Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
STRUCTURES
(VOLUME II)
[S.I. UNITS]
By
Dr. Ram Chandra
B.E., M.E. (Hons.), M.I.E., Ph.D. (Roorkee) , MIE
Professor and Head
Department of Structural Engineering
M.B.M. Engineering College
University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur (Rajasthan)
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RAJINDER KUMAR JAIN
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FOREWORD iii
D EDICATED
TO
M Y TEACHERS
Words from the Publishers
Seventh edition of this book Design of Steel Structure Vol I and II is based on
IS : 800–1984 as amended in 1997 and so also newly revised IS : 883–1994 for
structural timber.
New code of practice, IS : 800 is likely to be issued soon. In this it is likely to
introduce ‘Limit State Design of Steel Structure’.
For unsymmetrical bending and even for simple theory of bending, concept
of shear-centre and axis of bending are essentially needed. These topics may be
better appreciated, in case, the position and the location of shear centre for
open thin-walled steel sections are nicely known. Illustrative examples have
been given to explain the location of shear centre.
Instead of IS : 883–1970, complete text for timber structures has also been
revised as per revised and new code IS : 883–1994
Inspite of careful scrutiny of the manuscript, it is possible that some
typograhical and computational errors are still left are noticed, publisher shall
feel highly obliged to those, who bring these errors to their notice. Suggestions
and comments from the readers for further improvement of the forthcoming
editions of the shall be appreciated.
2015
Foreword
Tables and clauses from the Indian Standard Specifications have been
reproduced in the book with the kind permission of the Indian Standards
Institution.
It is desirable that for complete detail, reference be made to the latest versions
of the Standards Institution, Manak Bhavan, 9, Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg,
New Delhi-1, or from its branch offices at Mumbai, Kolkata, Kanpur and
Chennai.
SYSTEM INTERNATIONAL d’ UNITES
(SI System of Units)
In order to avoid the conversion of results obtained by engineers working with
the Foot Pound Second (FPS) System (gravitational) of units in terms of
centimetre-gram second absolute system of units used by the scientists, a need
of common system of units was realised. The General Conference on Weights
and Measures held at Paris in 1960 finalised the System International d’ Unites
(SI). It is an absolute system of units. The mass is considered as fundamental
unit and not the force. BIS has included a comment of transition in IS 3616–
1966. ‘Recommendation on the International System (SI) Units’ that this system
has begun to replace older system of units in several branches of science and
technology. The SI is a universal system of units and it has been adopted in
France as a legal system and it is likely to become common in many countries.
SI units have the following six basic units.
Unit of Length (metre, m)
The length equal to 1,650, 763.73 wavelengths, in vacuum, of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between 2p19 and 5d5 levels of the krypton η
atom of mass 86 is known as one metre.
Unit of Mass (kilogram, kg)
The mass of platinum-indium cylinder deposited at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures and declared as the international prototype of the
kilogram by the First General Conference of Weights and Measures is called as
one kilogram.
Unit of Time (second, s)
1131, 566, 925, 974.7 of the length of the tropical year for 1900, the year
commencing at 1200 hours universal time on the first day of January, 1900 is
termed as one second.
Unit of Electric Current (ampere, A)
The constant current which flows in two parallel straight conductors of infinite
length of negligible circular cross-section and placed at a distance of one metre
from each other in vacuum producing a force of 2 × 10–7 New tons per metre
length between the conductors is defined as an ampere.
FOREWORD vii
1.6.3 By Cantilevering 18
1.6.4 By Using Cable Way 19
1.6.5 By Floating Spans into Position 19
1.7 Economical Span Length 19
1.8 Clearance 22
1.9 Width of Roadway and Footway 25
1.10 Dimension of Rolling Stock 25
1.11 Historical Development of Bridges 26
1.11.1 Beam Type (Timber) Bridges 27
1.11.2 Cantilever Type (Timber) Bridges 27
1.11.3 Arch Type (Stone and Brick Masonry) Bridges 27
1.11.4 Timber Bridges 28
1.11.5 Iron Bridge 28
1.11.6 Steel Bridges : (Arch and Truss Bridges) 29
1.11.6 Steel Bridges : (Cantilever Bridges) 29
1.11.7 Suspension Bridges 30
1.11.8 Cable Stayed Bridges 30
1.11.9 Reinforced Concrete Bridges 30
1.11.10 Prestress Concrete Bridges 30
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The bridges are the structures, which provide means of communication (viz.,
passage) over a gap. In some gaps, the water flow for a part of the year or for
whole of the year. Whereas, some other gaps remain dry throughout the year.
The rivers, canyons and valleys form natural gaps. The railway and highway
crossings, highway and canal crossings form artificial gaps. The bridges provide
passage for the vehicular or other traffic over these gaps. The bridges constructed
to carry highway traffic are known as highway bridges. The roads provide
passage. The bridges built to carry railway traffic are known as railway bridges.
The railway tracks provide passage. There are some bridges which carry the
highway and railway traffic both, and these bridges are known as combined
highway and railway bridges. There are some bridges for pedestrians only.
Such bridges are known as foot bridges. There are some bridges which carry
canals and pipe lines and these bridges are known as aqueduct bridges.
The bridges are made of timber, stone masonry, brick masonry, reinforced
cement concrete, prestressed cement concrete and steel. The timber bridges are
used for short spans, light loads and for temporary bridges. The masonry bridges
are also used for short spans. The economy of masonry bridges depends upon
the availability of good building materials and the skilled labour. The masonry
bridges are generally arch bridges. There are various types of reinforced cement
concrete bridges, which are suitable for different spans and the different site
conditions. The steel bridges have been discussed in this part of the book.
The deck consisting of slab, girders (I-beams, plate girders, truss girders,
etc.), bearings (which support girders) are the various components of the bridge.
These components may be clubbed into first group. In addition to these, the
abutments, piers, foundations, river training works, approaches, hand rails etc.,
4 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
are also the components of the bridge. These components may be put into second
group. The components included in first group and foundation are the structural
systems. The components of second group forming the sub-structure are also
considered as structural systems. The components placed below the level of
bearings are grouped as sub-structure, whereas the components placed above
the level of bearings are grouped as super structure.
In human history, the bridges have figured prominently. The cities develop
at a bridge head (e.g., London, Oxford, Cambridge, Innsbruck). The bridges
abridge the distances and have rendered most for the civilization of our species.
The bridges also have great importance in war also. The bridges help in
advancement of the army. The bridges are destroyed in case, the army retreats.
In military, special emphasis is given in training to build new bridges in short
time and to destroy the existing bridges, if necessary.
In box girder bridges, the box-shape sections are built from stiffened plates,
angle sections, channel sections and/or beam sections. The box girder bridges
are used for 15 m to 50 m spans. The cable stayed bridges are recently (viz.,
1970) developed bridges. These bridges are used for 300 m to 600 m spans. The
girders are supported by cables (which may be arranged in different
arrangements). The cables are attached with tall towers built on two sides of
the bridge spans. The tall towers are supported by heavy foundations. The cable
stayed bridges have different profiles and the structural configurations.
(a ) B e am b rid g e
(d ) S u sp e nsio n bridg e
Fig. 1.1
2. The steel bridges are classified according to the structural layout of the
principal load carrying members as follows :
(a) Simply supported span bridges
(b) Continuous span bridges
(c) Cantilever bridges
(d) Arch bridges
(e) Rigid frame bridges
In the simply supported span bridges, the whole width to be bridged is divided
into number of individual spans. In each span, the load carrying member is
simply supported at both ends. Both, the plate girder and the truss girder load
carrying elements are used in this type of bridges. A simply supported truss
girder bridge is shown in Fig. 1.2. The analysis in this type of bridge is very
6 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
simple. The simply supported span bridges are suitable where the uneven
settlement of foundation may take place.
The simple truss bridge J.J. Barry built in 1973 over Delware river with
250.546 m span and the simple girder bridge built in 1951 over Harlem river,
New York city are the examples of their type with maximum spans.
In the continuous span bridges the load carrying member of the bridge is
continuous over more than two supports. The continuous span bridge is shown
in Fig. 1.3. The continuous span bridges are statically indeterminate structures.
The reactions at the supports depend upon the type of the structure and the
also defined as a bridge in which one or more of its trusses are extended beyond
their supports thus forming cantilever arms. The extended arms or cantilever
arms support other trusses at their ends. The central span is known as suspended
span. This suspended span is supported by the cantilever portions.
negative moments developed at the pier support. The chief advantage of the
cantilever bridges is that the cantilever portions and the suspended span may
be erected without the use of falsework or staging. The cantilever bridges are
8 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
suitable where the uneven settlement of the foundation may occur. The cantilever
bridges are used from 200 m span to 600 m span. The forth cantilever bridge
built in 1889 at Scotland with 520 m is example of its type.
Aesthetically, the arch bridges enhance the beauty of its surroundings more
than the simple truss bridges. The various types of arch bridges are shown in
Fig. 1.5. The arches are built by girder or trusses. The arches used for the arch
bridges are fixed arches, two hinged arches, and the three hinged arches. The two
hinged arches are most commonly used for arch bridges. The arch bridges are
classified as solid ribbed, tied, braced rib, or spandrel braced. The solid ribbed
steel arch bridges as shown in Fig. 1.5 (a) are used more for the highway bridges
than for the railway bridges. These bridges are used for 150 m span to 200 m
span. The braced rib arches as shown in Fig. 1.5 (b) are mainly used for highway
bridges. These bridges are used for long spans from 500 m to 600 m. The spandrel
braced arches as shown in Fig. 1.5 (c) are used for railway bridges. These bridges
are used for spans upto 350 m. The horizontal thrust from this arch is resisted by
supports (abutments and/or piers) or by horizontal ties. When the horizontal ties
resist the horizontal thrust of the arch, the arch is known as tied arch as shown in
Fig. 1.5 (d). The horizontal ties are in direct tension. These ties are suspended
from the arch rib at intervals. These ties form side members of the deck
construction. Figure 1.5 (e) shows tied arch bridge in which the deck is placed at
a level above the apparent springing of the arch. The major portion of the length
of deck is suspended by the suspenders from the arch rib. Towards the end, the
deck is supported from top of the arch ring by columns or by cross-walls.
The steel arch bridge built in 1976 over New River George at West Virginia
with 518.160 m span is the example of its type.
In the rigid frame bridges, the load carrying members are the rigid frames.
The steel rigid frame bridge as shown in Fig. 1.6 (a) is quite oftenly used for
single spans. This type of bridge is very satisfactory for over passages. This type
of bridge is economical for spans from 10 m to 25 m. The verticals of rigid frame
act as abutments and provide continuity. Figure 1.6 (b) shows a series of
continuous span rigid frame bridge. The rigid frame bridges are suitable for
rigid foundations.
(a )
(b )
3. The steel bridges are classified according to the cross-section of the bridge,
i.e., floor location as follows :
(i) Deck type bridge
(ii) Through type bridge
(iii) Half through type bridge.
In the deck type bridge, the floor rests on the top of main load carrying
members. In the deck type plate girder bridge, the floor is placed on the top
flanges. In the deck type truss girder bridge, the floor is placed on the top chords.
In the deck type bridge, the bracing is not done over the top of the traffic. In the
through type bridge, the floor rests on the bottom of main load carrying members.
In the through type plate girder bridge, the floor is placed on the bottom flanges.
In the through type truss girder bridge, the floor is placed on the bottom chords.
In the through type bridge, the bracing is also done over the top of the traffic. In
the half-through type bridge, the floor lies in between the top and the bottom of
the main load carrying members. The half through type bridge is also termed a
semi-through or a pony bridge. In the half-through type bridge, the over bracing
is not done, and the load carrying members project above the floor level. There
are also double deck type bridges. The decks are provided at two different levels.
In the double deck type bridges, both the decks can be through type or one can
be open deck type and the other can be the through type. The deck type and the
through type plate girder bridges have been further discussed in Chapter 3.
The deck type and the through type truss girder bridges have been further
discussed in Chapter 4.
The grade line of highway or railway track and the clearance required under
the bridge decide the use of deck type or through type bridge. In case, the
sufficient clearance is available under the bridge, the deck type bridges are the
advantageous over the through type bridges. The deck type bridges are relatively
economical. The load carrying members may be placed close together than in
the through type bridges. This reduces the length of floor beams and the lateral
moments in the floor system. The heights of piers and abutments are reduced in
the deck type bridge. This reduces the masonry work. The deck type bridges
have pleasing appearance. The deck type bridges are therefore more popular
than through type bridges.
4. The steel bridges are classified according to the type of connections (or
fasteners used) as follows:
1. Riveted bridges
2. Welded bridges
3. Pin-connected (and bolted) bridges.
The majority of steel bridges are riveted bridges. The welded bridges are
recently designed and constructed. The pin-connected bridges were constructed
in the past. The riveted joints are rigid and have more secondary stresses. In
order to reduce the secondary stresses, the pin-connections were introduced. It
was found that the pin-connections are not as free to rotate as these were thought
to be. The maintenance of the pin-joints is also difficult. The pin-connected
bridges are not constructed nowadays.
10 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
frame turns about the central pivot. There is a circular revolving platform resting
on the pivot and rollers. A toothed arc with suitable wheel work and fixed with
S w ing b ridge
the revolving platform gives motion to the platform. A set of parallel girders or
cross girders resting on and fixed to the revolving platform support a continuous
steel truss girder bridge. The truss girder may carry the floor at the top chord or
at the bottom chord.
The swing span bridge over Ft. Madison (a rail road bridge) at Mississippi
river built in 1927 has 160.02 m span.
(b ) D o ub le ba scu le b rid ge s
counter-weight facilitates the raising of bridge. The centre of gravity of the whole
system of bridge lies on the horizontal axis about horizontal axis about which
12 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
the bridge rotates. The strength of the bridge should be sufficient to support
safely the overhanging weight of its structure, when lifted from the direct
support. Figure 1.8 (a) shows single bascule bridge. In the single span bascule
bridge, the bridge is turned up vertically at one end. Figure 1.8 (b) shows double
bascule bridge. In the double bascule bridge the bridge is turned up vertically at
both the ends. The bascule bridge is suitable for small spans. The bascule bridge
can be opened more quickly than the swing bridge. The opening of the bridge
becomes difficult in case heavy wind is blowing.
The single-leaf bascule bridge 16th street (rail road bridge) at Chicago, Illinois
built in 1919 and the bascule bridge over Sault Ste. Marie Michigan built in
1914 have 79.248 m and 102.413 m spans, respectively. The Pampan bridge at
Rameshwaram (India) is the other example.
strong frame. The frame is supported by the wheels. The wheels roll on the rails.
When the bridge is rolled forward and is in closed position, then, the rolling frame
leaves a gap between one of the approach and the platform. A second rolling
frame is placed in the gap. The rolling frame rolls sideways. When the rolling
bridge is opened, then the second rolling frame is moved out of way. The centre of
gravity of rolling bridge is so balanced that it remains over the rolling frame.
over the pulleys. The pulleys are provided at the top of the towers erected at
both the ends. At the other ends of chains or pulleys, the counter-weights are
provided. The counter-weights facilitate the lift of the bridge. The vertical lift
bridge is operated by the hydraulic lift.
The vertical lift bridge Arthur Kill at Elizabeth, N.J. was built in 1959 with
170.078 m span.
from the overhead bridge. The persons or the goods are transported from one
end to the other end by means of this moving cradle.
fixed bridges occupy more surrounding land area. The fixed bridges are suitable
both for narrow and wide spans.
bridge. The number of spans depends on the total length of the bridge, area of
waterway and the type of river bed. The areas of waterway existing before the
construction of bridge, and after the construction of the bridge are kept equal.
The regular profile with foundation bed at constant depth allows equal spans
for the bridge. The short crossings with the highly irregular profile would compel
to have unequal spans. The individual span decides the type of the bridge. The
suitability of various types of bridges for different spans have been discussed in
Sec. 1.2.
1.5.8 Appearance
Aesthetically, the type of bridge selected should be such that the appearance of
the bridge enhances the beauty of its surroundings. The purpose of bridge should
be given greater importance in comparison to the beauty.
The stresses developed in some members may be more than those due to the
working loads. In some members, the character of stresses may be changed
from tension to compression or vice versa. The large stresses are produced in
some members as heavy cranes move on the trusses or during the forcing of
parts to make them fit. The erection schedule shows the order of erecting various
members.
The erection methods for bridges depend upon the type of bridge (e.g., simply
supported span bridges, cantilever bridges, suspension bridges, span of the
bridges, the weight of the bridge girders, nature of the crossing (e.g., roads,
railways, deep gorges, shallow bed, etc.), the maintenance cost of traffic during
erection, time allowed for the erection, and risk to be taken. The type of bridge
is an essential factor. Generally, for the erection of truss girders over a bridge,
a derrick car is used. But in case a new bridge is to be constructed around an old
bridge, and it is essential to maintain the traffic, then an overhead traveller is
used. If there is limitation of time for erection, then, it is necessary to start
erection simultaneously from both the ends of the bridge and to use more
equipment. The risk taken is also an important factor. If there is a danger of
flood at the site of erection, then, the method of cantilever erection is used instead
of the falsework. The following are various methods of erection of bridges:
1. By construction of staging (falsework)
2. By rolling or pushing from the bank
3. By cantilevering
4. By using a cable way
5. By floating spans into position.
comparatively light. The falsework carries the weight of new span and erecting
equipment. If the traffic is to be maintained during the erection, then, the
/ p ie r)
r)
(A bu tm en t / pie
(A bu tm en t
Bed L evel
Fig. 1.12
Fig. 1.13
A steel wire cable is connected to the launching nose. The cable passes over the
derrick pole. The cable is controlled by a handling tackle. A cable is also attached
at the rear end of main girder. This cable is controlled by the preventing cable.
The main girder is moved forward by taking on the handling tackle and releasing
the preventing tackle, till, the launching nose becomes simply supported, then,
the main girder can be pushed forward and placed in correct position. The
launching nose is detached from the girder. When the centre of gravity of the
main girder enters the span, then, a counter-weight is placed on the main girder.
The counter-weight prevents the overturning of the main girder.
18 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The connection between main bridge girder and the launching nose is made
strong enough to transmit the developed stress. The stress developed would be
maximum, when, the launching nose is about to touch the far abutment. The
stresses in main girder, launching nose, and the cable should be checked for all
positions.
1.6.3 By Cantilevering
The method of erection of bridges by cantilevering as shown in Fig. 1.14 is suitable
for deep gorges, and places where, the method of construction of staging
(falsework) cannot be adopted, due to deep gorges or deep and fast flowing water.
This method is most suitable for arch bridges, and erection of subsequent spans
of the continuous span bridges, and the erection of cantilever portions of the
cantilever bridge. In this method, the construction may be started either from
one end or from both the ends. The construction of bridge proceeds member by
member and panel by panel towards the centre with the use of small crane
Fig. 1.14
travellers. In this method, the reversal of stresses take place in the members.
The bottom chord of a simply supported bridge is subjected to tension due to
dead load, live load and impact load and the top chord is subjected to compression.
When the trusses are erected by the cantilever method, the bottom chord carries
compression instead of tension, and the top chord carries tension instead of
compression. The members should be checked for these stresses. This method is
independent of crossing conditions.
The erection of continuous span bridges by this method is shown in Fig. 1.15.
The end span of continuous bridge may be erected by the method of construction
of staging. The remaining spans may be completed by this method. The self-
weight of finished span prevents the overtopping of over changing portions in
the adjacent span.
Fig. 1.15
This is to note that this method has disadvantage of being more dangerous
and expensive.
GENERAL 19
Fig. 1.16
saddle and these are connected. These parts of members form the bridge girder.
These connected parts are suspended from the cable. These parts are connected
to the main girder by means of nuts and bolts. The bridge girder is completed
panel by panel. The bolts and nuts are removed after completion of the bridge
girder and the riveting is done. The bridge girder is then placed in position.
Fig. 1.17, the individual spans are made equal in length. The length of individual
span is decided keeping in view the overall cost of the bridge. The total cost of
the bridge is cost of superstructure (trusses and bracing) and the cost of
substructure (abutments and piers). In case, the length of individual span is
kept long, the cost of substructure decreases, but the cost of superstructure
increases. In case, the length of individual span is kept short, the cost of
superstructure decreases, but the cost of substructure increases. The economical
span length of individual span is the length, which makes the total cost of
superstructure and substructure minimum.
Fig. 1.17
the length of the individual span. Thus, the assumption is also justified.
Therefore,
1 ⎛k ⎞
S∝ S = ⎜ 2⎟ ...(b)
l´ ⎝ l ⎠
The cost of flooring per unit length of the span, F is independent of the span.
The cost of flooring per unit length depends upon the cost of the material per
unit length. The cost of flooring is not the function of the span. Therefore, this
assumption is also justified. Hence, the cost of bridge per unit length of the
span is given by
⎛ k ⎞
C = ⎜ k1 ⋅ l + 2 + F ⎟ ...(c)
⎝ l ⎠
Differentiating the expression (c) with respect to l,
dC
⎛ k2 ⎞
= ⎜ k1 − 2 ⎟ ...(d)
dl
⎝ l ⎠
For minimum or maximum value of C
dC
= 0 ...(e)
dl
⎛ k2 ⎞
Therefore, (k 1 . l) = ⎜ ⎟ ...(f)
⎝ l ⎠
It is seen from expression (f), that the second derivative of C works out to be
positive. Therefore, the expression (f) gives a condition for the minimum value
of C. From expressions (a), (b), and (f), we obtain
T = S ...(1.2)
Thus, for economical span, in the multi-span bridges, the division of total
span should be such that the cost of superstructure per unit length is equal to the
cost of substructure per unit length. It is to note that this holds true for the
multi-span simply supported truss girder bridges only.
For economical span, or for the minimum cost of the bridge, the rule mentioned
in the above paragraph can also be stated as the cost of pier is equal to one half
the cost of trusses and bracing of the spans it supports.
Fig. 1.18
The cost of pier per unit length varies inversely as the length of span. But in
case of short crossing with highly irregular profile, as shown in Fig. 1.18, the
cost of pier also depends upon its positions on the crossings in addition to the
span. The above rule would give only rough guidance in such cases.
22 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
1.8 CLEARANCE
When the bridges are through type or half through type, then the bridges are
designed for adequate clearances, allowances being made for the displacement
6.80 06 m
3 .50 52 m
2 .13 36 m
m in
1 .37 16 m
C /L of tra ck
1 .06 68
m
1 .06 68
1 .37 16 m
m
(a)
R a il
3
2
1
1 .37 16 m
C /L of tra ck
1 .06 68
m
1 .06 68
1 .37 16 m
m
2 .13 36 m
m in
0 .60 96 m
3.50 52 m
4 .11 48 m
4 .4 19 6 m
6 .80 06 m
GENERAL 23
2 .36 2 m
1 .90 5 m
2 .13 4 m
0 .91 4
m
0 .91 4
m
2 .13 4 m
1 .90 5 m
2 .36 2 m
9 .48 8 m
Fig. 1.19
1 .91 4
m
C e ntre lin e of tra ck
Top o f ra ils
2 .36 2 m
1 .90 5 m
2 .13 4 m
0 .91 4
m
0 .91 4
2 .13 4 m
m
1 .90 5 m
2 .36 2 m
0 .99 0 m
0 .30 5 m
1 .06 7 m
2 .26 6 m
0 .76 2 m
of verticals due to any curvature and super elevation. The horizontal clearance
is the clear width and the vertical clearance is the clear height available for the
passage of live (moving) load. The clearance diagrams showing minimum
clearance necessary for metre gauge and broad gauge railways as published by
Railway Board are shown in Fig. 1.19 (a) and (b) respectively.
The clearance diagram showing minimum clearance necessary for highway
bridge as per IRC section I are showin in Fig. 1.20 (a) and (b).
24
H o rizon ta l cle ara nce H o rizon ta l cle ara nce
1 .50 0 m 1 .30 0 m
4 .50 0 m
m
2 .60 0 m 0 .82 5
m
0.6 7 5
S a m e slo pe S a m e slo pe
3 .8 00 m in .
3 .30 0 m x 4.5 00 m
4 .40 0 m m in.
C ro w n of roa d
H a lf se ctio n sho w in g m ain fixed structu re fixe d structu re in the inte r- fixe d structu re b e tw ee n
b etw e en e nd p osts of arch rib m ed ia te po rtion s of a b rid ge e nd po sts on a rch b rid ge
Fig. 1.20
GENERAL 25
6 10 m m
30 50 m m
25 6 5 m m
R o lling sto ck fo r
m etre g aug e
2 49 0 m m
7 10 m m
1 83 0 m m
30 5 mm
9 30 m m
R a il le ve l
Fig. 1.21 Dimensions of coaching and goods stock for metre gauge
26 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
cars, mail vans, motor and carriage trucks, horse boxes, passenger brake vans,
passenger road vans, refrigerator cars and dynamometer cars irrespective of
contents whether attached to the passenger or goods train. The goods wagons
intended for coaching traffic are marked as prescribed and used for coaching
traffic only. They are treated as coaching stock for interchanging purpose. The
goods stock means and includes all goods wagons i.e., all rolling stock other
than coaching stock irrespective of contents and whether attached to passenger
or goods train. The dimensions of coaching and goods stock for metre gauge
are shown in Fig. 1.21.
The dimensions of coaching and goods stock for broad gauge are shown in
Figure 1.22.
6 10 m m
Fo r n um b er p la te , w ind ow b ars a n d
re se rvation card h olde rs
3 50 5 m m
411 5 m m
2 89 5 m m
3 35 5 m m
R o lling sto ck fo r
b roa d g au g e
3 05 0 m m
8 40 m m
2 44 0 m m
30 5 m m
102 m m
1 60 0 m m
R a il le ve l
Fig. 1.22 Dimensions of coaching and goods stock for broad gauge
These dimensions of rolling stocks are useful while considering the effect of
wind on the moving load, for the loaded spans of the bridges.
from the view point of structural system (namely, beam bridges, cantilever
bridges, suspension bridges and arch bridges).
It is situated about 350 km south of Peking. It is a single span stone arch bridge.
This bridge has 37.4 m span, 7.23 m rise and 9 m roadway. The voussoirs of this
bridge were correctly dressed to fit it and it was not necessary to put mortar in
the joints. By virtue of this, this bridge has longevity.
In Europe, in the middle ages after the fall of Rome, the bridge building
activity was adopted by the religious orders. In 1345, in Italy, the Ponte Veechio
Bridge was built at Florence using segmental curves first time. The decorative
and defensive towers, chapels, statues, shops and dwellings were put as loads
over the medieval bridges.
The advances continued theory, technical skill and mechanical appliances
with the dawn of Renaissance. The bridges were considered as civic works of
art. The bridge builders were treated as leaders in progress and creator of
monuments. Predominantly, the segmented arch bridges were built in stone
masonry. In 1591, in Italy, the Rialto bridge built in Venice, Italy is a typical
bridge of that period.
The age of reason began in the eighteenth century. Professor Rubert Gautier,
a French engineer published first treatise in bridge engineering in 1714. For
the scientific advancement of construction of bridge a society (the Corps des
Ingenieurs de Ponts et Chaussees) was founded. In 1747, the first engineering
school (the Ecole de Ponts et Chaussees) was founded at Paris with Jean Perronet.
He was called ‘father of modern bridge building’. He was the Director of this
school. The masonry arches were perfected by Perronet. He built slender piers.
The Pont de la Concorda at Paris built in 1791 was considered Perronet’s best
work.
in 1850 across the Menai strait is the most famous of the early iron railway
bridges. Twin wrought iron tubes were used in this bridge. It is a continuous
bridge. It has four spans of 70 m, 140 m, 140 m and 70 m. During the period
1840–1890, the cast iron was replaced by the wrought iron. During this period
many truss bridges (e.g., Howe, Pratt, Whipple, Bollman, Fink and Warren)
were built on railways.
A number of wrought iron bridges failed. For example, in 1877, Howe truss
bridge at Ashtabula, Ohio, and in 1879, the firth of Tay bridge in Scotland failed.
As a result of which serious loss of life took place. A new era (an era of
specialisation, research, careful detailing and thorough inspection) of bridge
construction came. A more durable and stronger material (steel) was developed
and used in building the bridges.
Table 1.1 Progress in bridge building (noted as successive record span lengths)
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The design of a bridge structure has two aspects, one functional aspect, and the
other structural aspect. The functional aspect takes into consideration the
purpose for which the bridge is designed. In the structural aspect, it is ensured
that the bridge is structurally safe, strong and durable. For the structural safety
of the bridge, all loads should be taken into consideration, which the bridge
should be required to bear. The following loads are taken into account for the
design of bridge:
1. Dead load 2. Live load 3. Impact load
4. Wind load 5. Lateral load 6. Longitudinal force
7. Centrifugal force 8. Seismic force
In addition to the above loads, the following effects are also considered for
the design of bridge :
1. Erection effects
2. Temperature effects
3. Secondary stresses
4. Relief stresses
The dead load, live load, impact load and the centrifugal force if any, are
considered as normal loads. The wind load and lateral loads are considered as
occasional loads. The seismic forces are considered as extraordinary loads.
(ii) self-weight of the main structure. The weight of a bridge may be found by a
preliminary design of the floor. The weight of floor may be used in calculating
the loads on the main structure. The self-weight of the main structure itself
should be estimated before the analysis and design of the structure. The
importance of a correct estimate increases with the span length of the bridge.
For a short span, the self-weight of the main structure may be a small portion of
total live load and dead load. For a long span, the self-weight may be a large
portion of the total live load and the dead load. The error in estimated dead load
would affect the calculated stresses-appreciably. The self-weight of plate girders
in case of the plate girder bridges has been discussed in Chapter 3. The self-
weight of the truss girder in case of the truss girder bridges has been considered
in Chapter 4. The self-weight of the bridge girder may be assumed depending
on the experience and on the basis of similar existing bridges on the similar
spans. The self-weight of the main structure may be found from previously
established charts and formulae. These charts and formulae should be used
with discretion because bridge specifications may differ with regard to live load
and impact load, their method for load distribution and their permissible stresses.
The superimposed dead load is determined from the various materials which
are used, and their actual unit weights. If the actual unit weights of the materials
used are not available, then the unit weights of the materials used are adopted
from the Indian Standard Schedule of Unit Weights of Building Materials, IS :
1911–1961. On the completion of design, the total dead load is computed and
compared with the dead load initially adopted for the design. In case, the actual
dead load exceeds the dead load initially adopted by more than 2.5 per cent, the
design is revised. If the effect due to the actual dead load and the adopted dead
load varies to such an extent that the design is adversely affected, then also the
design is revised.
1 96
1 96
1 96
1 96
2 29
2 29
2 29
2 29
1 93
1 96
1 96
1 96
1 96
112
112
Loa d
in kN
Axle
Train lo ad
of 76 .7 k N /m
s p ac in g
in m m
1 52 4
2 74 4
1 84 2
1 70 8
1 70 8
3 04 3
3 32 7
1 82 9
2 59 1
1 82 9
1 65 1
1 52 4
2 79 4
1 84 2
1 70 8
1 70 8
3 04 3
3 32 7
1 82 9
2 59 1
1 82 9
1 65 1
Axle
22 85 1 m m o ve r bu ffers 23 85 1 m m o ve r bu ffers
16 3
14 9
14 9
14 9
14 9
17 3
17 3
17 3
17 3
16 3
14 9
14 9
14 3
14 3
91
91
Lo ad
in kN
A x le
Train lo ad
of 50 kN /m
1 524
2 743
1 842
1 708
1 708
2 667
3 886
1 829
1 829
1 829
1 327
1 524
2 743
1 842
1 708
1 708
2 667
3 886
1 829
1 829
1 829
1 397
s pa cing
in m m
A xle
22 96 2 m m o ve r bu ffers 22 96 2 m m o ve r bu ffers
Table 2.1 Equivalent uniformly distributed live loads (EUDLL) on each track and
impact factors for broad gauge bridges
L (metres) Total load for B.M. Total load for SF Impact factor
(kN) (kN) ⎛ 20 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 14 + L ⎠
M.L. B.L. M.L. B.L.
1.0 458 346 458 346 1.000
1.5 458 346 458 346 1.000
2.0 458 346 524 396 1.000
2.5 458 346 604 455 1.000
3.0 469 354 655 495 1.000
3.5 524 396 703 532 1.000
4.0 592 448 788 594 1.000
4.5 679 514 852 644 1.000
5.0 748 567 903 683 1.000
5.5 806 609 967 732 1.000
6.0 852 649 1049 786 1.000
6.5 893 675 1102 832 0.976
7.0 952 715 1152 871 0.952
7.5 1007 758 1198 906 0.931
8.0 1056 797 1239 935 0.909
8.5 1102 829 1286 972 0.889
9.0 1140 862 1324 1014 0.870
9.5 1176 908 1367 1050 0.851
10 1210 941 1406 1083 0.833
11 1336 1025 1483 1140 0.800
12 1409 1084 1557 1191 0.769
13 1472 1134 1637 1254 0.741
14 1527 1172 1720 1316 0.714
15 1606 1232 1806 1382 0.691
16 1688 1302 1881 1448 0.667
17 1770 1371 1968 1516 0.645
18 1859 1438 2050 1590 0.625
19 1939 1508 2141 1660 0.606
20 2027 1580 2224 1726 0.588
21 2111 1649 2305 1791 0.571
22 2187 1698 2387 1855 0.556
23 2256 1758 2466 1916 0.541
24 2329 1818 2548 1977 0.526
Contd.
LOAD AND STRESSES 37
Note. The intermediate values may be found by linear interpolation. The values
of loads have been converted from metric tonnes to kilo-Newtons.
38 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
140 0 1 77 8 1 77 8
61 66 81
208 3 2 19 7 2 19 7
1 07 1 32
18 2 88 m m O ver B uffe rs
81
1 93 80 m m O ver bu ffers
1 33 7 1 39 7
127 0 1 07 1 32
1 72 78 O ver B uffe rs
81 1 34 6 1 34 6
121 9 1 07 1 32
81 1 34 6
121 9 1 07 1 34 6
(a ) S tan da rd m a in lin e loa ding
(b ) S tan da rd bra n ch line loa ding
1 32
81
(c) S ta n da rd C Lo a din g
198 1 1 82 9 2 13 3
11 5
60 93
259 1 2 80 6 2 68 0
81 98 1 21
152 4
1 37 2 1 37 2
98 1 21
81 1 37 2 2 28 6
106 7 98 1 21
81 1 37 2 1 37 2
152 4 98 1 21
140 0 81 1 47 3 1 47 3
140 0 1 77 8 1 77 8
61 66 81
208 3 2 19 7 2 19 7
1 93 80 m m o ve r b uffe rs
1 07
18 28 8 m m ove r B u ffers
81 1 32
1 72 7 8 o ver bu ffers
127 0 1 39 7 1 39 7
81 1 07 1 32
121 9 1 34 6 1 34 6
81 1 07 1 32
121 9 1 34 6 1 34 6
81 1 07 1 32
198 1 1 82 9 2 13 3
60 93 11 5
259 1
2 80 6 2 68 0
81 98 1 21
152 4 1 37 2 1 37 2
98 1 21
81 1 37 2 2 28 6
106 7 98 1 21
81 1 37 2 1 37 2
152 4 98 1 21
81 1 47 3 1 47 3
140 0
fo 3 8 .7 kn /m
fo 3 8 .7 kn /m
fo 38 .7 kn/m
Train lo ad
Train lo ad
Tra in lo ad
The equivalent uniformaly distributed loads for the standard main line, the
standard branch line and the standard C loadings are given in Table 2.2 as per
Bridge Rules.
Table 2.2 Equivalent uniformly distributed live loads (EUDLL) on each track
and impact factors for broad gauge bridges
L (metres) Total load for B.M. Total load for SF Impact factor
(kN) (kN)
⎛ 20 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 14 + L ⎠
M.L. B.L. C M.L. B.L. C
1.0 264 214 162 264 214 162 1.000
1.5 264 214 162 291 236 192 1.000
2.0 264 214 174 350 284 238 1.000
2.5 282 229 201 386 313 255 1.000
3.0 320 257 223 437 354 289 1.000
3.5 386 313 260 488 394 317 1.000
4.0 437 354 289 525 426 350 1.000
4.5 477 386 310 579 470 383 1.000
5.0 508 411 338 627 508 409 1.000
5.5 550 446 365 666 540 431 1.000
6.0 593 480 389 699 566 454 1.000
6.5 623 508 409 731 601 482 0.976
7.0 657 542 437 770 633 503 0.952
7.5 690 576 459 806 660 523 0.931
8.0 728 605 482 835 684 541 0.909
8.5 761 630 499 862 706 560 0.889
9.0 789 653 516 888 730 582 0.870
9.5 816 674 537 922 756 602 0.851
10 844 697 556 952 780 624 0.833
11 902 789 599 1020 838 671 0.800
12 972 800 649 1082 896 722 0.769
13 1035 864 698 1146 955 773 0.741
14 1098 921 748 1206 1018 821 0.714
15 1160 980 796 1277 1073 867 0.691
16 1226 1035 837 1338 1125 911 0.667
17 1286 1085 879 1397 1176 955 0.645
18 1342 1133 919 1454 1226 999 0.625
19 1395 1182 959 1509 1275 1041 0.605
20 1449 1226 998 1562 1323 1084 0.588
21 1495 1268 1041 1614 1368 1126 0.571
22 1548 1314 1084 1670 1415 1171 0.556
Contd.
40 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Note. The intermediate values may be found by linear interpolation. The values
of loads have been converted from metric tonnes to kilo Newtons.
89
89
89
89
89
89
89
89
Rules.
lo ad
(kN )
A xle
Tra in lo a d 2 8.3 kN /m
25 9 1
16 76
16 76
16 76
25 91
16 76
A xle
(m m )
O ver bu ffers 8 87 1 O ver bu ffers 8 87 1
sp acin g
B – B o f B o-B o typ e
3. B class loading
2. A class loading
97
97
97
97
97
97
97
97
97
97
97
97
lo ad
(kN )
A xle
Tra in lo a d
2 8.3 kN /m
For narrow gauge 762 mm
3 04 8
3 04 8
A xle
O ver bu ffers 9 48 1 O ver bu ffers 9 48 1
(m m )
sp acin g
C – C o f C o –C o typ e
97
97
97
84
76
97
97
97
84
76
Tra in lo a d
2 8.3 kN /m
lo ad
(kN )
A xle
LOAD AND STRESSES
91 4
91 4
18 29
17 27
91 4
91 4
18 29
17 27
O ver bu ffers 8 56 6 O ver bu ffers 8 56 6
A xle
(m m )
sp acin g
S tee l (Z F/1 ) d ie se l m e cha nica l
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
91 Tra in lo a d
2 8.3 kN /m
lo ad
(kN )
A xle
91 4
91 4
91 4
91 4
91 4
91 4
91 4
91 4
3 0 48
3 0 48
The following are the standard loadings for narrow gauge (762 mm):
A xle
(m m )
sp acin g
D ie sel electric
2 '–6 " G a ug e H class loa ding
41
208 3 61
O ve r b uffe rs 12 837
61 1 067
914 61 1 676
61 1 067 61
127 0 61
61
61
B -B or B o-B o Type
46 51
17 53
S team e ngine (Ta nk Loc o)
61 175 3
61 61
9 14 10 10 61
O ve r b uffe rs 88 39
O ve r b uffe rs 99 76
61
O ve r b uffe rs 82 61
61
O ve r b uffe rs 12 837
9 14 10 67 61 1 676
61 61 127 0 61
9 14 10 67
61 61
61
Tra in load
Tra in load
Tra in load
Tra in load
28.3 kN /m
28.3 kN /m
28.3 kN /m
28.3 kN /m
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II 42
LOAD AND STRESSES 43
Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle
spacing load spacing load spacing load spacing load spacing load
(m m ) (kN ) (m m ) (kN ) (m m ) (kN ) (m m ) (kN ) (m m ) (kN )
1415
61
1727 76
76
D iesel m echanical or diesel electric (Articulated)
991 81 914 76
81 1676 76
991 1676
81 76 914
O ver buffers 15983
991
O ver buffers 9144
2286 914
71 2743 76
2743 2743
2'– 6" G auge a C lass Engine Loadidng
2375 914
71 76
1295 76
76
C -C or - C o-C o type
B -B or - Bo-Bo type
71 76 914 914
1215 76 1676
71 1676 76
1295 914
71 76
76 76
1362
1451
61 76
1727 914
76 76 76
81
991 1676 76 914 1676
O ver buffers 15983
81
Over buffers 9144
991 914 76
81 76
991 76 76
81
2286 914
2743 76 2743
71
2375 914 76
71 76 914 76
1295 76 76
71 1676 1676
1215 914 76
71 76
1295 76
71
1362
28.3 kN /m
Train load
28.3 kN /m
Train load
28.3 kN /m
Train load
28.3 kN /m
Train load
28.3 kN /m
Train load
Table 2.3 Equivalent uniformly distributed live load (EDULL) on each track and
impact factor for 762 mm narrow gauge bridges
L (metres) Total load for B.M. Total load for SF Impact
(kN) (kN) factor
⎛ 90 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 90 + L ⎠
H class A class B class H class A class B class
loading loading loading loading loading loading
1.0 193 163 120 242 193 152 0.989
1.5 193 163 122 270 220 170 0.984
2.0 245 210 160 315 255 200 0.978
2.5 310 265 190 370 300 230 0.973
3.0 345 285 220 405 330 255 0.968
3.5 380 305 240 430 370 280 0.963
4.0 400 350 255 460 400 310 0.957
4.5 425 380 270 495 430 330 0.952
5.0 450 405 295 515 460 350 0.947
5.5 475 432 340 535 485 370 0.942
6.0 495 450 380 555 510 390 0.938
6.5 520 465 405 580 530 410 0.933
7.0 555 480 425 610 550 430 0.928
7.5 580 495 445 640 570 450 0.925
8.0 600 515 455 670 590 470 0.918
8.5 615 535 465 695 615 485 0.914
9.0 630 560 475 725 630 505 0.910
9.5 640 590 480 755 650 525 0.905
10 655 620 485 785 670 545 0.900
11 695 645 500 850 720 585 0.891
12 765 670 520 915 765 625 0.882
13 880 690 550 970 810 665 0.874
14 950 725 600 1030 855 710 0.865
15 990 800 700 1090 900 750 0.857
16 1050 860 770 1140 960 790 0.850
17 1100 900 800 1200 1010 840 0.841
18 1150 940 840 1270 1060 880 0.803
19 1200 980 870 1340 1100 920 0.826
20 1250 1020 900 1410 1150 960 0.818
21 1300 1060 940 1470 1190 1000 0.811
Contd.
