CIV-E1010 Building Materials Technology (5 cr) (1/20)

Lecture 11. Reinforcing steel and composite materials

Prepared by:
Fahim Al-Neshawy, D.Sc. (Tech.)
Aalto University School of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
A: P.O.Box 12100, FIN-00076 Aalto, Finland
 CIV-E1010 Building Materials Technology (5 cr) (2/20)

Table of Contents
Lecture 11. Reinforcing steel and composite materials ............................................................................ 1
11.1 What is reinforced concrete? ...................................................................................................... 3
11.2 Reinforcing steel .......................................................................................................................... 3
11.2.1 Conventional reinforcing steel ................................................................................................ 3
11.2.2 Steel for prestressed concrete ................................................................................................ 8
11.3 Composite materials (Structural Composites) ......................................................................... 12
11.3.1 Classification of composite materials ................................................................................... 13
11.3.2 Composites in civil engineering applications: ...................................................................... 15
11.3.3 Properties of composite materials........................................................................................ 16
11.3.4 Advantages and disadvantages of composite materials ..................................................... 20
 CIV-E1010 Building Materials Technology (5 cr) (3/20)

11.1 What is concrete reinforcing?

Reinforced concrete, or RCC, is concrete that contains embedded steel bars, plates, or fibers that
strengthen the material. The capability to carry loads by these materials is magnified, and because of
this RCC is used extensively in all construction. In fact, it has become the most commonly utilized
construction material.
Reinforced materials are embedded in the concrete in such a way that the two materials resist the
applied forces together. The compressive strength of concrete and the tensile strength of steel form a
strong bond to resist these stresses over a long span. Plain concrete is not suitable for most
construction projects because it cannot easily withstand the stresses created by vibrations, wind, or
other forces.
Rebar (reinforcing bar) is an important component of reinforced concrete.

· Rebar is usually formed from ridged carbon steel; the ridges give frictional adhesion to the
concrete.
· Rebar is used because although concrete is very strong in compression it is virtually without
strength in tension. To compensate for this, rebar is cast into it to carry the tensile loads on a
structure.
· Whilst any material with sufficient tensile strength could conceivably be used to reinforce
concrete, steel is used in concrete as they have similar coefficients of thermal expansion. This
means that a concrete structural member reinforced with steel will experience minimal stress
as a result of differential expansions of the two interconnected materials due to temperature
changes.

11.2 Reinforcing steel

Reinforcing steel could be used as conventional or pre-stressed reinforcing, depending on the design
situation.

· In conventional reinforcing, the stresses fluctuate with loads on the structure. This does not
place any special requirements on the steel.
· On the other hand, in pre-stressed reinforcement, the steel is under continuous tension. Any
stress relaxation will reduce the effectiveness of the reinforcement. Hence, special steels are
required.

11.2.1 Conventional reinforcing steel

Reinforcing steel (rebar) is manufactured in three forms: (i) plain bars, (ii) deformed bars, and (iii)
plain or deformed wire fabrics.
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Figure 1. Plain and deformed reinforcing steel bars.

According to the surface pattern of the rebar, it can be classified into plain rebar and deformed rebar as
follow:
Plain rebar: It is typically a round rod without repeating patterns of ridges and depressions on its
surface. They are often used in situations where the rebar sections need to slide, such as the highway
pavements, which are easy to subject to the weather induced expansion and cracking.
Deformed rebar: The majority of rebar are deformed. The ribs and depressions on its surface can
increase the bond strength with concrete and prevent slippage. The patterns can be customized
according to construction requirements. [1]
Some of the common rebar types as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Common reinforcing steel bars used in concrete structures [1].
Rebar name Description

It is a traditional rebar without anti-rust

coating, which means it has the lowest
price compared to rebars with zinc
Black rebar
coating or epoxy coating. According its
price advantage, it is widely used in most
buildings nowadays.

