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across a wide array of heat exchanger types, in a broad range of industries. Each type of heat exchanger LET'S TALK
performs a unique function, and has its own advantages and issues.

In this month’s article, we will focus on potential problems you may encounter with the tubes of Shell and MULTIPLE SOLUTIONS USING
Tube heat exchangers, then follow up with a series of articles exploring further common problems you may DIFFERENT PRODUCTS ARE AVAIL
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encounter, such as fouling, and how to avoid these problems; plus tips on care, maintenance and repair. TEAM TO FIND OUT MORE.

Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

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units such as feedwater heaters to small off-the-shelf hydraulic oil coolers and are used in many industries,
including power generation, oil and gas refineries, industry, ships, and on-road and off-road machinery.

Consisting of a shell and a bundle of tubes (tube-stack), a shell and tube heat exchanger keeps two fluids BROCHURES AND SPECS
separate; allowing heat from one fluid to exchange heat with the other cooler fluid as they pass in opposite
directions – one fluid through the tubes (tube-side) and the other fluid over the tubes (shell-side). Engineering Insights
Signs your Shell & Tube Heat
Shell and tube heat exchangers do not contain moving parts, provide a long service life and require little Exchanger may Fail
maintenance. But are vital pieces of equipment, are subject to a number of threats to their ongoing
satisfactory performance and should be respected and cared for. In many cases a heat exchanger failure or
Heat Exchangers for Waste He
malfunction could cause a complete shutdown of operations.
Recovery

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This article seeks to provide engineers with an overview of some problems specifically affecting heat

Six Causes of Heat Exchanger Tube Failure

Six Causes of Heat Exchanger
1. Tube Corrosion Failure

The biggest threat to shell and tube heat exchangers that use carbon steel tubes is oxidation (corrosion) of the
heat transfer surface of its tubes.

The reaction between oxygen (O2) and iron (Fe2, Fe3) is the most commonly observed form of corrosion. This
reaction yields a building layer of iron oxide (Fe2O3) on carbon steel tubes which results in decreasing thermal
permeation and eventually the deterioration of the tubes. This problem is difficult to combat and is often only
detected when tubes become so corroded their thermal performance levels decrease, the fluid flow is
significantly reduced or the tubes are perforated and leak.

Corroded carbon steel tube.

2. Tube Erosion

Erosion of tubes is the physical wearing of the metal by fluids. Fluids with high levels of total dissolved solids –
such as silica, silt or sea water containing salt, sand and marine life – catalyze the erosion of tubes both
internally and at the leading edges of the inlet tubes.

Although all tubes are subject to erosion over time, the weakest points for tubes are generally the U bend (if
any) and the leading edge of the inlet tubes.

U-bend Erosion

Tube-side fluid velocity in excess of manufacturers’ recommendations can lead to erosion damage along the
internal face of the returning outer bend of the U-bend. The change in direction of flow at this point
introduces resistance to its flow causing the force of the fluid, and any particulates in it, to concentrate against
the far wall of the tube, constantly eroding the tube at this point.

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U-bend erosion on galvanized steel pipes, due to extreme water velocities.

Inlet Tube-end Erosion

Significant erosion of the tubes can also be found at the leading ends of the inlet tubes, where the tubes are
connected through the tube sheets and face the full force of the incoming fluid. At this point the division of
fluid flow from a single stream into many smaller streams results in turbulence and extremely-high localised
velocities.

Tube end erosion at the inlet.

3. Steam or Water Hammer

Steam or water hammer is a powerful force and can cause the rupture or collapse of either the shell or the
tubes of a heat exchanger. Hammer generally occurs where there has been a surge in pressure commonly
caused by a sudden interruption in cooling water flow, the rapid vaporization of stagnant water or pump
malfunction. The phenomenon can be observed in feed-water heaters where high steam pressures increase
the chances of hammer.

Hammer can often be heard, but only rarely will it damage the shell. Tubes, being weaker than the shell, are
the more likely victims of hammer, however damage to tubes will only be detected on internal inspection or
when leaks become apparent.

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Collapsed and ruptured copper tube resulting from steam

hammer.

4. Thermal Fatigue

Heat exchanger tubes are vulnerable to tears and cracks due to accumulated stresses related to constant
thermal cycling or high temperature differentials. Thermal fatigue occurs when extreme temperature
differences between the shell and tubes result in tube flexing.

Significant tear in a copper tube due to extreme temperature differences.

Thermal fatigue may cause the tubes to warp, producing stress loads that exceed the material’s tensile
strength and will eventually rupture the tube.

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Heat effected tubes after a high temperature hydrogen attack.

Another result of high temperature differentials is the physical thermal expansion and contraction of tubes
along their length, which may eventually compromise the integrity of a tube’s connection to the tube sheet,
causing leaks.

The threat of thermal fatigue is almost impossible to diagnose until a failure has occurred.

5. Vibration/Resonance

Vibration and resonance, from whatever source and whether induced externally and internally, can impose
powerful forces on heat exchanger tubes and, once vibration or resonance is commenced it can increase in
intensity to a point where tubes rupture and fail or lose their seal with the tube-sheet and leak.

Baffles provide a vital support for the tubes in a shell and tube heat exchanger and direct the flow of the shell-
side fluid to assist in thermal energy exchange. Heat exchanger tubes are normally either welded or tightly
roller-expanded into their tube sheets to ensure the join does not leak. Both the sites of a tube’s contact with
baffles and tube sheets are points of weakness.

Excessive tube-side velocities of fluids may result in a tube vibrating or resonating at high frequency, causing
abrasion between it and the baffle edge. This can cause either the tube to rupture or the tube’s bond with the
tube-sheet to fail.

Equipment or machinery, to which a shell and tube heat exchanger is attached, may also transfer its external
vibration to heat exchanger tubes and cause damage or failure.

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Broken baffle and worn tubes caused by radial erosion from high frequency,

6. Pitting of Tubes

Chemically-induced corrosion can result in the pitting of heat exchanger tubes to the point where pinholes
form and the tube fails and leaks.

Pitting results from the electrochemical potential set up by differences inside and outside of, what is
commonly referred to as, a concentration cell. The oxygen-rich environment in this cell acts as an anode and
the metal surface as a cathode, resulting in the metal surface being slowly pitted by the chemical reaction.

A concentrated electrochemical gradient of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) is frequently the cause of
tube wall pitting, as is the presence of excess chemical compounds such as chlorides and sulphates often found
in inadequately treated cooling water.

Large pitting attack on a copper tube.

Where to now?
If we can learn anything from the number of risks presented, it is that shell and tube heat exchangers:

• Demand and deserve respect and require monitoring and maintenance;

• Are a vital part of many processes which may be compromised if the heat exchanger fails.

You should consider what will happen:

• If the heat exchanger fails – will production/performance be significantly reduced, or will there be a
complete shutdown?
• If one fluid leaks into to the other – will the fluids, product and the environment be contaminated?
• If a spare heat exchanger is not readily available – will a potentially lengthy shut down:
• to carry out repairs;
• to source a replacement; or
• to manufacture a custom-built unit

adversely affect your production; your business; your career?

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In over 35 years of operation, Fluid Dynamics has built an enviable reputation for being able to design, re-engineer, refurbish, clean and test a huge range of heat exchangers i
its fully equipped facility. We carry a large range of stock and have the right equipment for even the most complex jobs.

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