LOAD AND STRESSES 45
⎛ 90 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 90 + L ⎠
H class A class B class H class A class B class
loading loading loading loading loading loading
22 1350 1100 970 1520 1230 1030 0.804
23 1400 1150 1000 1560 1280 1060 0.796
24 1450 1200 1040 1600 1320 1100 0.790
25 1500 1250 1070 1640 1370 1130 0.783
26 1550 1300 1110 1690 1410 1170 0.776
27 1560 1350 1140 1730 1450 1200 0.770
28 1630 1390 1180 1770 1500 1230 0.763
29 1670 1440 1210 1820 1540 1260 0.756
30 1710 1480 1240 1860 1590 1300 0.750
32 1790 1570 1310 1940 1670 1360 0.738
34 1870 1650 1380 2010 1760 1430 0.726
36 1940 1730 1450 2090 1840 1490 0.714
38 2010 1810 1520 2170 1920 1560 0.703
40 2080 1890 1580 2240 1990 1620 0.692
42 2140 1960 1650 2310 2070 1690 0.662
44 2210 2020 1720 2380 2140 1750 0.672
46 2280 2090 1780 2450 2210 1800 0.662
48 2340 2150 1850 2510 2280 1860 0.652
50 2400 2220 1910 2580 2350 1920 0.643
55 2560 2390 2060 2740 2510 2070 0.621
60 2720 2540 2190 2901 2680 2220 0.600
65 2830 2690 2320 3080 2840 2360 0.581
70 2880 2840 2420 3240 3000 2500 0.563
75 2910 2990 2490 3400 3150 2630 0.545
Note. The intermediate values may be found by linear interpolation. (The values
of loads have been converted from metric-tonnes to kilo Newtons.
90 3 .8 m 3 50 k N 3 50 k N
m 7 .2 m 2 .9 m
m in (a ) IR C class A A tra c k v e h ic le
(a)
C a rria ge w a y w id th
2 .35 m m in
2 .5 m m in
1 .15 m m in
0 .85 m m in
1 .00 m
1.2 m
D ire ctio n o f
m otion
AA vehicles shall not be less than 90 m. The multilane bridges and culverts, one
train of IRC class AA tracked or wheeled vehicle shall be considered for every
two traffic lane width. No other live loads shall be considered on any part of the
said two-lane width carriageway of the bridge, when the above said train of
vehicle is crossing the bridge. The maximum load for the single axle wheeled
vehicle is 200 kN. The maximum load for the bogie of two axles wheeled vehicle
is 400 kN. The space between the two axles should not be more than 1.20 m
centre to centre.
IRC class AA tracked or wheeled vehicle may approach near to the kerb of
road upto a minimum clear distance, C. The outer edge of the wheel or track
shall be as per Table 2.4 as per IRC section II, given below.
Table 2.4
Carriageway width Minimum value of C
Single lane bridges :
3 8 m and above 0.3 m
Multilane bridges :
Less than 5 5 m 0.6 m
5 5 m or above 1.2 m
IRC Class A Loading. This loading is to be normally adopted on all roads
on which the permanent bridges and culverts are constructed. IRC class A loading
is shown in Fig. 2.5 (a). IRC class A loading consists of one driving unit and two
1.2 m 1.2 m
18.4 m 8.2 m 18.4 m
0.9 m
1.1 m
1.2 m
3.2 m
4.3 m
3m
3m
3m
20 m 20 m
68 27 27 114 114 68 68 68 68 27 27
(W heel loads in kN)
(a) IRC Cla ss A train of vehicles
B B B B
a
W
W
W
S ection on pp
Direction of m otion
1.8 m
a
B B B
B
(b) Driving Vehicle
trailers. The trailers attached to the driving unit are not detachable. The driving
unit of IRC class A loading is shown in Fig. 2.5 (b) separately. The ground contact
area of the wheels of the IRC class A loading shall be taken as per Table 2.5 as
per IRC section II, as given below.
Table 2.5 Ground contact area of wheels for IRC class A vehicles
Ground contact area
Axle load (kN) B W
mm mm
114 250 500
68 200 330
27 150 200
The minimum clearance f, between outer edge of the wheel and the roadway
face of the kerb, and, the minimum clearance g, between the outer edges of
passing vehicles as shown in Fig. 2.5, as the multilane bridges shall be as per
Table 2.5, as per IRC section II, as given below.
C le a ran ce w idth
f g f
50 0 m m
50 0 m m
50 0 m m
50 0 m m
Fig. 2.6
IRC class B loading is shown in Fig. 2.7 (b) separately. The ground contact area
of the wheels of the IRC class B loading shall be taken as per Table 2.7 as per
IRC section II, as given below.
1.2 m 1.2 m
1 8.4 m 8.2 m 18.4 m
0.9 m
1.1m
1.2 m
4 .3 m
1.1 m
3.2 m
3m
3m
3m
20 m 20 m
41 16 16 18 1 8 41 41 41 41 16 16
(Loads in kN )
(a) IR C C lass B train of vehicles
B B B B
a
W
W
W
S ection on pp
Direction of m otion
1.8 m
W
P
B B B
B
(b) Driving vehicle
Table 2.7 Ground contact area of wheels for IRC class B vehicles
Ground contact area
Axle load (kN) B W
(mm) (mm)
68 200 380
41 150 300
16 125 175
The minimum clearance f, between outer edge of the wheel and the roadway
face of the kerb, and, the minimum clearance g, between the outer edges of
passing vehicles as shown in Fig. 2.8, as the multilane bridges shall be as per
Table 2.8, as per IRC section II, as given below.
50 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
C le a ran ce w idth
f g f
300 m m
300 m m
300 m m
300 m m
Fig. 2.8
4 57 0 m m
(G ro un d co ntact len gth)
7 92 0 m m
(N o se to tail len gth )
C la ss 70 R track ed veh icle s
given certain numbers along with letter ‘R’. The letter ‘R’ indicates the revised
classification. The class 70 R loading is one of the various other hypothetical
vehicles according to the revised classification. The class 70 R loading consisting
of tracked vehicle is shown in Fig. 2.9. This vehicle is also having a weight of
700 kN. It is similar to that of class AA loading. It has a contact length of 4570
mm for the track. The length of vehicle measured from nose to tail is 7920 mm.
LOAD AND STRESSES 51
The width of track is 0.840 m. The width over track is 2.90 m similar to that of
IRC class AA loading. Two successive tracked vehicles should maintain the
minimum specified distance of 30 m.
The class 70 R loading consisting of wheeled vehicle is shown in Fig. 2.10 (a).
The total weight of wheeled vehicle is 1000 kN. This vehicle is 15220 mm long.
There are seven axles in this wheeled vehicle. In addition to the effects of this
8 0 kN 1 20 kN 1 20 kN 1 70 kN 1 70 kN 1 70 kN 7 0 kN
9 10 m m
3 96 0 m m 1 52 0 2 13 0 1 37 0 3 05 0 1 37 0 9 10
mm mm mm mm mm mm
M ax. sing le (a ) M ax. B og ie
a xle loa d a xle loa d
2 00 kN 4 00 0 kN
1 22 0 1 22 0 1 83 0 1 22 0 1 83 0
mm mm mm mm mm
(b )
vehicle, the effects on the components due to a bogie loading of 400 kN are also
to be considered. The single axle load and maximum bogie axle load are shown
in Fig. 2.10 (b).
The overall width of type and rim diameter of the type for both single axle
and bogie axle loads are shown in Fig. 2.11. The tyre thread width may be taken
as overall width minus 50 mm (since the tyre width is greater than 225 mm).
The maximum tyre load on minimum tyre size is 800 kN. The actual maximum
tyre load on 410 mm × 610 mm tyre size is 50 kN. The maximum tyre pressure
is 0.5273 N/mm2. The contact areas of tyres on the deck (road surface) may be
obtained from the corresponding tyre loads, maximum tyre pressure and width
of the tyre threads. The minimum wheel spacings are also shown in Fig. 2.11.
The spacing between successive vehicles would be 30 m. This spacing would
be measured from the rear most point of the ground contact of the leading vehicle
to the forward most point of the following vehicle in case of tracked vehicles; for
wheeled vehicles, it is measured from the centre of the rear most axle of the
leading vehicle to the centre of the first axle of the following vehicle.
The minimum clearance between the road face of the kerb and the other edge
of the wheel or track for any of the hypothetical vehicles (class 70 R) shall be
same as for IRC class AA vehicles, when there is only one lane of traffic moving
on a bridge. If a bridge is to be designed for the two lanes of any hypothetical
vehicles, the clearance may be decided in each case depending upon the
circumstances.
52 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
2 79 0 m m n
8 60 m m 8 60 m m
S ing le axle 4 10 m m x 61 0 m m
(a ) 4 10 m m x 61 0 m m
B o gie A xle
3 80 m m
2 79 0 m m
(b ) S ing le axle 4 10 m m × 6 10 m m
B o gie a xle 4 10 m m × 6 10 m m
2 79 0 m m
5 10 m m 5 10 m m
Fig. 2.11 Minimum wheel spacing and tyre size of critical (heaviest) axles
IRC class AA, class B and class 70 R standard vehicles or train shall be
assumed to travel parallel to the length of the bridge within the kerb to kerb
width of the roadway. These vehicles shall occupy any position which would
produce maximum stresses provided that the minimum clearances between a
vehicle and the roadway face of kerb and between two passing or crossing vehicles
are not encroached upon.
For each standard vehicle or train, all the axles of a unit of vehicles shall be
considered as acting simultaneously in a position causing the maximum stresses.
The spaces on carriageway left uncovered by the standard train of vehicles
shall not be assumed as subjected to any additional live load.
the foot-path area. The live load on foot-path for the purpose of designing the
main girders shall be taken as follows :
(a) For effective spans of 7.5 m or less, the live load is taken as 4.15 kN/m2.
(b) For effective spans over 7.5 m, but not exceeding 30 m, an intensity of
load reducing uniformly from 4.5 kN/m2 for a span of 7.5 m o 2.95 kN/m2 for a
span of 30 m.
(c) For effective spans over 30 m, the live load is adopted according to the
formula
1 ⎛ 400 ⎞ ⎛ 17 − W ⎞
P = ⎜ 13.3 + ⎟⎜ ⎟ kN/m2 ...(2.1)
100 ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ 1.4 ⎠
where P = Live load in kN/m2
L = Effective span of the bridge in metres
W = Width of foot-way in metres.
The kerbs 600 mm or more in width shall be designed for the loads mentioned
above in addition to the lateral loading of 7.50 kN/m run of the kerb applied
horizontally at the top of the kerb. If the kerb width is less than 600 mm, no live
load shall be applied in addition to the lateral load specified above. These loads
are not taken for the design of the supporting structure.
The above values of live loads for the foot bridges and the foot-paths attached
to the railway bridges are as per Bridges Rules.
where, L = Loaded length of span in metre for the position of the train giving
the maximum stresses in the member under consideration.
(b) For the main girder of double track with two girders
⎛ 20 ⎞
Impact factor, i = 0.72 × ⎜ ⎟|> 0.72 ...(2.5)
⎝ 14 + L ⎠
(c) For the intermediate main girder of multiple track spans
⎛ 20 ⎞
Impact factor, i = 0.60 × ⎜ ⎟|> 0.60 ...(2.6)
⎝ 14 + L ⎠
(d) For the outside main girders of the multiple track spans with
intermediate girders, the impact allowance shall be that specified in (a) or (b)
whichever applies.
(e) For cross girders carrying two or more tracks
⎛ 20 ⎞
Impact factor, i = 0.72 × ⎜ ⎟|> 0.72 ...(2.7)
⎝ 14 + L ⎠
where, L = Loaded length giving maximum load on the cross-girder i.e.,
two panel lengths in the case of intermediate cross girders.
(f) For rails with ordinary fish plate joints and supported directly on
transverse steel troughing or sleepers.
For broad gauge, impact factor,
⎛ 7.32 ⎞
i = ⎜ ⎟ ...(2.8)
⎝ B + 5.49 ⎠
For metre gauge, impact factor,
⎛ 9.5 ⎞
i = ⎜ ⎟ ...(2.9)
⎝ 91.5 + 4.27 ⎠
where, B = Spacing of main girders in metres.
This reduced impact factor should be used for calculating the stresses in the
main girders upto 7.5 m effective span, stringer with span upto 7.5 m, and also
for the stresses in the chords of triangulated girders supporting the troughs or
sleepers.
For narrow gauges (762 mm and 610 mm) railway bridges of steel and iron,
the impact factor is taken as under:
⎛ 9.5 ⎞
Impact factor, i = ⎜ ⎟ ...(2.10)
⎝ 91.5 + L ⎠
where, L = Loaded length of span in metres for the position of the train
giving the maximum stresses in the member under consider-
ation.
LOAD AND STRESSES 57
⎛ 9 ⎞
Impact factor, i = ⎜ ⎟ ...(2.11)
⎝ 13.5 + L ⎠
where, L = Loaded length in metres.
In any bridge structure where there is filling of a not less than 0.6 m including
the road crust, the impact percentage to be allowed shall be assumed to be one-
half of those specified above.
For calculating the pressure on the bearings and on the top surface of the bed
blocks, full values of the appropriate impact percentage shall be allowed, but
for the design of piers, abutments, and structures, generally below the level of
the top of bed block, the appropriate-impact percentages shall be multiplied by
the factor given below :
(a) For calculating the pressure at 0.5
the bottom surface of the bed block
(b) For calculating the pressure on the 0.5 decreasing uniformly
top 3 m of the structure below the to zero
bed block
(c) For calculating the pressure on the Zero
portion of the structure more than 3 m
below the bed block
58 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
53
30
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45
S p an in m e tre s
Fig. 2.12 Impact percentage curve for highway bridges for IRC class A and IRC class B loading
effort or the braking force for the loaded length shall be adopted from Table 2.9
for broad gauge and Table 2.10 for metre gauge. These values are as per Bridge
Rules.
Table 2.9 Longitudinal loads (without deduction for dispersion) for broad gauge
1676 mm
L (metres) Tractive efforts Braking force
(kN) (kN)
M.L. B.L. M.L. B.L.
1.0 157 118 113 86
1.5 154 116 112 85
2.0 151 115 111 84
2.5 149 112 110 83
3.0 150 113 112 84
3.5 165 125 124 93
4.0 184 139 139 105
4.5 207 157 157 119
5.0 224 170 172 130
5.5 238 180 184 139
6.0 248 187 193 146
6.5 256 194 200 151
7.0 269 202 212 159
7.5 282 211 222 167
8.0 291 219 232 175
8.5 298 225 239 180
9.0 304 230 245 185
9.5 309 239 250 193
10 315 245 257 200
11 338 259 279 214
12 348 268 289 221
13 355 273 298 229
14 359 275 304 233
15 368 282 316 243
16 378 292 327 253
17 388 300 339 262
18 398 308 352 272
19 405 315 360 280
20 416 324 374 291
21 424 331 384 300
Contd.
LOAD AND STRESSES 61
Table 2.10 Longitudinal loads (without deduction for dispersion) for metre gauge
1m
L (metres) Tractive efforts Braking force
(kN) (kN)
M.L. B.L. C M.L. B.L. C
1.0 91 74 56 58 47 35
1.5 88 72 54 57 46 35
2.0 86 70 57 56 46 37
2.5 89 73 65 60 49 43
3.0 99 79 69 67 54 44
3.5 116 94 78 80 65 54
4.0 128 104 85 90 73 60
4.5 137 111 89 97 79 63
5.0 142 115 95 103 83 69
5.5 151 122 100 111 90 73
6.0 159 129 104 118 96 78
6.5 165 133 107 124 100 81
7.0 169 139 112 129 106 86
7.5 174 145 115 134 112 89
8.0 179 149 119 140 117 93
8.5 184 152 121 146 121 96
9.0 187 155 122 150 124 98
9.5 190 157 125 154 127 101
10 192 152 127 158 130 104
11 198 162 132 166 136 110
12 206 170 138 176 145 118
13 212 177 143 185 154 125
14 218 183 148 193 162 132
15 223 188 153 201 170 138
16 228 193 156 210 177 143
17 233 196 159 217 183 141
18 236 199 161 223 189 153
19 238 202 164 229 194 157
20 240 203 166 234 198 161
21 242 205 168 239 202 166
22 244 207 171 244 207 171
23 246 209 173 250 212 175
24 248 211 175 255 216 180
Contd.
LOAD AND STRESSES 63
The effects of braking force on the bridge structure without bearings such as
arches, rigid frames etc., shall be calculated in accordance with the approved
methods of analysis of the indeterminate structures.
The effects of longitudinal forces and all other horizontal forces should be
calculated upto a level where the resultant passive earth resistance of the soil
below the deepest scour level (floor level in case of bridge having pucca floor)
balances these forces.
⎛ WV 2 ⎞
C = ⎜ ⎟ ...(2.12)
⎝ 127 R ⎠
where, C = Horizontal force in kN per metre run of the span
W = Equivalent distributed live load in kN per metre run
V = Maximum speed in km per hour
R = Radius of the curve in metres
The line of action of the centrifugal force is assumed at a height of 1.83 m
above the rail level for broad gauge and 1.45 m above the rail level for metre
gauge.
(a) The stresses, which are the result of eccentricity of connections generally,
and off panel point loading (e.g., loads rolling direct on chords, self-weight of
members, and wind load on the members. It is to note that the secondary stresses
due to unknown eccentricities arising out of inaccuracies in fabrication are
already allowed for in the factor of safety.
(b) The stresses which are the result of the elastic deformation of the bridge
structure combined with the rigidity of the joint.
All the bridges shall be designed, fabricated and erected in a manner as to
minimize, as far as possible, the secondary stresses. These secondary stresses
are properly accounted for in the design. The analysis of secondary stresses
have been discussed in Chapter 17.
Note. The intermediate values may be found by linear interpolation. The values
have been converted from metric units to S.I. units.
The permissible stresses for axial compression as per IS : 883–1994, σac is
0.6 fcr (which fcr is the buckling stress and it is function of slenderness ratio of
the member.
LOAD AND STRESSES 69
⎛ π2 Ely h2 ⎞
By rearranging the terms ⎜ ⎟ , the expression (i) may be written as
⎝ l2 ⋅ 4GK ⎠
follows
1/2
π2 Ely ⋅ h ⎡⎛ 1 4GK l2 ⎞ ⎤
Mcr = ⋅ ⎢⎜⎜1 + 2 ⋅ ⋅ ⎟⎥ ...(ii)
2 l 2
⎣⎢⎝ π Ely h2 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
Substituting
G = 04E, K Ω 0.9bft f3 and ly = t fbf3/12
where t f and bf are the thickness and the width of the flange
1/2
⎡⎛ 1 4 × 0.4 E × 0.9bf tf l ⎞ ⎤
3 2
π Ely ⋅ h ⎢⎜1 +
2
× ⎟⎥
Mcr = ⋅ 2 ⎢⎜ π2
E × 2 × t × b3 2
h ⎟⎥
2 l ⎢⎜
f f
⎟⎥
⎣⎝ 12 ⎠⎦
1/2
π2 Ely ⋅ h ⎡⎛ 3 2
8.64 t f l l2 ⎞ ⎤
Mcr = ⎢ ⎜ 1 + × × ⎟⎥ ...(iii)
2l 2
⎢⎜⎝ π2
b 2
h 2 ⎟
⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣ f
For an I-section and I-section of wide flanges, the approximate radii of gyration
are given by ry = 0.22b (viz., b = 4.545 ry) and ry = 0.25b (viz., b = 4.000 ry)
respectively. As an approximation bf= 4.2 ry, then
1/2
π2 ⋅ Ely ⋅ h ⎡⎛ 8.64t f
2
l2 ⎞ ⎤
Mcr = ⎢ ⎜ 1 + ⋅ ⎟⎥ ...(iv)
2l2 ⎢⎜⎝ π2
× 17.65 r 2
h 2 ⎟
⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣ y
The elastic critical stress for bending for beams with ly smaller than Ix is
given by (3 Mcf = fcb . Zxx)
2 ⎤1 / 2
π2 ⋅ Ely ⋅ h ⎡ ⎛ l ⋅ tf ⎞
Mcr = ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(v)
2 ⋅ Z x l2 ⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ ry ⋅ h ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
2 ⎤1 / 2
9.8596 × 105 A ⋅ h ⎡ ⎛ l ⋅ tf ⎞
fcb = ⎢1 + 1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(vi)
⎛ l ⎞
2
⎢⎣ 20 ⎜⎝ ry ⋅ h ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
⎜ r ⎟ Z xx
⎝ y⎠
A ⋅h
The value of for I-section may be taken as 2.688 approximately.
Z xx
LOAD AND STRESSES 71
Then
1/2
26.5 × 105 ⎡ 1 ⎛ l ⋅ tf ⎞ ⎤⎥
2
fcb = ⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ N/mm2 ...(2.14)
⎛ l ⎞
2
⎢⎣ 20 ⎜⎝ ry ⋅ h ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
⎜r ⎟
⎝ y⎠
The value of critical stress, Cs is increased by 20 percent for rolled beams,
channels and plate girders provided
⎛ tc ⎞
⎜t ⎟ | > 2
⎝ ω⎠
⎛ d1 ⎞
⎜t ⎟| > 85
⎝ ω⎠
where l = Effective length of compression flange.
ry = Radius of gyration about yy-axis of the gross-section of the whole
girder at the point of maximum bending moment.
h = Overall depth of the girder, at the point of maximum bending
moment.
tf = Effective thickness of the compression flange.
= k1 × mean thickness of the horizontal portion of the compression
flanges at the point of maximum bending moment.
k 1 makes the allowance for reduction in thickness and breadth of flanges
between points of effective lateral restraint and depends on y the ratio of the
total area of both flanges at the point of least bending moment to the
corresponding point of greater bending moment between such points of
restraints.
d1 = clear depth of web
tw = thickness of web.
The values of k1 have been given in Table 2.13.
Table 2.13
ψ 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
k1 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
Note. Flanges shall not be reduced in width to give a value of ψ lower than 0.25.
Where the value of ψ calculated for compression flange alone is smaller
than that when both the flanges are combined, this smaller value of ψ shall
be used.
(b) Where the moment of inertia of the compression flange about yy-axis
exteeds that of tension flange.
A paper titled as ‘the basis for design of beams and plate girder in the revised
BS : 153 (British Standards)’ structural paper 48, proceedings of the Institution
of Civil Engineers, London, August 1956 was published by Kerensky, O.A., Flint,
A.R.; and Brown, W.C. Professor, Kerensky gave the expression for critical
bending moment for beams and plate girders as under:
72 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
1/2 ⎡
1/2 1/2 ⎤
π
ElyGK ) ⎢⎛⎜1 + π Ely h2 ⎞⎟ + (2λ − 1 ) πh ⎛⎜ EI y ⎞⎟ ⎥
2
Mcr =
l
( ...(i)
⎣⎢⎝ l2 4GK ⎠ 2 ⋅ l ⎝ GK ⎠ ⎦⎥
where, λ is the ratio of moment of inertia of compression flange about yy-axis. If
to the moment of inertia of the whole section about yy-axis, Iy.(2λ – 1) may be
replaced by k2. For the values of λ = 1 or zero k 2 is equal to + 1.0 to –1.0. Various
approximations used as in Eq. 2.14, introduces inaccuracies and results in a
wide scatter. These approximations are allowed for by reducing k3 by fifty percent.
Above expression (i) may be written as below as expression (iv) derived in
Eq. 2.14.
1/ 2
π2 Ely ⋅ h ⎡ 1 ⎛ l ⋅ tf ⎞ ⎥⎤
2
⎛ π2 EI h ⎞
Mcr = ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ + k2 ⋅ ⎜ ⋅ y ⎟ ...(ii)
2 ⋅ l2 ⎢⎣ 20 ⎜⎝ ry ⋅ h ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ 2 l2 ⎠
2 ⎤1 / 2
π2 El´y ⋅ h ⎡ ⎛ l ⋅t ⎞ ⎛ π2 EI h ⎞
Mcr = ⎢1 + 1 ⎜ f ⎟ ⎥ + k2 ⋅ ⎜ ⋅ y ⎟ ...(iii)
2 ⎜ ⎟ l2 ⎠
2⋅l ⎣⎢ 20 ⎝ ry⋅h ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ 2
where Iý is the modified moment of inertia. It is equal to k1 . Iy, (Iy is the moment
of inertia of the whole section about yy-axis at the section of maximum bending
moment).
The elastic critical stress for bending is given by (Mcr = fcb . Zxx)
1/ 2
π2 Ely ⋅ h ⎡ 1 ⎛ l ⋅ tf ⎞ ⎤⎥
2
⎛ π2 EI y′ ⋅ h ⎞
fcb = ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ + k2 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
2 ⋅ Z xx ⋅ l2 ⎣⎢ 20 ⎝⎜ ry ⋅ h ⎠⎟ ⎦⎥ ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⋅ Z xx ⋅ l ⎠
This expression (iv) may be written as follows (as Eq. 2.14 has been derived) :
1/2
26.5 × 105 k1 ⎡ 1 ⎛ l ⋅ t f ⎞ ⎥⎤
2
26.5 × 105 k1
fcb = ⋅ ⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ + k2 ⋅ ...(2.15)
⎛ l ⎞
2
⎢⎣ 20 ⎜⎝ ry ⋅ h ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎛ l ⎞
2
⎜r ⎟ ⎜r ⎟
⎝ y⎠ ⎝ y⎠
fcb = k 1 . (X .+ k 2 .Y) ...(2.16)
1/2
⎡ 1 ⎛ l ⋅ tf ⎞ ⎤
2
where X = Y . ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ N/mm2
⎢⎣ 20 ⎝ r2 ⋅ h ⎠ ⎥⎦
26.5 × 105
Y = N/mm2
⎛ l ⎞
⎜r ⎟
⎝ y⎠
LOAD AND STRESSES 73
⎡ ⎤
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ 26.5 × 105 1 ⎛ l ⋅ ts ⎞ 26.5 × 105 ⎥ yc
fcb = ⎢ 2
⋅ 1+ ⎜ r ⋅ D ⎟ + k2 ⋅ 2 ⎥ × y N/mm ...(2.17)
2
⎢ ⎛ l ⎞ 20 ⎝ y ⎠ ⎛ l ⎞ ⎥ t
⎢ ⎜ ry ⎟ ⎜r ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
y ⎦
yc
= k 1 . (X + k 2 . Y) . N/mm2 (MPa) ...(2.18)
yt
where yc = Distance from the neutral axis of the girder to extreme fibre in
compression flange
yt = Distance from neutral axis of the girder to extreme fibre in
tension flange
Permissible stress in bending in compression is adopted as per Table 2.15 for
steel as per IS : 226.
Table 2.15
Cc (N/mm2) Pbc (N/mm2)
30 15
40 20
50 25
60 30
70 35
80 38
90 42
100 46
Contd.
74 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Table 2.16 Permissible stresses in rivets, bolts and tension rods as per IS : 803–
1984 for steel conforming to IS : 226–1975
Description Permissible stress
N/mm 2
In tension
Axial stress on gross area of rivets and
on net area of bolts and tension rods
Power driven rivets 100
Hand driven rivets 80
Close tolerance and turned bolts 120
Bolts in clearance holes 120
In shear
Shear stress on gross area of rivets and bolts
Bolts in clearance holes 120
Power driven rivets 100
Hand driven rivets 80
Close tolerance and turned bolts 100
Bolts in clearance holes 80
In bearings
Bearings stress on gross diameter of rivets and bolts
Power driven rivets 300
Hand driven rivets 250
Close tolerance and turned bolts 300
Bolts in clearance holes 250
When the members are subjected to both axial stresses and bending stresses
(compressive or tensile), then, the members are so proportioned that the quantity
⎛ σac.cal σbc.cal ⎞
⎜ σ + deos not exceed unity
⎝ ac σbc ⎟⎠
where,
σac.cal = Calculated axial stress
σac = Appropriate allowable stress in axially loaded members
σbc.cal = Calculated maximum bending (compressive or tensile) stress
about both principal axes, including secondary stresses, if any
σbc = Appropriate allowable stress in bending.
When the members are subjected to bending and shear stresses, then,
irrespective of any permissible increases of allowable stresses, the equivalent
stress, σe due to this combination should not exceed 220 N/mm2 for the structural
steel conforming to IS : 226. The equivalent stress, σe , is obtained from the
following formula
σee.cal = [σbc2.cal + 3τvm.cal]1/2 ...(2.12)
σe.cal = [σbt .cal + 3τvm.cal]
2 1/2 ...(2.20)
where,
τvm.cal = Calculated co-existing shear stress
σbt.cal = Calculated bending tensile stress
σbc.cal = Calculated bending compressive stress.
Where a bearing stress is combined with tensile bending or compressive
bending and shear stresses approaching the maximum allowable value under
the most unfavourable conditions of loading the equivalent stress σe.cal shall not
exceed 0.9fy for structural steel conforming to IS : 226. The equivalent stress,
σe.cal is obtained from the following formula
σe.cal = [σbt2.cal + τp2. cal + σbc.cal σy.cal + 3τvm2.cal ]1/2 ...(2.21)
σe.cal = [σbc .cal – τp . cal + σbc.cal σp.cal + 3τvm .cal ]
2 2 2 1/2 ...(2.22)
where,
σe.cal = σbc.cal and τvm.cal are as specified above
σp.cal = Calculated co-existing bending stress.
⎛ fmin ⎞
⎜f ⎟ , gross areas of members are used.
⎝ max ⎠
In case of railway bridges, generally, for plate girders, floors and web system of
the truss girders, the member of repetition of stress cycles may be taken as 21 ×
105 cycles, and that for the chord members of truss girders as 6 × 105 cycles. No
allowance for fatigue need be made in the case of highway bridges and foot over-
bridges. In case the reversal of the stresses takes place in the web members of a
truss girder, then counter-brace members are provided. The actual distribution of
the stress in the counter-brace members is statically indeterminate. The exact
value of compressive force in the counter-brace members can be determined, if
desired by considering the buckling and shortening of such struts. In order to
simplify, it is generally assumed that one member remains active at a time and
takes tension only.
No allowance for fatigue shall be made in the design of riveted and the bolted
connections but all rivets and bolts subjected to reversal of stress during the
passage of the live loads shall be designed for the sum of the maximum and the
reversed loads on them. In case of wind bracing the connections shall be designed
to resist the greater stresses.
No allowances for fatigue shall be made for compression members or for shear
stresses in webs except that when open holes larger than those normally used
for rivets or fastenings exist. The fatigue factors shall be applied to the resulting
tensile stress near the hole. The allowance for fatigue shall be made for normal
loading only. The stresses due to wind, temperature and secondary stresses
shall be ignored in considering fatigue.
Table 2.17 Factor K for fluctuating stress
k for steel members conforming to k for steel members conforming to k for high tensile steel members 78
IS : 226–1958, fabricated with or IS : 226–1958, fabricated with conforming to IS : 961–1957
connected by rivets, bolts or butt intermittent or transverse fabricated or connected
welds, and for those fabricated fillet welds, or connected by by rivets or bolts
with continuous longitudinal transverse or longitudinal fillet welds
fillet welds
⎛ f min ⎞
⎜f ⎟ Number of cycles Number of cycles Number of cycles
⎝ max ⎠
1×105 6×105 20×105 1×105 6×105 20×105 1×105 6×105 20×105
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.8 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.7 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.6 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.93 1.0 1.0 0.91
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
0.3 1.0 1.0 0.98 1.0 1.0 0.79 1.0 1.0 0.83
0.2 1.0 1.0 0.93 1.0 0.97 0.69 1.0 1.0 0.77
0.1 1.0 1.0 0.88 1.0 0.86 0.62 1.0 1.0 0.71
0.0 1.0 1.0 0.83 1.0 0.78 0.56 1.0 1.0 0.67
–0.1 1.0 0.95 0.79 0.91 0.71 0.50 1.0 0.94 0.62
–0.7 1.0 0.91 0.76 0.83 0.65 0.46 1.0 0.88 0.59
–0.3 1.0 0.87 0.72 0.77 0.60 0.43 1.0 0.83 0.56
–0.4 1.0 0.83 0.69 0.71 0.56 0.40 1.0 0.79 0.53
Contd.
Table 2.17 Contd.
Note : 1. The ratio (fmin /fmax) positive or negative respectively if the maximum stresses are of like or unlike sign.
7 70
7 00
S -N o rm inal stress N /m m 2
6 30
5 60
4 90
4 20
3 50
1 02 1 04 1 05 1 06 1 07
N -N u m be r o f cycles
Fig. 2.13
logarithms scale. Near the endurance limit both the diagrams show a sharp
bend.
The endurance limit for most of the steels may be established with sufficient
accuracy on the basis of 2 × 106 and 10 × 106 cycles. In order to simplify, certain
national codes have given an expression to find the fatigue limit for cyclic loading
or range of stress. IS 807–1976 for design of cranes specifies an expression as
under
T
F =
⎡ ⎛ fmin ⎞ ⎤
⎢2 − ⎜ f ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ max ⎠ ⎦
where, T is the tensile strength and F is the fatigue limit.
This may also be adopted for bridges also. Most of non-ferrous metals do not
show clearly defined endurance limit. The values of stresses of such metals
continuously decrease even upto several million cycles.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The plate girders are used as the main load carrying members in the plate
girder bridges. The plate girder bridges are also known as solid web girder
bridges. The plate girders are economically used for the railway bridges for
span from 15 m to 30 m and for the highway bridges for spans from 20 to 40 m.
The plate girders are comparatively free from the secondary stresses. The
minimum height of plate girders in case of railway bridges are one-twelfth of
the span, and in case of highway bridges one-twenty fifth of the span. The effective
height (depth) of plate girder is measured from gravity axis of top flange upto
the gravity axis of the bottom flange. The span is taken as the distance between
centres of bearings in the case of simply supported bridges. In addition to the
main (stock) rails, the guard rails are provided on all the bridges in order to
avoid the derailment of trains and serious disasters.
The design of plate girder and its various components have been discussed in
detail in author’s Steel Structures Vol. I. The various types of sections of plate
girders are given in Vol. I. The use of deck type or through type bridges depends
upon the clearance available and the depth of the plate girder.
drainage, weight of the floor system, required construction time, and overall cost,
including that of maintenance.
There are two types of floor systems, which are used in the railway bridges.
1. Open floor system
2. Solid floor system.
By varying the thickness and depth of troughs, the solid floor can be used for
any span and the load. The solid floor system used in case of a through type
bridge is shown in Fig. 3.2.
84 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
M ain girder
Sleepers Rails
M ain girder
The deck type plate girder bridge consists of two plate girders. The width
between centres of main girders is kept sufficient to resist overturning due to
specified wind pressure and load conditions. The width between the main girders
should not be less than one-twentieth of the effective span. The timber ties
(wooden sleepers) are directly placed over the plate girders. The plate girders
are suitably braced for lateral forces. A deck type plate girder bridge is shown
in Plate 3.1.
Sixteen spans out of twenty spans of the bridge over river Luni, Samdari
(Rajasthan) are that of deck type plate girder bridge.
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 85
M ain girde r
R a ils S lee pe rs
S trin ge rs Floo r b ea m s
over beams which are placed parallel to the main girders. These beams are
known as stringers or longitudinal girders or rail bearers. These stringers have
span from 3 m to 5 m. These stringers are supported and framed into the cross-
beams. The cross-beams are termed as cross-girders or transverse girders or
floor beams. The floor beams are connected near the bottom of plate girders as
possible. These points of connections are known as panel points. The plate girders
are suitably braced for the lateral loads. A through type plate girder bridge is
shown in Plate 3.2.
Four spans out of twenty spans of the bridge over river Luni, Samdri (Rajasthan)
are that of through type plate girder bridge. Earlier these spans were also
deck type, which were washed-off in heavy rain and re-built as through type.
G ua rd ra ils
M ain rails
Tim b er tie s
H o rizon ta l truss
b racin g
M ain girde rs
C ro ss fram e
(vertical b racin g)
(A b utclea r / P ie r)
planes. The horizontal truss bracing and the cross-frames in the deck type girder
bridge are shown in Fig. 3.5. The horizontal truss bracing is also shown in Fig. 3.3.
In te rna l
g usse t pla te
G ua rd ra il
S tock rail
M ain girde r
S lee pe r
S trin ge r Floo r b ea m
means of triangular gusset plates. These gusset plates are connected on the
internal sides with the floor beams and the main girders. These are called
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 87
internal gusset plates. The horizontal bracing and the internal gusset plates are
shown in Fig. 3.6. The horizontal truss bracing of the through type plate girder
bridge is also shown in Fig. 3.4.
The effective length of compression flange for half through type bridge has been
described in Sec. 4.8.
⎛M ⎞
d = 1.1 ⎜ × tw ⎟ ...(3.4)
⎝ fb ⎠
where, M = Maximum bending moment
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 89
(t .cal )
1
2
(i) τw.min = d1 ⋅ wa
816
(f )
11
2
y
(ii) τw.min = d1 ⋅ whichever is more, but
1344
d1
(iii) τw.min = <|
85
where, d1 is the depth of the web, and τva· cal is the calculated average shear
stress in the web.
The thickness of the vertically stiffened web plate shall be not less than
1
(i) of the clear panel dimension and
180
d2 ⋅ ( fy )2
1
d2 ⋅ ( fy )2
1
d2 ⋅ ( fy )2
1
d2
(iii) τw.min <|
400
where, d2 in the above expression is twice the clear distance from the compression
flange angles or plate to the neutral axis.
In practice, the depth of web is kept less than economical depth found as per
1 1
Eq. 3.4. The depth of web plate may be assumed as to of span instead of
10 12
determining from Eq. 3.4. The depth of web plate of the plate girder should not
1
be less than th of the span.
12
The flanges of plate girders are designed by the flange area method
(approximate method). The net area of tension flange is found from the following
expression :
Af . net = ⎛ M × d ⎞ ...(3.5)
⎜⎝ f e⎟
⎠
b
where, dt = Effective depth of plate girders.
The effective depth of plate girder is the distance between the centre of gravity
of tension flange and the centre of gravity of compression flange. The effective
depth plate of girder is assumed equal to the depth of web plate adopted. The
net area of tension flange consists of area of flange plates, area of flange angels
and web equivalent. The unequal flange angles are used for the flanges. The
long legs of flange angles are kept horizontal and the short legs are connected
with the web, so that, the effective depth of plate girder remains more. In riveted
plate girders, flange angles form as large a part of the area of the flange as
practicable (preferably not less than one-third). The web equivalent for the net
area of tension flange is adopted as one-eighth the area of web. The remaining
net area of the tension flange is provided by the flange plates. The flange plates
should not project beyond the outer line of connections to the flange angles
more than the allowable outstand (16t in compression flange and 20t in tension
flange). The number of flange plates should be minimum. The thickness of flange
plates are kept equal. The gross area of flange angles and flange plates less the
area of rivet holes and web equivalent furnish the net area of the tension flange.
The net area of tension flange adopted should be more (preferably, about 3000
mm2) than the net area required. The gross area of compression flange is kept
same as that of the tension flange.
The maximum section of plate girder so designed is checked by the moment
of inertial method. The gross moment of inertia of the trial section of plate
girder is found about the neutral axis. The neutral axis is assumed to be located
at the centre (i.e., same as xx -axis). The moment of inertia of plates about their
own axis is neglected. The bending stress in the compression flange is found
from the following expression :
⎛ M ⎞
σbc = ⎜ × ymax ⎟ ...(3.6)
I
⎝ ( gross ) ⎠
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 91
M etre gauge
Sleepers
2 m x 250 m m
250 m m
@ 400 m m c/c
1.30 m
Fig. 3.7 Deck type plate girder bridge for metre gauge
92 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Solution
Design : The deck type plate girder for single metre gauge track is shown in
Fig. 3.7. The maximum section of plate girder is designed as described in following
steps.
Step 1. Loads
(i) Dead load
The dead load acting on the plate girders is as follows :
Weight of stock rails per track per metre
2 × 0.60 = 1.20 kN/m
Weight of guard rails per track per metre
2 × 0.40 = 0.80 kN/m
Weight of fastenings = 0.20 kN/m
Weight of sleepers per track per metre
⎛ 20 ⎞
Impact factor = ⎜ = 0.526
⎝ 14 + L ⎟⎠
Impact load = 0.526 × L.L.
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 93
FLANGE AREA
Description Gross area Deduction of rivet Net area
(mm2) holes (mm2) (mm2)
Flange angles 2 × 3752 = 7504 4 × 23.5 × 15 = 1410 6094
2 ISA 150 mm ×
115 mm × 15 mm
Flange plates 2 × 400 × 16 = 12800 4 × 235 × 16 = 1504 11226
2 × 400 mm × 16 mm
1 1
Equivalent web area 6 Aw 8 Aw
1 1
6 × 1800 × 10 = 3000 8 × 1800 × 10
= 2250
Total 23304 19640
Net area of tension flange = 19640 mm2
Gross area of compression flange = 23304 mm2
The net area of tension flange provided is more than the net area required.