Different from black rebar, it has an anti-

rust and corrosion-resistant coating, by
Epoxy-coated rebar
which it can be used in humid and moist
environment, such as marine structures.

[1] http://www.reinforcing-bar.com/
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It is a normal black rebar with a layer of

zinc coating, which can prevent the rebar
Galvanized rebar from rusting and corrosion. Owing to the
property the zinc coating, it can be used
in bridges and thruways.

This kind of rebar features its long-life

cycle and long term corrosion-assistance.
Stainless steel rebar
Although it is the most expansive rebar,
but it has superior cost effectiveness.

11.2.1.1 Manufacturing process for reinforcing steel [2]

Figure 2 illustrates the most common reinforcing steel process routes. The different process stages
can be split into:

· Steelmaking: There are two common steel-making processes used for reinforcing steels.(i)
These are Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) and, (ii) perhaps the most common, Electric Arc
Furnace (EAF) steel making.
· Ladle refining: Ladle refining of liquid metal is a proven technology to produce high quality
steel. A Ladle Refining Furnace is used to raise the temperature and adjust the chemical
composition of molten metal.
· Continuous casting: Traditionally, after melting and refining, steel is cast into ingot moulds in
order to solidify. These moulds were then stripped, and the solidified steel was transferred to
a mill for rolling in at least two stages; first to billet, then to the finished product.

[2] Guide to reinforcing steel: Part 2-Manufacturing process routes for reinforcing steels. Online at:
http://www.ukcares.com/information/guides-to-reinforcing-steel
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Figure 2. Reinforcing steel manufacturing process. [3]

· Hot rolling: Whichever casting process is used, the as-cast product always contains defects
such as internal cracks, porosity and segregation, which are a result of the solidification
process. All reinforcing steels therefore go through a hot rolling operation in order to
consolidate the product, as well as change its shape. The reduction of cross-sectional area
from the ingoing billet to the finished bar must be sufficient to weld up any internal defects,
and improve the homogeneity in the product. In the hot rolling process, the cast billet is
reheated to a temperature of 1100- 1200°C, and then rolled through a rolling mill to reduce its
cross-section.
· Cold processing: In addition to hot process, there are reinforcing steels in which the properties
are achieved by cold processing. The two methods commonly used are (i) cold rolling and (ii)
cold drawing. The feedstock material for both processes is a hot rolled, round section rod. In
cold rolling, typically used to manufacture bars in coil of diameters 12mm and below, the rod
is deformed by passing it through a series of rolls. The material is forced into the gap between
the rolls, and so is compressed.
· Decoiling: All coil products have to be de-coiled before they can be used. Sometimes this is
done as part of the processing of cut and cut and bent shapes on an automatic link-bending
machine. De-coiling processes are generally of two types; (i) “roller” and (ii) “spinner”. In the
roller type, which is the more common, the coil is passed between two sets of rolls in a
‘serpentine’ fashion. The product undergoes reverse bending stresses, and the rolls are
adjusted so that the final product is straight, mostly followed by automatic bending to the
desired shape. In spinner straightening, which typically is used to produce straight lengths, the
coil passes through a set of rotating dies. The offset of the dies is adjusted along the length of
the straightener to produce a straight product at the exit.

[3] Guide to reinforcing steel: Part 2-Manufacturing process routes for reinforcing steels. Online at:
http://www.ukcares.com/information/guides-to-reinforcing-steel
 CIV-E1010 Building Materials Technology (5 cr) (7/20)

· Fabrication, cutting bending of reinforcing steel: The fabrication of reinforcing steels, into
shapes suitable for fixing into the concrete formwork, is normally performed 'off-site'. Very
little reinforcement is cut and bent on-site nowadays. The accuracy of cutting and bending
operations is vital to ensure proper fit on site, and to maintain required lap lengths, anchorage
lengths and cover.
· Manufacture of welded fabric: Welded wire steel fabric is manufactured with automatic
welding machines, where wires are welded together in square or rectangular grids. The wires
are welded by electric resistance in an automated state of the art machine which controls
welding parameters precisely.

