Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 3168–3176

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Business Research

Research in reverse: Ad testing using an inductive consumer

neuroscience approach
Terry Daugherty ⁎, Ernest Hoffman, Kathleen Kennedy
Suarez Applied Marketing Research Laboratories, The University of Akron, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Consumer neuroscience (CNS) methodologies were adapted from scientific disciplines where research is done in
Received 1 March 2015 reverse from the scientific method that has come to inform the vast majority of marketing research. Conventional
Received in revised form 1 June 2015 applications of CNS often begin with known outcomes and implications (i.e., symptomologies), subject them to
Accepted 1 October 2015
neuro-physiological tests, and use the data from these tests to generate descriptive (e.g., diagnosis) and prescrip-
Available online 29 December 2015
tive (e.g., prognosis) hypotheses. This article offers the heretical proposition that such an approach should not be
Keywords:
limited to the “hard sciences,” but could be profoundly beneficial in fields that have come to exclusively rely upon
Consumer neuroscience the scientific method. Findings of a dEEG study conducted on the basis of known results in order to generate
Neuro-marketing novel theory and hypotheses are presented. Implications of this paradigm shift for advancing marketing research
Marketing research while helping to bridge an ever-widening scholar–practitioner divide are discussed.
Ad testing © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The utilization of neurological and physiological measurement tools
to “analyze and understand human behavior in relation to markets and
marketing exchanges” (Lee, Broderick, & Chamberlain, 2007, p. 200), or
“consumer neuroscience” (CNS) is a rapidly growing trend. The
emergence of this once obscure area of consumer research is often at-
tributed to a) a growing appreciation for scientific and objective mea-
surement, which is preferable to more subjective research paradigms
(e.g., surveys, focus groups), and b) claims that such techniques consti-
tute more accessible and cost-effective means of developing products
consumers will embrace (Ariely & Berns, 2010; Pradeep, 2010). While
the potential of CNS methodologies has been met with increasing
recognition among scholars (e.g., Advertising Research Foundation
NeuroStandards Project, 2013) and industry leaders (e.g., Nielsen,
Buyology, Gallup, & Robinson, and Innerscope Research), many ques-
tion the legitimacy of some claims. Consumer neuroscience has been
accused of failing to deliver on the promises that sparked initial popu-
larity, such as having the ability to identify a consumer “buy button”
in the brain (Reason, 2012) and providing a cost-effective alternative
to conventional market research techniques (Ariely & Berns, 2010).
Others point to a lack of transparency by companies' marketing CNS
(Advertising Research Foundation, 2013; Parson, 2011), as well a “pau-
city of peer-reviewed reports in the field” as indicators that “companies
may be making premature claims about the power of neuroscience to
predict consumer behavior” (Fisher, Chin, & Klitzman, 2010, p. 230).
⁎ Corresponding author at: Department of Marketing, College of Business
Administration, The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325, United States. Tel.: +1 330
972 8304.
E-mail address: terry.daugherty@uakron.edu (T. Daugherty).
By and large the full potential of CNS to meaningfully contribute to-
wards understanding consumer behavior in particular, and marketing re-
search in general, has yet to be unlocked. Doing so would require
entertaining a heretical proposition that contradicts one of the deepest-
held assumptions of consumer behavior research within the social
sciences; that the scientific method is the only suitable approach for
engaging in scientific discovery. This seeming heretical contention is
rooted in observing the way in which tools such as EEG and fMRI are
used in more naturalistic settings, such as the medical field. Rather than
starting with theory-driven hypotheses that utilize physiological and
neurological tools to yield results and implications (i.e., scientific meth-
od), the hard sciences often begin an investigation in reverse. For exam-
ple, a patient will present a known result (e.g., slurred speech) along with
implications (e.g., unable to perform one's job) and is then subjected to
medical tests (i.e., EEG and fMRI) in order to locate the source or cause.
Only then are theories and hypotheses applied to generate diagnoses,
prognoses, and prescriptive actions. Given the success of this approach
in the medical field, one might wonder why such a methodology has
yet to be translated into CNS research and practice. By using known re-
sults (e.g., advertising data) and implications (e.g., dollars invested, ads
continued/discontinued, market share), consumer responses could be
subjected to physiological and neurological tools in order to generate
novel theory and hypotheses regarding the success (or failure) of mar-
keting strategy. The absence of such a paradigm is likely attributable to
consumer behavior researchers being strongly conditioned (by the scien-
tific method) to start with hypotheses developed from established theo-
ry, design a study to adequately test those hypotheses, analyze the
results, and discuss any pertinent implications, limitations, and future re-
search needs (see Hudson & Ozanne, 1988, for an in-depth discussion of
assumptions that guide consumer research). Such a deductive approach

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.12.005
0148-2963/© 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
 T. Daugherty et al. / Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 3168–3176
is so deeply engrained that alternative perspectives are often overlooked.
Nevertheless, the potential for an inductive approach in CNS to yield
novel insights is too substantial to disregard.