The maximum section of the plate girder is shown in Fig. 3.8.
Step 6. Check for stresses
From IS Handbook No. 1.
The moment of inertia of one flange angle about its own axis
= 418.6 × l04 mm4
Area section, A = 37.52 × 102 mm2
Distance of c.g. B = 30.2 mm.
The moment of inertia of plates about their own axis is neglected. The neutral
axis of the plate girder is assumed to be located at the centre.
4 00 m m
16 m m
16 m m
2 IS A 15 0 m m
x 11 5 m m
x 15 m m
18 00 m m
x x
10 m m
2 IS A 15 0 m m
x 11 5 x 1 5 m m
16 m m
16 m m
Fig. 3.8
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 95
23304
= 106.4 × = 126.25 N/mm2
19640
< 142 N/mm2. Hence, safe.
(iii) Shear stress
768.1 × 1000
τva . cal = = 42.67 N/mm2 < 0.4 × 250
1800 × 10
= 100 N/mm2 permissible shear stress
⎛ d1 ⎞ ⎛ 1800 − 2 × 115 ⎞
⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠ = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 157 > 85.
w
⎝ 10
The section requires intermediate stiffeners.
Step 7. Check for dead load
Gross area of both the flanges
= 2 × 23304 = 46608 mm2
Area of remaining portion of web not included in flanges
4
= × 1800 × 10 = 12000 mm2
6
Total cross-sectional area of plate girder
= (46608 + 12000) = 58608 mm2
Weight of the plate girder per metre
⎛ 58608 × 78.50 ⎞
= ⎜ = 4.6 kN/m
⎝ 1000 × 1000 ⎟⎠
Weight of one plate girder assumed
1
=
× 8.81 = 4.405 kN/m
2
The maximum section of plate girder for the deck type bridge is shown in
Fig. 3.8.
96 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
of connections are known as panel points. The cross-girders transmit load to the
main girders at the panel points.
Main plate girders. The plate girders in through type-railway bridges are
spaced with sufficient width to suit the clearance requirement. The spacing of
plate girders necessary for the clearance requirements is sufficient to develop
lateral strength and rigidity and to resist the overturning with the specified
wind pressure and load conditions. The plate girders carry the weight of stock
rails, guard rails, fastenings, sleepers, weight of stringers, weight of the cross-
girders and the self-weight. In addition to this dead load, the plate girders also
carry the live load and impact load. When the spacing of cross-girder is upto 4
m, then the load transmitted by the cross-girders is treated as uniformly
distributed load. The maximum section for main plate girders is also designed
as discussed in Sec. 3.9.
Example 3.2 In a plate girder through type bridge carrying a single broad
gauge track, the cross-girders are provided at 4 metres centres. The stringers are
spaced at 2 metres from centre to centre. Using the data given below, design the
rail bearers and the cross-girders.
Spacing between the main girder = 4 m
EUDLL for 4 metres for BM per track = 592 kN
EUDLL for 4 metres for shear per track = 788 kN
Solution
Design :
The rail bearers (stringers) and the cross-girders are designed as described
in the following steps :
EUDLL for 8 m for BM per track = 1056 kN
Impact factor for 4 m = 1.0
Impact factor for 8 m = 0.909
S trin ge rs
g ird er
A B C D
C ross
2m 4m
S trin ge rs
gird er
C ross
A1 B1 C1 D1
4m 4m 4m
Fig. 3.9
The stringers span in between two adjacent cross-girder. The stringers support
the super-imposed dead load, live load and impact load. The super-imposed
dead load is the weight of stock rails, guard rails, fastenings and the weight of
sleepers. It is assumed that 0.60 kN per metre stock rails, 0.40 kN per metre
guard rails and 280 m × 250 mm × 250 mm sleepers at 450 mm (to centre)
spacing are used. The unit weight of timber for sleepers is 7.50 kN/m3.
Step 1. Loads
(i) Dead load
Weight of stock rails per track per metre
2 × 060 = 1.20 kN/m
Weight of guard rails per track per metre
2 × 0.40 = 0.80 kN/m
Weight of fastening (assumed)
= 0.20 kN/m
Weight of sleepers
100 ⎛ 2.8 × 250 × 250 × 7.50 ⎞
= ×⎜ ⎟⎠ = 2.92 kN/m
45 ⎝ 1000 × 1000
Self weight of stringers per track per metre (assumed)
= 0.200 kN/m
The dead load per track per metre = 7.12 kN/m
Span of stringers = 4 m
Total dead load per track for two stringers
7.12 × 4 = 28.48 kN
(ii) Dead load, live load and impact load
The stringer is subjected to maximum live load and impact load, when its
complete span is loaded.
Impact factor = 1.00
Impact load = 1.00 × L.L.
Loading For BM (kN) For SF (kN)
Dead load 28.48 28.48
Live load 592.00 788.00
Impact load 592.00 788.00
Total load 121248 1604.48
The dead load, live load and impact load per stringer for bending moment
1
= × 1212.48 = 606.24 kN
2
The dead load, live load and impact load per stringer for shear force
1
= × 1604.48 = 802.24 kN
2
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 99
⎛ 606.24 × 4 ⎞
M = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 303.12 kN-m
⎝ 8
Step 3. Shear force
The maximum shear force F, in the stringer occurs at the end
1
F = × 802.24 = 401.12 kN-m
2
Step 4. Section modulus
Assuming the allowable stress in bending, σb = 165 N/mm2, the modulus of
section Z, required
M ⎛ 303.12 × 1000 × 1000 ⎞
Z= = ⎜ ⎟⎠
σbc ⎝ 165
= 1837.09 × 103 mm3
⎛ 401.12 × 103 ⎞
τv = ⎜ = 63.67 N/mm2
⎝ 600 × 10.5 ⎟⎠
< 100 N/mm2. Hence, safe.
Provide ISLB 600, @ 0.995 kN/m for the stringers. The connections of stringer
at the ends with the cross-girders may be designed for end reaction
Half of this live load and impact load is carried by the cross-girders as two point
loads at 1 m from each end.
Point load due to super-imposed dead load
1
=× 28.48= 14.24 kN
2
Point load due to live load and impact load
1 1
=
× ( × 2016) = 504 kN
2 2
Total point load = (504 + 14.24) = 518.24 kN
The load acting on cross girder is shown in Fig. 3.10.
The reaction at each end
1
= (518.24+ × 3 × 4) kN
2
= 524.24 kN
5 18 .24 kN 5 18 .24 kN
2 .0 m
4 .0 m
B B1
Fig. 3.10
Provide ISWB 600, @ 1451 N/m. (In case this section would have been
insufficient, a plate girder would have been provided).
Example 3.3 A through type plate-girder is provided for a single broad gauge
track. The cross-girders are spaced 3 m apart, the total span of the main girders
from centre to centre of bearings being 30 metres. The stringers are spaced at 2
metres between centre lines. 0.60 kN per metre stock rails and 0.40 kN per metre
check rails are provided. Sleepers are spaced at 450 mm from centre to centre
and are of size of 2.8 m × 250 mm × 250 m. Weight of timber may be assumed as
7.50 kN per cubic metre. Provide calculations for the maximum section of the
main girder if EUDLL for BM is 2800 kN per track total for BM, and EUDLL for
shear 3023 kN per track total, impact factor or 30 metres = 0.455. The main
girders are provided at a spacing of 5 metres between their centre lines.
Solution
Design : The through type plate girder bridge for a single broad gauge track
is shown in Fig. 3.11.
1 .67 m
2 .0 m
5 .0 m
Fig. 3.11 Through type plate girder bridge for broad gauge
Step 1. Loads
(i) Dead load
The dead load acting on the plate girders is as follows :
Weight of stock rails per track per metre
= 2 × 0.60 = 1.20 kN/m
Weight of check rails per track per metre
= 2 × 0.40 = 0.80 kN/m
Weight of fastenings (assumed) = 0.20 kN/m
Weight of sleepers per track per metre
100 ⎛ 2.8 × 250 × 250 × 7.50 ⎞
= ×⎜ ⎟⎠ = 2.92 kN/m
45 ⎝ 1000 × 1000
102 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
1 ⎛ 20 × 30 + 100 ⎞
× (20L + 100 ) = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 7.00 kN/m
100 ⎝ 100
Total dead load per track per metre = 15.12 kN/m
Total dead load per track for the complete span
= 15.12 × 30 = 453.6 kN.
(ii) Dead load, live load and impact load
Impact factor = 0.455
Impact load = 0.455 × L.L.
Load For BM (kN) For SF (kN)
Dead load 453.60 453.60
Live load 2800.00 3023.00
Impact load 1272.00 1372.00
Total load 4525.60 4848.60
The total dead load, live load and impact load acting on one main girder for
bending moment
⎛ 4525.6 ⎞
= ⎜ = 2262.8 kN
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
The total dead load, live load and impact load acting on one main girder for
shear force
⎛ 4848.6 ⎞
= ⎜ = 2424.3 kN
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
Step 2. Bending moment
Effective span, L = 30 m
The cross-girders are spaced 3 m apart. The load transferred by the cross-
girders is assumed to be acting as uniformly distributed load. The maximum
bending moment M, occurs at the centre,
WL ⎛ 2262.8 × 30 ⎞
M = ⎟⎠ = 8485.5 kN-m
8 ⎜⎝ 8
Shear force
The maximum shear force F, occurs at the supports
2424.3
F = = 1212.15 kN
2
Step 3. Economical depth of web plate
The economical depth of web plate d is given by Eq. 3.4. The thickness of web
plate, t w is assumed as 10 mm,
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 103
1 1
⎛ M ⎞2 ⎛ 8485.5 × 1000 × 1000 ⎞ 2
d = 1.1 ⎜ ⎟ = 1.1 ⎜ ⎟⎠ mm
⎝ σb × tw ⎠ ⎝ 165 × 10
= 2494.53 mm
Adopt the depth of web plate as 2600 mm.
Step 4. Net area of tension flange
The net area of tension flange is found from Eq. 3.5. The distance between c.g.,
to c.g. of flanges i.e., lever arm is assumed equal to the depth of web plate. Therefore,
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ 8485.5 × 1000 × 1000 ⎞
Af .net = ⎜ = ⎜ ⎟⎠ mm
2
⎝ fb × lever arm ⎟⎠ ⎝ 165 × 2600
= 19779.72 mm2
Use 22 mm diameter rivets for the connection of flange angles and flange plates
and flange angles and web plates.
FLANGE AREA
Description Gross area Deduction of rivet Net area
(mm2) holes (mm 2)
(mm2)
Flange angles 2 × 5025 =10050 4 × 235 × 15 8640
ISA 200 mm × = 1410
150 mm × 15 mm
2 Flange plates 2 × 550 × 16 4 × 235 × 16 16096
= 17500 = 1504
2 × 550 mm × 16 mm
1 1
Equivalent web area 6 Aw 8 Aw
1 1
6 × 2600 × 10 = 4333 8 × 2600 × 10
= 3250
Total 31983 27986
Net area of tension flange = 27986 mm2
Gross area of compression flange = 31983 mm2
The net area of tension flange piovided is more than the net area required. The
maximum section is shown in Fig. 3.12.
Step 5. Check for stresses
From ISI Handbook No. 1.
The moment of inertia of one flange angle abouts its own axis
= 969.9 × 104 mm4
Area of section,
A = 5025 mm2
Distance of c.g. = 372 mm.
104 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The moment of inertia of plates about their own axis of the plate girder is
assumed to be located at the centre.
Fig. 3.12
⎛ M ⎞
σbc.cal = ⎜ ⋅y
⎝ I xx ( gross ) ⎟⎠
⎛ 31983 ⎞
= 105.025 × ⎜
⎝ 27986 ⎟⎠
= 120.025 N/mm2
< 165 N/mm2. Hence, safe.
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 105
⎛ 1212.15 × 103 ⎞
τv.cal = ⎜
⎝ 2600 × 10 ⎟⎠
= 46.62 N/mm2 < permissible stress
d1 (2600 − 2 × 150 ) 2300
= = = 230.0
tw 10 10
> 85, (also > 200).
The section requires intermediate vertical stiffeners and the horizontal stiffeners.
The maximum section of plate girder for the through type bridge is shown in Fig.
3.12.
where, xn = Theoretical length of cut-off for the flange plates measured from
the centre on either side
L = Span of plate girder
A1,A2...An = Areas of individual cover plate counted from outer side
Af = Total flange area including web equivalent.
Equation 3.8 is useful for the curtailment of flange plates, when the plate
girders are subjected to the uniformly distributed load. In exposed situation
where the flange plates are used, at least one plate of top flange is extended
upto the full length, unless the top edge of the web is finished flush with the
flange angle. Each flange plate to be curtailed will extend beyond the theoretical
cut-off. The extension shall contain sufficient rivets to develop in the plate, the
load calculated for the bending moment at the theoretical cut-off points.
The pitch of rivets connecting flange angles with the web for loaded flange is
found from the following expression :
R
p = 1/ 2 ...(3.9)
⎡⎛ V Af 1 ⎞
2
⎤
⎢⎜ × ⎟ +w ⎥
2
⎢⎣⎝ de A f 1 + Aw.equiv ⎠ ⎥⎦
where,
R = Rivet value
V = Shear force at the cross-section
ds = Effective depth of the plate girder
Af = Area of the flange excluding web equivalent
1
Aw(equiv) = Equivalent web area
w = Vertical component of the load per mm run.
For the unloaded flange, the value of w is zero. The vertical component of load
w, is found for the maximum wheel load including the effect of impact for the
standard loading for which the bridge is designed. The maximum wheel load
including impact per girder is found and it is assumed to be distributed over l.20
m length.
The pitch or rivets connecting flange angles with the flange plates, if the rivets
are provided in one single row, is obtained from the following expression:
R × de ⎛ Af 1 + Aw.equiv ⎞
p = ×⎜ ⎟ ...(3.10)
V ⎝ A1 + A2 + ... An ⎠
where,
A1, A2,..., An = Area of flange plates counted from outside.
Acutally, the rivets are provided in two rows at a distance equal to twice the
pitch found from Eq. 3.10.
The area of flanges excluding web equivalent, Af1 for the compression flange
is adopted as gross area of flange angles and flange plates (if any) and that for
the tension flange as net area of flange angles and flange plates (if any). The
1
equivalent web area for compression flange adopted as Aw , and that for the
6
1
tension flange is adopted as A .
8 w
The moment of inertia of a pair of vertical stiffeners is found about the centre
line of the web, and the moment of inertia of a single angle vertical stiffener is
found about the face of the web. The moment of inertia of vertical stiffeners is
provided by the angle sections and a portion of the web, which acts with the
stiffener. The length of this portion of web should not be greater than half the
depth of girder. The spacing of vertical stiffeners depends on thickness of web
plate, the clear depth of web plate and the shear stress in web.
20
50
50
40
1 00
60
1 00
1 50
80
1 00 2 00
1 50
1 20
2 50
1 40 2 00
3 00
1 60
2 50
1 80 3 50
2 00 4 00
3 00
2 20
4 50
2 40 3 50
5 00
2 60
4 00
2 80 5 50
N o m o g ram 3 .1
(A s p er co d e o f p ra ctice for stee l b ridg es, p u blishe d by R a ilw ay B o ard)
The spacing of vertical stiffeners depends on the thickness of web plate, clear
depth of web, d and the average shear stress, fs . The vertical stiffeners are
provided at a spacing not greater than 1.5 d and not less than 0.33 d, where d is
the distance between flange angles, (also known as clear depth of web). The
actual average shear stress in the web plate τva· cal should not exceed the allowable
shear stress in the stiffened web. The spacing of vertical stiffeners may also be
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 109
found from Nomogram 3.1 (as per code of practice for steel bridges) from the known
values of clear depth of web, d, the actual average shear stress, and thickness of
web, τw. In order to find the spacing of vertical stiffeners, join d and fs by means of
a straight line. The intersection of this straight line with ordinate b, gives the
spacing of vertical stiffeners. For the railway bridges, the maximum spacing of
the stiffeners should not exceed 1800 mm.
t
The outstand of stiffeners from the web shall not be more than 256,
fv1 / 2
(where, t is the thickness of the section, so long as the outer edge of each stiffener
is not continuously stiffened, or 12 t for the flat sections. The length of connected
leg of vertical stiffener should be sufficient to accommodate the rivets connecting
the stiffener to the web.
⎛ 125tw2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ kN/m
⎝ h ⎠
where, t w is thickness of web in mm and h is stiffeners outstand in mm.
The methods of web splice and flange splice are exactly same as described in
author’s Steel Structures Vol. I.
Example 3.4. In a through type bridge for single broad guage track and
main line standard loading, a plate girder simply supported at its ends is
composed of flange plates, flange angles, and web plate as shown in Fig. 3.13.
The effective span of plate girder is 27 m. The plate girder is subjected to maximum
bending moment of 8100 kN-m due to uniformly distributed load. Determine
actual length of the flange plates if they are curtailed.
3 8.4
mm
8 61 .6 m m
Fig. 3.13
Solution
Design :
Step 1. The bending moment diagram for uniformly distributed load is a
parabola. The maximum bending moment occurs at the centre of plate girder.
The flange areas are as follows :
FLANGE AREA
Description Gross area Deduction for Net area
(mm1) rivet holes (mm2) (mm2)
Flange angles
2 ISA 200 mm 2 × 5976 = 11952 4×23.5× 18 = 1690 10262
× 150 mm × 18 mm
3 Flange plates
Contd.
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 111
Contd.
Description Gross area Deduction for Net area
(mm1) rivet holes (mm2) (mm2)
500 mm × 20 mm 500 mm × 20 = 10000 2 × 23.5 × 20 = 940 9060
500 mm × 20 mm 500 mm × 20 = 10000 2 × 23.5 × 20 = 940 9060
500 mm × 20 mm 500 mm × 20 = 10000 2 × 23.5 × 20 = 940 9060
1 1
Equivalent web 6 × 1800 × 16 = 4800 — 8 × 1800 ×16
area = 3600
Total 46752 — 41042
(Assuming that 22 mm diameter rivets are used for the connection of flange
elements).
Net area of tension flange = 41042 mm2
Gross area of flange = 46752 mm2.
Step 2. Calculation of gross moment of inertia
Nneutral axis (xx-axis) of the plate girder is assumed to be located at the
centre. The moment of inertia of flange plates about their own axis is neglected.
Gross moment of inertia
Number of Web plate Flange Flange Flange Total
flange (mm4) angles angles plates (mm4)
plates in about about about
each flange own axis xx-axis xx-axis
(mm4) (mm4) (mm4)
Three 730 × 107 455 × 107 4×59.76 × 2 × 300 × = 7684.55
104 × 86.162 104 × 932 ×107
= 1770 = 5180
×107 ×107
Two 730 × 107 4.55 × 107 1770 × 107 2 × 200 × = 5904.55
104 × 922 ×107
= 3400
×107
One 730 × 107 4.55 ×107 1770 ×107 2× l00 × = 4164.55
104 × 912 ×107
= 1660
×107
Step 3. Curtailment of flange plates, in tension flange
Let the central theoretical lengths of cut-off for flange plates be 2x 1 and 2x2.
From Eq. 3.8, length of cover plates
1/ 2 1/ 2
L ⎛ A1 ⎞ 27 ⎛ 9060 ⎞
x1 = ×⎜ ⎟ = ×⎜ ⎟ = 6.30 m
2 ⎝ Af ⎠ 2 ⎝ 41042 ⎠
112 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
2x1 = 12.60 m
1/ 2 1/ 2
L ⎛ A1 + A2 ⎞ 27 ⎛ 9060 + 9060 ⎞
x2 = ×⎜ ⎟ = ×⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ Af ⎠ 2 ⎝ 41042 ⎠
= 8.95 m
2x2 = 17.90 m
Step 4. The equation of parabolic bending moment diagram with left hand
support as origin is given by
y = k . x´ (L – x´)
L
At x´ = y = M = 8100 kN-m
2´
8100
∴ k =
(13.5 )2
Distance of theoretical cut-off (outer-plane) from left hand support
x´ = (13.5 – 6.3) = 7.2 m
∴ (L – x´) = 19.8 m
Distance of theoretical cut-off (second plate) from left hand support
x´ = (13.50 – 8.95) = 4.55 m
(L – x´) = 22.45 m
Step 5. Bending moment at the point of theoretical cut-off
For outer plate,
8100
M1 = × (7.20 × 19.80) = 6580 kN-m
(13.5 )2
For second plate,
8100
M2 = × (4.55 × 22.45) = 49.40 kN-m
(13.5 )2
Step 6. Bending stress in compression flange at the point of
theoretical cut-off
For outer plate,
⎛ 80.488 × 467.52 ⎞
f1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 91.64 N/mm
2
⎝ 41062 ⎠
For the second plate,
76.97 × (46752 − 10000 )
f2 = = 88.39 N/mm2
(41062 − 9060 )
Step 8. Forces in the outer flange plate
For outer plate,
⎛ 91.64 × 9060 ⎞
F1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 830.258 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Force second plate,
⎛ 88.34 × 9060 ⎞
F2 = ⎜ ⎟ = 800.36 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Step 9. Rivet connections
Use 22 mm diameter power-driven rivets.
Strength of rivet in single shear
π (23.5 ) × 100
2
= × = 43.35 kN
4 1000
Strength of rivet in bearing
⎛ 23.5 × 20 × 300 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 141 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Rivet value R = 43.35 kN
Number of rivets required for the outer plate
⎛ 830.258 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 19.15 Ω 20
⎝ 43.35 ⎠
Number of rivets required for the second plate
⎛ 800.36 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 18.46 Ω 20
⎝ 43.35 ⎠
These rivets are provided in two rows and in extended side of the theoretical
section with 1.5 × diameter of rivets as edge change and 3 × diameter as pitch.
Step 10. Actual length of curtailment of outer plates
⎛ 2 ⎞
For outer plate, ⎜12.60 + × 10 × 3 × 23.5 ⎟ = 14.01 m
⎝ 1000 ⎠
114 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 2 ⎞
For second plate, ⎜17.90 + × 10 × 3 × 23.5 ⎟ = 19.31 m
⎝ 1000 ⎠
The flange plates in compression flange are curtailed at the same positions,
where the flange plates are curtailed in tension flange. One flange plate is
continued throughout the span in each flange.
Example 3.5 Design the connections of flange angles, and web plate and
flange plates and flange angles in Example 3.4 at the supports. The maximum
shear force at support is 1280 kN.
Solution
Design :
Step 1. Shear force at supports, V =1280 kN
The distance between c.g. to c.g. of flanges may be assumed approximately
equal to the depth of web plate.
Therefore, the effective depth of plate girder de = 1800 mm
Rivet value for rivets subjected to single shear R = 43.35 kN
Rivet value for rivets subjected to double shear R1 = 87.70 kN
Strength of rivet in bearing (Rivet diameter 22 mm)
(i) For connecting flange plates to flange angles = 126.9 kN
(Thickness of flange angles 18 mm, minimum)
(ii) For connecting flange angles to web 112.8 kN
(Thickness of web plate 16 mm, minimum).
Step 2. Connection of flange plates to flanges angle in compression
flange
There is only one flange plate at the supports. Let p be the pitch of rivets, if
rivets, are provided in one row. From Eq. 3.10,
R × de ⎛ Af1 + 16 Aw ⎞
p= ×⎜ ⎟
V ⎜ A1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
R × de ⎛ Af1 + 18 Aw ⎞
p = ×⎜ ⎟
V ⎜ A1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
(3 Af1 )
= (10262 + 9060 = 19322 mm2 )
V ⎛ A f1 ⎞
τvf.cal = ⎜ ⎟
de ⎜ 1 ⎟
A +
⎜ f1 8 A ⎟
⎝ w ⎠
R
p = 1/2
⎡⎛ ⎞
2 ⎤
⎢⎜ Af1 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎜ V × ⎟ +w ⎥
2
⎢⎜ de A + 1 A ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢⎜⎝ f1
8
w
⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
R
=
(( f ) )
2 1/ 2
s + w2
86.70 × 1000
= 1 / 2 = 137.8 mm
⎡(599.43 )2 + (190.8 )2 ⎤
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Provide 130 mm pitch for rivets connecting flange angles to web in the tension
flange.
Step 5. Connection of flange angles to web in compression flange
The compression flange in a through type bridge is a unloaded flange. There is
only one flange plate at the support, in this flange. The vertical component of load
on the unloaded flange due to live load and impact load
w = 0
Horizontal shear per mm run
V ⎛ Af1 ⎞
τvf.cal = ×⎜ ⎟
de ⎜ 1
⎜ A f1 + Aw ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
R R
p = =
⎛ ⎞ τvf .cal
⎜V A f1 ⎟
⎜ × ⎟
d 1
⎜⎜ e Af2 + Aw ⎟⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠
⎛ 86.70 × 1000 ⎞
p = ⎜ ⎟ = 148.58 mm
⎝ 583.52 ⎠
Provide 130 mm pitch for rivets connecting flange angle to the web.
The pitch of rivets connecting flange plates to flange angles in compression
flange and that in tension flange have been kept equal to facilitate the riveting
during fabrication. This is also done for pitch of rivets connecting flanges with
the web in compression flange and that in the tension flange for the same reason.
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 117
Example 3.6 In a through type plate girder bridge, the effecive span of a plate
girder is 24 m. The support reaction due to dead load, live load and impact load
is 1500 kN. The section of plate girder at support is shown in Fig. 3.14. Design
end bearing stiffeners. Also design the necessary intermediate stiffeners.
Solution
(A) Design of bearing stiffeners
Step 1. Bearing stiffeners
Support reaction = 1500 kN
Allowable bearing stress
σp = 0.75 × 250 = 187.5 N/mm2
5 00 m m
2 IS A 20 0 x
1 50 m m x 18 m m
x x
8 mm
2 IS A 20 0 x
1 50 m m x 18 m m
Fig. 3.14
3 15002 × 1000
= × = 6000 mm2
4 187.5
From ISI Handbook No. 1.
Provide 4 ISA 150 mm × 115 mm × 15 mm, short leges connected with the web.
Radius at the root, r1, for the flange angle ISA 200 mm × 150 mm × 18 mm
r1 = 13.5 mm
Bearing area provided
= 4 × (150 – 135) × 15 = 8190 mm2
The bearing area provided is greater than the bearing area required.
Thickness of filler plates
= Thickness of flange angles = 18 mm
118 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Step 3. Check
The bearing stiffener acts as a column. Actual length of bearing stiffenes
= (2500 – 2 × 18) = 2464 mm.
Effective length of column
l = 0.70 × 2464 =1724.8 mm.
Cross-sectional area of column
A = (4 × 3752 + 40 × 8 × 8) = 17568 mm2.
4 IS A 1 50 m m x
11 5 m m x 1 5 m m
18 m m
18 m m
18 m m
Filler
p la te
Fig. 3.15
π (23.5 )2 × 100
= 2× × = 86.70 kN
4 1000
Strength of rivet in bearing
23.5 × 8 × 30
= = 96.40 kN
1000
Rivet value, R = 56.40 kN
Number of rivets required
⎛ 1500 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 26.59
⎝ 56.4 ⎠
The filler plates (packings are properly fitted with the bearing stiffeners. These
filler plates are subjected to direct compression only.
Provide 30 rivets in 2 rows.
Design of Intermediate stiffeners
Step 1. Clear depth between flanges angles on the plate girder
d1 = (2500 – 2 × 150) = 2200 mm
Thickness of web, tw = 8 mm.
In case, the web plate is to be unstiffened, the minimum thickness of web
necessary is as follows :
⎛ 1500 × 1000 ⎞
t va· cal = ⎜ ⎟ = 75 N/mm
2
⎝ 2500 × 8 ⎠
⎛ 1/2 ⎞ ⎛ 1/2 ⎞
(ii) τw· min = ⎜ d1 ⋅ fv ⎟ = ⎜ 2200 × 250 ⎟ mm
⎝ 1344 ⎠ ⎝ 1344 ⎠
d1 ⎛ 2200 ⎞
(iii) τw· min = =⎜ ⎟ = 25.88 mm
85 ⎝ 85 ⎠
The actual thickness of web 8 mm is less than the above values of t w· min, as
such the vertical stiffeners are provided.
Step 2. Now, if the horizontal stiffeners are not to be used, then, the thickness
of web necessary is as below :
120 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
1
d2 = × 2200 = 1100 mm.
2
⎛ d ⋅ f 1 / 2 ⎞ ⎛ 1100 × 2501 / 2 ⎞
(i) τw . min = ⎜ 2 y ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 5.435 mm
⎝ 3200 ⎠ ⎝ 3200 ⎠
d2 ⎛ 1100 ⎞
(ii) τw . min = =⎜ ⎟ = 5.5
200 ⎝ 200 ⎠
The actual thickness of web 8 mm is more than t w.min, then, the horizontal
stiffeners are not necessary.
Step 3. Design of vertical stiffeners
At support, shear force = 1500 kN
Actual average shear stress in the web plate
⎛ 1500 × 1000 ⎞
t va.cal = ⎜ ⎟ = 75 N/mm
2
⎝ 2500 × 8 ⎠
d ⎛ 220 ⎞
Ratio, tw = ⎜ ⎟ = 275
⎝ 8 ⎠
The smaller clear panel dimension for the actual thickness of web
= 180 × 8 = 1440 mm
The greater clear panel dimension for the actual thickness of web
= 270 × 8 = 2160 mm
The vetical stiffeners may be provided at a spacing smaller than 1440 mm. Let
the spacing of vertical stiffeners be
= 0.6 × d = 0.6 × 2200 = 1320 mm
From IS 800–1984, Table 6.6 (A), the permissible average shear stress, tva in the
d
stiffened web plate of steel with fy = 250 N/mm2 and 0.6 d spacing and ratio
tw
tw = 81 N/mm2
> (t va . cal = 75 N/mm2)
Length of outstanding leg of the vertical stiffener
⎛ 1 ⎞
= ⎜ × clear depth of girder + 50 ⎟ mm
⎝ 30 ⎠
⎛ 2200 ⎞
= ⎜ + 50 ⎟ = 123.33 mm
⎝ 30 ⎠
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 121
IS A 1 25 m m x 95 m m x 8 m m
W eb 8 m m
th ick
1 26 0 m m
IS A 1 25 m m x 95 m m x 8 m m
1 32 0 m m
Fig. 3.16
⎛ 1500 × 1000 ⎞
tw1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 7.41 mm
⎝ 2500 × 81 ⎠
Required moment of inertia
⎛ 2 ⎞
Shear force = ⎜ 125 t ⎟ kN/m
⎝ h ⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞
= ⎜ 125 × 8 ⎟ = 88.89 kN/m
⎝ 90 ⎠
Use 22 mm diameter power driven field rivets
Strength of rivet in single shear
⎛ 2 ⎞
= ⎜ π × 23.5 × 100 ⎟ = 43.35 kN
⎝4 1000 ⎠
122 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 23.5 × 8 × 300 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 56.4 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Rivet value, R = 43.35 kN
⎛ 43.35 ⎞
Pitch of rivets = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.487 m
⎝ 88.89 ⎠
Provide rivets at a pitch = 200 mm
Provide ISA 125 mm × 95 mm × 8 mm and 22 mm rivets to connect the stiffners
with the web at 200 mm pitch. The vertical stiffeners are shown in
Fig. 3.16.
3.14.1 Stringers
The stringers support the reinforced concrete slab in case of through type highway
bridges. The stringers are supported by the cross-girders. The stringers may be
supported on the top of cross-girders or may be framed into the cross-girders by
the use of suitable connections. When the reinforced concrete slab is used, then
either the stringers should be supported on the top of the cross-girders or in case
the stringers are framed into the cross-girders, then the top of stringers should be
on the same level as the cross-girders. The stringers carry the dead load, which
consists of the weight of wearing coat, the weight of reinforced concrete slab and
the self-weight. In addition to this, the stringers also support the live load and the
impact load due to highway standard vehicle or trains. The design of stringers has
been illustrated in the worked out examples.
3.14.2 Cross-girders
The load from floor system is carried to the cross-girders by means of the stringers
or the loads may be carried to the cross-girders directly by the reinforced concrete
slab. The cross-girders carry dead load, which consists of the weight of wearing
coat, the weight of reinforced concrete slab, the reaction from the stringers and
the self-weight. In the addition to this, the cross-girders carry live load and
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 123
impact load due to highway standard vehicles or trains. The design of cross-girders
has been illustrated in the worked out example.
the section may be designed as discussed in Sec. 3.9. The maximum section is
further checked for lateral loads, and the suitable bracing is provided. The designs
of deck type and through type highway plate girder bridges have been illustrated
in worked out examples.
Example 3.7 The effective span of a through type plate girder two lane bridge
is 30 m. The reinforced concrete slab is 250 mm thick inclusive of the wearing
coat. The foot-paths are provided on their sides of carriageway. The cross girders
are provided at 3 m centres. The stringers are spaced at 2.45 m centre to centre.
The spacing between the main girders is 9.80 m. Determine the maximum sections
for the stringers and the cross-girders, if the bridge is to carry IRC class A
standard loading.
Solution
(A) Design of stringers :
Step 1. From IRC section I
Width of roadway for single lane = 3.80 m
For second lane = 3.80 m
Width of foot-paths 2 × 1.50 = 3.00 m
Total width = 9.80 m
Stringers
Effecive span = 3 m.
M ain girde r
2 .45 m S trin ge rs
C ro ss
g ird ers 2 .45 m
S trin ge rs
9 .80 m
2 .45 m
2 .45 m S trin ge rs
3m 3m 3m 3m
M ain girde r
Fig. 3.17
P P P P
1.80 m
1.42 m
1.80 m
0 .4 0
M in
f = 0 .15 m 0 .92 m
Fig. 3.18
126 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞
i = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 0.545
⎝ 13.5 + L ⎠ ⎝ 13.5 + 30 ⎠
Reaction on the central girder including impact
= 1.595 P ×1.545 = 2.455 P
Maximum one wheel load of IRC class A standard loading
114
P =
= 57.0 kN
2
Step 7. Longitudinal location of loading
The maximum bending moment occurs when the two heaviest wheels of one
train are as shown in Fig. 3.19. The distance between wheels is l.20 m.
2 .45 5 P 2 .45 5 P
0 .9 0 .9
1 .20 m
m m
3m
Fig. 3.19
Maximum bending moment due to both the trains and including impact
M2 = 2.455 × (57.0) × 0.90 = 125.94 kN-m
The dispersion of wheel load takes place at 45° inclination. Therefore, length
of dispersion of wheel load
= (0.25 +B + 0.25) = (0.25 + 0.25 + 0.25)
= 0.75 m
The maximum shear force occurs in the stringer when the heaviest wheel
load is as shown in Fig. 3.20.
2 .45 5 P 2 .45 5 P
2 .0 m
4 5° 4 5°
0 .75 m
0 .25 m 0 .25 m
3m
Fig. 3.20
Maximum shear force due to both the trains and including impact
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 127
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡⎛ 0.75 ⎞ ⎛ 0.75 ⎞ ⎤
F2 = (2.455)(57) ⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎜ 3 − ⎟ + ⎜ 3 − 1.20 − ⎟ kN
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 188.91 kN
Total bending moment due to dead load, live load and impact load
M = M1+ M2 = (17.66 + 125.94) = 143.60 kN-m
Total shear force due to dead load, live load and impact load
F = F1 + F2 = (23.55 + 188.91) = 212.46 kN
Section modulus required (allowable stress in bending for unstiffened section,
σb = 165 N/mm2)
⎛ 6 ⎞
Z = ⎜ 143.60 × 10 ⎟ = 870 × l03 mm3
⎝ 165 ⎠
From ISI Handbook No. 1
Select ISMB 400, @ 0.616 N/m
Zxx = 1022.9 × 103 mm3, t w = 89 mm, h = 400 mm.
Step 8. Check for shear
⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞
Impact factor = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 0.386
⎝ 13.5 + L ⎠ ⎝ 13.5 + 9.80 ⎠
The maximum reaction on cross-girder occurs for the positions of loads as shown
in Fig. 3.21.
5 7 kN 5 7 kN
3 .20
3 .20 m 4 .30 m
m
3m 3m
Fig. 3.21
⎛ 1.80 ⎞
= ⎜ 57.0 + 57.80 × ⎟ = 91.2 kN
⎝ 3.00 ⎠
128 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
9 .80 m
2 x 92 kN 2 x 91 .2 kN
Fig. 3.22
9 .80 m
Fig. 3.23
1
= 91.2 ×
[(9.80 – 1.90) + (9.80 – 3.70)
9.00
+ (9.80 – 5.12) + (9.80 – 6.92)] = 200 kN
Maximum shear force due to live lod and impact load
= 1.386 × 200 = 277.2 kN.
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 129
⎛ 5 × 616 × 3.0 ⎞
Weight of stringers = ⎜ ⎟ = 9.34 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Self-weight of stringers (assumed @ 3 kN/m)
= 9.80 × 3 = 29.30 kN
Total dead load = 215.04 kN
Step 6. Maximum bending moment due to dead load
⎛ 215.04 × 9.80 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 263.424 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
Step 7. Maximum shear force due to dead load
⎛ 215.04 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 107.52 kN
⎝ 8 ⎠
Total bending moment due to dead load, live load and impact load
= (263.424 + 831.6) = 1095.024 kN-m
Maximum shear force due to dead load, live load and impact load
= (107.52 + 277.2) = 384.72 kN
From, ISI Handbook No. 1
A built-up plate girder section as shown in Fig. 3.24 is provided for the cross-
girder.
Maximum allowable moment = 1112 kN-m
>(Maximum BM)
Maximum allowable shear = 907 kN
> (Maximum shear force)
Weight per metre = 2.097 kN/m
< Assumed weight. Hence, safe.
If desired, the plate girder section may be designed as discussed in Sec. 3.9.
130 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
4 12 m m
2 IS A 2 00 m m x
1 00 m m x 15 m m
12 m m
x x 8 00 m m
2 IS A 2 00 m m x
1 00 m m x 15 m m
Fig. 3.24
Example 3.8 The effecive span of a through type plate girder two lane highway
bridge is 30 m. The reinforced concrete slab is 250 mm thick inclusive of the
wearing coat. The foot paths are provided on both sides of the carriageway. The
cross-girders are provided at 3 m centres. The stringers are spaced at 2.45 m
centre to centre. The spacing between main girders is 9.80 m. Design the
maximkum section of plate girder, if the bridge if to carry IRC class A standard
loading.
Solution
Design :
Step 1. From IRC section I
Width of roadway for single lane = 3.80 m
For second lane = 3.00 m
Width of foot-paths 2 × 15.0 = 3.00 m
Total width = 9.80 m
Cross-girder’s are used at 3 m spacing
Number of panels = 10
There are five stringers in one panel
Total number of stringers = 5 × 10 = 50
Number of cross-girders = 11
Step 2. Dead load
Weight of reinforced concrete slab inclusive of wearing coat
⎛ 30 × 9.80 × 250 × 24 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 1764 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Weight of stringers (assumed @ 1 kN/m)
= 50 × 3 × 1 = 150 kN
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 131
⎛ 1223.7 × 30 ⎞
M1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 4588.88 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
Step 4. Shear force due to dead load
The maximum shear force F1, due to dead load occurs at the support
1
F1 = × 1223.7 = 611.85 kN
2
Step 5. Bending moment and shear force due to live load and impact
load
Road width between kerbs = 6.80 m
Therefore, two trains of IRC class A loading which pass over the bridges
simultaneously.
Step 6. Transverse location of loading
For the design of maximum section of the plate girders, the loads are so placed
that the reaction on one plate girder is maximum.
From IRC Section II
Distance between centre to centre of two wheels of one train
= 1.80 m
The minimum distance between adjacent edges of wheels of two trains
⎡ 91.2 − 0.4) ⎤
g = ⎢⎣0.40 + × (6.8 – 5.5) ⎥ = 0.92 m.
2 ⎦
The distance between centre to centre of adjacent wheels of two trains
= (0.92 + 0.60) = l.42 m
The minimum clearance between outer edge of the wheel and the roadway
face to kerb, for IRC class A vehicle
f = 0.150 m
The transverse location of wheels of trains are as shown in Fig. 3.25.
Reaction on the plate girder A.
132 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
P
= [(9.80– 1.80) + ( 7.90 – 1.80) + (6.10 – 1.42) + (4.68 – 1.80)] = 2.2 P
9.80
From IRC section II, impact fator for steel bridge
⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞
i = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 0.207
⎝ 1.35 + L ⎠ ⎝ 1.35 + 30 ⎠
Reaction on the plate girder A, including impact
= 2.2 × 1.207P = 2.655 P
where, P represents the one wheel load of IRC class A train of vehicle.
P P P P
0.92 m 1 .42 m
1.5 0m
M in
f = 0 .15 m
9 .80 m
Fig. 3.25
In order to account for the effect of both the trains of vehicles, and the impact
effect, either the wheel loads of IRC class A vehicles may be increased or bending
moment and shear force may be increased by multiplying by factor 2.655.
Step 7. Longitudinal location of loading
From IRC section II
One train of wheel loads of IRC class A train of vehicles is as shown in
Fig. 3.26.