11.2.1.3 Classification of reinforcing steel bars [4], [5]

Nowadays in Finland hot-rolled and cold-worked reinforcement are in use. The class of reinforcement
shows the yield strength of steel and other special properties.

Figure 3. Example of concrete reinforcement classes.

Table 2. Classes of reinforcement steel that are mostly used in Finland [5].

Reinforcement Description Yield strength fyk

class [MPa]
A500HW Weldable hot-rolled ribbed steel 500
A700HW Weldable hot-rolled ribbed steel 700
B500K Cold-worked ribbed steel 500
B700K Cold-worked ribbed steel 700
B600KX Cold-worked stainless ribbed steel 600

[4] Alexey Pronozin, (2012). Comparison of Russian, Finnish and European norms for reinforced concrete structures.
Saimaa University of Applied Sciences, Lappeenranta.

[5] SFS 1200, (1999) Betonirakenteiden yleiset teräkset. Lajit, nimikkeet ja merkinnät tuotteissa. Metalliteollisuuden
Standardisointiyhdistys ry.
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S235JRG2 Smooth round bar used as a lifting loops 235

S355J0 Smooth round bar used as a lifting loops 335

Table 3. Diameters of reinforcement bars used in Finland

Diameter Cross-section area Weight for one running meter,

[mm] [mm²] [kg]
6 28.3 0.22
8 50.3 0.39
10 78.5 0.62
12 113.1 0.89
16 201.1 1.58
20 314.2 2.47
25 490.9 3.85
32 804.2 6.31

11.2.2 Steel for prestressed concrete [6]

Prestressed concrete is a method for overcoming the concrete's natural weakness in tension. It can be
used to produce beams, floors or bridges with a longer span than is practical with ordinary reinforced
concrete. Prestressing can be accomplished in three ways: pre-tensioned concrete, and bonded or
unbounded post-tensioned concrete.
Prestressed concrete requires special wires, strands, cables, and bars. Steel for prestressed concrete
reinforcement must have high strength and low relaxation properties. High-carbon steels and high-
strength alloy steels are used for this purpose.

11.2.2.1 Prestressing steel wires (7)

A prestressing steel wire is a single unit made of steel. The

nominal diameters of the wires are 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.0
and 8.0 mm. The different types of wires are as follows.
1) Plain wire: No indentations on the surface.
2) Indented wire: There are circular or elliptical
indentations on the surface.
Figure 4. Wire prestressing steel.

[6] A. K. Sengupta and D. Menon, Pre-Stressed Concrete Structures – Course handouts. Online at:
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105106117/
7
European Standard. Draft Document - prEN 10138-2:2000 - Prestressing steels - Part 2: Wire
 CIV-E1010 Building Materials Technology (5 cr) (9/20)

According to the European Standard, the prestressing steel wire are names as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Example of the prestressing steel wire naming.

Figure 6. Steel wire indentation and specified indentation dimensions.

11.2.2.2 Prestressing steel Strands (8)

A few wires are spun (kiertyä) together in a helical form to

form a prestressing steel strand. The different types of
strands are:
1) 3 - Wire strand: Three wires are spun together to
form the strand.
2) Indented 3 – wire strand
3) 7 - Wire strand: In this type of strand, six wires are
spun around a central wire. The central wire is larger
than the other wires.
4) Indented 7 – wire strand
5) 7 - Wire compacted strand, class (G)

8
European Standard. Draft Document - prEN 10138-3:2000 - Prestressing steels - Part 3: Strand
 CIV-E1010 Building Materials Technology (5 cr) (10/20)

Figure 7. Strand prestressing steel.

According to the European Standard, the prestressing steel wire are names as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Example of the prestressing steel strand naming.

Figure 9. Steel strand indentation and specified indentation dimensions.