In order to demonstrate the potential of an inductive methodology,
this study begins by reviewing two widely accepted beliefs and their he-
retical alternatives. In particular, a) the notion that the ends fail to justify
the means with a CNS paradigm and b) the idea that theory and re-
search must inform practice rather than practice informing theory and
research. Next, a reverse research paradigm approach is used originat-
ing from known results leading to theoretical scrutiny and conjecture.
By starting with a known result and implications, the study then
works towards intriguing hypotheses and theory using EEG as a diag-
nostic tool. Finally, the study builds from this experience to suggest the-
oretical and practical implications of inductive research, both within
and beyond a CNS paradigm. This approach contributes to the literature
in at least three notable ways. The review and study suggest an intrigu-
ing methodological paradigm that contradicts most empirical research
in consumer behavior, particularly as appearing in scholarly journals.
Second, this approach provides a novel and practical means of bridging
the scholar–practitioner divide inasmuch as practitioners have a lot of
known results and implications at their disposal, while scholars have
the means of making sense of those results using research tools and the-
oretical acumen. Third, by breathing new life into CNS as a means of
gaining substantial insight over conventional understanding, this re-
search signifies a response to critics who question the ability of CNS to
survive and thrive as a viable discipline.
The article closes with theoretical and practical implications for
conducting inductive research both within and beyond CNS and sug-
gests worthwhile directions for future research. Additional work will
further demonstrate the value of this suggested approach, while
encouraging scholar–practitioners to pursue alternate and perhaps
even heretical routes to scientific discovery.
1.1. Heresy 1: CNS methodologies were designed to understand—not
predict—consumer behavior
Since the inception of scientific discovery, knowledge generation can
be characterized as developing along two divergent paths: one
deducing empirical consequences stemming from hypothesis-driven
prediction, and the second utilizing inductive observation leading to
generalizable principles (Bonoma, 1985). In essence, deductive-based
inquiry starts at the general and moves towards formulating predictions
to the particular, whereas induction begins with the observable and
progresses to the universal (see Fig. 1). The dominance of the deductive
approach can be traced to the philosophical axiom that induction proves
nothing, and as a result, generations of scientists have been taught to
think deductively (Lawrence, 1982). Nevertheless, inductive-based
Inductive Research
Deductive Research
Fig. 1. A “research in reverse” approach.
3169
philosophies continue to exist on the fringe of social science generally
categorized as grounded theory (Allan, 2003). While qualitative para-
digms have seemingly embraced induction, this research approach is
not defined by data categorization and can be quantitative-based.
Initial enthusiasm towards utilizing neurological measurement tools
for understanding consumer behavior has given rise to considerable
amounts of research in academic and practitioner realms (Advertising
Research Foundation, 2013; Ariely & Berns, 2010; Hubert, 2010;
Plassmann, Ramsoy, & Milosavljevic, 2012). While a complete review
of all measurement techniques used is beyond the scope of this article
(see Kenning & Linzmajer, 2011; Wang & Minor, 2008, for a systematic
review), numerous stakeholders have begun to scientifically explore the
critical question; do the ends (i.e., efficient prediction of consumer be-
havior) justify the means (i.e., more expensive and complicated meth-
odologies)? Answers to this question are mixed at best. Some appear
to be thoroughly convinced that CNS is well worth continued invest-
ment (e.g., Fugate, 2007; Lee et al., 2007; Plassmann et al., 2012),
while others have seemingly reserved judgment pending further out-
comes (e.g., Advertising Research Foundation, 2013; Ariely & Berns,
2010; Hubert, 2010). The ethical utility of studying consumer responses
which are harder to control and manage (i.e., consent to disclosing)
than those elicited with more traditional self-report surveys and focus
groups is also a concern (Fisher et al., 2010; Murphy, Illes, & Reiner,
2008; Wilson, Gaines, & Hill, 2008).
A tendency to frame CNS methodologies as a means of better
predicting future consumer behavior (i.e., deductive approach) is a no-
table feature of the research provided in support of these convictions.
Thus, the purpose is to use neurophysiological responses to test product
and package design (Reimann, Zaichkowsky, Neuhaus, Bender, &
Weber, 2010), advertising (Ambler, Ioannides, & Rose, 2000; Kato
et al., 2009; Vecchiato et al., 2011), and brand-related information
(Schaefer & Rotte, 2007; Stewart, Pickering, & Sturt, 2004;
Treleaven-Hassard et al., 2010) as a basis for effectively discriminating
between strategies. For example, a typical application of CNS might
consist of having consumers view multiple advertisements for a product
in the ad-testing phase while brain wave activity is monitored using
EEG. The presence or absence of specific waves (e.g., P3a, Treleaven-
Hassard et al., 2010) as ad alternatives are viewed is used to make pre-
dictions regarding whether or not the advertisement will successfully
attract product purchasing. In other words, EEG technology functions
as a means of predicting consumer ad response.