9 .7 2 m
5 7 kN 3 4 kN
1 3 .5 kN 1 3 .5 kN 5 7 kN 3 4 kN 3 4 kN 3 4 kN
1 .2 4 .3
1 .1 m 3 .2 m 3m 3m 3m 3 .4 9
m m
15 m 15 m
R A = 1 2 1 .8 7 kN R A = 1 5 5 .1 3 kN
Fig. 3.26
The centre of gravity of train of loading, c.g., is at a distance y from the front
wheel and it is found by making moment about the same,
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 133
30 m
Fig. 3.27
1
Reaction, RB = [57(0.375 + 1.575) + 34(5.875 + 8.875
30
+ 11.875 + 14.875)] = 48.998 kN
RA = (250 – 48.998) = 201.002 kN
Maximum shear force including the effect of both the trains and impact
= 2.655 × 201.002 = 533.66 kN
Total bending moment due to dead load, live load and impact load
M = M1 + M2 = (4588.88 + 3737.85)
= 3826.73 kN-m
Total shear force due to dead load, live load, and impact load
F = F1 + F2 = (611.85+ 533.66)
From ISI Handbook No. 1
Select a built-up plate girder as shown in Fig. 3.28.
134 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
5 50 m m
20 m m
20 m m
2 IS A 20 0 m m x
1 50 m m x 18 m m
1 60 0 m m
16 m m
2 IS A 20 0 m m x
1 50 m m x 18 m m
20 m m
20 m m
Fig. 3.28
1.4 2 m
1.8 0 m
1 .50
m
1 .58 1 .42 1 .8 1 .2
m m m m
0 .4 3m 0 .4
Fig. 3.29
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 135
Solution
Design :
Step 1. From IRC Section I
Width of roadway for single lane = 3.80
For second lane = 3.00 m
Width of foot-paths 2 × 1.50 = 3.00 m
Total width = 9.80 m
Provide four plate girders as shown in Fig. 3.29. The intermediate plater girder
B or C is subjected to maximum load. Therefore, the section of intermediate plate
girder C is designed and the same section is provided for all the four plate girders.
Step 2. Bending moment and shear force due to live load and impact
Road width between kerbs = 6.80 m
Therefore, two trains of IRC class A loading pass over the bridge simultaneously.
Step 3. Transverse location of loading
For the design of maximum section of the intermediate plate girder the loads
are so placed that the reaction on one plate girder is maximum.
From IRC Section II
Distance between centre to centre of two wheels of one train
= 1.80 m
The minimum distance between adjacent edges of wheels of two trains
⎡ (1.2 − 0.4) ⎤
g = ⎢⎣0.40 + × (6.8 − 5.5) ⎥ = 0.92 m
2 ⎦
The distance between centre to centre of adjacent whels of two trains
= (0.92 + 0.50) = 1.42 m
The minimum clearance between outer edge of the wheel and the roadway face
of kerb, for IRC class A vehicle,
f = 0.150 m
The transverse location of wheels of trains is as shown in Fig. 3.29.
Reaction on plate girder C,
⎡ 1.2 1.42 ⎤
= P ⎢1.0 + + = 1.873P
⎣ 2 3 ⎥⎦
From IRC Section II, impact factor for steel bridges
⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞
i = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 0.207
⎝ 13.5 + L ⎠ ⎝ 13.5 + 30 ⎠
Reaction on plate girder C, including impact
= 1.873 × 1.207 P = 2.26 P
where, P represents the one wheel load of IRC class A train of vehicle.
136 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
In order to account for the effect of both the trains of vehicles, and the impact
effect, either the wheel loads of IRC class A vehicles may be increased or bending
moment and shear force may be increased by multiplying them by factor 2.26.
Step 4. Longitudinal location of loading
Effective spans in Example 38 and Example 39 are equal. Therefore, the
longitudinal locations for maximum bending moment and for maximum shear
force for both the examples are same and these are shown in Figs. 3.26 and
3.27.
From Example 3.8
Maximum bending moment = 1407.85 kN-m
Maximum shear force = 200.002 kN
The maximum bending moment including effect of both the trains and
impact
= 2.26 × 1407.85 = 3181 kN-m
The maximum shear force including effect of both the trains and impact
= 2.26 × 200.002 = 452.004 kN
Step 5. Dead load bending moment and shear force
Weight of reinfoced slab inclusive of wearing coat
⎛ 30 × 3 × 25 × 24 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 540 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Self-weight of the plate girders by Fuller’s formula
⎛ 645 × 30 ⎞
Bending moment = ⎜ ⎟ = 2418.75 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
1
Shear force = × 645 = 322.5 kN
2
Total bending moment due to dead load, live load and impact load
M = (3181.74+ 2418.75)
= 5600.49 kN-m
Total shear force due to dead load, live load and impact load
F = (452.004 + 322.5)
= 774.504 kN
From ISI Handbook No. l
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 137
3. D < I ≤ 1 21 D k = 0.50
4. 1 21 D > I ≥ 2 D k = 1.00
where, s = spacing between the main girder
h = height (depth) of the main girder.
Exposed area of uncloaded plate girder bridge
= (1 + k) × Area of windward girder
Area of windward girder is the area in elevation i.e., the product of height of
girder and length of girder.
In the case of railway bridges the area of moving load is taken as from 600 mm
abvoe the rail level to the top of the highest stock for which the bridge is designed.
The dimensions of rolling stocks for broad gauge and metre gauge have been shown
in Fig. 1.21 and Fig. 1.22 respectively in Sec. 1.10. The height of rolling stock
above 600 mm from the rail level upto the top is 3500 mm in case of broad gauge
and 2830 mm in case of metre gauge. The entire span of the bridge is assumed to
be occupied by the moving load. Thus, the area of moving load is 3.50 m × span of
bridge in metres in case of broad gauge and 2.830 m × span of bridge in metres in
case of metre gauge. The wind load acts at the centre of gravity of area of moving
load.
5 00 m m
20 m m
20 m m
2 IS A 20 0 m m x
1 00 m m x 15 m m
1 25 0 m m
16 m m
2 IS A 20 0 m m x
1 50 m m x 18 m m
20 m m
20 m m
Fig. 3.30
In the case of highway bridges the clear distance between the trailer of a train
of vehicle shall not be omitted. The lateral wind load against any exposed moving
load is assumed to have a value of 3 kN per linerar metre for the ordinary highway
bridges and 4.50 kN per linear metre for the highway bridges carrying tramway.
This load is assumed to act at 1.50 m above the road surface.
The total assumed wind load on highway bridges shall, however, not be less
than 4.50 kN per linear metre in the plane of the loaded flange in case of deck
type bridges and 2.25 kN per linear metre in case of through type bridges.
In the case of foot bridges, the height of moving load is to be taken as 2 m
throughout the length of span.
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 139
P h
h
2
2R S = (S pa cing ) 2R
Fig. 3.31
h
2R × s = P.
2
⎛1 P ⋅h ⎞
R = ⎜ × ⎟ ...(3.11)
⎝4 s ⎠
The value of reaction, R is expressed in term of percentage of dead load reaction.
Since the tendency of additional thrust over the leeward girder is similar to the
action of dead load, the percentage increases of bending compressive
(3 .50 m for B .G .)
R o lling sto ck or
(2 .83 0 m fo r M .G .)
(Fo r M .G . 1.41 5 m )
or
(Fo r B .G . 1 .7 5 m )
0 .60 m
h1
P
h
h2
2 R1 S = (S p acing ) 2 R1
Fig. 3.32
stress in the upper flange and bending tensile stress in the lower flange of leeward
girder are found directly from the stresses due to dead load only. The nature of
increase of stresses due to overturning is additive in the already existing stresses
in the upper and lower flanges of leeward girder.
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 141
The wind load P´, acting on the loaded deck type plate girder bridge (broad
gauge/metre gauge) and wind load P1´, acting on the moving load are shown in Fig.
3.32. The wind loads acing on plate girders and moving loads are determined as
discussed in Sec. 3.15. The wind load acting on the plate girders is assumed to be
acing at half the height of girder. The wind load on moving load acts at the centre
of moving stock as shown in Fig. 3.32. Both these wind loads P´ and P1´ have the
effect of overturning the bridge about the lower flange of the leeward girder. As a
result of the overturning effect, and additional thrust 2R1 is caused over the leeward
girder and an uplift 2R1 is caused on the windward girder. These equal and opposite
forces furnish a resulting couple. The additional thrust 2R, causes reaction 2R1
(R1,R1 at each end of the girder), as shown in Fig. 3.32. The additional thrust 2R,
due to overturning also has the tendency to increase the bending compressive
stress already existing in the upper flange and the bending tensile stress already
existing in the lower flange of the leeward girder. Whereas the uplift 2R1 due to
overturning in the windward, girder causes the opposite nature of stress in the
flanges, and, therefore, relieves the upper and lower flanges from the already
existing stresses.
The value of reaction R1, may be found taking the moment of wind load P´ and
P1´ about the bottom flanges
⎛ h ⎞
2R1 × s = ⎜ P´ + P1´ h1 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ ´ ⎞
R1 = ⎜ 1 P ´h + P1 h1 ⎟ ...(3.12)
⎝4 s 2s ⎠
The value of reaction R1 is mentioned in terms of percentage of dead load, live
load and impact load reaction determined from the loads found for calculating
bending moment. Since, the tendency of additional thrust over the leeward girder
h
2
2R S = (S p acing ) 2R
Fig. 3.33
142 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
is similar to the action of dead load, live load and impact load, the percentage
increase of bending compressive stress in the upper flange and bending tensile
stress in the lower flange of leeward girder are determined directly from the
stresses due to normal loads (i.e. dead load, live load and impact load) only. The
nature of increase of increase of stresses due to over turning is additive in the
already existing stresses in the upper and lower flanges of leeward girder.
The wind loads acting on unloaded and loaded through type plate girder
bridges are shown in Fig. 3.33 and Fig. 3.34.
P1 R o lling sto ck
0 .60 m
h1
P
h
h2
Fig. 3.34
The overturning effect due to wind over the through type plate girder bridge is
same as over the deck type plate girder bridge (as discussed above).
Fig. 3.35 (a), (b) and (d) respectively. The cross-diagonal or double lateral bracing
are most commonly used. The double diagonal bracing of a through type plate
girder bridges is shown in Fig. 3.3.
(a )
p = In te nsity o f w in d loa d pe r u nit len gth
(b )
p = In te nsity o f w in d loa d pe r u nit len gth
Fig. 3.35
The horizontal truss bracing resists the lateral loads. It is to note that the wind
load is only considered as lateral load, and the racking force is not taken into
acccount while calculating increase of stresses in the flanges of the plate girders.
The wind load acts as uniformly distributed load in the horizontal plane of the
loaded flange of the girder. The maximum wind load from loaded and unloaded
bridge is considered. The horizontal truss bracing acts as a simply supported
girder. It is subjected to the maximum bending moment at the centre.
⎛ P ⋅l ⎞
M = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 8 ⎠
where, P = Total wind load
l = Span in metre
Let F, F be the two equal and opposite forces acting in the flanges of the main
girders due to the horizontal truss effect. From the steel theory, these form a
resisting couple, M1.
M1 = F × s ...(ii)
where,
s = Spacing between the main girders
The resisting couple M1, and the maximum bending moment M, are equal.
Therefore,
⎛ P ⋅l ⎞
F×S = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 8 ⎠
144 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ P ⋅l ⎞
F = ⎜ ⎟ ...(3.13)
⎝ 8⋅s ⎠
The intensity of stress in a flange due to horizontal truss effect
F
f = ... (3.14)
A
where,
A = Appropriate cross-sectional area of one flange of the main girder.
The nature of stress due to hroizontal truss effect is compressive in the windward
girder and tensile in the leeward girder. In case of the deck type plate girder
bridges, the stress due to horizontal truss effect in the top flange of the leeward
girder is tensile and therefore, relieves the flange from existing compressive bending
stresses. In case of the through type plate girder bridges, the stress due to horizontal
truss effect in the bottom flange of leeward girder in tensile and therefore, additive.
In through type plate girder bridges, the overturning effect and the horizontal
truss effect, both are additive for the bottom flange of the leeward girder.
The overall stresses in flange of the plate girder due to dead load, live load,
impact load and wind load should be less than 1.25 times and allowable bending
stresses in the flanges. In case the overall stresses exceed, then either the spacing
between main girders is increased or the section of main girder is redesigned.
It is to note in case the effective spans are upto 20 m, it is not necessary to
determine the wind stresses.
Example 3.10 The effecive span of a deck type plate girder railway bridge for
single metre gauge track is 24 m. The depth of plate girder is 1864 mm. The
spacing between the plate girder is 1.30 m. The rail level is 400 mm above the top
of the plate girders. The design reaction is 750 kN. The net area of tension flange
is 19652 mm2 and the gross area of compression flange is 23304 mm2. The moment
of inertia of the plate girder section about xx-axis is 3749172 × 104 mm4. Determine
the increase of stresses in the flanges of leeward girder in the following cases :
(a) Overturning effect due to wind, when the bridge is unloaded.
(b) Horizontal truss effect due to wind, when the bridge is unloaded.
(c) Overturing effect due to wind, when the bridge is loaded.
(d) Horizontal truss effect due to wind when the bridge is loaded.
Solution The deck type plate girde bridge, when the bridge is unloaded is
shown in Fig. 3.36.
The height of deck type plate girder bridge structure, including sleepers and
rails = (1864 + 400) = 2264 mm.
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 145
1 .0 m M etre ga ug e track
0 .40 0 m
2 .26 4 m
P
1 .86 4 m
1 .13 2 m
Fig. 3.36
⎛ 141.94 × 24 ⎞
M1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 425.82 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
Distance to the extreme fibre of plate girder from the neutral axis
1
y = × 1864.0 = 932.0 mm
2
Increase of stress (above the stress in flanges due to dead load only in the
compression flange, of the leeward girder)
⎛ 23304 ⎞
σbt = ⎜10.58 × 2
⎟ = 12.55 N/mm .
⎝ 19652 ⎠
Step 2. Bridge unloaded (Horizontal truss effect)
Total wind pressure acting on the bridge structure
P = 163.01 kN
The horizontal truss bracing is provided in between the compression (loaded)
flanges. The total wind force is assumed to act in the plane of horizontal truss.
The horizontal truss acts as horizontal girder. The maximum bending moment
P ⋅ L ⎛ 163.01 × 24 ⎞
= =⎜ ⎟ = 489.03 kN-m
8 ⎝ 8 ⎠
The bending moment is resisted by two equal and opposite forces F in the
compression flanges of both the girders
F × 1.30 = 489.03, F = 376.177 kN
The force F is tensile in the compression flange of the leeward girder. It causes
tensile stress only in the compression flange of the leeward girder. Therefore,
the decrease of stress in the compression flange of leeward girder
⎛ 3 ⎞
σ = ⎜ 376.177 × 10 ⎟ = 16.14 N/mm
2
⎝ 23304 ⎠
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 147
P
F
1 .30 m
F
1 6 p an e ls @ 1.5 m = 2 4 m
Fig. 3.37
⎛ 282.70 × 24 ⎞
M2 = ⎜ ⎟ = 848.1 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
Increase of stress (above the existing stress in the flange due to dead load,
live load and impact laod) in compression flange of the leeward girder
⎛ 23304 ⎞
σbc2 = ⎜ 21.02 × 2
⎟ = 25 N/mm .
⎝ 19652 ⎠
148 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
(M etre ga ug e)
P1 R o lling sto ck
2 .83 0 m
1 .41 5 m
0 .60 m
4 .27 9 m
P2
2 .26 4 m
1 .86 4 m
1 .13 2 m
1 .30 m
Fig. 3.38
1 .30 m
F
R R
Fig. 3.39
F = 376.177 kN
Therefore, for loaded bridge, the tensile force in the compression flange of the
leeward girder
⎛ 135.84 ⎞
F = ⎜ 376.177 × ⎟ = 313.477 kN
⎝ 163.01 ⎠
It causes tensile stress only in the compression flange of the leeward girder.
Therefore, the decrease of stress in the compression flange of the leeward girder
⎛ 313.477 × 103 ⎞
σb = ⎜ ⎟ = 13.45 N/mm2.
⎝ 23304 ⎠
Example 3.11 The effective span of a through plate girder railway bridge for
a single broad gauge track is 30 m. The depth of plate girder is 2664 m. The
spacing between the plate girders is 5.0 m. The rail level is 800 mm above the
bottom of the girders. The net area of flange is 27986 mm2 and the gross-area of
compression flange is 31983 mm2. The gross-moment ofinteria of the plate girder
section about xx-axis is 10761879.6 104 mm4. Determine the increase of stresses
in the flanges of the leeward girder in the following cases :
(a) Overturning effect due to wind, when the bridge is unloaded.
(b) Horizontal truss effect due to wind, when the bridge is unloaded.
(c) Overturning effect due to wind when the bridge is loaded.
(d) Horizontal truss effect due to wind, when the bridge is loaded.
Also determine the percentage stress increment in case (c), if the dead load,
live load and impact load reaction is 1210 kN.
Solution The through type plate girder bridge, when the bridge is unloaded
is shown in Fig. 3.40.
Height of the plate girders = 2664 mm
Half the height of plate girders = 1332 mm
B ro ad g au ge track
P 2 .66 4 m
1 .33 2 m 0 .8 m
2R 5 .0 m 2R
Fig. 3.40
150 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 2.40 × 2664 × 30 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 191.81 kN.
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Spacing between the main girders, s = 5.00 m
Depth of the plate girders = 2.664 m
The spacing between main girders is greater than one and a half times the
depth of plate girder and less than twice its depth. Therefore, factor to account
for the wind effect on the leeward girder,
k = 1.00
Wind pressure on the leeward girder
⎛ 2.40 × 2664 × 30 ⎞
= 1.00 × ⎜ ⎟ = 191.81 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Total wind pressure,
P = (191.81 + 191.81) = 383.62 kN
The wind pressure is assumed to act at half the depth of plate girder, i.e., at
1332 mm as shown in Fig. 3.40.
Let the reaction at each end of the leeward girder be R. The total reaction on
the leeward girder due to overturning is 2R.
Taking moment about the bottom girders
2R × 5.00 = 383.62 × 1332, R = 51.1 kN
Due to overturning effect, a uniformly distributed load 2 × 51.1 = 102.2 kN acts
downward on the leeward girder.
The maximum bending moment M1 occurs at the centre
⎛ 102.2 × 30 ⎞
M1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 383.25 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
Distance to the extreme fibre of the plate girder from the neutral axis
1
= × 2664 = 1332 mm
2
Increase of stress (above the stress in flanges due to dead load only) in the
compression flange of the leeward girder
⎛ 31983 ⎞
σbc1 = ⎜ 4.74 × ⎟ = 5.42 N/mm2.
⎝ 27986 ⎠
Step 2. Bridge unloaded (Horizontal truss effect)
The horizontal truss bracing is provided in between the tension flanges (loaded
flanges). The total wind pressure is assumed to act in the plane of horizontal
truss.
The horizontal truss acts as a horizontal girder. The maximum bending
moment
⎛ 383.62 × 30 ⎞
M = ⎜ ⎟ = 1438.575 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
P
F
5 .0 m
F
6 pa ne ls @ 5 m = 3 0 m
Fig. 3.41
This bending moment is resisted by two equal and opposite forces, F in the
tension flanges of both the girders due to moment, M.
F × 5.0 = 1438.575, F = 287.715 kN
This force is tensile in the tension flange of the leeward girder. It causes
tensile stress, only in the tension flange of leeward girder. Therefore, the increase
of stress
⎛ 287.715 × 103 ⎞
σ = ⎜ ⎟ = 10.28 N/mm2
⎝ 27986 ⎠
Step 3. Bridge loaded (overturning effect)
Maximum intensity of wind in case of broad gauge
= l.50 kN/m2
Wind load on moving train
P1 = 150 × 30 × 350 = 157.50 kN
Height of line of action of wind load P1 above the bottom of plate girders
= (0.80 + 0.60 + l.75) = 3.15 m
Wind load on windward and leeward girder both,
P2 = 150 × 30 × 2.664 × 2.0 = 239.76 kN
Height of line of action of wind load P2 above the bottom of plate girders
= 1.332 m
152 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
B ro ad g au ge
P1 ro lling sto ck 3 .50 m
1 .75 0 m
0 .60 m 2 .66 4 m
P2
1 .33 2 m
2R 5 .0 m 2R
Fig. 3.42
⎛ 163.10 × 30 ⎞
M2 = ⎜ ⎟ = 611.625 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
Increase of stress (above the existing stress in the flange due to dead load, live
load and impact lod) in compression flange in the leeward girder
⎛ 31983 ⎞
σbc2 = ⎜ 7.57 × ⎟ = 8.745 N/mm
2
⎝ 27686 ⎠
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 153
5 .0 m
F
6 pa ne ls @ 5 m = 3 0 m
Fig. 3.43
It causes the tensile stress only in the tension flange of the leeward girder.
Therefore, the increase of stress in the tension flange of leeward girder
⎛ 297.945 × 103 ⎞
F = ⎜ ⎟ = 10.646 N/mm2.
⎝ 27986 ⎠
It is to note that due to overturning effect and horizontal truss effect both,
the stress in tension flange of a leeward girder of through type bridge increases.
Step 5. Reaction due to overturning effect in case the bridge is loaded at the
end of leeward girder = 81.55 kN
Dead load, live load and impact load reaction = 1210 kN
The increase of stress due to overturning may be expressed as percentage
increase of stress due to dead load, live load and wind load.
The percentage incremental stress is directly proportional to the reactions in
these two cases. Therefore, pecentage incremental stress
⎛ 81.55 ⎞
= ⎜ × 100 ⎟ = 6.74 percent.
⎝ 1210 ⎠
L ate ra l loa d p e r un it le ng th
R1 R1
Fig. 3.44
In case of deck type bridge, the laterals are connected so as to form approximate
squares and uniform panels throughout the span. In case of through type bridge,
the diagonals are connected with the floor beams. For the analysis, it is assumed
that the diagonal members subjected to tension remain active and others remain
dummy for one direction of wind. In case, the direction of wind is reversed, the
active diagonals become dummy, and the dummy diagonals become active. The
end struts (or floor beams) are subjected to maximum compression and the end
diagonals are subjected to maximum tension. The forces intermediate struts (floor
beams) and intermediate diagonals are comparatively less. The angle sections are
provided for the struts and the diagonals. The forces in end members are small
and require nominal size of sections only. The same size of angle sections are
provided for the intermediate members.
P1
Fig. 3.45
member is R1 sec θ, where R1 is the reaction at the end of horizontal truss. This
force depends on the type of truss bracing used and assumption made. The
diagonal member is designed as the tension member. The angle section is used
for the diagonal members.
P
In te rna l g u sset p late
Fig. 3.46
Example 3.12 Design the horizontal truss bracing and cross-frames for the
deck type plae girder railway bridge for a single metre gauge track as in Example
3.10.
Solution
(A) Design of Horizontal truss bracing
Step 1. The horizontal truss bracing with cross-diagonals as shown in Fig.
3.47 is provided between the loaded flanges (top or compression flanges) only.
The diagonals which carry tension, remain active.
Tota l la teral Lo ad = P H
1 30 m
1 .50 m 1 .50 m
1 6 p an e ls @ 1 .5 m = 2 4 m
Fig. 3.47
156 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 279.84 ⎞
P = ⎜ ⎟ = 17.49 kN
⎝ 16 ⎠
Lateral load at end panel = 8.745 kN
End strut carries maximum compression = 139.92 kN
Shear force in the end panel
F = (139.92 – 8.745)= 131.175 kN
1.30
tan θ = = 0.8626, ∴ θ = 40° 47'
1.50
sin θ = 0.653, cosec θ = 1.532
Force in the end diagonal = (131.175 × 1.532) = 200.96 kN
End strut
Effective length of end strut = 1.30 m
Compresson in the end strut = 139.92 kN
The slenderness ratio for the double angle compression member and the value
of yield stress for steel may be assumed as 100 and 260 N/mm2. The permissible
stress in axial compression
σac = 82 N/mm2
⎛ 139.92 × 1000 ⎞
Cross-sectinal area required = ⎜ ⎟ = 1706.34 mm
2
⎝ 82 ⎠
Provide 2 ISA 100 mm × 65 mm × 6 mm with long legs connected.
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 157
⎛ 139.92 ⎞
Force in the diagonal member = ⎜ ⎟ = 239.18 kN
⎝ 0.585 ⎠
158 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
F 0 .32 m
θ θ
1 .80 m
0 .32 m
1 .30 m
Fig. 3.48
⎛ 23.18 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 1533.20 mm
2
⎝ 156 ⎠
Allowing area for rivet hole = 300 mm2
Gross-area required = 1833.20 mm2
Provide 2 ISA 100 mm × 65 mm × 8 mm for the diagonal members with the
short legs connected together.
Gross cross-sectional area provided = 2514 mm2
Reduction for rivet hole =2 × 8 × 23.5 = 376.0 mm2
Net cross-sectional area provided
= 2514–376 = 2138 mm2
> Net area required. Hence, safe.
2 ISA 100 mm × 65 mm × 8 mm are provided for all the cross-diagonal members
of all the cross-frames.
Example 3.13 Design the horizontal truss bracing and the internal gusset
plates for the through type plate girder bridge for a single broad gauge track as
in Example 3.11.
Tota l la te ral lo ad = P H
5 .0 m
6 pa ne ls @ 5.0 m = 30 m
Fig. 3.49
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 159
Solution
(A) Design of Horizontal truss bracing
Step 1. The horizontal truss bracing with cross-diagonls as shown in
Fig. 3.49, is provided btween the loaded flanges (bottom or tension flanges) of
plate girders in the throught type bridge. The diagonals which carry tension
remain active.
From Example 3.11
When the bridge is unloaded, the total wind load on the bridge = 383.62 kN
Step 2. When the bridge is loaded
Wind load on moving train = 157.50 kN
Wind load on windward and leeward girder both = 239.76 kN
Racking force, 6.00 × 30 = 180 kN
Total lateral load, PH = 577.26 kN
The lateral load acting in the plane of horizontal truss is maximum in case
the bridge is loaded. Therefore, the horizontal truss bracing is designed for lateral
load
= 577.36 kN
Reaction at the end = 288.63 kN
Spacing between the main girders = 5 m
6 panels @ 5.0 m are provided in the horizontal truss, so that each panel is a
square.
Lateral load at each intermediate panel point
⎛ 577.26 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 96.21 kN
⎝ 6 ⎠
Lateral load at the end panel point = 48.105 kN
End strut carries maximum compression = 288.63 kN
The forces in struts are carried by the floor beams
Shear force in the end panel = (288.63 – 48.105) kN
= 240.525 kN
θ = 45°
Force in end diagonal
= 240.525 × sec θ = 24.06 × 2 = 340.15 kN
End diagonal
Force in end diagonal
As per IS : 833–94, allowable stress in axial tension
= 156 m/mm2
Net area provided = 2730 mm2. Hence, safe.
160 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Pi
2 IS A 7 5 m m x 5 0 m m x 6 m m
10 m m 10 m m
th ick th ick
Fig. 3.50
Problems
3.1 A plate girder single track main line broad gauge is of 24 m span between
bearings. Design a suitable section for the plate girder and calculate the
curtailment of flanges.
3.2 A deck type plate girder bridge is provided for a single broad gauge track
and standard main line loading. The total span of main girder from centre
to centre of bearing is 28 m. The main girders are provided at a spacing
of 2 m between their centre lines, 0.60 kN per metre stock rails and 0.40
kN per metre guard rails are provided. The weight of fastenings may be
taken a 0.20 kN per metre. The sleepers are spaced at 0.50 m from
centre to centre and are of 2.8 m × 250 mm × 250 mm size. The unit
weight of timber may be assumed as 7.50 kN per cubic metre. The floor
is open deck type. Design the maximum section of the main girder.
3.3 A through type plate girder is provided for a single metre gauge track.
The cross-girders are spaced 2.80 m apart, the total span of the main
girder from centre to centre of bearings being 28 m. The stringers are
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 161
spaced at 120 m between centre lines. 0.60 kN per metre stock rails and
0.40 kN per metre guard rails are used. The sleepers are spaced at 0.50
m from centre to centre and are of size 2 m × 250 mm × 250 mm. The
weight of timber may be assumed as 750 kN per cubic metre. Design the
maximum section of the plate girder. The main girders are provided at a
spacing of 4.8 m between their centre line. Adopt loading from Bridge
Rule.
3.4 In Problem 3.2, determine the increase or decrease of stresses in the
flanges of the leeward girder in the following cases :
(a) Overturning effect due to wind, when the bridge is unloaded.
(b) Overturning effect due to wind, when the bridge is loaded.
(c) Horizontal truss effect due to wind, when the bridge is unloaded.
(d) Horizontal truss effect due to wind, when the bridge is loaded.
3.5 In Problem 3.3 determine the increase of stresses in the leeward girder
in the following cases :
(a) Overturing effect due to wind, when the bridge is unloaded.
(b) Overturing effect due to wind, when the bridge is loaded.
(c) Horizontal truss effect due to wind, when the bridge is unloaded.
(d) Horizontal truss effect due to wind, when the bridge is loaded.
3.6 Design the horizontal truss bracings and the cross-frames for the deck
type plate girder railway bridge for a single broad gauge track as in
Problem 3.4.
3.7 Design the horizontal truss bracings and the internal gusset plates for
the through type plate girder bridge for a single metre gauge track as
in Problem 3.5.
3.8 In a plate girder through bridge carrying a single broad gauge track,
the cross-girders are spaced at 4 m centres. The stringers are spaced at
2 m centres. Design the stringers if the spacing between main girders
is 4 m centre to centre.
3.9 Determine the increase or decrease of stresses in the flanges of leeward
girder of a deck type plate girder bridge for the broad gauge single track
due to overturning effect and the horizontal truss effect due to wind for
loaded and unloaded span. The particulars of the bridge are as follows:
Effect span of bridge = 30 m
Spacing between main girder = 2m
Depth of plate girder = 2.16 m
Intensity of wind for unloaded span = 2.40 kN/m2
Intensity of wind for loaded span = 1.50 kN/m2
Height of rolling stock above 600 mm
from rail level = 3500 mm
Height of rails above plate girder = 400 mm
Net area of tension flange = 26000 mm2
162 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The truss girders are used as the main load carrying members in the truss girder
bridges. The truss girder bridges are also known as the open web girder bridges.
The truss girder bridges are also termed as the lattice girder bridges. The truss
girder bridges have opened web work in contradistinction to the plate girders with
the continuous web. The truss girders are the triangulated framed structures.
The arrangement of the members and the connections at their ends are such that
the external loads are applied to the joints. The centroidal axes of members meet
at a point. The members are subjected to direct tension and compression. The
members of the truss girders are classified as chord members and the web members.
The uppermost members constitute the top chord or top boom. The lowermost
members form the bottom chord or bottom boom. The vertical members (or
verticals) and the diagonal members (or diagonals, which are internally sloping
members) are the web members. Those members which are absolutely necessary
for the stability of the truss bridge girders are known as the main members. The
main members are stressed by loads anywhere on the bridge girder. There are
sub-members in some truss girder bridges. In case the sub-members are removed,
even then the trusses would be stable. The sub-members act only when loads act
directly upon them or on certain portions of the span. The sub-members are also
known as secondary members.
In most of the truss girder bridges, the chord members carry bending moment
in the form of direct tension or compression and the vertical and/or diagonal
members carry the shear force in the form of direct tension or compression. The
members of truss girder bridges are joined through the gusset plates by riveting,
bolting or welding. The thickness of gusset plate in light truss bridges is kept as
10 mm or 12 mm. The thickness of gusset plate in the heavy truss bridges is kept
164 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
as 20 mm to 22 mm. The truss girder bridges are of spans greater than those
economical for the plate girder bridges.
The truss girders of bridges may be either single plane type or the double plane
type. In the single plane type truss, the gusset plates are used in one plane only.
There is only one gusset plate at each joint of the truss. The single plane type
truss is suitable for light loads, small members, and light bracing. In the double
plane type trusses, the gusset plates are used in two parallel planes.
(a ) H o w e truss (b ) W h ip p le tru ss
(r) K -tru ss
(s) Z -tru ss
Various truss bridges shown in Fig. 4.1 are grouped as parallel chord truss
girder bridges, camel back or curved (inclined) chord truss girder bridges and
sub-divided truss girder bridges. The truss bridges are described as under.
Contd.
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 167
heavy members. The analysis of Vierendeel truss is very difficult. These are efficient
structures.
(ii) D e ck typ e
(iii) Th ro ug h typ e
(a ) W a rren trusses w ith ve rtica ls
(ii) D e ck typ e
(iii) Th ro ug h typ e
(b ) P ra tt tru sses
Fig. 4.2
type Pratt truss bridge. The various types of through type truss bridges have been
shown in Figure 4.1. Although, the parallel chord trusses are used for the through
type truss bridges, but the lines of various members of parallel chord truss bridges
are more in harmony with deck type truss bridges. The camel back or inclined
chord trusses as shown in Figure 4.1 are more graceful for the through type
bridges.
Top la teral
b racin g
Top C h ord
S w a y bra cin g
E n d flo or
b ea m
P o rta l B o tto m
b racin g la te ral bracin g
In te rm edia te flo or
b ea m s
End B o tto m cho rd
p osts
D iag on als
Ve rtica ls
S trin ge rs
E n d flo or be am
Fig. 4.3 Diagrammatic sketch of a through type Pratt truss railway bridge
floor system, (iii) the bottom lateral bracing, (iv) the top lateral bracing, (v) the
portal bracings and (vi) the sway bracings. These component parts are separately
shown in Fig. 4.4.
P o rta l
b racin g
Sway
Top la te ral b racin g b racin g
The floor system transfers the applied load to the main trusses. The floor system
consists of floor, longitudinal girders (stringers or rail bearers) and the trans-
verse girders (floor beams or cross-girders). The floor is supported by the longitu-
dinal girders. The longitudinal girders run parallel to the length of bridge. The
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 169
longitudinal girders span between two adjacent panel points of the main truss
girders. The longitudinal girders are supported by the transverse girders. The
transverse girders span between the main girders. These transverse girders
transmit the applied load to the main truss girders. The bridge consists of two
main truss girders. The truss girders are the main load carrying members. The
truss girders transmit the applied load to the abutments or piers through the
bearings. The top lateral bracings, bottom lateral bracings, sway bracings and
portal bracings are provided for the lateral stability and the torsional rigidity of
the bridge, and to resist the lateral loads and the longitudinal forces. The design of
various components of a truss girder bridge is done in the order in which the
applied load is transmitted from one component to the other.
⎛ 78.50 × 10.00 A ⎞
w = ⎜ ⎟ kN/m
⎝ 1000 × 1000 ⎠
w = 0.785 ×10–3A kN/m ...(4.1)
In order to determine the value of net area of maximum tension chord A, the
self-weight of trusses and bracing is first assumed. Then, maximum force in tension
chord is determined due to dead load including weight of floor system and self-
weight, live load and impact load. The net area of maximum tension chord A, is
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 171
found by dividing the maximum force by the allowable stresses in axial tension
(140 N/mm2). The self-weight of truss girders including bracing w, in kN/m is
determined from Eq. 4.1, and compared with the assumed self-weight. The value
of assumed self-weight is modified, and the calculations are repeated, till the
assumed self-weight and the self-weight from Eq. 4.1 come in close agreement.
This method is sometimes convenient and reasonably accurate. But this method
can lead to quite erroneous results in certain instances. When the depth/span
ratio for a truss is high, then the weight of the web members is more. Similarly a
shallow truss girder will have more weight in the flanges. Hence, the above weight
proportions may not apply. However, the above proportionate weight of different
parts help in the work of estimating.
⎛ 15 l + 550 ⎞
w = ⎜ ⎟ kN/m ...(4.3)
⎝ 100 ⎠
All the axial stresses are termed as primary stresses. The forces in the various
members due to dead load may be determined by the method of resolution of forces
about the joint or by the method of section. The dead load acting on the truss
girder bridges is uniformly distributed load. The forces in various members of the
truss girders may be found by drawing the influence line diagrams. The forces in
various members for the self-weight are the algebraic sum of the areas of influence
line diagram multiplied by the intensity of the load. The forces in various members
due to live load or moving load are determined by drawing the influence line
diagrams for the force for the respective members. The influence line diagrams for
the various members of the various types of trusses have been discussed in chapter
15. The live loads for the members are noted from Bridge Rules for bending moment
in case the influence line diagrams are drawn from criterion of bending moment,
and from shear force, in case the influence line diagrams are drawn from criterion
of shear force.
δ δ
Top cho rd
R e straine d
le g (C olum n )
do d
R o ad w a y c
Ic
C ro ss-g ird er
⎡ (d )3 (d )2 b ⎤
c c
δ = ⎢ + ⎥
⎢⎣ 3 EI c EI g ⎥
⎦
where, dc = Distance of the centroid of the compression flange from the top of
the cross-girder.
du = Distance of the centroid of the compression flange from neutral
axis of the cross-girder.
b = Half the distance between centres of the main girders.
Ic = Moment of inertia of a pair of stiffeners about the centre of the
web or a single stiffeners about the face of the web in its plane of
bending.
Ig = Moment of inertia of the cross-member (cross-girder) in its plane
of bending.
These U-frames shall have rigid connections in order to provide effective lateral
support. These are designed to resist in addition to the effect of wind and other
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 175
applied forces, a horizontal force, F acting normal to the compression chord (or
flange) of the girder at the level of the centroid.
⎡ ⎤
⎢ −3 ⎥
B = ⎢1.4 × 10 × l ⎥
⎢ ⎛C ⎞⎥
⎢ δ ⋅ ⎜ s − 1.7⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ fcc ⎠ ⎦⎥
(a ) (b ) (c)
(d ) (e )
The top chord members are most highly stressed compression members of the
truss. In the top chord members, much care is given in proportioning and detailing
to obtain the desired strength with economy and to provide satisfactory relations
with other connecting members. In general, it is preferable to provide as few parts
as possible. The thickness of webs is kept as thick as economic fabrication allows.
It gives proper distribution of stress. In the top chord members, the cover plates
are necessarily used on the top of sections. These plates connect the web plates and
make whole of the section to act together effectively as one unit. These plates
prevent rain water entering the section, and protect the parts of the members and
the joints from corrosion. The bottom of these top chord members are connected
only by lacing or by tie or stay plates, which are not continuous elements. The
centre of gravity of section is raised above the centre line of web because of cover
plate. This is not a desirable feature. Therefore, only one cover plate is used and
176 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
the thickness of this cover plate is kept as thin as possible. This thickness of cover
plate is kept sufficient to prevent it from buckling. A uniform section is provided
throughout the top chord of the truss girder. The minimum section may be designed
for the end panel. The strength or gross area of member may be increased by
providing plates, in the sides of members. In order to provide most economical
section, the relation between depth to width of the top chord compression members
may be such that the radii of gyration about xx-axis and yy-axis are equal. However,
the depth of top chord section may be adopted as 1/10 th of the distance between
centroidal axes of top and bottom chords. The clear width of top chord section may
be adopted as 1/10th of the distance between centroidal axes of top and bottom
chords plus twice the thickness of gusset plates. The thickness of each gusset
plate is kept 22 mm. The approximate radii of gyrations are noted (Refer Sec. 4.8,
in author’s Steel Structures Vol. I) for the trial section. The effective length of top
chord member is adopted as per Table 4.1. The maximum slenderness ratio is
then found for the trial section. The allowable stress in axial compression is found
corresponding to the maximum slenderness ratio. The area of top chord section is
found for the force. The area of top chord section is provided accordingly. The top
chord members are also subjected to bending due to self-weight. The self-weight of
members is computed. The members are checked for
⎛ σ ac.cal σbc.cal ⎞
⎜⎝ σ + < 1.00
ac σbc ⎟⎠
where,
σac.cal = Actual calculated axial stress in compression in the member
σac = Allowable axial stress in compression in the member
σbc.cal = Actual calculated bending stress in the extreme fibre of member
σbc = Allowable bending compressive stress in the member
and, it is also checked for the equivalent stress.
For the end posts, the sections similar to those of top chords are provided. The
forces in end posts are approximately equal to those in the end panels.
In addition to the top chord, some of the web members are also subjected to
compression. In a Pratt truss, the vertical members carry compression, while in
Warren truss each alternate diagonal carries compression. In case, the counter-
bracing is not provided and the reversal of stress takes place, then, such members
are also designed as compression members. The various forms of compression
members used as web members are as shown in Fig. 4.6.
The form of such compression members should be such that these should be
convenient for attachment to floor beams, and these may enter the top chord
conveniently. Usually, a built-up I-section is adopted for the web compression
members. The depth of such member is adopted as 1/10th the distance between
centroidal axes of the top and bottom chords. The member is designed as described
above.
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 177
(a ) (b ) (c)
(d ) (e ) (f)
Fig. 4.6
(a ) (b ) (c)
(d ) (e ) (f)
(g ) (h ) (i)
Fig. 4.7
The net-sectional area is found for the force in the bottom chord tension members.
The gross area of the member required is determined by adding suitable allowance
for the estimated rivet holes for connection. The dimensions of cross-section of the
bottom chord member are kept same as that of the top chord member except for
top plates. The plates are not used either at the top or at the bottom of the section,
so that the rain water does not collect and the corrosion of elements is not caused.
The gross area is provided accordingly. From the gross area, the net area is again
computed. The net area provided should be greater than the net area required.
The bottom chord members are also subjected to bending due to self-weight.
Therefore, these are checked for
⎛ σat.cal σbc.cal ⎞
⎜ + ⎟ < 1.00
⎝ σat σbc ⎠
where,
σat.cal = Actual calculated axial stress in tension
σat = Allowable axial stress in tension and, it is also checked for the
equivalent stress.
In addition to the bottom chord, some of the web members are also subjected to
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 179
tension. In a Pratt truss, all the internal diagonal members are tension members,
while in a Warren truss each alternate diagonal carries tension. The various
forms of tension members used as web members are shown in Fig. 4.8.
(a ) (b ) (c)
(d ) (e )
Fig. 4.8
For the web tension members the ratio of unsupported length to the least radius
of gyration shall not exceed 250 for railway bridges and 300 for highway bridges.