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11.2.2.3 Steel tendons

A group of strands or wires are placed together to form a prestressing tendon. The tendons are used
in post-tensioned members. Figure 10 shows the cross section of a typical tendon. The strands are
placed in a duct which may be filled with grout after the post-tensioning operation is completed

Figure 10. Cross section and anchor head unit of typical steel tendons.

11.2.2.4 Prestressing steel bars (9)

Prestressing bars are hot-rolled, tempered from the

rolling heat, stretched and annealed, with a circular
cross section. Bars are made of prestressing steel Y
1050 H according to prEN 10138-4.

· Threadbars:
Threadbars feature continuous hot-rolled
ribs, thus providing a right-hand thread along Figure 11. Prestressed concrete steel bars.
the entire length.

· Plain bars
Both ends of a plain bar, which is cut to suit individual project requirements, are provided with
special cold-rolled threads.
The diameter of a bar is much larger than that of a wire. Bars are available in the following sizes: 10,
12, 16, 20, 22, 25, 28 and 32 mm. According to the European Standard, the prestressing steel wire are
names as shown in Figure 12.

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European Standard. Draft Document - prEN 10138-4:2000 - Prestressing steels - Part 4: Bars
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Figure 12. Example of the prestressing steel bar naming.

11.3 Composite materials (Structural Composites) (10)

Composites are defined as materials which consist of not less than two different component
materials, neither of which are well suited for construction purposes on their own, but which in
combination result in a very strong and rigid material, as shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13. Comparison of tensile properties of fiber, matrix, and composite.

Common names used in industry:

• RP: Reinforced Plastics
• FRP: Fiber-reinforced plastics (Polymer) – the most popular one
• GFRP / CFRP: Glass FRP/Carbon FRP

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Michael S. Mamlouk and John P. Zaniewski, (2011). Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Chapter 11 -
COMPOSITES
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11.3.1 Classification of composite materials

As shown in Figure 14, Composite materials can be classified as:

1) Microscopic composites: include fibers or particles in sizes up to a few hundred microns
2) Macroscopic composites: could have constituents of much larger size, such as aggregate
particles and rebars in concrete.

Figure 14. A classification scheme for composite materials.

Figure 15. Composites classified by function

11.3.1.1 Microscopic composites:

Many microscopic composite materials consist of two constituent phases:

1) a continuous phase, or matrix
2) the dispersed phase or reinforcing phase, which is surrounded by the matrix. In most cases,
the dispersed phase is harder and stiffer than the matrix.
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Microscopic composites fall into two basic classes based on the shape of the dispersed phase:
a) Fiber-reinforced:
· include fibers dispersed in a matrix such as metal or polymer.
· Fibers have a very high strength-to-diameter ratio, with near crystal-sized diameters.
· Fibers are manufactured from many materials, such as glass, carbon and graphite,
polymer, boron, ceramic, and silicon carbide.
· Because of their low cost and high strength, glass fibers are the most common of all
reinforcing fibers for polymer matrix composites.
b) Particle-reinforced:
· Particle-reinforced composites consist of particles dispersed in a matrix phase.
· The strengthening mechanism of particle-reinforced composites varies with the size of
the reinforcing particles.
· When the size of the particles is about 0.01 micron to 0.1 micron, the matrix bears
most of the applied load, whereas the small dispersed particles hinder or impede the
motion of dislocations.
· when the particles are larger than 1 micron, particles act as fillers to improve the
properties of the matrix phase and/or to replace some of its volume.
The matrix used in most microscopic composites is polymer (plastic) or metal. The matrix binds the
dispersed materials (particles or fibers) together, transfers loads to them, and protects them against
environmental attack and damage due to handling. Polymers have the advantages of low cost, easy
processability, good chemical resistance, and low specific gravity.
Figure 16 shows composites with continuously aligned fibers, random fibers, and random particles.
The mechanism of strengthening varies for different classes and for different sizes and orientations of
the dispersed shape.