For all of CNS's promise, prediction-oriented applications completely
neglect two critical insights. First, anticipated consumer behavior (the
“ends” of current CNS research) is no substitute for actual consumer be-
havior. The former is subject to educated guesswork and projection at
best, whereas the latter already exists in the databases of organizations,
marketing firms, and academic institutions. Massive amounts of data
pertaining to known successes and failures are readily accessible for fur-
ther diagnosis using neurological and physiological modes of assess-
ment popular to CNS, yet no CNS investigations have attempted to
leverage these real-world results. Secondly, CNS methodologies were
not originally intended to facilitate prediction. Meaning, the medical
equivalence of CNS techniques as currently used might consist of a doc-
tor using magnetic resonance imagery (MRI) to predict a future bone
fracture or a neurologist using electroencephalography (EEG) to predict
future epilepsy. Neither of these methodologies becomes useful until
the precipitating phenomenon (bone fracture, epilepsy) has occurred,
and recognizing this has clear implications for the manner in which
they are used within a CNS paradigm. Acknowledging these vital
limitationsconsiders the first heretical claim; CNS researchers and prac-
titioners have long been attempting to fit a square peg into a round hole.
In an attempt to fashion CNS methodologies to fit into the rubric of the
deductive scientific method, the original function and purpose of these
methodologies have been overlooked. Techniques such as fMRI and
EEG are used in other contexts (e.g., medicine, neuroscience) to illumi-
nate existing phenomena and not to predict or anticipate as-of-yet
3170 T. Daugherty et al. / Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 3168–3176
nonexistent phenomena. By the time a patient presents themselves for
one of these tests, known results have already occurred. Understanding
those results for the purpose of refining theories and offering prescrip-
tive advice is the primary purpose of subjecting patients to these tests.
Adapting this insight to the sub-discipline of CNS would require an in-
ductive approach, essentially conducting “research in reverse” from
the conventional method that all mainstream academic journals adhere.
Rather than starting with established theory and hypotheses, consumer
research would begin with known results and implications. From this
point, neurophysiological methodologies could be used as a means of
better understanding these results on the way to developing more re-
fined and nuanced theories and hypotheses regarding various elements
of consumer behavior. The benefits of doing “research in reverse” how-
ever are poised to extend far beyond consumer neuroscience. Starting
with real-world data, and applying methodologies in order to generate
novel theory and hypotheses, has broad potential that extends into
marketing and business research as a whole. The following section
briefly explores this second heretical claim in depth.
1.2. Heresy 2: reversing the scientific method could lead to valuable insights
An overwhelming majority of marketing research relies upon the
scientific method, which remains surprisingly uncontested by scholars
(see Anderson, 1983 for one exception). Some have questioned whether
scholars adopting this approach achieve their ultimate aim of engaging
in “scientific” research (e.g., Hodson, 1996). For instance, pre-existing
theory can act as a biasing factor that hinders scientific inquiry, which
ought to be objective and observation-based. Meanwhile, inductive
approaches (Haig, 1995) begin with participant observations and use
them as a basis for establishing novel theory and propositions. Similar
insights could be gained when business researchers begin with quanti-
tative data (e.g., sales figures) and use existing methodologies as a
means of translating observed phenomena into coherent and distinct
theoretical frameworks. Although the research example presented ap-
plies this proposition from a CNS perspective, this application extends
beyond the realm of business where known results (e.g., employee
turnover, financial performance, work-related injuries) are readily
available.
By proposing an inductive “research in reverse” approach, the inten-
tion is not to discredit or discourage research that proceeds according to
the deductive based scientific method. To the contrary, a vast amount of
insight has been gained via deductive research with progress made as a
result of this approach. Nevertheless, the view taken here is that addi-
tional progress is possible, particularly within the domain of CNS, by
attempting to execute this prevailing research paradigm in reverse.
The following case study is presented to illustrate the potential benefits
of inductive research using CNS measurement methods as a way to bet-
ter understand known responses to a series of product advertisements.
1.3. Case study: using CNS to distinguish between “successful” and
“unsuccessful” product advertising
The following study emerged as part of an ongoing research rela-
tionship with a large Midwestern direct marketing firm. The firm
approached the research team questioning the value of CNS and pro-
posed a challenge to determine whether or not CNS techniques would
be able to differentiate between successful and unsuccessful direct re-
sponse product advertisements. Six direct response style ads (three suc-
cessful, three unsuccessful) were selected by the firm with successful
ads operationalized as those generating N300 units sold during the
first week of the media schedule, and unsuccessful ads resulting in
b300 units sold. This is an internal benchmark used by the firm for allo-
cating media spending on a specific campaign. A defining feature of di-
rect response advertising is the goal of eliciting a direct behavioral
response translating into immediate sales. If unit sales do not occur at
a profitable level within the first week the ad is discontinued. An
important consideration to note with this particular case is that the re-
search team was intentionally kept unaware of each ad's classification
until completion of the data collection. While the firm sought to deter-
mine whether neurological differences exist across the designated ad
categories, the research team recognized this as an opportunity to
explore the specific nature and meaning of any differences identified
in view of neurological theory, resulting in the following research
question:
RQ: Will measurable neural activation differences exist among con-
sumers viewing successful versus unsuccessful direct response
product advertising?