The form of such tension members should be such that, the gusset plates attached
to these members may enter the top chord conveniently. Usually, a built-up I-
section is adopted for the web tension members. The depth of such members is
adopted as 1/10th the distance between centroidal axes of the top chord and the
bottom chord. The member is designed as described above.
Example 4.1 A Pratt truss girder through bridge is provided for single broad
gauge track. The effective span of bridge is 50 m. The cross-girders are spaced
5 m apart. The stringers are spaced 2 m between centre lines. 0.60 kN per metre
stock rails and 0.40 kN per metre check rails are provided. Sleepers are spaced at
0.45 m from centre to centre and are of size 2.8 m × 250 m × 250 mm. Weight of
timber may be assumed as 7.50 kN per cubic metre. The main girders are provided
at a spacing of 7 m between their centre lines. Design the central top chord
member and bottom chord member and the vertical and diagonal of central
panel. Also, design the joint, where the central top chord, vertical and diagonal
members meet. The bridge is to carry standard main line loading.
Solution
Design :
Preliminary
Effective span or truss girder bridge = 50 m
Panel length of bridge girder = 5 m
Number of panels = 10
Spacing between main girders = 7 m.
180 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 U7 U8 U9
6m
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L 10
1 0 P an els a 5 m = 5 0 m
(E leva tio n)
2m 7m
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
m m m m m m m m m m
(P lan )
Fig. 4.9
M L5 1 ⎛1 ⎞
= × ⎜ × 2.5 ⎟ = 2.08 units (compression)
6 6 ⎝2 ⎠
(ii) I.L.D. for force in U3U4
The influence line diagram for force in U3U4 is as shown in Fig. 4.10 (c). The
maximum ordinate of the triangle
M L4 1 ⎛ 20 × 30 ⎞
= ×⎜ ⎟ = 200 units (compression)
6 6 ⎝ 50 ⎠
(iii) I.L.D. for force in L4L5
The influence line diagram for force in L4L5 is an shown in Fig. 4.10 (d). The
maximum ordinate of the triangle
M U4 1 ⎛ 20 × 30 ⎞
= ×⎜ ⎟ 2.00 units (tension)
6 6 ⎝ 50 ⎠
(iv) I.L.D. for force in U4U4
The influence line diagram for force in U4L4 is as shown in Fig. 4.10 (e). The
ordinates are as below :
m 4
y1 = = = 0.4 units
n 10
⎛ n − 1 − m ⎞ ⎛ 10 − 1 − 4 ⎞
y2 = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 0.5 units
⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ 10 ⎠
(v) I.L.D. for force in U4 L5
The influence line diagram for force in U4L5 is as shown in Fig. 4.10 (f). The
ordinates are as below :
m 4
y3 = cosec θ = × 1.3 = 0.52 units
n 10
⎛ n − 1 − m⎞ ⎛ 10 − 1 − 4 ⎞
y4 = ⎜ ⎟ cosec θ = ⎜ ⎟ ×1.3
⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ 10 ⎠
= 0.65 units
182 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The point of intersection of influence line curve in Fig. 4.10 (e) base is at a
distance AO from left hand support.
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 U7 U8 U9
6m
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10
1 0 P an els @ 5 m = 5 0 m
(a )
(– ) 2 .0
(b ) 1 .L.D fo r U 4 U 5
(– ) 2 .00
(c) 1 .L.D fo r U 3 U 4
(+ ) 2 .00
(d ) 1 .L.D fo r L 4 L 5
2 7.7 8 m
(+ ) y 1 = 0 .4
y 2 = 0 .5 (–)
2 2.2 2 m
(e ) 1 .L.D fo r U 4 L 4
2 2.2 2 m
y 4 = 0 .65 (+ )
(– ) y 3 = 0 .52
2 7.7 8 m
(f) 1 .L.D fo r U 4 L 5
Fig 4.10
1 ⎛ 2875.47 ⎞
= × 2.08 × 50 × ⎜ ⎟ = – 2990.49 kN (i.e., compression)
2 ⎝ 50 ⎠
(ii) Member U3U4
Loaded length = 50 m
Impact factor = 0.313
Live load + Impact load per girder
⎛1 ⎞
= 1.313 × ⎜ × 4380 ⎟ = 2875.47 kN
⎝ 2 ⎠
Force in the member due to live load and impact load
1 ⎛ 2875.47 ⎞
=– × 2 × 50 × ⎜ ⎟ = – 2875.47 kN (i.e., compression)
2 ⎝ 50 ⎠
184 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
1 ⎛ 2875.47 ⎞
=+ × 2 × 50 × ⎜ ⎟ = + 2875.47 kN (i.e., tension)
2 ⎝ 50 ⎠
(iv) Member U4U4
(For tension)
Loaded length = 22.22 m
⎛ 20 ⎞
Impact factor = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.552
⎝ 14 + 22.22 ⎠
Live load + Impact load per girder
⎛1 ⎞
= 1.552 × ⎜ × 2404.4 ⎟ = 1865.81 kN
⎝2 ⎠
Force in member due to live load + Impact load
1 ⎛ 1865.81 ⎞
= × 0.4 × 22.22 × ⎜ ⎟ = + 373.16 kN (i.e., tension)
2 ⎝ 22.22 ⎠
(For compression)
Load length = 27.78 m
Impact factor = 0.479
Live load + Impact load per girder
1
= 1.479 × ( × 2849.06) = 2106.88 kN
2
Force in member due to live load + Impact load
1 ⎛ 2106.88 ⎞
= × 0.5 × 27.78 × ⎜ ⎟ = 526.72 kN (compression)
2 ⎝ 27.78 ⎠
8 50 m m
7 56 m m
16 m
y = 18 0. 80 m m
X X
6 00 m m
6 44 m m
12 m m 12 m m
4 35 .2 m m
4 IS A 8 0 m m x 5 0 m m x 6 m m
Fig. 4.11
rmin = 234 mm
Length of member from centre to centre of intersection is 5 m.
Effective length of member is 0.85 × 5000 = 4250 mm
4250
Maximum slenderness ratio is = 18.16
234
From IS : 833–94 allowable stress in axial compression, for the steel having
value of yield stress as 260 N/mm2
σac = 154.37 N/mm2
⎛ 3676.89 × 1000 ⎞
Area required = ⎜ ⎟ = 23818.86 mm2
⎝ 154.37 ⎠
Width of top cover plate of the section between centre to centre of rivet line
b = 762 mm
⎛b⎞ ⎛ 762 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ t ⎟ = ⎜ 16 ⎟ = 47.625 < 50
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Therefore, the whole width of top cover plate is effective in compression.
The area of section provided is as follows :
Top cover plate = 850 ×16 = 13600 mm2
Web = 2 × 600 × 12 = 14400 mm2
4 ISA 80 mm × 50 mm × 6 mm
= 4 × 746 = 2984 mm2
Total = 30984 mm2
More area is provided in order to adjust increase of force due to wind effect. The
c.g. of section from top is at a distance O
⎡ 1 3 2 ⎤
⎢2 × 12 × 1.2 × 60 + 2 × 60 × 1.2 (30 − 18.08) + 85 × 1.6 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
Ixx = ⎢ × (18.08 − 0.8)2 + 2 × 7.46 × 18.08 – 2.76)2 + 2 × 7.46 ⎥ × 104 mm
⎢ × (43.52 − 1.16)2 + 4 × 14.4 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
= 134601.18 × l04 mm4
⎡1 2 2 ⎤
Iyy = ⎢ × 1.6 × 85 + 2 × 60 × 1.2 × (32.1 + 0.6) + 4 × 48 ⎥ × 104 mm4
⎣18 ⎦
= 236053.09 × 104 mm4
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 187
1/2
⎛ 134601.18 × 104 ⎞
rmin = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 208.43 mm
⎝ 30984 ⎠
4250
Slenderness ratio = = 20.39
208.43
From IS : 833–94 allowable stress in axial compression for the steel having
yield stress as 260 N/mm2
σac = 150.883 N/mm2
Force carrying capacity of the member
⎛ 150.883 × 30984 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 4674.96 kN. Hence safe.
The member may be checked for combined stresses and equivalent stress.
Step 6. Design of bottom chord member
Force in member = 3535.47 kN
To allow for the effect of fatigue
fmin = 660 kN, fmax = + 3535.47 kN
⎛ fmin ⎞ ⎛ 660 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.186
⎝ fmax ⎠ ⎝ 3535.47 ⎠
From IS : 1915–1961, K = 0.92
∴ Allowable stress in axial tension
= 0.92 ×0.6 × 260 = 143.52 N/mm2
⎛ 3535.47 × 1000 ⎞
Net area required = ⎜ ⎟ = 24633.99 mm2
⎝ 143.52 ⎠
The overall dimension of the section is kept same as that for top chord section,
i.e., as shown in Figure 4.12.
6 00 m m
X X
4 IS A 2 00 m m
x15 0 m m
x 10 m m
6 00 m m
Fig. 4.12
188 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
L acin g
6 00 m m
4 IS A 12 5 m m x
75 m m x 8 m m
Fig. 4.13
The overall depth of vertical member is kept equal to the internal width of top
cord members less twice the thickness of gusset plate i.e., as shown in Figure 4.13.
Depth of members
= (644 – 2 × 22) = 600 mm
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 189
⎛ 4200 ⎞
Slenderness ratio ⎜ ⎟ = 68.51
⎝ 61.31 ⎠
From IS : 833–1994 for steel having yield stress as 260 N/mm2
σac = 116.64 N/mm2
Force carrying capacity of the member
⎛ 116.64 × 6152 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 717.56 kN. Hence safe.
⎝ 1000 ⎠
To check the member for tension
fmin = + 340.16 kN
fmax = – 559.72 kN
⎛ fmin ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = (– 0.0608)
⎝ fmax ⎠
From IS : 1915–1961, K = 0.638
Allowable stress in axial tension, allowing the effect of fatigue
= 0.638 × (0.6 × 260) = 99.528 N/mm2
Net area required
⎛ 340.16 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 3416.73 mm2
⎝ 99.528 ⎠
Gross area provided = 6150 mm2
190 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
4 IS A 1 25 m m x
95 m m x 12 m m
Fig. 4.14
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 191
π (23.5)2 × 100
= × = 43.35 kN
4 1000
Strength of rivet in bearing
23.5 × 10 × 300
= = 70.5 kN
1000
Rivet value, R = 43.35 kN
Force in U3U4 = 3535.47 kN
U4U5 = 3676.89 kN
The top chord member is a continuous member. The rivets are provided for the
difference of forces.
Number of rivets required
⎛ 3637.89 – 3535.47 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 3.26
⎝ 43.35 ⎠
Provide 16 rivets
Force in U4L5(max.) = 559.72 kN
Number of rivets required
⎛ 559.72 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 12.91
⎝ 43.35 ⎠
Force in U4L5 (max.) = 727.66 kN
Number of rivets required
⎛ 727.66 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 16.78 (say 20)
⎝ 43.35 ⎠
Step 10. The joint U4 is as shown in Figure 4.15. The gusset plates are kept
22 mm thick.
Example 4.2. The effective span of a through type truss girder highway through
two lane bridge is 64 m. The reinforced concrete slab is 250 mm thick inclusive of
the wearing coal. The foot paths are provided on either side of the carriageway.
The spacing between centre to centre of truss girder is 13 m. Suggest a suitable
truss girder for the bridge. Design the central top chord member, the central
bottom chord member, the vertical and diagonal member of the central panel.
Design the joint, where the central bottom chord, vertical and diagonal members.
The highway bridge is to carry IRC class A standard loading.
192 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
M em b er U 3 U 4 Joint U 4 U 4U 5
R ive ts
2 2 m m in
d ia m e te r
M em b er
U 4L 4
Fig. 4.15
Solution
Design :
A Pratt type truss girders for 64 m span with 16 panels as shown in Fig. 4.16
are provided for highway bridge.
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 U7 U8 U9 U10 U 11 U 12 U 13 U 14 U 15
8m
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 L 11 L 12 L 13 L14 L 15 L 16
1 6 = P a ne ls @ 4 m = 6 4 m
Fig. 4.16
⎛ 64 × 9.80 × 250 × 24 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 3763.2 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Step 1. Dead load
Weight of cross-girders (assumed @ 5.00 kN/m)
= 17 ×13 × 5 = 1105 kN
Weight of handrails for both the sides (assumed @ 1.50 kN/m
= 64 × l.50 = 96 kN
Self-weight of both the truss girders, from Fuller’s formula, as per Eq. 4.3
⎛ 15l + 550 ⎞ ⎛ 15 × 64 + 550 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ × 64
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
= 966.4 kN
Total dead load is 5930.6 kN
Dead load per truss girder is 2965.3 kN
Dead load per metre per girder is 46.233 kN/m
Transverse location of live load
For the design of members of the truss girder, the live loads are so placed that
the reaction on one truss girder is maximum.
For IRC section II.
Distance between centre to centre of two wheels of IRC class A train of loading
= 1.80 m
Width of carriageway is 6.80 m
The minimum distance between adjacent edge of wheels of two trains
⎡ (1.2 − 0.4) ⎤
g = ⎢0.40 + 2
× (6.8 − 5.5) ⎥ = 0.92 m
⎣ ⎦
The distance between centre to centre of adjacent wheels of two trains
The minimum clearance between outer edge of the wheel and the roadway face
of kerb, for IRC class A loading
f = 0.150 mm
The transverse location of wheels of trains is as shown in Fig. 4.17.
8 .52 m
6 .72 m
3 .50 m P P P
P
13 m
Fig. 4.17
194 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ n − m − 1 ⎞ ⎛ 16 − 7 − 1 ⎞
y2 = ⎜
n ⎟ = ⎜ 16 ⎟ = 0.5 units
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 195
The influence line diagram for force in U7L7 is as shown in Figure 4.18 (f). The
ordinates are as follows :
(8 )
1/2
2
+ 42 (80 )1 / 2
cosec θ = = = 1.118
8 8
m 7
y3 = cosec θ = × 1.118 = 0.488 units
n 16
⎛ n − m − 1⎞ 8
y4 = ⎜
⎝ n ⎟⎠ cosec θ = 16 × 1.118
= 0.559 units
The influence line diagram for force in U6L7 is as shown in Fig. 4.18 (g). The
ordinates are as follows :
m 6
y5 = cosec θ = × 1.118 = 0.418 units
n 16
⎛ n − m − 1⎞ 9
y6 = ⎜
⎝ ⎟⎠ cosec θ = × 1.118
n 16
= 0.628 units
Step 3. Forces in the members due to dead load
Dead load = 46.33 kN/m
(i) Force in member U7U8
1
=– × 2 × 64 × 46.33 = – 2965.12 kN (i.e., compression)
2
(ii) Force in member L7L8
1
=+ × 1.97 × 64 × 46.33 = + 2920.64 kN (i.e., compression)
2
(iii) Force in member L6L7
1
= + × 1.875 × 64 × 46.33 = + 2779.8 kN (i.e., tension)
2
(iv) Force in member U7L7
1 1
= –[ × 34.13 × 0.5 – × 29.87 × 0.437 × 46.33]
2 2
= –92.26 kN (i.e., compression)
(v) Force in member U7L8
1 1
=–[ × 34.13 × 0.559 – × 29.87 × 0.437 × 46.33]
2 2
= + 102.93 kN (i.e., tension)
196 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 U7 U8 U9 U 10 U 11 U 12 U 13 U14 U 15
3 .4 t
3 .4 t
3 .4 t
5 .7 t
1 .2 m 5 .7 t
3 .4 t
3 .4 t
3 .4 t
1 .1 m 1 .3 5
1 .3 5
I.L.D . fo r U7 U8
(– ) 3 3 3 4 .3 3 .2 20 3 0 .5
m m m m m m m 3 m
m
(b )
I.L.D . fo r U7 U8
2 .00
1 .97
34
135
1 35
34 34 34 5 75 7
34 3 34 34 34
3 3 3 4 .3 3 .2 20 3 3 1 .5
(c) (+ ) m m m m m m m m m
m
1 .87 5 I.L.D . fo r L7 L 8
34
1 35
1 35
34 34 34 57 57 57 34 34 34 34 57 57
3.2 m
(d ) 3 3 3 4 .3 20 3 3 3 4 .3 1 .2
1.1
1.2
(+ ) m m m m m m m m m m
I.L.D . Fo r L 6 L 7
1 .3 5
y 1 = 0 .43 7 3 4.1 4 m
1 35
1.35
1.35
(e ) 34 34 34 34
57
(+ )
34 34 34 34 57 57 (-)
2 9.8 6 m
y 2 = 0 .5
I.L.D . fo r U7 U7
y 4 = 0 .55 9
1.35
1 .3 5
1 .3 5
(f) 34 34 34 34 57 57 (+ )
57 57 34 34 34 34
y 3 = 0 .48 8 I.L.D . fo r U 7 U 8
2 9 . 8 6m
y 6 = 0 .62 8 3 3.4 m
1 35
34 34 34 34 57 57 (+ )
57 57 34 34 34 34
(g )
y 5 = 0 .41 8
1 .3 5
1.35
2 5.6 m I.L.D . fo r U6 U7
Fig. 4.18
198 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
0.5
× 1.34 + 13.5 × × 13.7] = 76.23 kN
32
Tension in U7L7 including the effect of adjacent passing vehicle and the impact
= 25 × 76.23 kN = 190.575 kN (Tension)
(v) Force in U7L8
The position of loading is fixed as discussed for member U7L7.
(A) Tension in U7L8
The tension in U7L8 is maximum, when train passes from right to left. The
longitudinal position of wheel loads is shown in Fig. 4.18 (f) by firm lines.
Tension in U7L8
0.599
= [57(32 + 30.8) + 34 (26.5 + 23.5 + 20.5 + 17.5)]
32
0.488 0.488
–[13.5 × × 27.7 + 13.5 × × 1.06] = 112.74 kN
28 1.86
The tension in U7L8 including the effect of adjacent passing vehicle and the
impact
= 112.74 × 2.5 = 281.85 kN (Tension).
(B) Compression in U7L8
The compression in U7L8 is maximum when train passes from left to right. The
longitudinal position of wheel loads is shown in Fig. 4.18 (f) by dotted lines.
Compression in U7L8
0.488
= [57(28 + 26.8) + 34 (22.5 + 19.5 + 16.5 + 13.5)]
28
0.559 0.559
– [1.35 × × 1.34 + 13.5 × × 31.7] = 85.90 kN
2.14 32
Compression in member U7L8 including the effect of adjacent passing vehicles
and impact
= 2.5 × 85.90 = 214.75 kN (Compression).
Force in member U6L7
The position of loading is fixed as discussed for member U7L7 .
(vi) Tension in U6L7
The tension in U7L7 is maximum when the train of loading passes from right to
200 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
left. The longitudinal position of wheel loads is shown in Fig. 4.18 (g) by
firm lines.
(A) Tension in U6L7
0.628
= [57(36 + 34.8) + 34(30.5 + 27.5 + 24.5 + 21.5+ 1.5)]
36
0.418 0.418
–[ 13.5 × × 23.7 + 13.5 × × 0.8] 124.8 kN.
25 1.6
Tension in the member U6L7 including the effect of adjacent passing vehicle
and impact
= 124.8 × 2.5 = 312 kN (Tension).
(B) Compression in U6L7
The compression U6L7 is maximum when the train of loading passes from left
to right. The position of wheel loads is shown in Fig. 4.18 (g) by dotted lines.
0.418
= [57(24+ 22.8) + 34 (18.5 + 15.5 + 12.5 + 9.5)]
24
13.5 0.628
– [0.628 × × 35.7 + 13.5 × × 1.6] = 61.36 kN
24 2.4
Compression in the member U6L7 including the effect of adjacent passing vehicle
and the impact
= 61.36 × 2.5 = 153.4 kN (Compression).
Design forces in the members are as follows :
Forces in the member
(Dead Load) (L.L. + L.L.) D.L. + L.L. + I.L.
Member Compres- Tension Compres- Tension Compres- Tension
sion sion sion
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
U7U8 2965.12 — 1222.2 — 4187.32 —
L7L8 — 2920.64 — 1237.70 — 4158.34
L6L7 — 2779.80 — 1208.40 — 3988.20
U7L7 92.26 — 233.7 190.575 325.96 98.315
U7L8 — 102.93 214.75 281.85 111.82 384.78
U6L7 — 303.16 153.4 312.00 — 149.76
615.16
Step 5. Design of chord member
Force in the member = 4187.32 kN (Compression).
Allowance is not made for the effect of fatigue for the compression members.
Depth of the truss girder = 8000 mm
Depth of top chord member
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 201
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 8000⎟ = 800 mm
⎝ 10 ⎠
Width of top chord member
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 8000 + 2 × 22⎟ = 844 mm
⎝ 10 ⎠
Try the section as shown in Fig. 4.19.
Approximate radius of gyration
rx = 0.39 h = 0.39 × 800 = 312 mm
ry = 0.55 b = 0.55 × 844 = 465 mm
rmin = 312 mm
Length of the member from centre to centre of intersection
= 4000 mm
Effective length of member
= 0.85 × 4000 = 3400 mm
Maximum slenderness ratio
3400
= = 10.9
312
Y
1 05 0 m m
9 70 m m
12 m m
y = 3 94 .86 m m
16 m m 8 44 m m 16 m m 8 00
mm
4 17 .14 m m
Fig. 4.19
From IS: 833–1994, allowable stress in axial compression for the slenderness
ratio 10.9 and the steel having yield stress as 260 N/mm2
σac = 155.82 N/mm2
202 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Area required
⎛ 4187.32 × 1000 ⎞
A = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 26872.80 mm
2
⎝ 155.82
Width of top cover plate of the section between centre to centre of rivet line
h = 970 mm
340
Slenderness ratio = = 10.55
322.35
From IS : 833–94, allowable stress in axial compression, for the steel having
yield stress as 260 N/mm2
σac = 155.89 N/mm2
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 203
⎛ 155.89 × 35784 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 5578.36 kN
⎝ 1000
The member may be checked for combined and equivalent stresses.
Step 6. Design of bottom chord member L7L8
Force in member = 4158.34 kN
To allow for the effect of fatigue
fmin = + 2920.64 kN, fmax = + 4158.34 kN
⎛ fmin ⎞ ⎛ 2920.64 ⎞
= ⎜ = 0.702
⎜⎝ f ⎟
max ⎠ ⎝ 4158.34 ⎟⎠
From IS : 1915–1961, the value of K is 1.00
Allowable stress in axial tension = 0.6 × 260 =156 N/mm2
⎛ 4158.34 × 1000 ⎞
Net area required = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 26656.03 mm2
156
The overall dimension of the section is kept same as that for the top chord
section i.e., as shown in Figure 4.20.
The area provided is as follows:
2 web plates 800 mm × 10 mm = 2 × 800 × 10 mm2
= 16000 mm2
2 additional plates 800 mm × 8 mm = 2 × 800 × 8 mm2
= 12800 mm2
8 00
x x mm
4 IS A 8 0 m m
x 50 m m x
6 mm
8 00 m m
Fig. 4.20
L acin g
8 00
mm
4 IS A 1 25 m m x
75 m m x 8 m m
1 25 m m 1 25 m m
Fig. 4.21
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 205
5600
Slenderness ratio = = 91.34
61.31
From IS: 833–1994, allowable stress in axial compression for steel having yield
stress as 260 N/mm2
= 90.66 N/mm2
Force carrying capacity of the member
⎛ 90.66 × 6152 ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 557.74 kN. Hence, safe.
100
Step 8. Design of diagonal member U7L8
Tensile force = + 284.78 kN
Compressive force = – 111.82 kN
To allow for the effect of fatigue
fmin = – 111.82 kN
fmax = + 384.78 kN
⎛ fmin ⎞ ⎛ −111.82 ⎞
⎜⎝ f ⎟ = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = – 0.29
max ⎠ 384.78 ⎠
From IS: 1915–1961, K = 0.724
Allowable stress in axial tension
= 0.724 × 0.6 × 260 = 112.94 N/mm2
⎛ 384.78 × 1000 ⎞
Net area required = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 3406.82
112.94
Area of rivet holes = 4 × 23.5 × 10 = 940 mm2
Gross area required = 4346.82 mm2
Provide 4 ISA 90 mm × 60 mm × 10 mm.
Gross area provided = 1401 × 4 = 5604 mm2. Hence, safe.
The section for U7L8 is shown in Fig. 4.22.
206 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
90 m m 90 m m
8 00
mm
4 IS A 9 0 m m x
60 m m x 10 m m
90 m m 90 m m
Fig. 4.22
M em b er
U 7L 7
M em b er
U 6 L7
M em b er L 6 L 7 M em b er L 7 L 8
Fig. 4.23
bracing is provided in the horizontal plane of the bottom chords of the truss girders.
The portal bracings are provided in the inclined plane of end posts of the truss
girder. The sway bracings are provided in the vertical planes at the panel points
along with the verticals of the truss girders.
P1
H e ig ht of
tru ss g irde r
h
P2
S (S pa cing ) 0 .8 m
2R L evel of b ea rin gs 2R
Fig. 4.24
The wind load acting over unloaded truss girder is determined by multiplying
the basic wind pressure and 1.75 times or twice the area of truss girders in elevation,
which one is on safer side. A part of this wind load, P1 is assumed to be acting on
the top chord. This part of wind load P1 can also be determined by multiplying the
basic wind pressure and twice the area of top chord, area of verticals, area of
diagonals and end posts and twice the area of top panel points (top gusset plates).
The remaining part of the wind load P2, is assumed to be acting on the bottom
chord. This part P1 of wind load can be found by the product of basic wind pressure
and twice the area of bottom chord, twice the area of bottom panel points (bottom
gusset. plates), area of verticals, area of diagonals and area of the end posts. These
wind loads P1 and P2 are assumed to act at the centre of gravities of top chord and
bottom chord respectively. The wind loads P1 and P2 result in an overturning
couple. The overturning couple has a tendency to overturn the bridge about the
level of bearings of truss girders. The overturning moment creates two equal and
opposite reactions 2R as shown in Fig. 4.24. These reactions furnish a resisting
moment to balance the overturning couple. Due to the overturning couple, an
additional thrust 2R is caused on the leeward girder. The overturning couple gives
an uplift 2R to the windward girder. The additional thrust is similar in action to
the dead load. The additional thrust assumed to be acting on the bottom chord.
This part P2 of wind provides reaction 2R (R, R at each end of the leeward girder)
as shown in Fig. 4.24. The additional thrust has a tendency to increase the
compressive forces already existing in the top chord and the tensile forces already
existing in the bottom chord of leeward girder. Whereas the uplift 2R due to
overturning couple in the windward girder causes opposite kind of forces in the top
and bottom chords and therefore, relieves the top chord and bottom chord from the
already existing force.
210 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The value of reaction R may be found by taking the moment of wind loads about
one of bearings
2R × s = P1 (h + 0.80) + P2 × 0.8
1
R = [P1h + 0.80) + P2 × 0.80].
2s
The value of reaction R is expressed in terms of percentage of dead load reaction.
The increase of compressive force in top chord and tensile force in bottom chord of
the leeward girder are determined from those due to dead load only. The nature of
forces is additive in the already existing forces in the top and bottom chords of the
leeward truss girder. The wind loads acting on loaded through type truss girder in
railway bridges are shown in Fig. 4.25 and in highway bridges are shown in
Fig. 4.26 respectively.
These forces cause overturning couple about the level of bearings. The
overturning couple has the tendency to overturn the bridge. The overturning couple
causes additional thrust 2R1 in the leeward girder and uplift 2R1in the windward
truss girder. The nature of additional thrust over the leeward girder is similar to
that due to dead load, live load and impact load. The additional thrust causes
additional compressive force in top chord and additional tensile force in the bottom
chord of the leeward girder. The uplift causes opposite nature of forces in the
chords of windward girder and, therefore, relieves them from already existing
forces.
The values of reactions can be found by taking the moment about one of the
bearings. The wind load on area of moving load, in railway bridges acts at the
centre of gravity of the rolling stock as shown in Fig. 4.25. The wind load on area
1 .50 m
R o ad surface
1 .45 m
S
Fig. 4.25
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 211
of moving load in the highway bridges acts at 1.50 m above the road surface as
shown in Fig. 4.26. The road surface is provided 1.45 m above the level of bearings.
The increase in compressive forces in the top chord and in tensile forces in the
bottom chord of leeward truss girder are determined from those due to normal
loads (dead load, live load and impact load) only.
P1
P3
(1 .41 5 m , M .G .)
(1 .75 m , B .G .) h
h3 0 .60 m
P2
S h 2 = 0 .80 m
L evel of b ea rin gs
2R1 2R 1
Fig. 4.26
The lateral effect on top chord, the lateral effect on bottom chord and the bending
stresses in the members transmitting the wind load from top chord to the bottom
chord have been discussed in Secs. 4.14, 4.15, 4.16 and 4.23 respectively.
S truts
D ia g on als
Top cho rd of le ew a rd girde r
Fig. 4.27
212 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The top lateral bracing provides rigidity to the bridge structure. The top chords of
through type bridge are the compression chords. The top lateral bracing connects
both the top (compression) chords. The top lateral bracing also acts as lacing
between the top (compression) chords. This provides stability to these chords. The
top chords of main truss girders also act as chords of top horizontal lateral bracing
as shown in Fig. 4.27.
The cross or double diagonal horizontal bracing is most commonly used. This
type of diagonal bracing gives better appearance. The diagonals are connected at
the points of their intersections. The struts are used to connect opposite points and
to complete the horizontal truss. The top lateral (horizontal) truss bracing resists
wind load, acting at the centre of gravity of top chord. The maximum wind load on
the top chord is in case of unloaded span and the same is taken into consideration.
In addition to the wind, the top lateral bracing is also designed to resist transverse
shear force at any section. The transverse shear force is assumed equal to 2.5
percent of the sum of compressive force in both the top chords at the section
under consideration.
For the analysis, it is assumed that the diagonal member which is in tension,
remains effective. The other diagonal member remains dummy. When the direction
of wind changes, the former effective diagonal members become dummy members
and the former dummy diagonal members become effective tension members. The
end strut and the end diagonal member carry maximum forces. The strut and
diagonal are designed for these forces. The values of forces in strut and diagonal
are small. These require nominal sizes. The same sizes are adopted for intermediate
struts and intermediate diagonals. The single or double angle sections are adopted
for the struts and diagonals.
As regards lateral effect on the top chords, the maximum wind load act as
uniformly distributed load on the top chords as shown in Fig. 4.17. The top lateral
bracing acts as a simply supported horizontal girder. The top lateral bracing is
subjected to maximum moment in the centre. It is assumed from steel theory that
this moment is resisted by two equal and opposite forces in the chords acting at a
distance equal to the spacing of truss girders. The values of forces are determined
for each panel by equating the resisting moment to the corresponding moment.
This force is compressive in the top chord of the windward girder and tensile in the
top chord of the leeward girder. The nature of this force is additive for the top
chord of windward girder and subtractive for the top chord of the leeward girder.
The cross or double diagonal bracing gives better appearance. The diagonals are
connected the floor beams and also at the point of their intersections. The bottom
lateral bracing resists wind load acting at the centre of gravity of the bottom
chord. In addition to the wind load, the bottom horizontal truss bracing also resists
racking force and the longitudinal force. The racking forces has been discussed in
Sec. 2.6. The longitudinal force has been discussed in Sec. 2.7. The maximum
lateral load (wind load in case of unloaded span and wind load plus racking force in
case of loaded span) is taken into consideration and properly accounted for.
The longitudinal forces have a tendency to develop bending stresses in the flanges
of the floor beams. In order to avoid this, the longitudinal forces are transmitted to
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6
b b
c c
d d d d
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6
(a ) S ing le tra ck
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6
d d
e e
f f
c c
b b g
g
h h
a a
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6
(b ) D o ub le tra ck
Fig. 4.28
the main truss girders by means of traction frames. In single track bridge, the
transverse struts are connected with the bottom flanges of the stringers (rail
bearers) at the points of their intersection with the diagonals of the bottom horizontal
(lateral) bracing as shown in Fig. 4.28 (a). Such transverse strut, ab with the
diagonals makes a Lo ab Lo c d Lo´ queen post truss. This queen post truss (traction
frame) transmits the longitudinal forces to the main truss. Similar traction frame
is also provided at the other end. In double-track bridges, the traction frame Lo’abcd
Loefgh Lo, is made as shown in Fig. 4.28 (b). Such traction frames are provided in
the end panels. It is not necessary to provide such traction frames in each panel. It
is desirable to provide such traction frames at intervals of 30 m. The longitudinal
forces are transmitted to these frames by the stringers. The magnitude of
longitudinal force depends upon the number of panels over which tractive or braking
forces are applied. These traction frames may also be provided at the top flange of
the stringers.
214 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
For the purpose of analysis, it is assumed that the diagonal members which are
in tension, remain effective. The other diagonal members remain dummy. When
the direction of wind changes, the former effective diagonal members become dummy
and the former dummy members become effective tension members. The diagonal
members are designed for the maximum lateral load of loaded and unloaded spans.
As regards the lateral effect on the bottom chord, the bottom lateral bracing act
as a horizontal truss girder. It is to note that for this purpose, only wind load is
considered and racking force is not taken into consideration. The bottom lateral
bracing is subjected to bending moment due to uniformly distributed wind load
acting on the bottom chord. It is assumed from steel theory, that this moment is
resisted by two equal and opposite forces in the bottom chords, acting at a distance
equal to the spacing of main truss girders. The value of force is found by equating
the moment and resisting moment. This force is compressive in the bottom chord
of the windward girder and tensile in the bottom chord of the leeward girder. The
nature of this force is additive for the bottom chord of the leeward girder and
subtractive for the bottom chord of windward girder.
Example 4.3 The effective span of a through type Pratt truss girder railway
bridge for a single broad gauge track is 50 m. Pratt truss girder consists of 10
panels @ 5 m. The height of girder between c.g. to c.g. of chords is 6 m. The
spacing between main truss girders is 7 m. The rail level is 800 mm above the c.g.
of bottom chord. The chord members are 600 mm deep × 644 mm wide. The
inner web members are 600 mm deep × 260 wide. The end posts are 600 mm deep
× 644 mm wide. Determine the increase or decrease of forces in the central chord
member of the leeward truss girder in the following cases :
(a) Overturning effect due to wind, when the bridge is unloaded.
(b) Lateral effects of top chord and bottom chord bracings, when the bridge
is unloaded.
(c) Overturning effect due to wind, when the bridge is loaded.
(d) Lateral effects of top chord and bottom chord bracings, when the bridge
is loaded.
Solution
A Pratt truss girder is as shown in Fig. 4.29.
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 U7 U8 U9
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10
Fig. 4.29
P1
6m
P2
7m 0 .80 m
L evel o f
2R 2R
b ea rin gs
Fig. 4.30
Step 3. Lateral effect of top chord bracing when the bridge is unloaded.
P1
7m
8 P a ne ls @ 5 m = 40 m
Fig. 4.31
7m
1 0 P an els @ 5 m = 5 0 m
Fig. 4.32
The bottom chord members of leeward girder are subjected to tension. Therefore,
the forces in these members increase.
Increase of force in central bottom chord member due to bottom lateral bracing
⎛ 233.04 × 50 ⎞ 1
= ⎜
8 ⎟ × = 208.07 kN (Tension)
⎝ ⎠ 7
Step 2. (Case II) Bridge is loaded
Wind pressure = 1.50 kN/m2
⎛ 203.64 × 1.50 ⎞
Wind load on top chord = ⎜ ⎟ = 127.275 kN
⎝ 2.40 ⎠
⎛ 233.04 × 1.50 ⎞
Wind load on bottom chord = ⎜ ⎟ = 145.65 kN
⎝ 2.40 ⎠
Wind load on moving train = 50 × 3.50 × l.50 = 262.50 kN
Wind loads acting on the loaded bridge are shown in Fig. 4.33.
218 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
P1
B ro ad g au ge
ro lling sto ck
3 .5 m
P3
1.7 5
0 .6
0 .8 0 m
P2
7m 0 .80 m
L evel o f
2R b ea rin gs 2R
Fig. 4.33
= 261.36 kN (Compression)
Increases of stress in central bottom chord member L4L5
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 20 × 30 ⎞ ⎛ 250.91 ⎞
= × × ⋅ (50 ) ⋅ ⎜
2 ⎝⎜ 6 ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 50 ⎠⎟ ⎝ 50 ⎠
⎟
= 250.91 kN (Tension).
Step 7. Lateral effect or top chord bracing when the bridge is loaded
Wind load on top lateral bracing, when the bridge is unloaded
= 203.64 kN
Wind load on top lateral bracing, when the bridge is loaded
= 127.275 kN
Decreases in force in central top chord member due to lateral bracing when
bridge is unloaded
= 145.46 kN
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 219
Decrease in force in central top chord member due to top lateral bracing when
bridge is loaded
⎛ 145.46 × 127.275 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 90.91 kN
⎝ 203.64 ⎠
Step 8. Lateral effect of bottom chord bracing when bridge is loaded
Wind pressure acting on bottom lateral bracing when the bridge is unloaded
= 233.04 kN
Increase of force in central bottom chord member due to bottom lateral bracing
= 208.07 kN (Tension)
Wind pressure acting on bottom lateral bracing when the bridge is loaded
= (P2 + P3) = (145.65 + 262.50) = 408.15 kN
Increase of force in central bottom chord members due to bottom lateral bracing
⎛ 408.15 ⎞
= 208.07 × ⎜ ⎟ = 363.23 kN (Tension).
⎝ 233.80 ⎠
Example 4.4 The effective span of a through type Pratt truss girder two lane
highway bridge is 64 m. The highway bridge carries IRC class A loading. Pratt
truss girder consists of 16 panels @ 4 m. The depth of girder between c.g. to c.g.
of chord is 8 m. The spacing between main girders is 13 m. The chord members
are 800 mm deep × 844 mm wide. The vertical members are 800 mm deep × 260
mm wide and the diagonal members are 800 mm deep × 190 mm wide. The end
posts are 800 mm deep × 844 mm wide. Determine the increase or decreases in
the central chord members of the leeward truss girder in the following cases :
(a) Overturning effect due to wind, when the bridge is unloaded
(b) Lateral effects of top chord and bottom chord bracing, when the bridge
is unloaded
(c) Overturning effects due to wind, when the bridge is loaded
(d) Lateral effects of top chord and bottom chord bracings, when the bridge
is loaded.
Solution
A Pratt truss girder is shown in Fig. 4.34.
Step 1. (Case I) Bridge is unloaded
Wind pressure = 240 kN/m2
Length of diagonals = (82 + 42)1/2 = 8.94 m
The details of exposed area of truss girder are as follows :
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 U7 U8 U9 U 1 0 U 11 U 1 2 U 1 3 U 1 4 U 1 5
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L 1 0 L 11 L 1 2 L 1 3 L 1 4 L 1 5 L 1 6
1 6 P an els @ 4 m = 6 4 m
Fig. 4.34
220 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Wind loads acting on top chord and on bottom chord, when the bridge is unloaded
are shown in Fig. 4.35.
P1
6m
P2
13 m 0 .80 m
2R 2R
Fig. 4.35
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 28 × 36 ⎞ ⎛ 310.33 ⎞
= × × ⋅ (64 ) ⋅ ⎜
2 ⎝⎜ 8 ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 64 ⎠⎟ ⎝ 64 ⎠
⎟
= 305.48 kN (Tension).
Step 3. Lateral effect of top chord bracing when the bridge is unloaded
Wind pressure acting on top lateral bracing is shown in Fig. 4.36.
222 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
P1
13 m
1 4 P an els @ 4 m = 5 6 m
Fig. 4.36
The top chord members of leeward girder are subjected to tension due to lateral
effect of top lateral bracing. Therefore, the forces in these members decrease.
Decrease in force in central top chord member due to top lateral bracing
P1 × 56 1 ⎛ 417.28 × 56 1 ⎞
× = ⎜ × ⎟ kN
8 13 ⎝ 8 13 ⎠
= 224.69 kN (Tension)
Step 3. Lateral effect of bottom chord bracing when the bridge is
unloaded
Wind load acting on bottom chord bracing is shown in Fig. 4.37.
P2
13 m
1 6 P an els @ 4 m = 6 4 m
Fig. 4.37
The bottom chord members of leeward girder are subjected to tension. Therefore,
the forces in these members increase.
Increase of forces in central bottom chord member due to bottom lateral bracing
P2 × 64 1 ⎛ 452.84 × 64 1 ⎞
× = ⎜ × ⎟ kN
8 13 ⎝ 8 13 ⎠
= 278.67 kN (Tension)
Step 4. (Case II) Bridge is loaded.
Wind pressure = 1.50 kN/m2
Wind load on top chord
⎛ 417.28 × 1.50 ⎞
P1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 260.8 kN
⎝ 2.40 ⎠
Wind load on bottom chord
⎛ 452.54 × 1.50 ⎞
P3 = ⎜ ⎟ = 283.03 kN
⎝ 2.40 ⎠
From IRC section II
Length of IRC class A loading
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 223
P1
W ind load on
m ovin g tra in
P3 8m
1 .50 m
P2 1 .45 m
13 m 0 .80 m
2R 2R
Fig. 4.38
224 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Step 6. Lateral effect of top chord bracing when the bridge is loaded.
