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Unit 2: Sets and Relations

Definition 1
A set is a well-defined collection of (distinct) objects. The objects are called elements of a
set.

By well-defined, we mean that if x is any object and S is any set, then exactly one is true:

i. x ∈ S, read as “x is in S” or “x is an element of S”

ii. x ∈
/ S, read as “x is not in S” or “x is not an element of S”

Notations:

1. We will use capital letters such as A, B, C, . . . , to denote a set.

2. We will use lower case letters as a, b, c, . . . , to denote an element of a set.

Definition 2
The empty set, denoted by ∅ or {}, is the only set with no elements. The universal set,
denoted by U, is the largest set being considered at a time.

Two ways in writing a set:

1. Listing or Roster Method − we list down all the possible elements of a set and enclose it
in braces.

2. Rule Method or Set-builder Notation - we use a descriptive phrase or a defining con-

dition to describe the elements of a set. Those and only those elements that satisfy the
descriptive phrase or defining condition are the elements of the set. This is usually written
of the form: S = {x ∈ U | p(x)}, where p(x) is the defining condition of set S.
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Example 1. Write the following in set notation.

1. A := Positive integers between 0 and 10

2. B := Prime numbers ≤ 20

3. C := Positive multiples of 3

4. D := Divisors of 15

5. E := Real number solution of x2 + 1 = 0

6. F := Persons whose height is ≥ 10 feet.

Definition 3
The cardinality of a set S, denoted by n(S), is the number of elements in S.

Definition 4
A set S is said to be finite if its cardinality is a non-negative integer. A set that is not finite
is called an infinite set.

Some infinite sets that will be used later.

1. R := set of real numbers

2. Q := set of rational numbers

 
x
Q= | x, y ∈ Z and y 6= 0
y
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3. Z := set of integers

Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}

4. Z+ := set of positive integers

Z+ = {1, 2, 3, . . .}

5. Z− := set of negative integers

Z− = {−1, −2, −3, . . .}

2.1 Relations on sets

Definition 5
Two sets A and B are said to be

1. equivalent, denoted by A ∼ B, if and only if A and B have the same number of

elements. That is, n(A) = n(B).

2. equal, denoted by A = B, if and only if A and B have exactly the same elements.

Remark: If two sets A and B are equal, then they are equivalent. The converse is not always true.

Definition 6
The set A is said to be a subset of a set B, denoted by A ⊆ B, if and only if every element
of A is in B. The set B is called the superset of A. If A ⊆ B and B has at least one element
not in A, then we say that A is properly contained in B, and denoted by A ⊂ B.

Definition 7
The power set of a set S, denoted by P(S), is the set containing all the subsets of S.

Example 2. Determine the power set of the following.

1. A = {a, b, c}

2. B = {a, b}
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3. C = {a}

4. ∅

Remark: If A is finite, then n(P(A)) = 2k , where k ≥ 0.

2.2 Operations on Sets

Definition 8
Let A ⊆ U. The complement of a set A, denoted by Ac or A0 , is the set of all elements
in the universal set U that are not in A. That is, Ac = {x ∈ U | x ∈
/ A}.

Example 3.

1. Let U = {x ∈ Z+ | x ≤ 20}, A = {x ∈ U | x is prime}, B = {x ∈ U | x is odd}, and

C = {x ∈ U | x is even}. Determine the following:

(a) Ac

(b) B c

(c) C c

2. Let U = {x ∈ Z+ | x is a multiple of 2}, A = {x ∈ U | x is divisible by 3},

B = {x ∈ U | x is divisible by 4}, and C = {x ∈ U | x is divisible by 5}.
Determine the following:

(a) Ac
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(b) B c

(c) C c

Remarks: Let A, B ⊆ U. Then

1. (Ac )c = A

2. U c = ∅

3. ∅c = U

Definition 9
Let A, B ⊆ U. The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A∪B, is the set of all elements
that are either in set A or in set B (or both). That is, A ∪ B = {x ∈ U | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

Example 4.

1. Let U = {x ∈ Z+ | x ≤ 20}, A = {x ∈ U | x is prime}, B = {x ∈ U | x is odd}, and

C = {x ∈ U | x is even}. Determine the following:

(a) A ∪ B

(b) A ∪ C

(c) B ∪ C

2. Let U = {x ∈ Z+ | x is a multiple of 2}, A = {x ∈ U | x is divisible by 3},

B = {x ∈ U | x is divisible by 4}, and C = {x ∈ U | x is divisible by 5}.
Determine the following:

(a) A ∪ B
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(b) A ∪ C

(c) B ∪ C

Remarks: Let A, B ⊆ U. Then

1. A ∪ A = A

2. A ∪ U = U

3. A ∪ ∅ = A

4. A ∪ Ac = U

5. U ∪ ∅ = U

Definition 10
Let A, B ⊆ U. The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of
all elements that are in both A and B. That is, A ∩ B = {x ∈ U | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}. If
A ∩ B = ∅, then we say that A and B are disjoint sets.

Example 5.