2. Method
A within-subjects design was used to measure consumer neural
activity using dense-array electroencephalography (dEEG) with direct
response advertisements serving as the independent variables.
Within-subjects research is common in CNS because activation patterns
are highly reliable within participants but not necessarily between
participants (see Corsi-Cabrera, Galindo-Vilchis, Del-Rio Portilla, Arce,
& Ramos-Loyo, 2007), suggesting that individuals provide their own
optimal baseline for measuring activation differences.
2.1. Participants
Twenty-three subjects (n = 23) participated in the study. A purpo-
sive sample was used with participants screened to match the general
target audience for direct response advertising, as defined by the direct
marketing firm. Specifically, participants were required to; (1) demon-
strate a propensity to respond to direct response television advertising,
as measured by a recent direct response purchase by phone or online
after viewing an ad, (2) be 30 years in age or older, and (3) report a
household income of at least $30,000 a year. Subjects were recruited
from the local area and monetarily compensated ($100) for their
participation.
2.2. Stimuli
A total of six direct response television ads were selected by the di-
rect marketing firm to serve as the stimuli for the study. The ads varied
across a number of product categories, including housewares (Ad1: Liq-
uid Dispenser & Ad3: Food Storage), home repair (Ad2: Spray Sealant),
health and beauty (Ad4: Skin Care Cream & Ad6: Self-Tanning Lotion)
and collectables (Ad5: Commemorative Coin), yet maintained a similar
price point ($19.99). In addition, each ad was 60 s in length and follow-
ed an analogous informational design by presenting a consumer prob-
lem (e.g. dry skin), introducing the product, communicating a solution
via product benefits and ultimately requesting consumers to order the
product immediately by phone or online. An important point of empha-
sis here is to reinforce that the purpose of this case study is not to decon-
struct the executional elements of the ads as the units of analysis.
Meaning, while many similarities occur among the ads, each is obvious-
ly different and the goal is not to conduct A/B tests or delineate structur-
al differences between the ads. Rather, the purpose is to determine
whether or not neural activity differs among individuals when exposed
to all of the ads, and if so, is this activity meaningfully different accord-
ing neurological theory.
2.3. Dependent measure
The dependent variable in this study is brain wave activity measured
by means of dEEG using a 256-channel Hydrocel Geodesic Sensor Net
(Electrical Geodesics Inc., Eugene, Oregon), which is soaked in a potas-
sium chloride saline solution and then applied to each participant's
scalp. Brain wave activity is operationalized as visually-evoked event-
 T. Daugherty et al. / Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 3168–3176
related potentials (ERPs), or fluctuations in electrical neural activity
(i.e., voltage) that occur as subjects are exposed to visual stimuli.
Event-related potentials are measured in milliseconds, given the rapid
response of the brain to external stimuli, and then combined across
channels in theoretically-relevant ways (e.g., to isolate specific geo-
graphical areas of the brain). Data can thus be analyzed in terms of sig-
nificant time epochs (e.g., 200–350 ms) as well as segmented wave
functions (e.g., maximum amplitude). Differences in brain wave activity
are assessed on the basis of ERPs collected as participants view and re-
spond to multiple stimuli exposures.
2.4. Procedure
Upon entering the lab participants were informed of the procedures
with consent obtained for the study. Preparation was then taken to fit
participants with a sensor net followed by single-trial dEEG node
response tests to ensure that each of the channel sensors was properly
recording data. Subjects were then exposed to the stimuli via an exper-
imental station using a two-phase process common to ad testing
(Young & Robinson, 1987): a learning phase and ERP phase. First, partic-
ipants viewed the ads in their entirety separated by the momentary pre-
sentation of a black empty screen. Following the learning phase a brief
filler task (demographic survey) was used to separate and transition
to the primary ERP portion of the study.
Second, during the ERP phase subjects were exposed to a series of
distinct still images from each of the ads (4 per ad, 24 total) and an ad-
ditional set of images selected from the International Affective Pictures
System database (IAPS: Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 2008). The IAPS im-
ages are extensively validated in terms of their perceived valence
(pleasantness) and intensity. By selecting and presenting subjects a se-
ries of ten pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral images (30 total) where in-
tensity is held constant (i.e., moderate), subjects are provided with a
standard of comparison as they make judgments regarding the focal
stimuli. Subjects were asked to respond to each still image they viewed
by using a keypad to rate the image as a) pleasant, b) unpleasant, or
c) neutral while ERP data was recorded. Images of the stimuli were pre-
sented 10 times for 3 s each and in 5 blocks, separated by user-
controlled breaks in order to reduce participant fatigue. Averaging
Preparation Learning Phase
Attach Net and Subject Views
Test Sensors All Ads
Ad1 Ad2
Ad3 Ad4
Ad5 Ad6
15 min 15 min
Fig. 2. Experimental procedure and timeline.