Figure 16. Schematic of microscopic composites:(a) aligned fibers, (b) random fibers, and (c) random
particles.
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Figure 17. Pultrusion scheme used in fabricating structural shape fiber-reinforced composites.

Fabrication of microscopic composites includes the merging of the matrix and dispersed material into
a product with minimum air voids. Several methods have been used to fabricate the composites. The
selection of the fabrication process typically is based on:
i. the chemical nature of the matrix and of the dispersed phases,
ii. the shape and strength requirements, and
iii. the temperature required to form, melt, or cure the matrix.
Figure 17 illustrates fabrication of structural shape fiber-reinforced composites by using the
pultrusion process. Pultrusion is an automated process for manufacturing fiber-reinforced composite
materials into continuous, constant-cross-section profiles.

11.3.1.2 Macroscopic composites:

Macroscopic composites are used in many engineering applications. Because macroscopic composites
are relatively large, how the load is carried and how the properties of the composite components are
improved vary from one composite to another. Common macroscopic composites used by civil and
construction engineers include:

· plain Portland cement concrete,

· steel-reinforced concrete,
· asphalt concrete, and
· engineered wood such as glued–laminated timber, and structural strand board.

11.3.2 Composites in civil engineering applications: (11)

· Fiber-Reinforced Plastic (FRP) shapes: panels, rods, tubes, beams, columns, cellular panels
(highway bridge decks), etc.:
o Cables and Tendons as tension elements (pre- and post-tensioning of structures)

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Pizhong Qiao, Composite Materials in Civil Infrastructure (Structural Composites). Lecture notes. Online at:
http://pas.ce.wsu.edu/CE537-2/ce537-ch01.pdf
 CIV-E1010 Building Materials Technology (5 cr) (16/20)

o Beams, girders and cellular panels to support large loads (vehicular and pedestrian
bridges)
o Trusses in a wide variety of structures (bridges, transmission towers, and industrial
plants)
o Columns, posts and pilings to carry vertical loads (bridge columns, marine pilings, and
utility poles)
· Laminates and wraps to strengthen structures:
o Fabrics for external reinforcement (wrapping) of concrete, wood, and even steel
(strengthening, rehabilitation, and retrofit (impact: retrofit-hardening))
o Laminates (or plates) bonded to beams on the tension side (reinforcement and
strengthening and repair)
o Filament winding of concrete and wood cores (railroad crossties and utility poles)
· Composite rebars and grids to reinforce concrete in bridge decks and highway barriers
· Composite cables and tendons to prestress/post-tension concrete structures (bridges and
building)
· Composites can also be used to strengthen and wrap columns and bridge supports that are
partially damaged by earthquakes and other environmental factors
· Fiber-reinforced concrete is another composite material that has been used by civil engineers
in various structural applications. Different types of fibers, such as separate fibers, chopped-
strands, or rovings, can be used to reinforce the concrete.
· Entrained air in concrete can also be considered as a component in a microscopic composite
material. Entrained air increases the durability of concrete since it releases internal stresses
caused by the freezing of water within the concrete.

Figure 18. Examples of using composites in civil engineering applications.

11.3.3 Properties of composite materials

The properties of composite materials are affected by:

1) the component properties,
2) volume fractions of components,
3) type and orientation of the dispersed phase, and
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4) the bond between the dispersed phase and the matrix.

The properties of the composite can be viewed as the weighted average of the properties of the
components. Equations can be derived to estimate the composite properties under certain idealized
material properties, loading patterns, and geometrical conditions. Assumptions that can be used to
simplify the analysis include the following:

· Each component has linear, elastic, and isotropic properties.

· A perfect bond exists between the dispersed and matrix phases without slipping.
· The composite geometry is idealized and the loading pattern is parallel or perpendicular to
reinforcing fibers.