1. Let U = {x ∈ Z+ | x ≤ 20}, A = {x ∈ U | x is prime}, B = {x ∈ U | x is odd}, and

C = {x ∈ U | x is even}. Determine the following:

(a) A ∩ B

(b) A ∩ C

(c) B ∩ C
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2. Let U = {x ∈ Z+ | x is a multiple of 2}, A = {x ∈ U | x is divisible by 3},

B = {x ∈ U | x is divisible by 4}, and C = {x ∈ U | x is divisible by 5}.
Determine the following:

(a) A ∩ B

(b) A ∩ C

(c) B ∩ C

Remarks: Let A, B ⊆ U. Then

1. A ∩ A = A

2. A ∩ U = A

3. A ∩ ∅ = ∅

4. A ∩ Ac = ∅

5. U ∩ ∅ = ∅

6. If A and B are finite sets, then n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B).

7. De Morgan’s Laws

(a) (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c
(b) (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c

Definition 11
Let A, B ⊆ U. The set difference of two sets A and B, denoted by A − B or A \ B, is
the set of all elements that are in A but not in B. That is, A − B = {x ∈ A | x ∈
/ B}.
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Example 6.

1. Let U = {x ∈ Z+ | x ≤ 20}, A = {x ∈ U | x is prime}, B = {x ∈ U | x is odd}, and

C = {x ∈ U | x is even}. Determine the following:

(a) A − B

(b) B − A

(c) A − C

(d) C − A

(e) B − C

(f) C − B

2. Let U = {x ∈ Z+ | x is a multiple of 2}, A = {x ∈ U | x is divisible by 3},

B = {x ∈ U | x is divisible by 4}, and C = {x ∈ U | x is divisible by 5}.
Determine the following:

(a) A − B

(b) B − A

(c) A − C

(d) C − A
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(e) B − C

(f) C − B

Remarks: Let A, B ⊆ U. Then

1. A − A = ∅

2. A − B = A if and only if A ∩ B = ∅. Similarly, B − A = B.

3. A − ∅ = A

4. A − Ac = A

5. U − ∅ = U

6. ∅ − U = ∅

Applications: Solving Word Problems Using Venn Diagram

Example 7. A survey of 85 car owners showed the following: 41 owned an Audi; 53 owned a
Bugatti; 43 owned a Chrysler; 27 owned an Audi and a Bugatti; 25 owned an Audi and a Chrysler;
20 owned a Bugatti and a Chrysler; and, 15 owned an Audi, a Bugatti, and a Chrysler. Based on
the given data,

1. how many owns at least one of the three brands (Audi, Bugatti, Chrysler)?

2. how many owns at most one of the three brands (Audi, Bugatti, Chrysler)?

3. how many owns exactly one of the three brands (Audi, Bugatti, Chrysler)?

4. how many owns exactly two of the three brands (Audi, Bugatti, Chrysler)?

5. how many owns a Bugatti only?

6. how many owns a Chrysler but not an Audi?

7. how many owns a Bugatti or a Chrysler?

8. how many owns an Audi or a Bugatti?

9. how many owns an Audi, but not a Bugatti and a Chrysler?

10. how many owns a Chrysler, but not an Audi or a Bugatti?

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Definition 12
Let A, B ⊆ U. The cartesian product (cross product) of A and B, is the set defined by
A × B = {(x, y) | x ∈ A and y ∈ B}. If A and B are finite sets, then n(A × B) = n(A) · n(B).

Example 8. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b}, and C = {2, 3, 5}. Determine the following:

1. A × B

2. B × A

3. A × C

4. C × A

5. B × C

6. C × B

Definition 13: Intervals on R

1. (a, b) = {x ∈ R | a < x < b}

2. [a, b] = {x ∈ R | a ≤ x ≤ b}

3. (a, b] = {x ∈ R | a < x ≤ b}

4. [a, b) = {x ∈ R | a ≤ x < b}

5. (a, ∞) = {x ∈ R | x > a}

6. [a, ∞) = {x ∈ R | x ≥ a}

7. (−∞, b) = {x ∈ R | x < b}

8. (−∞, b] = {x ∈ R | x ≤ b}
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Remarks:

1. (a, b)c = (−∞, a] ∪ [b, ∞)

2. [a, b]c = (−∞, a) ∪ (b, ∞)

Example 9. Sketch the graph of the following intervals.

1. (−2, 3]c

2. [−1, 4)c

Example 10. Let A = (1, 5] and B = [2, 4). Sketch the graph of the following:

1. A × B

2. B × A
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2.3 Relations on sets

Definition 14
A relation R on A 6= ∅ is a subset of A × A. In symbols, R ⊆ A × A. If (a, b) ∈ A, then we
say “a is related to b”, denoted by a R b, if and only if (a, b) ∈ R.

Example 11. Consider the following relations on A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. List down all the elements
of each relation.

1. R1 = {(a, b) | a ≤ b}

2. R2 = {(a, b) | a divides b}

  
 a−b
3. R3 = (a, b)  2 ∈Z

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Definition 15: Properties of Relations

1. A relation R is said to be reflexive if for every a ∈ A, (a, a) ∈ R.

2. A relation R is said to be symmetric if (a, b) ∈ R implies (b, a) ∈ R.

3. A relation R is said to be anti-symmetric if (a, b) and (b, a) ∈ R implies a = b.

4. A relation R is said to be transitive if (a, b) and (b, c) ∈ R implies (a, c) ∈ R.

5. A relation R is said to be an equivalence relation if and only if R is reflexive,

symmetric, and transitive.

6. A relation R is said to be a partial order if and only if R is reflexive, anti-symmetric,

and transitive.

Example 12. Determine whether each of the following relations satisfy the given properties.

Reflexive Symmetric Anti-Symmetric Transitive Equivalence Partial Order

Relation
R1
R2
R3
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Remarks: A relation R can also be represented using a directed graph (digraph).

1. R1 :

2. R2 :

3. R3 :