3171
ERPs over the course of multiple exposures has been shown to provide
an effective means of distinguishing genuine activation differences from
noise artifacts and ongoing brain activity (e.g., Arieli, Sterkin, Grinvald, &
Aertson, 1996). The image presentations were separated by a) a fixation
screen (i.e., black screen with a white cross in the center) shown for a
random interval between 800–1400 ms and b) a blank black screen
that was displayed for 200 ms. Random fixation intervals are frequently
used in this type of research to mitigate practice effects. All stimuli were
of similar production value, screen resolution, and counterbalanced in
order of presentation in both the learning phase and ERP phase using
E-Prime (Psychology Software Tools, Inc.). Overall, the active data col-
lection took approximately 55 min per subject with Fig. 2 illustrating
this procedure.
3. Results
3.1. Data analysis
The sample consisted of 9 males (36%) and 14 females (64%) with an
average age of 55. This sample size is comparable to other studies
(e.g., Fallani et al., 2008; Rothschild & Hyun, 1990; Vecchiato et al.,
2010) utilizing EEG to explore within-subject activation differences as
subjects respond to television commercials. NetStation 4.2 software
(Electrical Geodesics Inc., Eugene, Oregon) was used to process the
raw ERP data. EEG recordings were filtered using 0.3–45 Hz band-pass
filters. Event-related potential trials were base-lined at 100 ms and off-
set to 15 ms based on a visual timing test of the data collection system
used. Bad channels were marked, and artifacts were detected using
the NetStation auto detection tool and subsequent inspection. ERP seg-
ments were rejected if they contained more than 10 bad channels or any
artifacts. Data were epoched at 200–350 ms, 350–500 ms, and 500–
800 ms. Scalp channel data were converted into source space by
means of EGI GeoSource Source-Imaging Specification (Electrical
Geodesics Inc., Eugene, Oregon) using the Finite Difference Model
constrained by standardized Low-Resolution Brain Electromagnetic To-
mography (sLORETA) with a Tikhonov regularization of 10-3. The re-
sults of this analysis are illustrated below with data derived using
Transition ERP Phase
Brief Filler Brain Activity
Task Recorded
Demogr Image
Survey Block
User-
Controlled
Break
5 min 20 min
3172 T. Daugherty et al. / Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 3168–3176

source montages for the voxels corresponding with known regions of
the brain (i.e., Brodmann areas).
3.2. Research question
The research question reflects a central goal of determining whether
differences in neural activation will be found among the direct response
ads that were known to be successful in the market, as opposed to those
that were unsuccessful. As a means of moving from known results
to novel theory generation, the specific nature and meaning of any
observed neurological difference is also of primary interest. Upon com-
pletion of the data collection, the direct marketing firm identified Ad2
(Spray Sealant), Ad3 (Food Storage) and Ad4 (Skin Care Cream) as suc-
cessful in market direct response ads with Ad1 (Liquid Dispenser), Ad5
(Commemorative Coin) and Ad6 (Self-Tanning Lotion) as unsuccessful.
Differences in brain wave activity were first assessed for the data as a
whole (i.e., across all nodes of the EEG net) with the three time epochs
(200–350 ms, 350–500 ms, and 500–800 ms) tested because of their
common use in research pertaining to episodic memory (e.g., Bland &
Schaefer, 2011; Hsu, Garside, Massey, & McAllister-Williams, 2003).

Fig. 3. Direct response television advertising EEG GeoSource estimates.

 T. Daugherty et al. / Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 3168–3176
Within each time epoch, six metrics of the sinusoidal ERP wave were
analyzed. Maximum amplitude, minimum amplitude, mean amplitude,
and adaptive mean were measured in Megavolts, which is a unit of elec-
trical brain activity. Two additional variables, latency to positive peak
and latency to negative peak, were measured in milliseconds.
GeoSource localization of neural activity for each of the ads across
epochs is constructed to visually illustrate how activation changes
over time (see Fig. 3). Subsequently, significant neural activation differ-
ences were detected across the six direct response ads at the 200–
350 ms epoch (maximum amplitude; F1, 23 = 2.89, p b .05), but not
for 350–500 ms epoch (maximum amplitude; F1, 23 = 2.14, p N .05),
or 500–800 ms epoch (maximum amplitude; F1, 23 = 2.64, p N .05).
The lack of significant differences across epochs is not unexpected
when examining overall neural activity as reactions to stimuli begins
to normalize as the brain adjusts (Hsu et. al., 2003). While both observ-
able and statistically significant neural activity differences have been
detected, these differences are not necessarily meaningful in the sense
that they do not allow us to distinguish between successful versus
unsuccessful ads. The reason is because overall neural activity does
not provide differentiation along key neural correlates associated with
specialized cognitive functions.