Wind load on top lateral bracing when the bridge is unloaded
P1 = 417.28 kN
Wind load on top lateral bracing when the bridge is loaded
P1´ = 260.8 kN
Decrease in force in central top chord member due to top lateral bracing when
the bridge is unloaded
= 224.69 kN
Decrease in force in central top chord member due to top lateral bracing when
the bridge is loaded
260.8
= 224.69 × = 140.43 kN
417.28
Step 7. Lateral effect of bottom chord bracing when the bridge is
loaded
Wind load acting on bottom lateral bracing when the bridge is unloaded
P1 = 452.84 kN
Increase in force in central bottom chord member due to bottom lateral bracing
= 278.67 kN
Wind load acting on bottom lateral bracing when the bridge is loaded
= (P2 + P3) = (283.03 + 122.4) = 405.43 kN
Increase in force in central bottom chord member due to bottom lateral bracing
405.43
= 278.67 × = 249.49 kN
452.84
Example 4.5 Design the top lateral bracing and bottom lateral bracing for the
through type truss girder railway bridge for a single broad gauge track as in
Example 4.3.
Solution
Design :
Step 1. To lateral bracing
The horizontal truss bracing with cross-diagonals as shown in Fig. 4.39 is provided
between the top chords of windward and leeward truss girders. The diagonals
which carry tension remain active.
P1
7m
8 P a ne ls @ 5 m = 40 m
Fig. 4.39
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 225
From IS: 833–1994, allowable stress in axial compression for the steel having
yield stress as 260 N/mm2
= 59.24 N/mm2
Force carrying capacity of member
⎛ 59.24 × 4116 ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 243.83 kN. Hence safe.
1000
It is to note that the extra force carrying capacity of end strut also takes into
account 2½percent of axial compression of the member in the panel under
consideration for bracing.
Step 3. Diagonal member
Force in diagonal = 116.26 kN
⎛ 116.26 × 1000 ⎞
Net area required = ⎜ ⎟ = 745.26 mm
2
⎝ 0.6 × 260 ⎠
Area of rivet hole = 235 mm2
Gross area required = 980.26 mm2
Provide ISA 90 mm × 60 mm × 10 mm
Gross area provided = 1401 mm2. Hence safe.
Step 4. Bottom lateral bracing
The bottom lateral bracing with cross-diagonals as shown in Fig. 4.40 provided
between the bottom chords of windward and leeward truss girders. The diagonals
which carry tension remain active.
P2 + P3 + P4
1 0 P an els @ 5 m = 5 0 m
Fig. 4.40
Fre e
L en gth
(a ) (b )
Fre e
L en gth
(c) (d )
(e ) (f)
(g )
Fig. 4.41
The portal bracing shown in Fig. 4.41 (a) consists of a plate girder bracing. This
is most effective where the head-room available is small. The portal bracing shown
in Figure 4.41 (b) is known as A-frame. This type of portal bracing is suitable
where greater head-room is available. This type is common for single track railway
bridges. The portal bracing shown in Figs. 4.41 (c), (d), (e) and (f) are used for
shallow head-room. These are common in double track railway bridges. The portal
bracing shown in Figs. 4.41 (g) and (h) are used where deep head rooms are available.
The deep head-rooms occur in heavy trusses. These rigid portal bracings are
necessary to assure sufficient rigidity.
As regards the portal effect in the bottom chords of main truss girders, it would
be noted that the inclined end posts are subjected to direct stresses. The windward
end post would be subjected to tension and the leeward end post would be subjected
to compression. The direct stresses in the end post produce horizontal reactions at
their bottom ends. One end of the truss girder is supported on rollers. Therefore,
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 229
the horizontal reactions at the bottom ends of the end posts are provided by the
bottom chords if the truss girders. The magnitude of this horizontal reaction is
equal to the horizontal component of the direct stress in the end post of the portal
bracing. As a result of the portal effect, the bottom chord of windward truss girder
is subjected to compression and the bottom chord of leeward truss girder is subjected
to tension. The compression and tension due to portal effect in the bottom chords of
the truss girders are uniform throughout their length. The vertical component of
direct stresses in the and posts are transmitted to the bearings.
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MA = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MA = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
The bending moment at D and D´ on the end posts are also maximum and are
as under:
X
P F1
C' C
S d
D' D F2
X
h
2
P
A '1 2 A1
P
V' V
2
h
2
A' A
Fig. 4.42
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MD = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MD = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
P
The shear force in each end post is equal to . The axial stresses in the end
2
posts are equal to vertical reactions,
⎡ h ⎤
⎢ P ⎛⎜ a + ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎝ 2⎠
⎢i.e., V = ⎥
⎣ s ⎦
The axial stress in A´C´ is tensile and that in AC is compressive.
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 231
In order to find the forces in the beam or plate girder, consider a section XX at
a distance x from C. Consider the equilibrium of right hand side portion of the
portal bracing. F1 and F2 represent force in the flanges and S represents shear
force at the section XX. It is assumed that the bending moment is resisted completely
by the flanges. Taking the moment at the centre of upper flange.
P⎛ h⎞
F2· a = ⎜ a + ⎟ –V ⋅x
2⎝ 2⎠
1 ⎡P ⎛ h⎞ ⎛ h⎞x⎤
F2 = a + ⎟ − P ⎜a + ⎟ ⎥
a ⎢⎣ 2 ⎜⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ s⎦
P⎛ h ⎞ ⎡1 x ⎤
F2 = ⎜ a + ⎟⎢ − ⎥
a⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎣2 s ⎦
P ⎛ h⎞
when x = 0, F2 = ⎜ a+ ⎟
2a ⎝ 2⎠
s
when x = , F2 = 0
2
P ⎛ h⎞
when x = s, F2 = − ⎜ a + ⎟
2a ⎝ 2⎠
P ⎛ h⎞
Thus, the force in bottom flange is zero at the centre and ⎜ a + ⎟ at the
2a ⎝ 2⎠
ends, compression at the leeward side and tension at the windward side.
Taking the moment at the centre of bottom flange
P h
F1· a = ⋅ −V ⋅x
2 2
1 ⎡ Ph P ⎛ h⎞ ⎤
F1 = ⎢ − ⎜a + ⎟x⎥
a⎣ 4 s⎝ 2⎠ ⎦
P ⋅h
when x = 0, F1 = –
4
s Ph
when x = , F1 = –
2 2
1 ⎡P ⋅h ⎤ ⎡P ⋅h ⎤
when x = s, F1 = − + P ⋅ a⎥ = − ⎢ + P⎥
a ⎢⎣ 4 ⎦ ⎣ 4 a ⎦
Thus, the force in top flange is maximum tensile at right end, and maximum
P
compressive at the left end. The force in top flange at the centre is compressive.
2
The shear force at all points is equal to
P⎛ h⎞
S = V= ⎜ a+ ⎟
s⎝ 2⎠
232 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
P⎛ h⎞
V = a+ ⎟
s ⎝⎜ 2⎠
P
The horizontal shears above A1 and A1´ in A1C and A1´ C are equal to . The
2
horizontal shears below A1 and A1´ are as shown in Fig. 4.43 (a); and are equal P to
P
. The moment MA at bottom end of post AC i.e., at A is equal to the horizontal
2
shear at the point of contraflexure in the end post multiplied by the distance from
the bottom to the point of contraflexure. The moments are maximum and are as
follows :
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MA = ⎜ × ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
Moment at A´,
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MA´ = ⎜ × ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
Moment at D = ⎜ × ⎟=⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
Moment at D´ = ⎜ × ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
Moment at C = 0
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 233
Ph
F' F X
d d 4
P
C´ C
a
X
D' D
h
2
P P
2 2 B M D for
A1 A1 A C / A 'C '
P P
V 2 2 V
h
2
Ph
A S A
4
A B
Fig. 4.43
The bending moment diagram for the end post is shown in Fig. 4.43 (b). The
forces in the various members are as follows:
Forces in FD and F´D´
In order to find force in member FD, pass a section XX through the point C
(assumed as hinged). Resolve the force in FD in its horizontal and vertical
components at point D. Take moment about C.
P⎛ h⎞
FD sin θ, a = ⎜ a+ ⎟
2⎝ 2⎠
P⎛ h⎞ 1
FD = ⎜ a+ ⎟
2⎝ 2 ⎠ a ⋅ sin θ
P⎛ h ⎞ ( a 2 + d 2 )1 / 2
= ⎜ a+ ⎟ (Compression)
2⎝ 2⎠ ad
Similarly force in F´D´,
P⎛ h ⎞ ( a 2 + d 2 )1 / 2
FD = a + (Tension)
2 ⎝⎜ 2 ⎠⎟ ad
234 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
P⎛ h ⎞ ( a2 + d2 )1 / 2 a
= ⎜ a + ⎟ ⋅ 2
2⎝ 2⎠ ad ( a + d2 )1 / 2
⎛ h⎞
P ⎜a + ⎟
2⎠
− ⎝
s
P ⎛ h⎞ P ⎛ h⎞
= ⎜ a + ⎟ − ⎜a + ⎟
2d ⎝ 2⎠ s ⎝ 2⎠
P⎛ h ⎞ ⎡1 2⎤
= ⎜ a + ⎟ ⎢ − ⎥ (Tension)
2⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎣d s ⎦
Similarly force in C´D´,
P⎛ h ⎞ ⎡1 2⎤
C´ D´ = ⎜ a + ⎟ ⎢ − ⎥ (Compression).
2⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎣d s ⎦
Bending moment at F
By taking moment from right hand side
P⎛ h⎞
MF = V ⋅ d − ⎜ a+ ⎟
2⎝ 2⎠
⎛ h⎞d P ⎛ h⎞
= P ⎜a + ⎟ − ⎜a + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ s 2 ⎝ 2⎠
P⎛ h ⎞ ⎡ 2d ⎤
= a + ⎟⎢ − 1⎥
2 ⎝⎜ 2⎠⎣ s ⎦
Bending moment at F´
By taking moment from left hand side
P⎛ h⎞
MF´ = V´d – a+ ⎟
2 ⎝⎜ 2⎠
⎛ h⎞d P ⎛ h⎞
P = ⎜a + ⎟ − ⎜a + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ s 2 ⎝ 2⎠
P⎛ h ⎞ ⎡ 2d ⎤
= ⎜ a + ⎟⎢ − 1⎥
2⎝ 2⎠⎣ s ⎦
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 235
P⎛ h ⎞ 1 P P ⋅h
= ⎜ a+ ⎟ − = (Tension).
2⎝ 2⎠a 2 4a
Force in C´F´
The force in C´F´ is found by considering equilibrium of joint F
C´ F ´ = F ´C´ sin θ + FF´
P⎛ h ⎞ ( a 2 + d 2 )1 / 2 d P
= ⎜ a+ ⎟ +
2⎝ 2⎠ ad ( a 2 + d2 )1 / 2 2
P⎛ h⎞1 P Ph
=
⎜ a+ ⎟ + =P+ (Compression).
2⎝ 2⎠a 2 4a
Shear force in C´F´ = V
⎛ h⎞ 1
= P ⎜a + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ s
Shear force in FC and F´C´
Shear force in FC is equal to shear force in FF´ less the vertical component of
force in FD
= V – FD cos θ
P⎛ h ⎞1 P ⎛ h⎞
= a + ⎟ − ⎜a + ⎟
2 ⎝⎜ 2⎠s 2 ⎝ 2⎠
( a 2 + d2 )1 / 2 a
× × 2
ad ( a + d2 )1 / 2
⎛ h ⎞⎛1 1 ⎞
= P ⎜a + ⎟⎜ −
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ s 2d ⎠⎟
236 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
P P ⎛ h ⎞ ( a 2 + d 2 )1 / 2 a
= − ×⎜a + ⎟ × × 2
2 2 ⎝ 2⎠ ad ( a + d2 )1 / 2
P P⎛ h⎞1
= − ⎜a + ⎟ .
2 2⎝ 2⎠a
S S Ph
C´ X 2 F X1 2 X C 4
P
o o
o
a
E G
θ
X2
D
D' X' X'
P P BM D
A '1 2 2 A1 h fo r
P P 2 A C / A 'C '
V' 2 2 V
h
2
A Ph
A' S
4
(a ) (b )
Fig. 4.44
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 237
The portal bracing shown in Fig. 4 44 is known as A-frame. This type of portal
bracing is used where greater head-room is available and it is common for single
track railway bridges. This type of portal bracing is similar to that shown in Fig.
4.43 except that the braces are made to meet at the centre as shown in Fig. 4.44.
This type of portal bracing is very simple. This is effective form of portal bracing.
The moment at F is zero (this has also been shown in Sec. 4.19). The member CC´
is not subjected to bending moment or shear. Generally, the members shown by
dotted lines are introduced in this type of portal bracing. This provides better
appearance. The members DF and D´F are also stiffened by the introduction of
C´E´, E’E and CE, (the stresses in these members are zero) as the effective lengths
of the members DF and D´F become DE and DE´. This is also shown in the analysis.
The assumptions discussed in Sec. 4.17 are made for its analysis.
Vertical reactions
The vertical reactions are found by taking moment of all the above A1 and A1´.
⎛ h⎞
∴ V . s = P ⎜a + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ h⎞ 1
V = P ⎜a + ⎟ ⋅
⎝ 2⎠ s
⎛ h⎞ 1
Also V´ = P ⎜ a + ⎟ ⋅
⎝ 2⎠ s
The direct or axial stresses ion end posts are equal to the vertical reactions.
Axial force in the end posts AA1
⎛ h⎞ 1
= P ⎜ a + ⎟ ⋅ (Compression)
⎝ 2⎠ s
Axial force in the end posts A´A1´
⎛ h⎞ 1
= P ⎜ a + ⎟ ⋅ (Tension).
⎝ 2⎠ s
Moment at the fixed supports
The moments at the fixed supports are maximum, and are found as follows:
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MA = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MA´ = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
The moments are also maximum at D and D´. The values of moments at these
points are as follows :
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MD = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
238 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MD´ = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
But, it is to note that the moments at these points are of opposite sign than
those at supports.
The moments at the top of end posts are zero. These points C and C´ are assumed
as hinged.
The forces in the various members are as follows :
Forces in ED and E´D´
In order to find force in member ED, pass the section XX as shown in Fig. 4.44
(a). Resolve the force in ED in its horizontal and vertical components at point D.
Take the moment about C.
P ⎛ h⎞
ED sin θ ⋅ a = ⋅ ⎜a + ⎟
2 ⎝ 2⎠
P ⎛ h⎞ 1
ED = ⋅⎜a + ⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ a sin θ
1/2
⎡ 2 ⎛ s⎞2⎤
⎢a + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
P ⎛ h ⎞ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎥
= ⋅⎜a + ⎟ ⎦
2 ⎝ 2⎠ s
a⋅
2
1/ 2
⎡ 2 ⎛ s⎞2 ⎤
⎢a + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎛ h ⎞ ⎣⎢ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎥
= P ⋅⎜a + ⎟
⎦ (Compression)
⎝ 2⎠ a⋅s
Similarly, force in E´D´
1/ 2
⎡ 2 ⎛ s ⎞2 ⎤
⎢a + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎛ h ⎞ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
E´ D´ = P ⎜a + ⎟ (Tension).
⎝ 2⎠ a ⋅s
⎛ h⎞
P ⎜a + ⎟
P⎛ h⎞ 2⎠ s
= a+ ⎟− ⎝ ⋅ =0
2 ⎝⎜ 2⎠ s 2
⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
FC = ⎜ ⎟ (Tension)
⎝ 4a ⎠
Consider a section X´X´. Take moment about D´
P h
P ⋅a + ⋅ + FC a = 0
2 2
⎡ Ph ⎤
∴ FC´ = –⎢ + P ⎥ (Compression).
⎣ 4a ⎦
Force in EF´
The force in EF´ is found by considering section X1X1 and taking moment about F
MF
EE´ =
x ´ EE
As shown above, moment MF is zero.
∴ EE´ = 0.
Forces in EF and E´F´
The force in EF is found by considering the equilibrium of joint E. The forces in
EF´ and CE are zero.
1/2
⎡ 2 ⎛ s ⎞2 ⎤
⎢a + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎛ h ⎞ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
= P ⎜a + ⎟ (Compression)
⎝ 2⎠ s⋅a
Similarly, E´F´ = E´ D´
240 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
1/2
⎡ 2 ⎛ s ⎞2 ⎤
⎢a + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎛ h ⎞ ⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
= P⎜a + ⎟ (Tension)
⎝ 2⎠ s⋅a
The direct or axial stress in the portion CD of end post AC is equal to the
vertical reaction less the vertical component of the member ED. Similarly, the
axial stress in the portion C´D´ of end post A´C´ is also equal to the vertical reaction
less the vertical component of the force in member E´D´.
The forces in the various members of the portal bracings as shown in Fig. 4.41
(c) and (d) are found in the same manner as that shown in Fig. 4.44. It is to note
all the members of the portal bracings shown in Figs. 4.41 (c) and (d) carry forces.
The analysis of portal bracing as shown in Fig. 4.41 (e) is also done in the same
manner as that shown in Fig. 4.44.
⎛ h ⎞ 1 ( a 2 + s2 )1 / 2 ⎛ h ⎞ 1 ( a 2 + s2 )1 / 2
P ⎜a + ⎟ ⋅ = P ⎜a + ⎟ ⋅
⎝ 2⎠s a ⎝ 2⎠s a ⋅s
Force in CC´
Take moment about D´
P h
P ⋅ a + CC´ ⋅ a − ⋅ = 0
2 2
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 241
1 ⎡ Ph ⎤ P ⋅h
CC´ = ⎢ + Pa ⎥ = +P
a⎣ 4 ⎦ 4a
The diagonal members C´D and CD may also be made as compression members,
then the members CC´ and DD´ are made as tension members.
Analysis of the portal bracing as shown in Fig. 4.41 (f) is done by assuming that
the forces are taken by system of bracing in which diagonal members are in tension.
The maximum moments, shears and the axial stresses in the end posts are same
as discussed for the previous portal bracings.
C' x C
P
θ
D' D
x
h
2
P P
A '1 2 2 A1
P P
V' 2 2 V
h
2
A1 S A
Fig. 4.45
members cut by the section XX. Let n be the number of members cut by the
section XX. Then, vertical components of force in any web member is
⎛V ⎞ P ⎛ h⎞
= ⎜ ⎟= ⎜a + 2 ⎟
n
⎝ ⎠ s ⋅ n ⎝ ⎠
Half of the web members carry tension and the other half of web members carry
compression. In case the direction of wind changes, and acts in the opposite direction,
then the nature of forces in the web members also changes.
In order to determine the forces in the flange members, the section XX is drawn
such that it passes through the points of intersection of the web members. The
moment of forces may be taken about G. The forces in all the web members are
numerically equal. Half of the web members carry tension and half of the web
members carry compression. Therefore, the sum of moments due to the forces in
the web members about any point in the vertical line GH is zero. Let F1 and F2
represent forces in the top flange and in the bottom flange respectively.
x x
C' C F1 G C
P
a S
D' x D C2 H x D
x x
h
2
P P P
2 2 2
A '1 A1 A1
P P P
V' 2 2 V 2 V
h
2
A' S A A
(a ) (b )
Fig. 4.46
1 ⎡P ⎛ h⎞ ⎛ h⎞x⎤
= ⎢ ⎜ a + ⎟ − P ⎜a + ⎟ ⎥
a⎣2 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ s⎦
P⎛ h ⎞⎛1 x ⎞
= a + ⎟⎜ − ⎟
a ⎝⎜ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 s ⎠
when x = 0
P ⎛ h⎞
F2 = ⎜ a+ ⎟
2a ⎝ 2⎠
s
when x =
2
F2 = 0
when x = s
F2 = 0
x = s
P ⎛ h⎞
F2 = –⎜ a+ ⎟.
2a ⎝ 2⎠
Thus, the maximum tension in the bottom flange occurs at D´ and the maximum
compression occurs at D.
Taking moment about point H as shown in Fig. 4.46 (b)
P h
F1. a = ⋅ –V ⋅x
2 2
1 ⎡ Ph P ⎛ h⎞ ⎤
= ⎢ − ⎜a + ⎟x⎥
a⎣ 4 s⎝ 2⎠ ⎦
when x = 0
⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
F1 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4a ⎠
s
when x =
2
P
F1 = –
2
when x = s
1 ⎡P ⋅h ⎤
F1 = – ⎢ + Pa ⎥
a⎣ 4 ⎦
Thus, the maximum tension in the top flange occurs at C, and the maximum
compression occurs at C´.
Example 4.6 Figure 4.47 shows a portal frame in a through type lattice girder
bridge subjected to a lateral load P = 97.5 kN. Determine the forces in the various
members of the portal frame. Also find the portal effect in the end post and in the
244 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
bottom chords of the lattice girders. The inclination of end post with the horizontal
is 50 ° 12'.
Solution
Figure 4.47 shows the portal bracing drawn parallel to the plane of end posts. A
and A´ are assumed as fixed supports. A1 and A1´ are assumed as points of
contraflexures. The horizontal shears in the end posts are assumed as equal.
X' X1 X
S S
= 3.5 m = 3.5 m
P = 9 7.5 kN C ' 2 2
F C
o o
a=3m
E' o E
D' X' X1 X D
h
= 2.4 m
2
7.8 m
P P
2 2 A1
A 1'
P P
2 2
V' V
h
= 2.4 m
2
A' S=7m A
Fig. 4.47
Step 1. Reaction
Horizontal reactions in the end posts at the point of contraflexures
P 1
= × 97.5 = 48.75 kN
2 2
The vertical reaction, V is found by taking moment about A1´
V × 7 = 97.50 × (3 + 2.4)
∴ V = 75.27 kN
Step 2. Portal effect in the end post
Axial force in the end post, AC
= 75.2 kN (Compression)
Axial force in the end post, A´B´
= 75.2 kN (Tension)
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 245
∴ ED = 115.46 kN (Compression)
Similarly, force in E´D´ = 115.46 kN (Tension).
(ii) Forces in CE and C´E´
Consider the section XX. Take moment about E,
⎛ MF ⎞
CE = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ xCE ⎠
Consider equilibrium of right hand portion of the bracing
P
MF = (3 + 2.4) – 75.2 × 3.5 = 48.75
2
× 5.4 – 75.2 × 3.5 = 0
∴ CE = 0
Similarly, C´E´ = 0
a=3m
E G E
4 .33 m 4 .33 m
D' 2 4 3 1 D
h
= 2 .97 m
2
P P
2 2
A '1 A1
P P
2 2 V
h
= 2 .97 m
2
A S = 13 m A
Fig. 4.48
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 247
Solution
Figure 4.48 shows the portal bracing drawn parallel to the plane of end posts. A
and A´ are assumed as fixed supports. A1 and A1´ are assumed as points of
contraflexures. The horizontal shear in the end posts are assumed as equal.
Step 1. Reaction
Horizontal reactions in the end posts at the points of contraflexures
P 130
= = 65 kN.
2 2
The vertical reaction V, is found by taking moment about A1
∴ V × 13 = 130 × (3 + 2.97)
V = 59.7 kN
∴ V = 59.7 kN
Step 2. Portal effect in the end post
Axial force in the end post AC = 59.7 kN (Compression)
Axial force in the end post A´C´ = 59.7 kN (Tension)
Moment at the fixed support
⎛P h⎞
= ⎜ × ⎟ = 65 × 2.97 = 193 kN-m
⎝ 2 2⎠
Moment at the point D
⎛P h⎞
= ⎜ × ⎟ = 65 × 2.97 = 193 kN-m
⎝ 2 2⎠
Moment at the top i.e., at C = 0
Step 3. Forces in the various members
(i) Forces in ED and E´D´
Consider section 1–1 as shown in Fig. 4.48. Resolve the force in ED in its horizontal
and vertical components at point D. Take moment about point C
4.33
sin θ = = 0.822
(4.332 + 32 )1 / 2
P
ED sin θ × 3 = (3 + 2.97)
2
⎛ 65 × 5.97 ⎞
E´ D´ = ⎜ ⎟ = 157.36 kN (Compression)
⎝ 3 × 0.822 ⎠
Similarly, E´ D´ = 157.36 kN (Tension)
248 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
P
(3 + 2.97) − V × 4.33 + CE cos θ × 4.33 = 0 (cos θ = 0.5714)
2
P
= 2.97 + 52.5 sin θ × 3 – FC × 3 = 0
2
FC = 106.8 kN (Tension)
Consider section 2–2. Resolve the force C´E´ in its horizontal and vertical
components. Take moment about D´
59.7
GE = = 104.5 kN (Tension)
0.5714
Similarly, GF´ = 104.5 kN (Compression)
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 249
Problems
4.1 A top boom member of a highway bridge is subjected to a compressive
stress of 2500 kN. Its length from node to node is 4.00 m and the full
length of top boom is 20.00 m and it is not supported transversely by any
sway bracing for its entire length. It is formed of
250 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
(i) two channels ISMC 350 × 100 @ 0.421 kN/m spaced at 275 mm between
backs of channels,
(ii) two web plates 225 mm × 19 mm and between roots attached centrally to
the channel web,
(iii) a top cover plate 500 mm × 22 mm, and
(iv) suitable lacing and batten plates are provided at the bottom of the section.
Give all calculations to show that the section is adequate to resist the
stress imposed on the section. Use any formula you know for estimating
the permissible stress as applied to such structures.
4.2 A through type highway steel bridge 48 m span, is supported on two N-
girders each consisting of 10 bays of 48 m each, the height of the N-girder
being 48 m. The dead load of the bridge including self-weight of the two
N-girders is 90 kN/m and the rolling load on the bridge, to be carried by
the two girders is equivalent to 100 kN/m. Design the top and bottom
chords at the fifth panel of the bridge and the diagonal member in the
third bay from left.
4.3 A Pratt truss girder through bridge is provided for a single metre gauge
track. The effective span of the bridge is 50 m. The cross-girders are 4 m
apart. The stringers are spaced at 1.20 m between centre lines. 0’60 kN
per metre stock rails and 040 kN per metre guard rails are provided. The
sleepers are spaced at 0.50 m from centre to centre and are of size 2 m ×
250 mm × 250 mm. Weight of timber may be assumed as 7.50 kN per
cubic metre. The main girders are provided at spacing of 5 m between
their centre lines. Design the central top chord member, the central bottom
chord members and the vertical and diagonal members of central panel.
Design the joint, where the central top chord, vertical and diagonal
members meet. The bridge is to carry standard main line loading.
4.4 Determine the increase or decrease of forces in the central chord members
of the leeward truss girder in Problem 4.3, in the following cases :
(a) Overturning effect due to wind, when the bridge is unloaded.
(b) Lateral effects of top chord and bottom chord bracings, when the bridge
is unloaded.
(c) Overturning effect due to wind, when the bridge is loaded.
(d) Lateral effects of top chord and bottom chord bracings, when the bridge
is loaded.
4.5 Design the top lateral bracing and bottom lateral bracing for the through
type truss girder railway bridge for a single metre gauge track as in
Problem 4.3.
4.6 An A-type portal bracing of a truss girder is subjected to a horizontal
reaction of 100 kN at the top, from left to right. The total length of portal
bracing is 6.60 m. The knee braces have been connected at 2. 80 m from
the top. Determine the forces in the various members of the portal frame.
DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 251
Also determine the portal effect in the end post and in the bottom chords
of the truss girder. The inclination of the end post with the horizontal is
45°.
4.7 Analyse completely the portal bracing shown in Fig. P.4.7 carrying a
lateral load of P = 100 kN. Also draw the B.M., S.F., and axial force
diagrams for AD and BC.
1 00 kN D 4m 4m C
E
3m
H J
F G
6m
A B
Fig. P.4.7
CHAPTER
5
Design of End Bearings for
Steel Bridges
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The use of plate girder and truss girder steel bridges over the large spans became
possible with the development of steel as a structural material. The rapid
response of steel bridges to changes in temperature was seen and need to
accommodate expansion and contraction was seriously considered. The sliding
bearings (one steel plate sliding over the other) was attached with the one end of
the bridge structure was kept fixed. The structural components of the bridge
structure become light as the quality of the material (steel) was improved. The
appreciable deflections along the span and rotations at the supports of the bridge
structures under the loads were noticed. The rocker bearings were used at the
fixed ends of the bridge structures to allow the rotation and rocker and roller
bearings were used at the free ends to permit horizontal movement and rotation.
Recently, the bearings made of materials like plastic and elastomers evolved by
some special companies have been used under modern steel and concrete bridges.
In addition to provide longitudinal movements and rotations, the elastomeric
bearings have a useful capacity of damping down the vibration of the bridge
structures.
For all spans in excess of 9 m, the provisions are made for change in length due
to temperature and stress variation. The provisions for expansion and contraction
should be such as to permit movement of the free bearings to the extent of 25 mm
for every 30 m of length. For spans greater than 15 m on rigid pier or abutment,
the bearings, which permit angular deflection of the girder ends, are provided,
and at one end, there shall be a roller, rocker or other effective type of expansion
bearing. For wide bridges and skew spans, consideration shall be given to the
lateral expansion and contraction.
superimposed loads and temperature changes. The bearings are provided at both
the ends of a bridge girder. One end of the bridge girder is kept fixed in position
and it is referred as fixed end. While the other end of the bridge girder is kept free
for the horizontal movement and it is referred as free end. The bearings are provided
for the following functions :
1. The bearings are provided to transmit the end reaction to the abutments
and/or piers and to distribute it uniformly, so that the bearing stress does not
exceed the allowable bearing stress of the material.
2. The bearings are provided to allow free movement in the longitudinal
direction (expansion and contraction) due to change in temperature and stresses.
3. The bearings are provided to allow rotation at the ends, when the
bridge girders are loaded and deflections take place.
The accurate function of bearings vary between different bridge girders and
even from point to point within the same bridge girder. An individual bearing may
transmit to a limited extent, some combination of forces and longitudinal movements
and rotations about three references axes. Separate bearings may be used to reduce
the effect of impact due to live loads, to damp off structural vibrations, or to limit
the transmission of sound waves.
The precise functions of bearings are carefully considered in the beginning of
the complete design. The finally selected bearings should closely match in
performance, and the initial assumptions. The real behaviour of a bridge girder
will depend upon its end bearings provided. The bearings influence the performance
of the bridge girder. The span of a bridge girder is determined from the positions of
bearings. The frictional resistance of bearings to horizontal movements and rotations
may set up forces and bending moments in the surrounding structural components.
For accurate analysis of the bridge girder, the characteristics of the bearings
should be assessed in the beginning of the complete design.
The horizontal movements and rotations in a bridge girder may be reversible or
irreversible. The temperature changes and temporary superimposed loads cause
reversible effects. While the permanent loads and settlement of supports cause
irreversible effects.
For the approximate initial assessment, the maximum range of longitudinal
movement, due to all causes of steel bridges may be assumed 0.09 percent (the
proportion of expansion length). It is more difficult to estimate the rotations. However,
the end rotation of beam of uniform section may be assumed as four times the
allowable central deflection divided by the span.
In the design of bearings, provisions shall be made for the transmission of
longitudinal and lateral forces to the bearings and the supporting structures.
Provisions shall be made against any uplift to which the bearing may be subjected.
All bearings are designed to permit inspection and maintenance.
1. Mechanical bearings
2. Elastomeric bearings
3. Combined mechanical and elastomeric bearings.
5.4.4 Loadings
The standard mechanical bearings are suitable to transmit the vertical loads over
30,000 kN and horizontal loads over 3000 kN while the elastormeric bearings are
256 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
capable of resisting vertical loads upto 3000 kN and horizontal forces upto 20 kN
only. The elastomeric bearings are not suitable to resist repeated uplift forces. The
properly designed mechanical bearings may be used for such cases.
5.4.9 Inclination
The mechanical bearings are provided at right angles to the longitudinal axis of
the skew bridges where the skew angle or inclination is small (less than 20 degrees).
The elastomeric bearings may be placed parallel with the supported member. The
sliding bearings are provided at both the supports if the skew angle is more than
20 degrees and the span length along the longitudinal axis is less than 10 m. The
fixed bearings are used when this span exceeds 10 m.
5.4.10 Environment
The aluminium alloy mechanical bearings are used when the bridge structures
are constructed in polluted industrial atmosphere.
DESIGN OF END BEARINGS FOR STEEL BRIDGES 257
5.4.11 Vibrations
The elastomeric bearings are excellent to resist the vibrations, impact and sound
waves. These bearings have industrial atmosphere.
5.4.12 Cost
The initial cost of elastomeric bearings is low and these bearings prove to be cheap.
The initial cost of mechanical bearings is high. However, the selection is seldom
governed by economics.
It would not be possible to achieve all the desirable characteristics simultaneously.
However, efforts are made to select the bearings which suit the particular type of
bridge structure.
B ridg e girde r
S o le plate
(S h oe p la te)
B e d pla te
(W a ll plate)
Fig. 5.1
258 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
bearing. The plate bearing consists of two plates. A sole plate or shoe plate is
attached to the bridge girder. The sole plate rests on bed plate or wall plate. The
wall plate is anchored to the masonry. Two anchor bolts fixed in masonry pass
through the wall plate and the sole plate.The size of wall plate is found by the end
reaction and the allowable bearing pressure on the masonry. The plates are made
rigid to distribute the end reaction as uniformly as possible over the required area
of the masonry.
When the anchor bolts pass through the circular holes in the sole plate, then
the plate bearings act as fixed bearings. One end of the bridge girder is fixed or
anchored to the masonry through the fixed bearings. The fixed bearings are designed
for the end reaction (vertical load) and the longitudinal forces. The magnitude of
end reactions used are large. Therefore, the fixed bearings designed for end reactions
(vertical loads) only are strong enough to take the longitudinal forces.
In order to allow the longitudinal movement, the slotted holes are provided in
the sole. In order to reduce the friction, the surfaces of sole plate and wall plate in
contact are well machined and smoothly finished. The sole plate can slide upon the
B ridg e girde r
Fig. 5.2
wall plate. The plate bearings act as expansion bearings of sliding type. In the
expansion bearing, the longitudinal movement (expansion or contraction) takes
place with change of temperature and loads. As per the recommendations of IRC
section II, the longitudinal force at any free bearing shall be limited to the sum of
dead load and live load reactions at the bearings multiplied by the coefficient of
friction. The coefficients of friction for the different surfaces in contact are given in
DESIGN OF END BEARINGS FOR STEEL BRIDGES 259
Sec. 2.7. The magnitudes of such longitudinal forces are high in long span bridges
and the dead load and live load reactions are also high.
The plate bearings have three disadvantages. The edge of plate nearest to the
end of span has a tendency to lift along with the deflection of bridge girder. Therefore,
the end reaction is not distributed uniformly. Secondly, in order to have longitudinal
movement, the sliding friction is to be overcome. Thirdly, the plane bearings have
a tendency to force the deck beyond the normal travel during the hot summer. In
cold climates, these bearings tend to freeze (i.e., the horizontal movement is
restricted). The abutments are pulled away from the approach fill due to enough
frictional resistance. Therefore, for the large span bridges, the more efficient devices
are necessary.
B ridg e girde r
Fig. 5.3
The end reaction is distributed uniformly by providing a deep cast steel bed
block as shown in Fig. 5.2. Such bed blocks have adequate rigidity. The sole plates
of plate bearings are many times made curved as shown in Fig. 5.3. The curved
sole plate allows rotation. For large spans, the plate bearings are not suitable. The
rocker bearings and roller bearings are used in such cases.
The coefficient of friction for machine contact surface for steel sliding upon steel
or cast iron is 0.25 and that for steel upon copper alloy is 0.15. After some corrosion
has taken place, these values both become nearly 0.33 for steel sliding upon both
cast iron and copper alloy. Under the service condition, the coefficient of friction
for steel sliding upon steel is 0.50.
seatings and knuckle pin bearings. A fixed rocker bearing consists of a cylindrical
rocker rotating on a flat surface is shown in Fig. 5.4. Such types of bearings are
suitable for small loads. The dowels are used to restrain the horizontal sliding.
These dowels pass from one to another. The load carrying capacity of the rocker
depends upon the diameter of the rocker’s surface. The load carrying capacity of
such rollers may be increased by hardening the rocker and plate. In such rocker
bearings, instead of dowels, nibs projecting from the sides of the plates are used.
Fig. 5.4
Figure 5.5 shows a typical rocker bearing. The cast steel shoe and cast steel bed
block are used in these types of bearings. A cylindrical pin is inserted in between
the cast steel shoe and the cast steel bed block. The pin allows rotation at the ends
of bridge girder. The rocker bearing acts as hinged bearing. The end reaction of a
bridge girder is transmitted to the pin by direct bearing through the shoe attached
with the girder. The vertical plates are used to transmit the end reaction. The
B ridg e girde r
Fig. 5.5
DESIGN OF END BEARINGS FOR STEEL BRIDGES 261
number of plates (two or three) depends upon the magnitude of end reaction. The
end reaction is further transmitted to the cast steel bed block and then to the
supporting structure. Two outer vertical plates completely encircle the pin. In
case the bearing is subjected to an uplift, then the uplift is resisted by these plates.
The middle plates provide only bearing with the cylindrical surface of the pin. The
cylindrical pin is subjected to bending, shearing and bearing. The required bearing
area is provided by the product of total thickness of plates and the diameter of pin.
The thickness of all the plates is kept equal. Therefore, the end reaction is
transmitted equally by these plates. The value of bending movement is found by
multiplying force transmitted by outer plate of the shoe to the outer plate of bed
block and centre to centre distance between these plates. The size of base plate is
found as the allowable bearing stress in the masonry and the end reaction.
The rocker bearings are also subjected to lateral and longitudinal forces in
addition to the end reaction (vertical loads). The increase of end reaction due to
lateral and longitudinal forces are also taken into consideration. The lateral forces
and the longitudinal forces are assumed to act at the level of cylindrical pin of the
rocker bearing. The base plate is subjected to movement along both the directions.
The total bearing stress in the masonry should not exceed the allowable bearing
stress.
The rocker bearings are designed for the end reaction and then checked for
lateral forces and longitudinal forces.
Figure 5.5 shows the rocker bearing for the fixed end. In the rocker bearing for
the free end of the bridge girder the underside of shoe is curved, which rotates on
the horizontal bearing plate and allows longitudinal movement. This acts as rocker
type expansion bearing.
B ridg e girde r
S e gm e nta l rolle r
(a )
B ridg e girde r
S e gm e nta l
ro lle rs
(b )
Fig. 5.6
It is assumed that the rollers do not slip but only roll during rolling. When, the
roller rolls to the maximum position, as shown in the Fig. 5.7 (a), then, the vertical
axis of roller turns through an angle θ, and the centre of roller travels through a
forward motion, B.
⎛d⎞
Then, sin θ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝D⎠
⎛ 114.6B ⎞
Therefore, d = D sin ⎜ ⎟ ...(5.1)
⎝ D ⎠
(d + a )
d
d D
b
B
D
D θ
2 θ θ θ
a
(a )
(b )
Fig. 5.7
The distance between adjacent segmental rollers a (i.e., the spacing between
the segmental rollers) should be such that the rollers do not come in contact during
the forward motion as shown in Fig. 5.7 (b).
Then, (a + d) = (d + b) sec θ ...(iii)
a = [b sec θ + d (sec θ – 1)] ...(5.2)
where, b = Least allowable perpendicular distance between the faces of adjacent
rollers, after their revolved positions.
The spacing between adjacent segmental rollers a, is found, knowing b, d and θ.
A roller is required to move between guides. The flanges attached on the sides of
contact plates serve as guide usually. Any possibility of lateral movement or skewing
of a roller is prevented. The pinions are attached to the ends of a roller. The
pinions move in racks connected to the sides of the contact plates. This ensures
the correct rolling movement. The possibility of displacement of a roller by relative
rotation between the two contact plates is also eliminated. The multiple rollers are
carefully arranged. The load is distributed uniformly over all rollers. Any single
roller must not be overloaded. The use of multiple rollers is preferred as compared
to that of single roller.
The considerations of serviceability decide the load carrying capacity of the
roller bearing. It does not depend on the collapse load. The overloading of roller
bearing may cause either indentation of the contact plates or development of flats
on the roller surface, which will increase the resistance to movement. The rolling
motion is likely to be ceased completely. In practice, the contact plates are slightly
hardened to avoid the indentation of the plates.
The roller bearings are also used to support the cast steel shoe with pin bearings
as shown in Fig. 5.8. In such cases the roller also acts as hinged bearing.
Fig. 5.8
The following points are kept in mind while designing a shoe and a pedestal for
the roller bearing.
1. The shoe transmits the end reaction to the pin. The end reaction must be
distributed from the pin to the various rollers uniformly.
2. The size and number of rollers provided should be adequate to have proper
stress and free movement.
3. The rollers should be so arranged that these can be readily cleaned of
accumulated dirt and dust.
4. The detail should be so arranged that the rollers do not become displaced
from their positions.
5. The end reaction should be distributed from rollers or from the shoe
uniformly to the masonry.
The design of knuckle pin in such bearings is based simply upon the allowable
bearing stress of the material used. The full projected area of the knuckle pin (the
B ridg e
g ird er
Top
casting
P in o ver
con tin u ou s
b ea rin g
B o tto m
casting
Fig. 5.9
product of pin diameter and the length of seating) is determined for the vertical
loading. The lateral load is taken by the flanges on the pin in the similar manner
as in the roller bearings.
⎡ ⎤
1 ⎢ 1 ⎥
⋅ K3 ⎢ ⎥ kN/mm ...(i)
100 ⎢ 1 − 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ Ds Ds2 ⎥⎦
1
⎡ ⎤
1 ⎢ 1 ⎥
⋅ K4 ⎢ ⎥ kN/mm ...(ii)
100 ⎢ 1 − 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ Ds Ds2 ⎥⎦
1
1
Braking force = × 255 = 127.5 kN
2
Allowable pressure in cement concrete = 4 N/mm2
Area of bed plate required
750 × 1000
= = 1875 × 100 mm2
4
Provide 550 mm × 400 mm bed plates, and 550 mm × 250 mm rocker plates.
