on
radiant temperature is more intense with increasing distance from
its centre.
In order to provide good radiant temperature distribution, it is
advantageous to mount radiant heaters at an angle on the walls of
the hall, or parallel to its floor, as high under the ceiling as possible.
The index of unevenness of radiant temperature distribution N
has been introduced. Its values calculated at specific points of the
grid indicate that the value of N = 12% is exceeded only at three
points of the hall located near the outer partitions. Therefore in the
central part of the hall, where work stations are situated, an even
thermal field is provided.
Equations calculating radiant temperature and its asymmetry,
derived from earlier examinations, also include the variable A, i.e.
the surface area of the radiating plate in square metres. Current
examinations have shown that even in the case of radiant heaters
with rectangular shaped heating plate (ratio of plate sides a/b = 8),
the calculated radiant temperature is identical along the longer and
the shorter sides of the heater.
https://www.tarjomano.com/order
1229
Current examinations indicated that the parameter , i.e. the
inclination angle of the radiant heater [rad] existing in equations
derived from previous examinations [3], is of essential impor-
tance for radiant temperature and cannot be omitted in these
formulae.
Using the non-uniformity index, N, of radiant temperature dis-
tribution, so far not known and derived in this paper, it is possible
to determine the degree of non-uniformity of radiant temperature
and its asymmetry from the equations derived in Ref. [3].
7. Conclusion
Tests of radiant temperature distribution patterns generated by
radiant heaters with different power outputs, suspended at differ-
ent angles and occurring along and across those radiant heaters
enabled elaboration of the principles for arrangement of gas-fired
radiant heaters in a hall.
There is a distinct relation between radiant temperature and the
view factor ϕ0 , which is the sum of factors for all radiant heaters
affecting a point where radiant temperature is defined. Radiant
temperature in a hall heated by gas-fired infrared radiant heaters
can be calculated from formula (9) resulting from the assump-
tion that temperatures of all surrounding surfaces are the same
as indoor temperature.
In order to visualise the existence of a thermal field in an indoor
space, it is necessary to present radiant temperature distribution
patterns on a grid placed at the human head level assumed as 1.7 m
above the floor for a standing person [17,19]. The described princi-
ples for preparation of radiant temperature distribution diagrams
enable definition of the shape of the thermal radiation field in any
hall heated by radiation.
Proper selection of power output, quantity and location of gas-
fired direct radiant heaters will provide generation of an even
thermal radiation field, which assures good thermal comfort. The
degree of unevenness of radiant temperature distribution in a hall
can be specified by means of the index of unevenness of radi-
ant temperature distribution N, introduced in this article – and
unknown up to now. It has been assumed, according to [19], that
even radiant temperature distribution in a hall is obtained if the
value of index N is less than 12%.
It should be noted that the effective range of radiation depends
on the shape and dimensions of the radiating screen. Hence, it is
advisable to conduct further examinations of the effective radiation
range in longitudinal and transverse directions for the same radiant
heaters but with other radiation directing screens.
Similar examinations need to be performed for radiant heaters
of other manufacturers, especially those which have large screen
and directional characteristics.
It is also advisable to undertake similar research work for gas-
fired radiant tube heaters applicable to heating halls, especially
those of low height.
It is recommended that each manufacturer calculate the values
of the angular radiation coefficient, for all types of radiant heaters,
between the heating plate of the heater and a spherical element
below the heater. It would allow calculation of the radiation tem-
perature at each specific point of the hall using formula (9).
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