In order to meaningfully interpret activation differences, localization
of the data to distinct areas of the brain that are known to engage in spe-
cific types of neurological processes is necessary. During this analysis,
Ad2, Ad3, and Ad4 are designated as “successful” ads while Ad1, Ad5,
and Ad6 as “unsuccessful”. The Brodmann (1909) classification is wide-
ly used in neuroscience to distinguish specific regions of the brain in
terms of structure and functional purpose. Scholars generally agree
that there are 52 Brodmann areas (BAs), which are distinct from each
other in terms of neuronal configuration (see Fig. 4). For the present
study, EEG data was localized to five of these areas and tested for differ-
ences on the basis of ad success; in particular, BAs 8, 9, 10, 45, and 47.
Left Hemisphere
Right Hemisphere
Fig. 4. Brodmann areas.
3173
Collectively, these five areas are associated with episodic memory
retrieval (Lepage, Ghaffar, Nyberg, & Tulving, 2000), a process that
subjects in this study engage in as they link still images of stimuli to
the advertisements they came from. Each of these areas has bilateral
symmetry, but left versus right hemispheric activation differences are
fairly common, so the left and right hemispheres were analyzed sepa-
rately for each BA, resulting in 10 analysis areas.
As Table 1 illustrates, significant group differences exist in five dis-
tinct Brodmann areas. Note that six significant differences are reported,
but two of these differences are localized to the left and right hemi-
spheres for BA 8. Also, each of these BAs is geospatially located in the
prefrontal region of the brain (see Fig. 4). Brodmann area 8 has been as-
sociated with the processing of uncertainty (e.g., Volz, Schubotz, & von
Cramon, 2005). Analysis results suggest statistically significant ERP
differences between successful and unsuccessful ads in BA8 in the
right hemisphere in the 200–350 ms epoch (for maximum amplitude;
F1, 23 = 7.41, p b .01) as well as in the left hemisphere in the 350–
500 ms epoch (for minimum amplitude; F1, 23 = 4.66, p b .05). A
comparison of means in both cases suggests that successful ads (m8R
success = 2.05, m8L success = 8.44) prompt less uncertainty than
unsuccessful ads (m8R unsuccessful = 2.29, m8L unsuccessful =
9.69). Activation differences in the right hemisphere for BA9 in the
200–350 ms epoch for maximum amplitude (F1, 23 = 8.48, p b .01)
might suggest differences in working memory activation (see Zhang,
Leung, & Johnson, 2003), such that successful direct response advertis-
ing (m9R success = 1.86) require less effort to retrieve than their unsuc-
cessful counterparts (m9R unsuccessful = 2.02). The same could be said
for observed differences in maximum amplitude for the left hemisphere
of BA10 (F1, 23 = 4.68, p b .05) during the same time interval. Like BA9,
scholars believe that BA10 contributes to working memory by assisting
in the process of cognitive branching, whereby one working task is put
on hold until another is complete (Koechlin & Hyafil, 2007). Observed
3174 T. Daugherty et al. / Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 3168–3176
Table 1
ERP wave differences by Brodmann's area for direct response television advertising.
Brodmann area Successful adsc Unsuccessful adsc
8La 8.44 9.69
8Rb 2.05 2.29
9Rb 1.86 2.02
10Lb 2.49 2.63
45Lb 5.72 6.14
47La 1.02 1.15
Note. L = left brain hemisphere; R = right brain hemisphere.
a
Brodmann area with significant differences in minimum amplitude between 350 and 500 ms.
b
Brodmann area with significant differences in maximum amplitude between 200 and 350 ms.
c
Recorded ERP mean scores by ad category per Brodmann area.
mean differences between successful (m10L success = 2.49) and unsuc-
cessful (m10L unsuccessful = 2.63) ads suggest that ineffective ads
might elicit a greater degree of cognitive branching. Activation differ-
ences are also significant in the left hemisphere of BA45 (F1, 23 =
6.60, p b .05), a region of the brain that is believed to retrieve and eval-
uate semantic information, as well as in the left hemisphere of BA47 (F1,
23 = 4.66, p b .05), which is also associated with semantic processing
(e.g., Chou, Booth, Bitan, Burman, Bigio, Cone, Lu, & Cao, 2006). Consid-
ered together, these mean differences suggest that components of suc-
cessful ads (m45L succeed = 5.72, m47L succeed = 1.02) require less
effort to process and evaluate than components of unsuccessful ads
(m45L unsuccessful = 6.14, m47L unsuccessful = 1.15).
In summary, significant activation differences were ascertained
between successful and unsuccessful direct response ads with these
differences localized to specialized areas of the brain. Tracing these dif-
ferences in neural activation to specific sources allows for novel theories
and hypotheses regarding possible reasons for advertisement effective-
ness, or ineffectiveness, to be interpreted. In this particular case, episod-
ic memory retrieval appears to be easier for images associated with
successful as opposed to unsuccessful ads.