DESIGN OF END BEARINGS FOR STEEL BRIDGES 269
⎛ 750 × 1252 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ 250 × 2 × 1000 ⎟⎟ = 23.4 kN-m
⎝ ⎠
Let t 1 be the thickness of rocker plate then,
1
×550 × t 12 × 185 = 23.4 × 106
6
1/2
⎛ 6 × 23.4 × 106 ⎞
t1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 37.15 mm
⎝ 550 × 185 ⎠
Provide 36 mm thick rocker plate.
Step 4. Design of Anchor Bolts
It is assumed that longitudinal force is taken equally by bearings at both ends.
Longitudinal force for one bearing
1
= × 127.5 = 63.75 kN
2
Provide two anchor bolts in one bearing.
Allowable shear = 100 N/mm2
63.75 × 1000
Area of each bolt = = 318. 75 mm2
2 × 100
Provide 25 mm diameter bolts.
Step 5. Design of Thickness of base plate
⎛ 720 × 1000 ⎞
Bearing pressure = ⎜ ⎟ = 3.41 mm
2
⎝ 550 × 400 ⎠
Projection = 75 mm
Let t 2 be the thickness of bed plate and consider 1 mm wide strip.
Maximum bending moment
⎛ 752 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ 3.41 × ⎟ = 9590.625 N-mm
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
1
∴ × 1 × t22 × 185 = 9590.625
6
1/ 2
⎛ 6 × 9590.625 ⎞
t2 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 185 ⎠
= 17.64 mm
Provide 18 mm thick bed plate.
270 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The sole plate is also kept 18 mm thick. The bearing designed is shown in
Figure 5.10.
7 50 kN
S o le plate
R o cker plate
38 m m
B e d pla te
75 m m 75 m m
4 00 m m
Fig. 5.10
Example 5.2 The effective span of a plate girder through type bridge for a
single broad gauge track is 30 m. The dead load, live load and impact load reaction
is 1200 kN. The vertical reaction due to overturning effect of wind at each end of
the girder is 80 kN. The lateral load due to wind at each bearing is 34 kN. Design
the rocker bearing.
Solution
Design : Step 1
Dead load, live load and impact load reaction = 1200 kN
Vertical reaction due to wind = 80 kN
Longitudinal load from Bridge Rule, for 30 m span, for broad gauge per track.
Tractive effort = 476 kN
Braking force = 457 kN
Longitudinal load per girder
1
= × 476 = 238.0 kN
6
Allowable stress in cement concrete
= 4 N/mm2
Area of bed plate required
1200 × 1000
= = 3000 × 100 mm2
4
Provide 700 mm × 700 mm bed plate as shown in Fig. 5.11. A large bed plate is
provided, since, it will also be subjected to lateral load and longitudinal force.
DESIGN OF END BEARINGS FOR STEEL BRIDGES 271
80 0 m
3 mm 3 mm
7 00 m m 1 00 m m
75 m m
25 m m
2 37 .5 4 00 kN 4 00 kN 4 00 kN
mm
25
mm
2 37 .5
mm
25 28 m m 28 m m
mm
75 m m
Fig. 5.11
⎛ 1200 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 42.66 mm
0.750 × 250 × 150 ⎠
Provide 25 mm thick, 3 rib plates
Total thickness = 75.0 mm
Load shared by each plate
1
= × 1200 = 400 kN
3
Let the gap between two outer plates of top casting and bottom casting be 3 mm.
Distance between centre to centre of two outer plates
= (25 + 3) = 28 mm
272 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 11.2 × 106 ⎞
σb = ⎜ ⎟ = 33.82 N/mm2. Hence safe.
π 3
⎜ × 150 ⎟
⎝ 32 ⎠
Maximum shear stress,
4 ⎛ 400.0 × 1000 ⎞
τv.cal = ×
3 ⎝⎜ π / 4 × 1502 ⎠⎟
= 30.2 N/mm2. Hence safe.
Vertical load due to dead load, live load, impact load and wind load
= (1200 + 80) = 1280 kN
Let the height of pin above base = 300 mm
Lateral load due to wind at each bearing = 34 kN
Moment due to wind at the base
= 34.0 × 0.30 = 10.2 kN-m
Moment due to longitudinal force
= 238 × 0.30 = 71.4 kN-m
Maximum pressure below the base
3.23 × (75)2
= = 9084.38 mm
2
Let t be the thickness of base plate.
1
Then, × 1× t 2 × 185 = 9084.38
6
t = 17.16 mm
DESIGN OF END BEARINGS FOR STEEL BRIDGES 273
1 59 .12 m m
2 10 m m
X X
7 0.8 8 m m 3 .23 N /m m 2
20
mm
7 00 m m
Fig. 5.12
⎡ ⎛ 210 ⎞⎤
⎢ 700 × 20 × 10 + 3 × 210 × 25 × ⎜⎝ 2 + 20⎟⎠ ⎥
y = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 700 × 20 + 3 × 210 × 25 ⎦
= 70.88 mm
The moment of inertia of base block
⎡1 3 2 3 × 2.5 × (21)3 ⎤
⎢
I = 12 × 70 × 2 + 70 × 2 × ( 6.088 ) + ⎥ 4 4
⎢ 12 ⎥ × 10 mm
⎢ +3 × 2.5 × 21 × (5.412 ) ⎥⎦
2
⎣
= 15636.85 ×104 mm4
Bending stress,
⎡138.486 × 106 × (230 − 70.88) ⎤
σb =
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 15636.85 × 104 ⎦
2
= 140.92 N/mm . Hence, safe.
Example 5.3. The dead load, live load and impact load reaction at the end of
a bridge girder as 1300 kN. The vertical reaction of each end of the girder due to
overturning effect of wind is 60 kN. Design the roller bearing. The least allowable
perpendicular distance between the faces of adjacent rollers after their revolved
position may be taken as 6 mm. The centre of roller travels 25 mm.
274 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Solution
Design :
The maximum end reaction at the support due to dead load, live load, impact
load, and vertical reaction at each end of the girder due to overturning
= (1300 + 60)= 1360 kN.
Step 1. Design of Pin
The pin bearing is provided with continuous seating
Minimum size of pin = 100 mm
Assume length of pin = 400 mm
Bearing area provided
400 × 100 = 4 × 104 mm2
Bearing stress on the pin
1360 × 103
= = 34 N/mm2
4 × 104
< 1.33 × 300 N/mm 2 (Allowable bearing
stress)
Step 2. Design of Rollers on flat surface
Provide 100 mm diameter, three rollers. Permissible load for 3 or more rollers
1
= K 4 . Dr kN/mm
100
⎛ 0.50 × 100 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 0.50 kN/mm
100
Total length of rollers required
⎛ 1360 ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = 2720 mm
0.50 ⎠
⎛ 2720 ⎞
Length of each roller = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 906.66 mm
3 ⎠
Provide 100 mm diameter, 3 rollers each 0.950 m long.
Least allowable perpendicular distance between the faces or adjacent rollers
after their revolved position
b = 6 mm
Horizontal travel B = 25 mm
Diameter of rollers D = 100 mm
From Eq. 5.1, the width of segmental rollers
°
⎛ 114.6 × B ⎞
d = D sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ D ⎠
DESIGN OF END BEARINGS FOR STEEL BRIDGES 275
°
⎛ 114.6 × 2.5 ⎞
= 100sin ⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ 10 ⎠
= 100 × 0.48 = 48 mm
Provide 50 mm width for the rollers
From Eq. 5.2, the spacing between adjacent rollers
a = b sec θ + d (sec θ –1)
°
⎛ 114.6B ⎞
θ = ⎜ ⎟ = 28.65°
⎝ D ⎠
∴ a = 6 × sec (28.66)° + 50 (sec 26.65° – 1)
= 13.7 mm
The spacing between adjacent rollers is kept equal to 150 mm.
The bearing designed is shown in Figure 5.13.
Top casting
P in 1 0 0 m m d ia m e te r
4 00 m m lo ng
B o tto m
casting
3 rolle rs
e ach 0.9 50 m 1 00 m m
lo ng
65 m m 65 m m
Fig. 5.13
5.9.1 Compression
A rectangular block of an elastomer subjected to vertical load P is shown in Fig. 5. 14.
The block is under compression. The loaded faces of the block are prevented from
slipping by friction or physical bonding. The vertical stiffness of such a block
depends upon its freedom to bulge at the sides as shown in Fig. 5.14 (a) and it is
dc
t
B L
(a ) E levatio n (b ) S ide vie w
Fig. 5 .14
when the thickness of block, t is small and the vertical stiffness shall also be large.
In case, the thickness of two blocks is the same, and the plan area of one is larger
than the other, the block of larger plan area shall be more stiffer than the other.
For the vertically stiff-block, the compression in bulk cannot be neglected.
The vertical compressive strain is determined by Lindley, P.B. for a rubber
block carrying uniform compressive stress σc is given by
ec = σc ...(5.7)
E (1 + 2 K ⋅ S 2 )
where K is an empirically found constant. For a completely incompressible material,
the value of K may be taken as unity. The value of K decreases with the increase
in the hardness of an elastomer. The term
E (1 + 2K . S2)
in the denominator of Eq. 5.7 may be called as the apparant modulus Ea. Therefore,
σc
ec = Ea ...(5.8)
The total vertical strain, e v in the bulk of an elastomer is equal to sum of the
vertical strain e c and the bulk strain, e k .
ev = e c + ek
⎛σ σ ⎞
or ev = ⎜ c + c ⎟ ...(5.9)
⎝ Ea Ek ⎠
⎡ σc ⎤
⎢ E ⋅E ⎥
or ev = a k ...(5.10)
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ ( Ea + Ek ) ⎦⎥
Ea ⋅ Ek
may be termed as ‘modified modulus’, Em.
( Ea + Ek )
⎛σ ⎞
Therefore, ev = ⎜ c ⎟ ...(5.11)
⎝ Em ⎠
The product of total vertical strain and the thickness of the elastomer block
gives the total compression or vertical deflection.
⎛ σc ⋅ t ⎞
dc = e v . t = ⎜⎝ E ⎟⎠ ...(5.12)
m
⎛ P ⋅t⎞
or dc . A = ⎜ ...(5.13)
⎝ Em ⎟⎠
P ⎛ E ⋅ A⎞
or = ⎜ m
dc ⎝ t ⎟⎠
⎛ Em ⋅ A ⎞
or Kc = ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(5.14)
t ⎠
where Kc is termed as compressive rating of block. It is defined as the vertical load
required to produce unit vertical deflection.
The apparent modulus for a long strip as found by Lindley, P.B., it is given by
4
Ea = E (1+K .S2) ...(5.15)
3
Therefore, the vertical compressive strain in the elastomer strip under the
uniform compressive stress is given by
σc 3σ c
ec = = ...(5.16)
Ea 4 E (1 + K ⋅ S 2 )
It is to note that the compressive strain in an elastomer strip is independent of
length L, for uniform loading. Therefore, it is referred per unit length. The vertical
deflection may be determined as per Eq. 5.12.
⎛ σc ⋅ t ⎞
dc = ⎜ ...(i)
⎝ Em ⎟⎠
Multiplying both the sides of the above equation by width, B,
⎛ B × σc × t ⎞
A × dc = ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ Em
⎛ P ⋅t ⎞
or B . dc = ⎜⎝ L ⋅ E ⎟⎠ (3 P = σc × B × L)
m
⎛ P 1⎞ ⎛ B ⋅ Em ⎞
or ⎜⎝ d × L ⎟⎠ = ⎜
⎝ t ⎟⎠
...(5.17)
0
⎛ B ⋅ Km ⎞ ⎛ B⎞
or Kc = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 2S . Em ⎜3 S = ⎟ ...(5.18)
t⋅ ⎠ ⎝ 2t ⎠
where, Kc is termed as compressive rating per unit length. It is defined as the
uniformly distributed load per unit length to produce unit vertical deflection.
The force-free surface of both circular and very long rectangular blocks bulge in
the form of a parabola due to symmetry. Lindley, P.B. ‘Engineering with natural
rubber’, NR Technical Report, The Natural Rubber Producers Research Association,
DESIGN OF END BEARINGS FOR STEEL BRIDGES 281
London (1986). Lindley, P.B. derived the following expression for the maximum
central bulge, b, from the initial unstrained position, due to a vertical deflection d.
(i) For circular block
⎛ 3 D ⋅ dc ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
b = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ S ⋅ dc ⎟⎠ ...(5.19)
2 t 2
where, D = Diameter of the block
⎛ 3 B ⋅ dc ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
b = ⎜⎝ ⋅ ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ S ⋅ dc ⎟⎠ ...(5.20)
4 t 2
where, B = Width
A short rectangular block also bulges parabolically in plan. Eq. 5.20 may be
used to determine the bulge approximately.
In direct compression, the strength of most of the elastomers is generally 150
N/mm2 or more.
In case, the slip occurs in the loaded forces freely in the lateral direction, the
vertical stiffness of a block decreases.
The compressive rating of block, Kc is approximately obtained as below :
E⋅A
Kc = ...(5.21)
t
For small deflection, the bulge is uniform as shown in Fig. 5.15.
(i) For circular block
0.5
D ⎧⎛ t ⎞ ⎫
b = ⎨⎜ ⎟ − 1⎬ ...(5.22)
2 ⎩⎝ t − dc ⎠ ⎪⎭
(ii) For long rectangular block
B ⋅ dc
b = ...(5.23)
2(t + dc )
dc
t
b B b
Fig. 5.15
⎛τ⎞
es = ⎜ ⎟ ... (5.24)
⎝G ⎠
The tangent of the angle of deformation, tan φ as shown in Fig. 5.16 gives the
shear strain.
es = tan φ
⎛H ⎞
Since, τ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝A⎠
⎛ H ⎞
es = tan φ ⎜ ⎟ ...(5.25)
⎝A G⎠
where,
H = Total horizontal force.
φ t
sap
sp H
Fig. 5.16
The relatively horizontal displacement, ds, between top and bottom faces of the
block is approximately given by
⎛ t⋅H ⎞
ds = t . tan φ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(5.26)
⎝ A ⋅G ⎠
The shear rating of the block, Ks is defined as the shear load necessary to
produce unit relative displacement. It is given by
H ⎛ A ⋅G ⎞
Ks = = ...(5.27)
ds ⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠
or
For a strip, the shear rating is expressed per unit length
⎛ H 1 ⎞ ⎛ A ⋅G ⎞
∴ Ks = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(5.28)
⎝ ds L ⎠ ⎝ t ⋅ L ⎠
⎛ B ⋅G ⎞ ⎛ A ⎞
or Ks = ⎜ ⎟ = 2S . G ⎜3 = B⎟
⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠
where B is the width of the strip. It is to note that the shear stiffness of a block or
a strip remains same in all the horizontal directions.
In case the angle of deformation, φ due to shear is large, then the relative
horizontal displacement is to be obtained as below :
⎡ tan φ ⎤
ds = ⎢ 2
⋅ t⎥ ...(5.29)
⎣ (1 + tan φ) ⎦
DESIGN OF END BEARINGS FOR STEEL BRIDGES 283
⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ πG ⋅ D ⎞
4
Kt = ⎜ θ ⎟ = ⎜⎜ 32t ⎟⎟ ...(5.32)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
where, the diameter of D is such greater than the thickness of the block.
(ii) For a circular disc with a central hole of diameter, d
T πG 4
Kt = =
θ 32t
(
D − d4 )
The angular distortion, θ causes the shear strain in both the cases
⎛ 16T ⎞ ⎛ D⋅θ⎞
eφ = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ 2t ⎟ ...(5.33)
⎝ πGD3 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
reinforced bearings are preferred. The plan dimensions of the overall bearing may be
selected from the preferred numbers recommended in IS : 1076–1967.
⎛P ⎞
A´ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(5.34)
⎝ σc ⎠
The average vertical compressive stress is limited to the allowable limits (σc<
2 SG). When a horizontal movement, ds occurs in the bearing, the vertical load
acts on the reduced effective area. In case this horizontal movement, ds takes place
in the direction of length L of a rectangular block as shown in Fig. 5.17, the
effective area shall be reduced to (L – ds). Due to this fact, the shape factor of the
bearing is not changed.
ds ds
( L –d s )
L
Fig. 5.17
Total compression i.e., the vertical deflection as found from Eq. 5.12 permitting
for the effects of compression in bulk shall not be greater than 15 percent of the
total thickness, t of the elastomer in the bearing. By this restriction, the linear
elastic design theory is not violated.
DESIGN OF END BEARINGS FOR STEEL BRIDGES 285
(ii) In order to avoid the tension at the rear edge of the elastomer, Fig. 5.18,
the rotation about the horizontal axis is limited. The life of the elastomer is likely
to be reduced due to direct tensile strain.
⎛ 2d 2P 0.2 t ⎞
α < ⎜ c = = ⎟ ...(5.35)
⎝ L LK c L ⎠
(iii) The thickness of elastomer is limited to ensure the stability against
overturning.
1
t < ×L ...(5.36)
5
L C e ntre o f
P p ressure
6
α dc
α
L L
2 2
Fig. 5.18
where L is the plan dimension of the pad parallel to the bridge girder being
supported.
(iv) The horizontal movement due to shear, ds is limited to 0.7 times the
thickness
ds < 0.7 × t ...(5.37)
where, ds is determined from Eq. 5.26.
(v) For stability against sliding,
H < μP ...(5.38)
where, H is the horizontal force and μ is the coefficient of friction.
Reinforced pad bearings are designed as follows :
(i) The area of elastomeric bearing is determined for the total vertical load, P
⎛ P ⎞ ⎛P ⎞
A´ = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ ...(5.39)
⎝ Permissible stress ⎠ ⎝ σc ⎠
(ii) The total shear stress, τt in the thickest layer of a reinforced bearings
shall not exceed 5 G. The total shear is calculated as under :
τt = τH + τP + τα ...(5.40)
where, τH = Shear stress due to horizontal load
⎛H ⎞
τH = ⎜ ⎟
⎝A⎠
286 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ σc ⋅ t ⎞
or dc = ⎜ ⎟ ...(5.41)
⎝ 10GS + 2σ c ⎠
⎛ σc ⋅ ti ⎞
or dc = ⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟
⎝ 4GSi + 3σc ⎠
where, A´ = Reduced effective area
Si = Shape factor of individual layer
⎡ L⋅B ⎤
Si = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ( L + B ) ⋅ tt ⎥⎦
(iv) The rotation required for the reinforced pad bearing
⎛ 6∑dci ⎞
α < ⎜ ⎟ ...(5.42)
⎝ L ⎠
(v) For the stability against sliding, the condition as given by Eq. 5.38 should
be satisfied.
(vi) The horizontal movement due to shear is limited as per condition given by
Eq. 5.37.
(vii) The thickness of a steel plate, ts interleaved between two elastomeric layers
of thickness t 1 and t 2 is determined as below :
2 (t1 + t2 ) ⎛ P ⎞
ts = ⋅⎜ ⎟ ...(5.43)
σs ⎝ A´ ⎠
where, σs = Permissible tensile stress for the steel plate (0.60fy N/mm2.fy is
yield stress of the steel)
DESIGN OF END BEARINGS FOR STEEL BRIDGES 287
A n ch o rag e A n ch o rag e
Top p la te L ug Teflon
P.S .C .
Pot Pot
S e al S e al
(N e op ren e ) P a d (a ) U n ila te ral p ot be aring
A n ch o rag e A n ch o rag e
Top p la te Teflon
P iston
(S e al) (S e al)
N e op ren e P ad B o tto m plate N e op ren e P ad
(b ) M ultilatera l p o t b ea rin g
A n ch o rag e A n ch o rag e
Top p la te
Pot N e op ren e pa d Pot
S e al B o tto m plate S e al
(N e op ren e ) (N e op ren e )
(c) Fixed po t be aring
Fig. 5.19
288 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Steel chimneys are also known as steel stacks. The steel chimneys are made of
steel plates and supported on foundation. The steel chimneys are used to escape
and disperse the flue gases to such a height that the gases do not contaminate
surrounding atmosphere. The cross-sectional area of steel chimney is kept large
enough to allow the passage of burnt gases. The cross-sectional area of steel chimney
depends on the type and quantity of fuel to be used in a plant, available draft for
carrying the burnt gases. The cross-sectional area of steel chimney depends on the
type and quantity of fuel to be used in a plant, available draft for carrying the
burnt gases up the chimney and losses due to friction within the chimney. The
height of steel chimney is kept to provide the required draft. The draft is defined
as the difference between absolute gas pressure at any point in the duct or steel
chimney and the ambient atmospheric pressure. The draft depends on the height
of steel chimney above sea-level, the type of fuel to be burnt, the type of furnace
and the temperature of burnt gases. When the gases in a steel chimney are heated,
then the gases expand. The hot gases occupy larger volume than before. The weight
of gases per cubic metre becomes less. As a result of this, the unit pressure at the
bottom of chimney due to weight of hot gases also becomes less than the unit
pressure due to weight of cold air outside of chimney. The difference between two
pressures results in the flow of the burnt gases up the chimney. For the purpose of
the structural design of the steel chimney, the height and diameter of chimney at
the top are known data.
The steel chimney is made cylindrical in shape. The lower portion of steel
chimney is widened or flared, in order to provide a large base and greater stability.
The widened section of the chimney at the base reduces the unit stresses in the
steel at the base of the chimney. The loads acting on the steel chimney are
transferred to the foundation easily by the widened section. The base of the chimney
may be made bell-mouthed or conical. The fabrication of bell-mouthed base is
292 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
costly. The bell-mouthed base does not have any advantage over the conical base.
Therefore, the conical base is provided generally. The recommended height of flared
portion of the chimney is equal to one-third the height of the chimney. The bottom
diameter of the flared portion shall not be less than one and a quarter times the
diameter of stack, (i.e., d1 = 5/4.d).
The steel chimneys are designed and constructed conforming to code of practice
for design and construction of steel chimneys, IS : 6533–1971.
d
h C ylind rical
p ortion
X X
H = H eigh t o f
chim ne y
B re ech
o pe ning
Flare d
p ortion
C le a n o ut
d oo r
d1
The steel plates are sheared or planed to proper bevel for caulking. The steel
plates of chimneys are caulked from the inner side of chimney. The caulking is
done with a round-nosed caulking tool.
The steel plates (or all steel work) are painted in order to avoid corrosion. One
coat of approved paint is applied before leaving the shop. Two coats of approved
paint are applied both inside and outside after the chimney is erected. The paint
applied should be heat-resistant. A graphite or carbon paint or other tried heat-
resistant paint may be applied. The painting should never be done in wet or freezing
weather. The thickness shall not be less than 6 mm. The corrosion resistant steel
plates may be used in the chimney. The steel having an admixture of 0.25 to 0.30
percent of copper is more resistant to corrosion than steel not containing copper.
Copper bearing steel plates may be used for self-supporting steel chimneys.
The thickness of steel chimney obtained from stress calculations and deflection
consideration shall be increased by permitting an allowance for corrosion determined
from the considerations of the design life of the chimney and aggressiveness of the
flue gases. The allowance for corrosion permitted is decided depending upon the
expected amount of internal corrosion of steel plates. For 10 years of design life,
the corrosion allowance for non-copper bearing quality of steel for slight, normal
and exceptional internal corrosion is 2 mm, 3 mm and 5 mm, respectively.
In case the design life for the steel chimney is 20 years, then this allowance for
said quality of steel and amount of internal corrosion is 4 mm, 5 mm and 8 mm,
respectively. Ths copper bearing quality of steel is used when it is essential. The
quality of steel needs less corrosion allowance as compared to that of non-copper
bearing quality of steel.
However, the minimum thickness of shell of a chimney shall not be less than 6 mm.
The spacing of rivets along the caulked edges of plates shall not be greater than
10 times the thickness of plates. The spacing of rivets shall not be less than 2.5
times the diameter of rivet.
The steel plates more than 16 mm thick and not more than 22 mm thick are
sub-punched with a punch 5 mm smaller than the nominal diameter of rivet, and
reamed to a diameter of 1.5 mm larger than the rivet. The plates thicker than
22 mm are drilled.
type of concrete is made from fire bricks or insulating refractory bricks of appropriate
gradings. This lining is used to line the chimneys less than 1 m in diameter with
brick.
The moler bricks or refractory and insulating concrete lining do not need
expansion joints as these linings have low thermal expansion.
6.5.8 Guniting
The guniting is done by commencing from the bottom and progressing upwards. It
is done in narrow strips. The height of each band depends on the diameter of the
chimney, the thickness of the insulation and materials used, so that the initial
setting starts after the strips are completed. All incomplete lining is removed at
the end of the day’s work. It is removed by trowel and left square to the chimney
and at the level where the full thickness of the insulation exists. Studs of 3.15 mm
diameter and length equal to half the thickness of guniting are spot welded to the
inside surface of the steel chimney at 500 mm distances. These studs are staggered
both ways, on to which welded wire fabric of mesh 150 mm square is welded. The
mesh acts as reinforcement for guniting.
10 m m
M in era l
12 m m w o ol or
a sb esto s
ro pe
M in era l
w o ol or
a sb esto s
ro pe
C h im ne y
L in ing she ll
Fig. 6.2
298 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
plane. This is done only when the number of flue openings is three only. The width
of opening does not exceed one-third of the diameter of the chimney at that plane.
D D
A1
A1 A1
(a ) O n e b re ech op en in g (c) Tw o b ree ch o pe ning s
a t righ t a ngle s
A1 f = T hickn ess
of she ll plate
D D
A1 A1
A1 A1
Fig. 6.3
6.7 LADDER
A permanent ladder as shown in Fig. 6.4 is provided outside of all large chimneys
for easy maintenance. The ladder may be provided from the base or 3 m above
2 50
3 35 m m 3 50 m m
mm Flat
50 m m x 6 m m
20 m m φ
C h im ne y L ad de r
she ll ru ng 3 0°
4 00 m m
3 0°
Flat
50 m m x 8 m m
the base to the top of the chimney. The ladder is built of 60 mm × 20 mm bars with
18 mm round rings, 300 mm apart. In case the height of steel chimney is more
than 20 m, then, safety enclosure or cage is provided. The safety rings are made of
50 mm × 10 mm bars braced on the outside with one 50 mm × 8 mm vertical bar.
The inside clearance of these rings should not be less than 600 mm in width and
depth. The spacing between these rings shall not be more than 3 m.
B o lt
20 m m φ
B o lt 75 75
Tro lley 20 m m φ
tra ck 2 45 m m 1 45 m m
IS A 7 5 x 7 5 x 10
B ra cke t B ra cke t
sup po rting Tro lley S u pp ortin g IS A 1 00 x 1 00 x 10
w h ee l
Tro lley
tra ck IS A 1 00 m m th ick
1 00 x 10 0 x1 0 p la te gu id e
fo r trolley
B o lt 1 50 m m w h ee l
C h im ne y 40 40
20 m m φ
she ll
DESIGN OF STEEL AND OTHER STRUCTURES
1 0 m m th ick
75 m m p la te be nt
1 0 m m p la te 80 m m to sha pe
b en t to sha p e
Fig. 6.5
301
302 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The interior surface of lined chimney requires priming coal only. The exterior
surfaces of the chimney is painted as described for unlined chimneys depending
upon the service temperature.
⎛ Ws ⎞ ⎛ 79π ⋅ d ⋅ t ⋅ h ⎞
fs1 = ⎜ πdt ⎟ = ⎜ π ⋅ d ⋅ t ⎟ kN/m
2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
= 0.079 h N/mm2 ...(6.2)
DESIGN OF STEEL AND OTHER STRUCTURES 303
⎛h⎞
= 0.002 ⎜ ⎟ N/mm2 ...(6.4)
⎝t⎠
The following load combinations for calculations of stress at any point of steel
chimney are considered:
(i) Dead load + Wind load + Temperature effect.
(ii) Dead load + Earthquake (seismic) load + Temperature effect.
The worst combination out of the effect due to seismic (earthquake) forces and
wind effect is only taken into consideration. Only one effect is considered for the
design of the structure out of these two forces.
H2
R o of -le ve l
Ms Ms
(H 1 – x) ( H 1 – x)
Mx Mx
H1
Ms
x x
M s+ M s ( H 1 – x )
H /2
C a se (a ) C a se (b )
wind. The bending moment for the part of chimney above the roof is calculated in
accordance with the expression (ii) above, the bending moment of chimney below
the roof (protected from the wind) shall be determined as under:
When the chimney is not fixed at the roof
DESIGN OF STEEL AND OTHER STRUCTURES 305
⎛ x1 ⎞
Mx = ⎜ H × Ms ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 1 ⎠
⎛ H2 ⎞
Ms = ⎜ P × 2 ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ ⎠
When the chimney is fixed at the roof
⎛ H ⎞
Mx = Ms . ⎜1 + 1 ⎟ ...(v)
H1
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
The maximum bending moment occurs at the base of the chimney
⎛ H ⎞
Mmax = Ms . ⎜1 + 1 ⎟ ...(vi)
H1
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
This bending moment acts as over turning moment on the steel chimney. The
overturning moment Mw, due to the wind pressure causes compressive stress on
the leeward side of the steel chimney and the tensile stress on the windward side
of the steel chimney. The maximum compressive stress and tensile stress on the
extreme fibre of steel chimney due to wind are equal.
⎛M d⎞
fw = ⎜ w × ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ I 2⎠
where, I = Moment of inertia of circular ring section of the steel chimney
⎛ Mw ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎛ Mw ⎞
or fw = ⎜ I ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎜ (d / 2 ) ⎟ ⎝ Z ⎠
⎝ ⎠
where, Z = modulus of section of chimney ring section with no breech opening
t = thickness of steel plate (viz., without corrosion allowance)
I ⎛ π ⋅ d3 ⋅ t ⎞
Z = =⎜ ⎟
d ⎜ d ⎟
⎜ 8 × ⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
306 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛π ⎞ ⎛ 3.14 ⎞
= ⎜ ⋅ d2 ⋅ t ⎟ = ⎜ × d2 × t ⎟
⎝4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
= 0.785 (d2 × t)
⎛ Mw d ⎞
⋅ ⎛ 4Mw ⎞
∴ fw = ⎜ πd3t 2 ⎟ = ⎜ kN/m2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎝ π ⋅ d2 ⋅ t ⎟⎠
⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ Mw ⎞
or fw = ⎜ ⎟ N/mm
2 ...(6.6)
⎝ 250 d2 ⋅ t ⎠
IS : 6533–1971 ‘Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Steel Chimney’
recommends the value of section modulus of steel chimney ring with no breech
opening as below
Z = 0.77d2. t ...(iii)
The modulus of section of chimney-cross-section with breech openings as shown
in Figs. 6.3 (a), (b), (c) and (d) are given by the following expressions, respectively
⎛ A ⎞
Z1 = 0.77 d2 . t ⎜1 − 0.65 1 ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ d ⎠
⎛ A ⎞
Z2 = 0.77 d2 . t ⎜1 − 0.30 1 ⎟ ...(v)
⎝ d ⎠
⎛ A1 ⎞
Z3 = 0.77 d2 . t ⎜1 − 0.70 ⎟ ...(vi)
⎝ d ⎠
⎛ A A3 ⎞
Z4 = 0.77 d2 . t ⎜1 − 1.30 1 − 0.216 13 ⎟ ...(vi)
⎝ d d ⎠
It is to note that these expressions are applicable for thickness of the plate less
than 0.015 d.
In order to prevent the flattening of the steel plates on the tension or windward
side, and buckling of the steel plates on compression or leeward side, the permissible
stress in compression on gross-sectional area is adopted less than the permissible
stress in tension on the net sectional area. The permissible stresses in steel chimney
in axial tension, shear and bearing shall be adopted as specified in IS : 800–1984.
The allowable stresses in axial compression and in bending for circular chimneys
depend upon the effective height of the steel chimney h1, the-radius of gyration,
k(0.707 × radius) the diameter and the thickness t of the chimney to be considered
for different types of steel chimneys is given in Fig. 6.7.
C C
b b
B B
a a
A A
S e lf G uye d G uye d
sup po rting w ith fixed b ase w ith pin n ed ba se
S tress BC AB BC AB
a xial
h 1 = 2L h1 = 2 b h 1 = 0 .85 a h1 = 2 b h1 = a
b en ding
h1 = L h1 = b h 1 = 0 .8 5a h1 = b h1 = a
h = E ffe ctive h e ig ht of ch im n ey
Fig. 6.7
The allowable stress in axial compression and in bending for circular steel
chimney have been given in Tables 6.2 and 6.3 as per IS : 6533–1971 (‘Code of
Practice for Design and Construction of Steel Chimneys’).
The combined stress shall comply with the requirements of IS : 800–1984.
The member or part of the steel chimney reasonably exposed to adverse
temperature shall be considered. The allowable stresses are obtained by multiplying
the basic stresses specified in Tables 6.2 and 6.3 by the appropriate temperature
coefficient, kt. The value of kt may be noted from Table 6.4 as specified in IS: 6533–
1971.
Table 6.2 Allowable sress in axial compression for circular steel chimneys
308
Allowable stress in N/mm2
d/t ratio
h1/k 100 and 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
ratio less
0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 124.0 107.0 92.8 85.8 78.3 71.8
10 125.0
20 125.0 *
30 125.0 125.0
40 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0
50 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0
60 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 124.0
70 116.0 116.0 107.0
80 103.5 103.5 92.8
90 90.6 ** 90.6 85.8
100 78.6 78.6 78.3 71.8
110 68.0 68.0 68.0
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Note. The temperature of steel chimney wall shall not exceed 400°C.
In case, the increase in stresses is solely due to wind forces, the allowable stresses
may be exceeded by 25 percent. However, the thickness of steel plates shall not be
less than that needed if the wind forces were neglected.
Similarly, when the effect of seismic load is considered, the allowable stresses
may be exceeded by 25 percent. The thickness of steel plate shall not be less than
that required if the seismic forces were not taken into account.
The permissible stresses in rivets are adopted as per IS : 833–1994.
⎛ 4Mw ⎞
< ⎜ − 0.079h⎟ N/mm2
⎝ 250π ⋅ d 2 ⋅ t ⎠
< η1 × ft ...(6.7)
where, σt = Permissible stress in tension in steel plates
η1 = Efficiency of the joint on the tension side.
Thus the thickness of steel plate from tension side,
⎛ 4 Mw ⎞
− Ws
⎜ d ⎟
t1 = ⎜ ⎟ ...(6.8)
⎝ π ⋅ d ⋅ ( η1 ⋅ σt ) ⎠
The leeward side of steel chimney is subjected to maximum compressive stress
due to the combined effect of wind, weight of steel chimney and weight of lining.
The maximum total compressive stress on leeward side.
⎡ 4 M w Ws WL ⎤
σ c2 = ⎢ + + ⎥ kN/m
2
⎣ πd2t πdt πdt ⎦
⎡ 4Mw ⎤
= ⎢ d + Ws + WL ⎥ kN/mm2
⎢ ⎥
⎣ πdt ⎦
312 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎡ Mw h⎤
⎢ 2
=+ 0.079h + 0.002 ⎥ kN/m2
⎣ 250πd t t⎦
< η2 . σ2 ...(6.9)
where, σc = Permissible stress in compression in steel plates
η2 = Efficiency of the joint on the compression side
= 1 (∴ η2 = 100 percent)
Thus, the thickness of steel plates from compression side
⎡ 4Mw ⎤
⎢ d + Ws + WL ⎥
t2 = ...(6.10)
⎢ ⎥
⎣ π ⋅ d ⋅ σ c ⎦
The thickness of steel plates at the various horizontal sections are found. The
thickness of steel plates at the junction of cylindrical and flared portions, and the
base of flared portion are also found. The thickness of steel plates of flared portion
should not be less than the thickness of steel plates in the cylindrical portion. The
thickness of steel plates of chimney is kept in excess than what is necessary (in
order to protect them from corrosion) by allowance for corrosion, which depends
upon design life of the steel chimney.
L ug
C /L of x A n ch o r
a ncho r b olt
b olts
B a se
p la te
l x
b = W idth of ba se b = W idth of ba se
p la te p la te
(a ) (b )
Fig. 6.8
DESIGN OF STEEL AND OTHER STRUCTURES 313
compared to the cast iron base plates. The structural steel base plates are even
better than cast steel base plates for high steel chimneys. The width of base plate
should be sufficient to transmit the compressive stresses to the foundation. The
allowable bearing pressure on a good cement concrete foundation is 4 N/mm2.
Thickness of base plate should be such that the bending stress and shearing stress
in the base plate do not exceed the allowable bending and shearing stresses. There
are two methods of connecting the flared portion of the steel chimney with the base
plates. These methods are as shown in Fig. 6.8.
The maximum compressive stress at the base plate on the leeward side of the
chimney
σbc = ⎡ 4 M w Ws + WL ⎤
⎥ kN/m
2 ...(6.11)
⎢ 2 + 2
π
⎣ 1 d t π d1 t ⎦
where, d1 = Diameter of the steel chimney at the base of the flared portion.
The maximum compressive stress per unit circumferential length at the base
plate on the leeward side of the chimney.
F1 = σbc × (t × 1) kN/m ...(6.12)
⎛ 4 M w Ws + WL ⎞
∴ F1 = ⎜ + × (t × 1) kN/m
⎝ πd12t πd1t ⎟⎠
⎛ 4 M w Ws + WL ⎞
or F1 = ⎜ + kN-m
⎝ πd12t πd1 ⎟⎠
The width of the base plate
⎛ F1 ⎞
b = ⎜ ...(6.13)
⎝ σbcr ⎟⎠
where, σbcr = Permissible bearing stress on the foundations.
In case the anchor bolts are provided on inside and outside of the steel chimney,
then the base plate may be kept symmetrical with chimney, as shown in Fig. 6.8
(a). The unsupported length of base plate l, measured from the extreme edge upto
the critical section XX, as shown in Fig. 6.8 (a) are equal. In case the anchor bolts
are provided on the outside only, then the unsupported length l, would be kept
more than the inner unsupported length l, would be kept more than the inner
unsupported length. The critical section is marked upto the root of angle section.
The thickness of base plate is found as under:
The maximum bending moment at the critical section XX
1
M =
2
(
⋅ σbcr ⋅ l2 ) ...(i)
The moment of resistance of unit length of base plate at the critical section
1
MR =
6
(
⋅ 1 ⋅ a2 ⋅ σbs ) ...(ii)
314 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
where, a = thickness of the base plate at the critical section. It is to note that
this includes the thickness of the angle section used for the
connection
σbs = Permissible bending stress in the base plate (0’75fy, where, fy is
the yield stress for steel).
Equating (i) and (ii)
M = MR
⎛1 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
∴ ⎜⎝ ⋅ 1 ⋅ a ⎟⎠ ⋅ σbs = ⎜ σbs ⋅ l ⎟
6 ⎝ 2 ⎠
1/2
⎛ 3σ ⎞
a = l . ⎜ bs ⎟ ...(6.14)
⎝ σbs ⎠
The thickness of base plate may be found by deducting the thickness of the
angle section from the total thickness obtained as per Eq. 6.14. The critical section
may be checked for shear stress. It is to note that the total thickness of base plate
a, has been found by using permissible bearing stress on the foundation instead of
actual bearing stress. This provides comparatively more thickness. In case the
unforeseen wind pressure increases such that the bearing pressure on the foundation
may reach the permissible bearing stress, even then, the base plate would be safe.
A n ch o r
b olt
D irectio n of
w in d d2
9 = S pa cing o f
a ncho r
b olts
Fig. 6.9
lining is omitted as discussed in Sec. 6.14. It is assumed that all the anchor bolts
are drawn up tight. Further it is assumed that the line of rotation is perpendicular
DESIGN OF STEEL AND OTHER STRUCTURES 315
to the direction of wind and passes through the centre of the horizontal base section
of the steel chimney as shown in Fig. 6.9. The initial tension in the anchor bolt, if
any, is neglected.
The maximum tensile stress at the base plate on the windward side of the
chimney
⎛ 4Mw Ws ⎞
σt = ⎜ − kN/m2 ...(6.15)
⎝ π ⋅ d1 ⋅ t π ⋅ d1 ⋅ t ⎟⎠
2
The maximum tensile stress per unit circumferential length at the base plate
on the windward side of the chimney
F2 = σ1 × (t × 1) kN/m ...(6.16)
The maximum uplift force in one anchor bolt
= F2 . g = σt × (t × 1) × g kN
⎡ 4Mw Ws ⎤
= ⎢ 2
− ⎥ × g kN ...(6.17)
⎣ π ⋅ d1 π ⋅ d1 ⎦
where, g = spacing of the anchor bolts in metres.
The number of anchor bolts may be found by dividing the circumference of
anchor bolt ring by the spacing of anchor bolts. The permissible stress in axial
tension at the root of threads of anchor bolt is adopted from IS: 833–1994.
foundation with the vertical is greater than 45 degrees then, the reinforced cement
concrete foundation is used.
The size and weight of foundation should be such that the underside of foundation
is under compression only. In that case, the bottom of foundation block remains in
contact with the soil. In case, the design of foundation is such that the compressive
stress at one edge of the foundation is zero, and it increases to maximum compressive
stress at the other edge, under the extreme conditions of loading, then, such design
of foundation is most economical. In such design of foundation, the unit stress due
to the overturning moment of the wind is just equal to the unit stress due to the
weight of the foundation and steel chimney. It is to note that the weight of lining
is omitted as discussed in Sec. 6.14. However the maximum compressive stress on
the leeward side due to wind, weight of foundation, steel chimney and lining should
not exceed the allowable unit pressure on soil.
In case the plain cement concrete foundation is provided, then, it is assumed
that the depth of foundation h1, is kept equal to 0.4 times the width of foundation.