11.3.3.1 Loading parallel to fibers

When load is applied to an aligned fiber-reinforced composite parallel to the fibers, as seen in Figure
19 (a), both matrix and fiber phases will deform equally. Thus, the strains of both phases will be the
same (known as an isostrain condition) and are given by:
e =e =e =e (1)

Where e = total strain

ec = composite strain
em = matrix strain
ef = fiber strain
Also, the force applied to the composite Fc is the sum of the force carried by the matrix F m and the
force carried by the fibers F f:
= + (2)
= + (3)
= + (4)

= + (5)

= + (6)
, = + (7)

Where Fi = force carried by component i (c = composite, m = matrix and f = fiber)

si = stress of component i
Ai = area of component i
Ei = modulus of elasticity of component i
vi = the volume fraction of each component and wm + vf = 1
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X = a property such as Poisson’s ratio, thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, or

diffusivity

The share of the load carried by the fibers can be determined as follows:
s
= = = (8)
s

Figure 19. Patterns of loading continuously aligned fiber-reinforced composites: (a) loading parallel to
fibers and (b) loading perpendicular to fibers.

11.3.3.2 Loading perpendicular to fibers

When load is applied to an aligned fiber-reinforced composite perpendicular to the fibers [Figure 19
(b)], both matrix and fiber phases will be subjected to the same stress (isostress condition).
s =s =s =s (9)

Where si = stress of component i (c = composite, m = matrix and f = fiber)

The elongation of the composite in the direction of the applied stress is the sum of the elongations of
the matrix and fibers:
∆ = ∆ +∆ (10)

Dividing Equation 10 by the composite length Lc in the stress direction gives

∆ ∆ ∆
= + (11)

Assuming that the fibers are uniform in thickness, the cumulative length of each component in the
direction of the stress is proportional to its volume fraction. Thus Lm = vmLc and Lf = vfLc
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∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
= + , e= e = e + e (12)

s s s s 1
e ℎ = + = +

(13)
=
+
Generally,
= (14)
+

Where X = a property such as Poisson’s ratio, thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, or

diffusivity
The moduli in Equations 7 and 14 can be plotted as functions of the volume fraction of the fiber, as
shown in Figure 20. Clearly, the fibers are more effective in raising the modulus of the composite
when loading parallel to fibers thanwhen loading perpendicular to fibers.

Figure 20. Modulus of elasticity of the composite versus fiber volume fraction.

11.3.3.3 Randomly oriented fiber composites

Unlike continuously aligned fiber composites, the mechanical properties of randomly oriented fiber
composites are isotropic. The modulus of elasticity of randomly oriented fiber composites falls
between the moduli of loading parallel to fibers and perpendicular to fibers.
To estimate the modulus of elasticity of randomly oriented fiber composites, Equation 6 can be
rewritten as:
= + (15)
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where K is a fiber efficiency parameter. For fibers randomly and uniformly distributed within three
dimensions in space, K has a value of 0.2.

11.3.4 Advantages and disadvantages of composite materials (12)

Advantages of composite materials:

· High strength-to-weight ratio (specific strength)

· High stiffness-to-weight ratio (specific stiffness)
· Noncorrosive, nonmagnetic, nonconductive
· High energy absorption properties: acoustic and seismic responses
· High fatigue-life
· Ability to incorporate sensors in the material to monitor and/or correct its performance à
Smart composites
· Ability to tailor the material (both fiber architecture and shape) for specific applications, and
to design the material with other inherent properties (UV light, flammability, smoke toxicity)
· Ease of fabrication of large complex structural shapes or modules à Modular construction

Disadvantages of composites

· Cost of raw materials and fabrication

· Possible weakness of transverse properties
· Weak matrix and low toughness
· Environmental degradation of matrix
· Difficulty in attaching
· Difficulty with analysis

12
Pizhong Qiao, Composite Materials in Civil Infrastructure (Structural Composites). Lecture notes. Online at:
http://pas.ce.wsu.edu/CE537-2/ce537-ch01.pdf