4. Discussion
Taking a “research in reverse” approach, whereby known results and
their implications are subjected to research methodologies for the pur-
pose of hypothesis generation and theory building, is a worthwhile av-
enue for consumer research in particular and marketing research as a
whole. Such a paradigm defies conventional deductive research logic,
which recommends proceeding from hypotheses and theory to generat-
ing a sufficient test of that theory to exploring implications and bound-
ary conditions of obtained results, consistent with the scientific method.
Historically speaking, marketing scholars have long been motivated
to substantiate the field of marketing as a scientific discipline
(Anderson, 1983). As Anderson (1983) notes, this has led to the
adoption of two primary forms of inquiry; logical empiricism and
falsification. A shared feature of these two paradigms is their basis in a
method of scientific inquiry whereby theory generation precedes
hypothesis development, which precedes empirical verification.
Deshpande (1983) asserts that this over-reliance on the scientific meth-
od has obscured attention towards alternative paradigms that could
give rise to the development of novel theory. He goes on to suggest
that primarily inductive approaches could contribute to the literature
by generating novel insights on the basis of what Glaser and Strauss
(1967) refer to as “grounded events.” Few have since chosen to heed
this promising suggestion. Indeed, a recent content analysis of research
published in prominent marketing journals between 1990-2009 (Davis,
Golicic, Boerstler, Choi, & Oh, 2013) illustrates a trend of decreasing
methodological diversity despite the growing complexity of marketing
phenomena. The authors attribute this to an overreliance on the
scientific method and suggest that scholars consider alternative para-
digms that account for aspects, such as contextual realism, which is ac-
knowledged here within a research-in-reverse paradigm. An applied
Type III sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
0.06 1 0.06 5.92 p b .05
0.36 1 0.36 7.41 p b .01
0.17 1 0.17 8.48 p b .01
0.12 1 0.12 4.68 p b .05
1.16 1 1.16 6.60 p b .05
0.12 1 0.12 4.66 p b .05
and empirical example has been provided that appears to corroborate
the potential benefits of taking an inductive approach. Using market-
driven data to designate “successful” and “unsuccessful” product adver-
tisements offers new insights and directions for theoretical exploration
by using dEEG as a diagnostic tool. In particular, the observation of sig-
nificant differences in brain wave activity as participants engage with
successful, as opposed to unsuccessful, ads is localized to specific re-
gions of the brain whose function and purpose are already supported
by existing neurological research. Utilizing dEEG measurement accord-
ing to originally intended purposes (diagnostic) results in a shift in focus
from attempting to predict ad success on the basis of neurological differ-
ences to describing the characteristics as consumers actively process
them. Accordingly, this research is the first to link the success or failure
of direct response advertising to areas of the brain associated with un-
certainty reduction, working memory, and semantic processing.
4.1. Limitations
Despite the intriguing nature of an inductive paradigm, a number of
limitations ought to be noted as they could facilitate further exploration.
First, this article reports on a single applied example, which relies on a
dataset produced from a single set of direct response product advertise-
ments. What remains to be seen is whether a larger design consisting of
a broader pool of “successful” and “unsuccessful” ads selected on the
basis of varying levels of usage/familiarity, or from additional product
categories (or brand focused), would yield a richer and/or more nu-
anced set of observed differences in brain wave activity. Surprisingly,
when diagnostic tools such as dEEG are applied in more traditional
medical contexts, measurable phenomena (e.g., epilepsy) manifest
themselves quite consistently across patients. This would seem to sug-
gest that observed differences in brain wave activity would be similar
to what is reported in this study, even in the presence of a broader
sampling of products and ad types. Nevertheless, future studies ought
to be undertaken in an effort to scrutinize these findings and whether
or not they are replicable.
Another suggestion made in this article is that an inductive ap-
proach, although heretical, could be applied with similar benefits to
other research methodologies within and beyond the purview of CNS.
However, no direct empirical evidence is provided to support this
claim, which suggests two directions for future research. First, addition-
al studies are needed to determine whether a “research in reverse” ap-
proach is beneficial when applied to other types of CNS methodologies,
such as functional magnetic resonance imagery (fMRI), positron emis-
sion tomography (PET), and or other physiological measurement
(e.g., eye-tracking). Second, the utility of a “research in reverse” ap-
proach should be tested with a broader array of research methodolo-
gies. Although data collection methods are commonly used in the
service of testing hypotheses and/or products, they can also be used in
an attempt to diagnose and understand the known success or failure
of business-related interventions beyond common qualitative methods,
as this study demonstrates.
 T. Daugherty et al. / Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 3168–3176
Finally, small sample sizes, such as used in this study, are typical of
CNS research due to the remarkable consistency of brain wave activity
differences observed across participants. Additionally, the average age
of the sample was relatively high, and although this is consistent with
the targeted age demographic for direct marketing advertisements, a
more representative age range could further enrich the generalizability
of the results. Medical applications of dEEG and related technologies
have benefitted from sample sizes in the millions through the culmina-
tion of numerous studies as a means of increasing the diagnostic preci-
sion of these tools and the people using them. Additional research is
recommended that explores the effects observed in this study among
consumers of varying age groups, geographical locations, and other de-
mographic features in an effort to confirm that these findings generalize
to a broader consumer population.
5. Managerial implications
Taking an inductive approach towards research implies that there is
more to be discovered by managers after the results and implications of
a marketing strategy (e.g., a product advertisement) are known. Beyond
deciding whether or not to continue with a chosen strategy, practi-
tioners can use the approach outlined here to determine the basis for
success or non-success with regard to specific tactics. Gaining insight
into why something worked (or failed to work) can serve as an invalu-
able source of information as efforts are undertaken to develop subse-
quent strategies. Consumer advertising is frequently tested prior to
making a substantial investment in media spending to reach a broader
market audience. The approach advanced in this article implies that
also conducting follow-up testing using research methodologies as
diagnostic tools may enable organizations to maximize their return-
on-investment.
Research in marketing, as in many fields, has long been plagued with
a scholar–practitioner divide (see Rossiter & Percy, 2013, for a recent
discussion of this issue). As such, scholars frequently lament a lack of
theory-driven practice, while practitioners perceive a growing discon-
nect between the research conducted in academia and the real world.
The approach taken here suggests a novel and perhaps heretical
means of bridging this gap. Existing real-world data, rather than
academically-derived hypotheses, could serve as the knowledge-base
from which research could assist in the generation of useful and practi-
cal theories or models. In keeping with the notion of an inductive ap-
proach, practice would give rise to theory rather than theory giving
rise to practice (heresy!).
In the grand scheme of social science, the study of CNS is ultimately
in its infancy. While neuroscience researchers continue to increase the
understanding of the brain, a significant amount of hard work lies
ahead for those paving the way in CSN. Nevertheless, the potential to
measure conscious and unconscious brain activity in ad testing cannot
be ignored as the opportunity to better understand message processing
(attention, capacity, encoding, and retrieval), cognitive workload, and
emotional engagement (affinity, loyalty, advocacy) is of great value to
marketing researchers. The notion of the ever elusive “buy button” in
the brain may be hyperbole, but the scientific pursuit to utilize CNS to
observe human thought processes is not.
6. Theoretical implications
The ability of inductive research to promote the development of
novel and interesting theories on the basis of observed phenomena is
a central theme here. The theory and findings advanced in this article il-
lustrate the potential for “research in reverse” to generate results that
may not be intuitive, enriching the existing theory base and perhaps
even challenging common practices. As mentioned previously, this is
frequently done with qualitative data using methodological techniques
such as grounded theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1994) to proceed from
participant- generated observations to systematic frameworks. Despite
3175
success in this realm, attempts to do similar work that proceeds from
known and quantifiable results are notably lacking. Given the vast
amount of archival data that exists (i.e., Big Data) both for public con-
sumption and within organizations, a reverse research methodology
could serve as a catalyst for significant theoretical advances through
open research collaboration. Existing theoretical frameworks could
also be scrutinized in terms of proposed inductive methodology. Speci-
fying a theory and developing a specific set of measures and analyses
around that theory is one step, however a far more challenging under-
taking to discern whether the elements of an established theory emerge
from real-world outcome data and business decisions. An argument
commonly made in opposition for starting with real-world data is that
such data lack the necessary metrics (i.e., valid and reliable measures
of relevant constructs) to enable a true test of the theory in question.
However, the paradigm presents a mediating phase, where known re-
sults can be subjected to additional testing, such as dense-array EEG,
which allows for the usage of scientifically-acceptable measurements
of pertinent constructs.
An optimal paradigm might be one where inductive based research
is used as a form of reciprocal dialog. That is, findings gleaned from a
study such as this could then be subjected to a more traditional
hypothesis-based investigation. Observations from this research could
then be used as feedback to inform future “research in reverse” applica-
tions, which could then provide an impetus for imminent studies
employing the scientific method and so forth. In this way, the undeni-
able value of the scientific method continues to be acknowledged, as
is the fine line that exists between heresy and apostasy.
7. Conclusion
Although the research reviewed here is limited to a single and fairly
specialized (i.e., dense array EEG) study, an inductive “research in re-
verse” approach warrants additional focus and consideration. The argu-
ment for starting with known results and working towards greater
theoretical understanding has been based on the traditional usage of
physiological and neurological measurement tools, but such an ap-
proach could be generalized to more traditional marketing research
methodologies with equal benefit. At a minimum, conducting “research
in reverse” assists in bridging the persistent divide between theory and
practice. At best, an inductive approach is poised to add a substantial
amount of further insight and depth to CNS and throughout the various
fields and subfields of marketing research. Similar things were said of
the scientific method, which has come to inform the vast majority of
marketing research, in a time before the paradigm rose to prominence
and was viewed as “heresy” within the scientific community.
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