For round foundation, the resultant thrust due to wind pressure, weight of steel
chimney, weight of lining and weight of foundation should not lie outside the
middle quarter of the foundation. The foundation block is not subjected to tension
in such condition. The maximum eccentricity is then limited to one-eighth the
width of foundation. The maximum eccentricity
⎛ Mw ⎞ b
e = ⎜ =
⎝ Ws + WL + WF ⎟⎠ 8
⎛ 8 Mw ⎞
∴ b = ⎜ ...(6.18)
⎝ Ws + WL + WF ⎟⎠
where, b = Width of the round foundation
WF = Weight of the foundation block
As compared to the weight of foundation, the weight of steel chimney Ws, and
the weight of lining W L, are small. For preliminary design the weight of steel
chimney and the weight lining are neglected. The weight of foundation
⎛π ⎞
WF = ⎜ b2 × 0.4b × 24⎟ kN
⎝4 ⎠
Then, the resisting moment due to weight of foundation is equal to the overturning
moment due to wind. Therefore,
1
WF . b = Mw
8
⎛π 2 ⎞ 1
or ⎜⎝ b × 0.4b × 24⎟⎠ × b = Mw
4 8
3
or π × b4 = Mw
10
∴ b = 1.015 (Mw)1/4 ...(6.19)
The width of foundation is then, revised by considering the weight of steel chimney
and weight of lining.
DESIGN OF STEEL AND OTHER STRUCTURES 317
⎛ Ws + WL + WF ⎞ ⎛ Mw ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ is greater than ⎜⎝ ⎟.
A Z ⎠
The successive trials are made for R to utilize fully. The soil pressure should
not exceed the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.
(a ) Fo u nd ation p la n
( W S + W L + W F)
e fm ax
k5
b
(b ) Fo u nd ation th ickne ss (c) S o il p ressure d ia gra m
The full utilisation of the bearing of soil may lead to situations where only the
part of foundation is in compression, Fig. 6.10. In such a situation, the footing is
designed as a circle, though it is constructed as octagonal.
⎛ W + WL + WF ⎞
Let f = ⎜ s ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ A ⎠
The maximum soil pressure is obtained from the following procedure :
The eccentricity
⎛ Mw ⎞
e = ⎜ ⎟
W
⎝ s + WL + WF ⎠
e f
and thereby values are determined. The values of zero stress and ratio max
b f
are found from Fig. 6.11 as per (IS : 6533–1971) and thus, the value of fmax is
318 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
e
calculated. It is recommended in code IS : 6533-–1971 that the value should not
b
k5
exceed 0.255 and be not less than 0.6.
b
1 .0
0 .9
0 .8
0 .7
0 .6
Va lu es o f k 5 / D
Valu e s o f f m ax / F
0 .5
0 .4
0 .3
0 .2
0 .1
Fig. 6 .11
Solution
Design : The steel chimney is shown in Fig. 6.12(a). The height of steel chimney
is 80 m and its diameter at the top is 3 m.
3m
10 m
X1 X1
5 m
X2 X2
5 m
X3 X3
5 m
X4 X4
5 m
X5 X5
5 m
X6 X6
80 m
10 m
X7 X7
10 m
X8 X8
5 m
X9 X9
10 m
X10 X 10
10 m
X 11 X 11
4 .5 m
P1 1 .83
10 m 10 m
7 .5 m
X1 X1 70 m
1 .77
5m P2
X2 5m X2 10 m
5m 1 .77
P3
X3 5m X3 60 m
1 .72
5m P4
X4 5m X4 10 m
P5 1 .72
5m
X5 5m X5 50 m
1 .67
5m P6 5m
X6 5m X6 45 m
P7 1 .63
5m
10 m 5m 40 m
P8 1 .58 5m
X7 5m X7 35 m
P9 1 .56 5m
10 m 5m 30 m
1 .50
P10
X8 5m X8
1 .50
5m P 11
X9 X9
7 .5 m
1 .50
10 m P12 30 m
X10 10 m X10
1 .50
10 m
5m
X 11 X 11 0m
Fig. 6.12 (b)
DESIGN OF STEEL AND OTHER STRUCTURES 321
3000
Radius of gyration, k = 0.7 × = 1050 mm
2
Effective height for axial stress
h1 = 2 × 15 × 1000 = 30000 mm
h1 ⎛ 30000 ⎞
Ratio = ⎜ ⎟ = 28.57
k ⎝ 1050 ⎠
For bending stress,
1
h1
2 1
= × 28.57 = 14.28
k 2
Allowable stress in axial compression
= 71.8 N/mm2
Allowable stress in bending
= 78.7 N/mm2
324 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
These stresses are increased by 25 percent for wind. The maximum tensile
stress on windward from Eq. 6.7
⎛ Mw ⎞
⎜ 2
− 0.079 ⎟ < n1. ft
⎝ 250 πd t ⎠
⎛ 430.76 ⎞
0.7 ×1.25 × 71.8 = ⎜ 2
− 0.079 × 15 ⎟
⎝ 250 × π × 3 × t ⎠
t = 0.00095 m = 0.95 mm
The maximum compressive stress on the leeward side of the steel chimney
from Eq. 6.9
⎛ Mw h⎞
⎜ 2
+ 0.079h + 0.002 ⎟ < n2 × fc
⎝ 250πd t t⎠
⎛ 430.76 15 ⎞
(1.00 × 1.25 × 71.8) = ⎜ 2
+ 0.079 × 15 + 0.002 ⎟
⎝ 250 × π × 3 × t t ⎠
∴ t = 0.00103 m = 1.03 mm.
Therefore, total thickness with corrosion allowance is (1.03 + 4) mm = 5.03.
Adopt 6 mm.
(ii) At section X5X5 (Height from top is 30 m)
Diameter of chimney = 3 m
Assuming the thickness of steel plate as 5 mm without corrosion.
D ⎛ 3 ×1000 ⎞
ratio = ⎜ ⎟ = 600
t ⎝ 5 ⎠
Effective height for axial stress
h1 = 2 × 30 × 1000 = 60,000 mm
Radius of gyration,
3000
k = 0.7 × = 1050 mm
2
h1 60000
Ratio = = 57.14
k 1050
For bending stress,
1
h1
2 1
= × 57.14 = 28.57
k 2
Allowable stress in axial compression
= 71.8 N/mm2
Allowable stress in bending
= 78.7 N/mm2
DESIGN OF STEEL AND OTHER STRUCTURES 325
These stresses are increased by 25 percent for wind. The maximum tensile
stress on windward side from Eq. 6.7
⎛ Mw ⎞
⎜ − 0.079 ⎟ < n × f
⎝ 250πd2t ⎠ 1 t
⎛ 1698.90 ⎞
(0.7 ×1.25 × 71.8) = ⎜ 2
− 0.079 × 30 ⎟
⎝ 250 × π × 3 × t ⎠
∴ t = 0.003688 m = 3.688 mm
The maximum compressive stress on the leeward side of the steel chimney
from Eq. 6.9
⎛ Mw h⎞
⎜ 2
+ 0.079h + 0.002 ⎟ < n2 × f c
⎝ 250 × πd t t⎠
⎛ 1698.90 30 ⎞
(1.00 × 1.25 × 71.8) = ⎜ 2
+ 0.079 × 30 + 0.002 × ⎟
⎝ 250 × π × 3 × t t ⎠
∴ t = 0.00344 m = 3.44 mm
Therefore, total thickness with corrosion allowance is (3.688 + 4) mm = 7.688.
Adopt 8 mm.
(iii) At section X8X8 (Height from top is 55 m)
Diameter of chimney = 3 m
Assuming the thickness of steel plate as 7 mm without corrosion
⎛D⎞ ⎛ 3 ×1000 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ratio = ⎜ ⎟ = 428
⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Effective height for axial stress
h1 = 2 × 55 × 1000 = 110000 mm
⎛ 3000 ⎞
Radius of gyration, k = ⎜ 0.7 × ⎟ = 1050 mm
⎝ 2 ⎠
Ratio of gyration,
⎛ h1 ⎞ ⎛ 110 × 1000 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 144.76
⎝k⎠ ⎝ 1050 ⎠
For bending stress,
⎛1 ⎞
⎜ 2 h1 ⎟ ⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 104.76 ⎟ = 52.38
⎜ ⎟ ⎝2 ⎠
⎝ k ⎠
Allowable stress in axial compression
= 73.554 N/mm2
Allowable stress in bending
= 114.92 N/mm2
326 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
These stresses are increased by 25 percent for wind. The maximum tensile
stress on windward side from Eq. 6.7
⎛ Mw ⎞
⎜ 2
− 0.079h ⎟ < n1 . ft
⎝ 250 × πd t ⎠
⎛ 5555.57 ⎞
(0.7 ×1.25 × 73.554) = ⎜ − 0.079 × 55 ⎟
⎝ 250 × π × 32 × t ⎠
t = 0.01144 m = 11.44 mm
The maximum compressive stress on the leeward side of the steel chimney
from Eq. 6.9
⎛ Mw 0.002 ⎞
⎜ 2
+ 0.079h + × h⎟ < n2 × fc
⎝ 250 × πd t t ⎠
⎛ 5555.57 55 ⎞
(1.00 ×1.25 × 73.554) = ⎜ 2
+ 0.079 × 55 + 0.002 × ⎟
⎝ 250 × π × 3 × t t ⎠
∴ t = 0.01023 m = 10.23 mm
Therefore, total thickness with corrosion allowance is
(11.44 + 4 mm) = 15.44. Adopt 16 mm.
(iv) At section X11X11 (Height from top is 80 m)
Diameter of chimney = 4.5 m
Assuming the thickness of steel plate as 11 mm without corrosion
⎛D⎞ ⎛ 4.5 × 1000 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ratio = ⎜ ⎟ = 409
⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠
Effective height for axial stress,
h1 = 2 × 80 × 1000 = 160,000 mm
Radius of gyration,
1
k = 0.7 × × 4.5 × l000 = 1575 mm
2
⎛ h1 ⎞ ⎛ 160000 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 101.59
⎝k⎠ ⎝ 1575 ⎠
For bending stress,
⎛1 ⎞
⎜ 2 h1 ⎟ = 50.79
⎜ ⎟
⎝ k ⎠
Allowable stress in axial compression
= 76.915 N/mm2
Allowable stress in bending
= 115.21N/mm2
DESIGN OF STEEL AND OTHER STRUCTURES 327
These stresses are increased by 25 percent for wind. The maximum tensile
stress on windward side from Eq. 6.7,
⎛ Mw ⎞
⎜ + 0.079h ⎟ < n1. ft
⎝ 250 × πd2t ⎠
⎛ 11587.15 ⎞
(0.7 × 1.25 × 76.915) = ⎜ 2
− 0.079 × 80 ⎟
⎝ 250 × π × 4.5 × t ⎠
t = 0.0099 m = 9.9 mm
The maximum compressive stress on the leeward side of the steel chimney
from Eq. 6.9,
⎛ Mw 0.002h ⎞
⎜ 2
+ 0.079h + ⎟ < n2 × fc
⎝ 250 × πd t t ⎠
⎛ 11587.15 0.002 × 80 ⎞
(1.00 × 1.25× 76.915) = ⎜ 2
+ 0.079 × 80 + ⎟
⎝ 250 × π × 4.5 × t t ⎠
∴ t = 0.009896 m = 9.896 mm
Therefore, total thickness with corrosion allowance is (9.9 + 4) mm = 13.9 mm.
Adopt 18 mm.
Step 5. Modulus of section of steel chimney at the various sections
For 20 year design life of steel chimney, the value of slight corrosion allowance
(assumed) is 4 mm.
The modulus of section of steel chimney (without breech opening) is calculated
with t as the thickness of steel plate without allowance for corrosion
Z1_2 = 0.77 d2 . t
Z1_2 = 0.77 × 30002 × (6–4) = 13860 × 103 mm3
Z3_5 = 0.77 × 30002 × (8–4) = 27720 × 103 mm3
Z6–8 = 0.77 × 30002 × (16–4) = 83160 × 103 mm3
The diameter of steel chimney varies from section X8X8 to X11X11.
Step 6. Self-weight of steel chimney and lining
The thickness of lining increases from top to bottom. The weight of chimney
may be assumed as 0.64, 0.80, 0.96 and 1.28 kN/m2 per metre height of the chimney
at the sections X2X2, X5X5, X8X8 and X11X11, respectively.
At section X2X2
π × 3 × 15 × 0.64 = 90.432 kN
Add 10 percent for stiffeners
= 1.10 × 90.423 = 99.475 kN
Area of cross-section π × 3 × 1000 × (6–4) = 18840 mm2
328 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
At section X5X5
π × 3 × 15 × 0.64 = 90.432 kN
π × 3 × 15 × 0.80 = 113.04 kN
= 203.472 kN
Add 10 percent for stiffeners
= 1.10 × 203.472 kN
= 223.82 kN
Area of cross-section
π × 3 × 1000 × (8–4) = 37680 mm
At section X8X8
π × 3 × 15 × 0.64 = 90.432 kN
π × 3 × 15 × 0.80 = 11.3040 kN
π × 3 × 25 × 0.96 = 226.080 kN
= 429.552 kN
Add 10 percent for stiffeners
= 1.10 × 429.552 = 472.507 kN
Area of cross-section
π × 3 × 1000 × (16–4) = 113040 mm2
Step 7: Check for stresses
Actual stresses at section X2X2
⎛ A ⎞
Z = 0.77d2t ⎜1 − 1.3 1 ⎟
⎝ d ⎠
⎛ 1800 ⎞
= 0.77 × 43502 × 12 × ⎜1 − 1.3 ⎟ mm
⎝ 4350 ⎠
= 80790 × 103 mm3
Area of cross-section
= π × 4350 × 12 – 2 × 2000 × 12 (for opening)
= 115908 mm2
(iii ) Weight of chimney
Weight of the chimney above X8X8
= 472.507 kN
Weight of the opening X8X8 and X11X11
π × 3.75 × 25 × 1.28 = 376.80 kN
Total = 849.307 kN
Add 10 percent for overlap, rivets and stiffeners.
Total weight = 1.10 × 849.307 kN = 934.238 kN
⎛ h1 ⎞ ⎛ 160000 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 101.59
⎝k⎠ ⎝ 1575 ⎠
330 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛1 ⎞
⎜ 2 h1 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ = 50.79
⎝ k ⎠
Allowable stress in axial compression
= 76.915 N/mm2
Allowable stress in bending
= 127.5 N/mm2
These stresses are increased by 25 percent for wind. Therefore allowable stress
in bending is 159.375 N/mm2, which one is greater than 151.46 N/mm2.
(v) Check for interaction expression
⎛ 8.06 143.42 ⎞
= ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 76.915 159.375 ⎠
= 0.105 + 0.899 = 1.044
It exceeds unity very slightly. Hence, the section is adequate.
Area of steel plates removed for flue openings
= 2 × 2000 × 12 = 48000 mm2
The vertical reinforcement provided is kept 20 percent larger than the area
removed.
∴ Area of steel to be provided
= 1.20 × 48000 = 57600 mm2
Area of vertical reinforcement on each side of two flue openings
1
=× 57600= 14400 mm2
4
Provide 2 ISA 200 mm × 200 mm × 25 mm (one on outer side and one on the
inner side of the opening).
Area provide = 2 × 9380 = 18760 mm2
The area of reinforcement provided on the top and the bottom of openings are
kept the same.
Step 9 : Design of Base Plate
The maximum compressive force per unit circumferential length
⎛ M w Ws + WL ⎞
F1 = ⎜ 2 + ⎟ × (t ×1) kN/mm
⎝ πd1 t πd1t ⎠
1 ⎛ M w Ws + WL ⎞
= ⎜ + × 1000 N/mm
1000 ⎝ πd12 πd1 ⎠⎟
⎛ 4 × (11587.15) 934.238 ⎞
= ⎜ + ⎟ N/mm
2
⎝ 3.14 × 4.52 3.14 × 4.5 ⎠
DESIGN OF STEEL AND OTHER STRUCTURES 331
= 795.04 N/mm
Allowable bearing stress for M 15 grade of concrete is 40 N/mm2.
Width of the base plate required
⎛ 795.04 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 159 mm
⎝ 1.25 × 4.0 ⎠
Provide 300 mm wide plate. Two angle sections (2 ISA 130 mm × 130 mm × 10
mm) are used to transmit the pressure at the bottom of the flared portion of the
steel chimney. The length of projection of the base plate beyond angle section
1
= (300 – 2 × 130 – 18) = 11 mm
2
Length of cantilever portion of the base plate upto the critical section XX as
shown in Fig. 6.13
= (11 + 130 –10) = 131 mm
The thickness is designed for allowable pressure instead of actual bearing
pressure. Total thickness at the critical section XX, from Eq. 6.14
1/2
⎛ 3σc ⎞
a = l. ⎜ ⎟
⎝ σbc ⎠
1
⎛ 4 ⎞2
= 131 ⎜ 3 × 1.25 × × 1.85 ⎟ = 32.345 mm
⎝ 1.33 ⎠
Thickness of base plate
= (323.45 – 10) = 22.345 mm
Provide 24 mm thick base plate as shown in Fig. 6.13.
S tack
p la te
6 mm
th ick 12 m m
1 20 m m
d B a se p la te
th ick
3 00 m m
4 N /m m 2
Fig. 6.13
332 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 4 M w Ws ⎞
F2 = ⎜ 2
− ⎟ × (t × 1 ) kN/m
⎝ πd1 t πd1t ⎠
1 ⎛ 4 M w Ws ⎞
= ⎜ − × 1000 N/mm
1000 ⎝ πd12 πd1 ⎟⎠
⎛ 4 × 11587.15 Ws ⎞
= ⎜ −
⎝ 3.14 × 4.6
2 πd1 ⎟⎠
(neglecting even second term)
= 728.92 N/mm
Provide 37 mm diameter anchor bolts
Area at the root of threads
= 840 mm2
Strength of anchor bolts
(840 × 120 × 1.25 )
= = 126 kN
1000
Spacing of the anchor bolts
⎛ 126 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 172.86 mm
⎝ 728.92 ⎠
Provide anchor bolts at 160 mm spacing.
Step 11 : Design of Lug
The lugs are provided for greater stability. The lug or a bracket for each anchor
bolt is built up of 2 ISA 200 mm × 100 mm × 15 mm with a clear space of 45 mm
in between them for the bolts. The angles are kept about 750 mm long as shown in
Fig. 6.14. A filler plate is provided between the lug angle and the stack plate. The
filler plate is also kept 750 mm long and 450 mm wide and 22 mm thick. An ISA
200 mm × 100 mm × 15 mm and 250 mm long is placed on the top of the two
vertical angles.
Strength of 22 mm diameter rivet in single shear
⎛ 2 ⎞
= ⎜1.25 × π × 23.5 × 100 ⎟ kN
⎝ 4 1000 ⎠
= 54.19 kN
Maximum pull which can be transmitted by one anchor bolt
= 126 kN
DESIGN OF STEEL AND OTHER STRUCTURES 333
⎛ 126 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 2.325
⎝ 54.19 ⎠
IS A 2 00 m m x 10 0 m m
x x 15 m m 2 R ivets
22 m m φ
C e ntre lin e o f
a ncho r b olt
1 6 R ive ts
L ug (B ra cke t)
2 IS A 2 00 m m x 10 0 m m 22 m m φ
x 15 m m
Filler
p late
22 m m
Fig. 6.14
Provide 4 rivets, (2 rivets in each vertical leg), 2 separate rivets are provided to
connect the horizontal angle at the top. The rivets may be checked for eccentric
riveted bracket connection in which the c.g. of rivets is out of plane of force
transmitted.
Problems
6.1 Design a self-supporting chimney of 100 m height. The diameter of
cylindrical shell is 4 m. The chimney has a 100 m thick brick lining
supported on the shell.
6.2 Design the lug for the steel stack in Problem 6.1.
6.3 A self-supporting steel chimney is 60 m high and has a diameter 3 m at
the top. Design the plate of the chimney. Also design the base plate and
the anchor bolts. The foundation and the riveted joints need not be designed.
The horizontal pressure may be assumed as l.50 kN/m2. The bearing
stress in cement concrete is 40 N/mm2.
334 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The steel tanks are defined as vessels made of steel plates. The steel tanks are
either placed on ground or placed on towers. When the steel tanks are placed on
ground, then, these are supported on cement concrete foundation or on steel grillage
foundation. These steel tanks with vertical cylindrical surface and flat bottom and
supported on ground are known as surface tanks. When the steel tanks are placed
on the towers or stagging, then, the steel tanks are known as elevated steel tanks.
The steel tanks are placed on towers in order to provide necessary pressure head.
The elevated steel tanks are generally used in connection with pumping stations.
The steel tanks are used for storage and supply of water and other liquids, like
petroleum, diesel, and kerosene oil. The supply of the water is made to municipal
areas, industries and locomotives of railways. The steel tanks are filled by means
of risers or inlet pipes, water or other liquids are generally stored in the steel
tanks at atmospheric pressure. In case the water or other liquids are stored at
pressure more than the atmospheric pressure, then, the steel tanks are known as
pressure vessels or pressure tanks. The designs of steel tanks used for storage of
water at atmospheric pressure are only discussed in this chapter. The capacity of
steel tank is defined as the volume contained between level of overflow and the
lowest specified level. The life of steel tanks depends on the maintenance.
The steel tanks are designed conforming to code of practice for use of steel in
gravity water tanks IS: 805–1981.
The minimum thickness of the steel plates of the tanks shall be 6 mm except
for roofs. In case, the tank water contains salts, the thickness of steel plates shall
be 1.5 mm more thicker than that calculated.
336 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
are 1.20 m, 1.25 m and 1.30 m depending upon the availability of plates. The
thickness of steel plates should not be less than 6 mm. The bottom plates are
provided in the transverse direction. These plates are turned up at the ends. These
plates form a butt-joint with the side plates of the tanks. The tee-sections are
provided in the inner-side to cover joints in the bottom. These sections are also
turned up at the end. These tee-sections may provide cover in the inner side of
vertical side plates. These tee-sections also act as vertical stiffeners for the side
plates. The flat strips are provided on the outer sides to cover all the horizontal
Tan k
C o lu m n s
W ind b racin g
E n d b ea m
lon gitu dina l b ea m s
Inte rm ed ia te
Tee stiffe ne rs
Fo rge d bo sse s
E nd b ea m
and the vertical joints. The end bottom corners are curved. The forged bosses are
provided at the four bottom corners steel tanks are supported on longitudinal
rolled steel beams. The longitudinal steel beams rest on transverse beams. The
transverse beams rest on the columns. The columns are suitably braced to form
staging. The cross-diagonal bracings are provided to resist the wind pressure.
338 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The rivets connecting tee-section, bottom plates of the tank, and the outer flat
strips are designed to resist horizontal shear. The spacing of rivets along the
caulked edges of plates shall not be greater than 10 times the thickness of plates.
The stays or ties are provided in the longitudinal and transverse directions.
The round bars and flat bars may be used for stays. The effect of corrosion is less
on the round bars. But, the round bars sag more severely due to their self weight.
The longitudinal stays rest on the transverse stays. Due to this arrangement, the
longitudinal stays are partly relieved of bending stresses due to their self-weight.
The stays are usually provided at the middle of the tank. The stays are subjected
to tension due to overturning effect of water pressure and weight of overhang of
the tank about the outer beams. Sometimes, the stays are also provided at the top.
The stays are connected with the vertical tie stiffeners. In case the stays are not
provided at the top, then, the upper half of the side above the stays resist the water
pressure by cantilever action.
O utside
la d de r
h
d
x x
In le t O utle t
Contd.
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 339
stand pipes in most cases is considerably greater than its diameter. The stand
pipes are supported directly on the foundations. The stand pipes are commonly
used for storage of liquids in industries.
During the storage of oil products in the surface tanks, the evaporation of oil
takes place. As a result of the evaporation, the gases accumulate under the roof.
The extent of this evaporation varies both with change in temperature (“low
breathing”) and upon discharging and charging (“high breathing”) and leads to
great losses. To reduce the losses of the oil products, tanks of various types are
employed.
The low pressure tanks with an internal pressure upto 0.002 N/mm2 are used
for the storage of light oil products with a low vapour pressure (kerosene, diesel
fuel etc.), as well as of dark refined oil products and oils.
The increased pressure tanks with an internal pressure 0.02 to 0.03 N/mm2 are
used for the storage of oil products with a high vapour pressure (various grades of
petrol, oil etc.).
The stand pipes are also used for storage and supply of water. In such cases the
stand pipes are constructed on high level grounds. The stand pipes are only
economical in case the capacity of tank is more important than the pressure. The
stand pipes are also economical at the places where the local conditions are such
that the elevated steel tanks are not necessary.
The steel plates used for the sides of the stand pipes are kept slightly different
in diameters, so that the courses are placed overlapping each other inside and
outside, alternately. The thickness of side and bottom plates should not be less
than 6 mm. As far as possible, lap joints are provided for the horizontal seems in
the sides and for the bottom plates. The bottom plates of the stand pipes up to 6 m
diameter are flanged up to connect with the side plates. In case the diameter of
stand pipe is more than 6 m, then the angle section is riveted inside the tank to
connect the side plates with the bottom plates.
In hot climates, the conical roof is provided over the tank. The conical roof
prevents the water from becoming a breeding place for mosquitoes and flies. In
case the pitch of roof is 1 in 4, then the conical roof does not require any structural
support. In case the pitch of roof is flatter than 1 in 6, then it is necessary to
provide structural support for the roof. The structural elements used for supporting
the roof consist of radial channel rafters. The radial channel rafters are connected
to tank on one side and a ring near the peak of roof on the other side. The thickness
of steel plates in roof should not be less than 5 mm. In cold climates, the roofs are
not provided on the stand pipes used for the storage and supply of water on account
of formation of ice. The stiffening angles are used at the top of the tank, when the
roofs are not provided.
In order to resist the uplift pressure, the anchor bolts are connected with the
sides of the tank as shown in Fig. 7.3. The anchor bolts are embedded deep in the
cement concrete.
The following are various accessories which are usually necessary for the stand
pipes.
340 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
7.4.1 Manhole
A circular manhole of 600 mm diameter or an elliptical manhole of 300 mm × 540
mm size is provided on the side and near the bottom i.e., in the first shell ring of
the tank for cleaning purpose. A hinged cover is provided for the manhole. The
cover is attached to the shell ring. The manhole is properly reinforced.
Ve rtica l
p la te
G ro ut A n ch o r
b olt
Fig. 7.3
7.4.7 Overflow
An overflow pipe is connected at suitable height to drain off the surplus water.
⎛ 6 d⎞
⎜ 0.35 p1 ⋅ d ⋅ H × 10 × 1000 2 ⎟
σw = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ d3 3 ⎟
⎜ π × (1000) × t ⎟
⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞
σw = ⎜ 1.4 p1 ⋅ H ⎟ N/mm2 ...(iii)
⎝ π ⋅ d ⋅t ⎠
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 343
⎡ Ws × 1000 ⎤ ⎛ Ws ⎞
σ1 = ⎢ π(1000 d )t ⎥ = ⎜ ⎟ N/mm
2 ...(iv)
⎣ ⎦ ⎝ π ⋅ d ⋅t ⎠
Therefore, the net uplift pressure due to combined effect of wind and self-weight
of stand pipe
⎛ 2 ⎞
σ2 = (σw – σ) = ⎜ 1.4 p1 H − Ws ⎟
⎝ π ⋅ dt π ⋅ dt ⎠
⎡1.4 p1 H 2 − Ws ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥ N/mm
2 ...(v)
⎣ π ⋅ d ⋅t ⎦
The uplift force per mm circumferential length
F3 = σ2 × t × 1
⎡1.4 p1 H 2 − Ws ⎤
F3 = ⎢ ⎥ × (t × 1) N/mm2 ...(vi)
⎣ π ⋅ d ⋅t ⎦
∴ The maximum uplift force in the anchor bolt (i.e., tensile force)
( g × 1000 )
T = F3 × = F3 . g
1000
⎡1.4 p1 H 2 − Ws ⎤
T = ⎢ ⎥ × g kN ...(7.3)
⎣ πd ⎦
where, g = Spacing of anchor bolts in metres.
The number of anchor bolts may be found by dividing the circumference of
anchor bolt ring by the spacing of anchor bolts. The permissible stress in axial
tension at the root of the threads of anchor bolls is 0.6 × fy N/mm2.
theoretical drop of the bottom from spring line is one half the diameter of the tank.
For the elliptical bottom tanks, this drop is one-fourth the diameter.
The steel plates used for the sides of the cylindrical shell are kept slightly different
in diameters, so that the courses are placed overlapping each other inside and
outside, alternately. The shell plates are shaped to suit the curvature of the tank.
The thickness of the plates in the cylindrical shell should not be less than 6 mm.
The nominal plate thickness as recommended in IS : 805–1981 for the different
nominal tank diameter is adopted as given in Table 7.1. The minimum thickness
of plates in the suspended bottom should not be less than the thickness of plates in
the lowest course of the cylindrical part of the tank. The plates are sheared or
planed to a suitable bevel along the edges by caulking. These plates are caulked
along the bevelled edges from the inside of the tank. The caulking of plates is done
Fina l
C o nica l
ro of
C ylind rical
she ll
d
H
B a lcon y
S u sp e nd ed
b ottom
O utside
la d de r
W ind
b racin g
C o lu m n
R ise r/inle t
p ip e
W ind b racing in
h orizo ntal
p la ne
Tow e r
2 .5 m
with round-nosed tool. In case the tanks are used for the storage of oil, then the
plates are bevelled on both sides by inside and outside caulking. There is generally
a dished circular plate in the lower-portion in the bottom of a hemispherical bottom
tank. The dished plate is also known as saucer plate. The rest of bottom of tank is
made with plates with radial seams. In case, the length of radial joints is more
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 345
than 6 m, then two sets of plates with a horizontal seam between the spring line
and the saucer plate are used. The tank plates are suitably reinforced where the
pipes enter the tank.
Table 7.1 Nominal plate thickness (as per is : 805–1968)
Nominal plate thickness Nominal tank diameter
10 mm 9 m and less
12 mm 18 m and less
16 mm 36 m and less
Over16 mm All sizes
The number of plates in each ring of the cylindrical shell is kept equal to the
number of columns. The columns are connected in the middle of each plate of the
lowest shell ring.
The thickness of plates in the lower cylindrical courses of tanks with suspended
bottoms shall not be less than 8 mm, for tank capacity (5 to 7) × 105 litres, and 10
mm for tanks of capacity (7 to 10) × 105 litres. For larger tanks, the thickness
shall be at least 1.5 mm greater than that calculated.
with all the pipes entering the tank. The arrangements are also made for tightening
the expansion joints. The expansion joints are usually fastened to the bottom of
the tank with bolts and lead washers. All the pipes entering the tank are thoroughly
braced laterally with the adjustable diagonal bracing at the panel points of the
tower.
7.9.5 Overflow
An overflow pipe is connected at suitable height to drain off the surplus water. A
height of 150 mm as free board shall be added to the required height of the tank
while designing the tank.
where,
n = Approximate distance between the stiffening angles in metre
t = Thickness of the plates in mm
d = Diameter of the tank in metres
7.9.8 Balcony
A balcony is provided around the circular steel tank. The balcony is kept 900 mm
wide. The floor-plate of the balcony is kept 6 mm thick. The floor plate is punched
for drainage. A suitable railing about 1 metre in height is provided with the balcony.
The balcony is fastened to the tank by means of a single angle.
⎛ 5h ⋅ d ⎞
σ = ⎜ ⎟ N/mm2 ...(7.6)
⎝ t ⎠
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 349
d
r
b
H1
r1 θ
H2
x x
C ircu la r
g ird er
T1 (a ) T1
W
(b )
Fig. 7.5
⎛ 5h ⋅ r1 ⎞
∴ T1´ = ⎜ ⎟ N/mm2 ...(7.8)
⎝ t ⎠
where,
w = Unit weight of water (10 kN/m3)
r1 = Radius of water column in metres
h = Height of water column above the section XX, in metres
d
r
r1
H1
H2 x x
C ircu la r
g ird er
θ
T3 T3
(a )
1
mm
1
m
m
(b )
Fig. 7.6
∴ W = 10 π . r12 . h kN ...(ii)
The weight of water column per mm of the circumference
⎛ W ⎞ ⎛ 10 π r12 h × 1000 ⎞
⎜ 2πr ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 5hr1 N/mm ...(iii)
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 π r1 × 1000 ⎠
Let T3 be the meridional tension per mm of the circumference. The weight of
water column per mm of circumference is equal to the vertical component of the
meridional tension per mm of the circumference.
∴ T2 sin θ = 5 . h . r1
∴ T3 = 5h . r1 cosec θ N/mm ...(7.11)
The stress in the radial joint in the conical bottom
352 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 5 ⋅ h ⋅ r1 cosec θ ⎞
T3´ = ⎜ ⎟ N/mm
2
⎝ t ⎠
⎛ 5 ⋅ h ⋅ r1 cosec θ ⎞
or T3´ = ⎜ ⎟ N/mm
2 ...(7.12)
⎝ t ⎠
where, t = Thickness of the plate of conical bottom in mm.
In order to determine the stress in the circumferential joint in the conical bottom,
consider two horizontal planes through the cone so that the intercept along the
cone is 1 mm in length. The normal pressure acting on the tapered ring is p.
p = wh = 10 × 10–6 × (1000 h) N/mm2 ...(i)
This normal pressure may be resolved into two components, p1 along the element
of the cone and, p2 along the horizontal direction. Then
p2 = p . cosec θ ...(ii)
p1 = p . cot θ ...(iii)
The stress in the circumferential joint
⎡ −6 ⎤
T3´´ = ⎢10 × 10 × 1000 h × cosec θ × (2r1 ) × 1000 ⎥ N/mm2
⎣ 2×t ⎦
⎛ θ⎞
∴ T3" = ⎜10 p ⋅ r1 ⋅ cosec t ⎟ N/mm
2 ...(7.13)
⎝ ⎠
This is to note that the stress in circumferential joint in the conical bottom of
a tank is twice the stress in the radial joint.
The maximum stresses in a radial joint and the circumferential joint may be
found as follows. The stress in the radial joint of the conical bottom of tank, from
Eq. 7.12
⎛ 5h ⋅ r1 cosec θ ⎞
T3´ = ⎜ ⎟ N/mm
2
⎝ t ⎠
Now h = (H1 + H2 – r1 tan θ)
⎡ 5( H1 + H 2 − r1 tan θ) r1 cosec θ ⎤
∴ T3´ = ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
t
dT3´
For maximum stress in the radial joint, =0
dr1
∴ H1 + H2 – 2r1 tan θ = 0
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 353
tan θ =
( H1 + H2 )
2r1
H2
∴ tan θ =
⎛ d⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
2
H2 ( H1 + H2 )
∴ =
⎛ d⎞ 2r1
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
2
d ⎛ H1 ⎞
r1 = ⎜⎝1 + H ⎟⎠
4 2
⎛ 5 hr cosec θ ⎞
T3.max = ⎜ ⎟ N/mm
2 ...(7.14)
⎝ t ⎠
The maximum stress in the circumferential joint
⎛ 10 ⋅ h ⋅ r cosec θ ⎞
⎟⎠ N/mm
2 ...(7.15)
⎜⎝
⋅t
⎛ 5 ⋅ h ⋅ r cosec θ ⎞
T3 max = ⎜ ⎟⎠ , (t ×1)N/mm
2
⎝ t
= 5 h . r cosec θ N/mm
The horizontal component of the meridional (radial) tension at the junction of
cylindrical shell and the conical bottom causes hoop compression at the junction.
The compressive stress at the ring
For hemispherical bottom, the height of hemispherical bottom, and the radius
of hemispherical bottom are equal. Therefore, the hoop compression in the ring is
zero.
WR ⎛ 1 1 φ⎞
M1 = – ⎜ − cot ⎟ ...(7.18)
n ⎝φ 2 2⎠
where
W = Total vertical load in kN
n = Number of columns.
The maximum bending moment at the centre (i.e., midway between the columns)
in kN-m
⎡ φ⎤
2sin2 ⎥
φ WR ⎢ 4
M2 = M1cos + ⎢sin φ − ⎥ ...(7.19)
2 2n ⎢ φ ⎥
⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥
The maximum torsion (kN-m) occurs at a point P, angle φ´ from support
WR W φ´ R ⎛ sin φ´ ⎞
T = M1 sin φ´ – (1 − cos φ´) + × ⎜1 − ...(7.20)
2n 4 ⎝ φ´ ⎟⎠
The values of maximum shear, maximum positive and negative bending moments
and maximum torsion in a circular girder supported on 4, 6, 8 or 12 columns are
given in Table 7.3.
356 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Table 7.3
Number Load on Maximum Bending Bending φ´ Maximum
of columns shear moment moment at torsion
columns (kN) (kN) at columns the centre (kN-m)
(kN-m) (kN-m)
W W
4 –0.03415WR +0.01762WR 10°20´ 0.0053 WR
4 8
W W
6 –0.01482WR +0.00751 WR 12°44´ 0.00151WR
6 12
W W
8 –0.00827 WR +0.00416 WR 9°33´ 0.00063 WR
8 16
W W
12 –0.00365 WR +0.00190 WR 6° 21´ 0.000185 WR
12 24
Note. φ' is the angular distance from column to point of maximum torsion. W
is total vertical load, and R is radius of circular girder.
The circular girder is designed for the maximum bending moment. The circular
girder is checked for shear stresses due to shear force and bottom.
1. For circular section subjected to torsion. The angle of twisted is
calculated as under:
T q
= =G.θ
J r
⎡ T ⎤
∴ θ = ⎢⎛ π ⎥ ...(7.21)
4⎞
⎢⎜ ⋅ d1 ⎟ G ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 32 ⎠ ⎦
where, T = Torsional moment
J = Torsional constant. It is also equal to polar moment of inertia of
⎛ πd4 ⎞
the circular section, ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ 32 ⎠
d1 = Diameter of circular section
r = Radial distance of any fibre of circular section from the centre
q = Shear stress due to torsion
G = Shearing modulus of elasticity
θ = Angle of twist per unit length.
2. For rectangular section subjected to torsion. A rectangular section
is shown in Fig. 7.8 (a). The angle of twisted is found as below :
⎛ T ⎞
θ = ⎜ 3 ⎟ ...(7.22)
⎝ β ⋅ b ⋅ c ⋅ G ⎠
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 357
where,
1
β= 3 , in case the rectangle is assumed to be very narrow
b = Width of longer side of the rectangle
c = Width of shorter side of the rectangle
1
J= b ⋅ c3
3
⎛ T ⎞
qmax = c . Gθ = ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟
2 ⎟ ...(7.23)
⎝ 3b⋅c ⎠
3. For angle section subjected to torsion. An angle section is shown in
Fig. 7.8 (b). Equation 7.22 and Eq. 7.23 for a narrow rectangular section can be
utilized also for approximate solutions in the cases in which the width of the cross-
section is small. The angle section has uniform thickness. The angle of twist is
obtained by substituting (b = 2a – c) for the developed length of centre line. The
maximum stress is found from Eq. 7.23. The maximum stress occurs at the re-
entrant corner. The maximum stress is found by multiplying the stress obtained
by Eq. 7.23 by stress concentration factor K, which is larger than unity. The
stress concentration factor is given by
1/ 2
⎛c⎞
K = 1.74 ⎜ ⎟ ...(7.24)
⎝r⎠
where, c = Thickness
r = Radius of the fillet.
c
c2 c2
b a b1 b1
c1 c1
c2 c2
c a b2 b2
(a ) (b ) (c) (d )
Fig. 7.8
qmax = c.G θ
⎡ T ⋅c ⎤
= ⎢1 3 3 ⎥ ...(7.26)
(b
⎣3 1 1c + 2b c )
2 2 ⎦
The connections between the columns and the tank are made in such a manner
that the centre of gravity of the column sections intersect the tank at the centre of
the girder connections. This avoids the eccentric loading in the columns and local
stresses in the tank plates. Sufficient rivets are provided above this intersection to
transmit the total column load.
The columns are provided with steel caps and base plates. The size and thickness
of base plates are kept sufficient to distribute the column loads on the foundation
without causing excessive pressures.
All the columns are well secured to its foundation by means of anchor bolts. The
anchor bolts are made of wrought iron or mild steel. 12 mm thick anchor plates
are provided under the nuts. The anchor bolts are set in the foundation. The
strength of anchor bolts should be sufficient to resist safely the stressess caused by
the wind pressure. The anchor bolts should be capable to resist the shearing forces
on the column footing.
The columns of towers are usually built of two channels laced on both sides or
plates on one side and lacing on the other side or rolled steel H section or built-up-
H-sections.
The wind force is assumed to act through the centre of gravity of the exposed
area. In order to determine the stresses in the columns at any point due to wind,
a horizontal section XX1 is drawn through the columns. The vertical reaction due
to wind in the individual column depends upon the number of columns and the
direction of wind. The following cases are considered to find axial forces in the
columns due to wind.
1. Axial forces in four-column tower. Figure 7.9 shows a section of four-
column tower. The horizontal section is drawn through the points of contraflexures.
Consider a case when the direction of wind is normal to the face 1–4. Let Mw be the
overturning moment due to the wind force about the section. The line XX passing
through the c.g. of base and perpendicular to direction of wind represents a line of
rotation. The columns 2 and 3 are subjected to thrust while columns 1 and 4 are
subjected to uplift.
All the columns are at equal distance from the line of rotation XX. The thrust in
columns 2 and 3 are equal. The pulls in columns 1 and 4 are equal. Let the
vertical reaction in each column be R. The reactions in these columns provide a
resisting couple. Since, the columns are in equilibrium, the resisting couple and
the overturning moment are equal. Therefore,
r
2R × 2 = Mw
2
⎛ Mw ⎞
R = ⎜ ...(7.28)
⎝ 2 2 ⋅ r ⎟⎠
Consider the case, when the direction of wind is parallel to the diagonal as
shown in Fig. 7 9. The line YY represents the line of rotation. It passes through
c.g. of the base and it is at right angles to the direction of wind. It passes through
C a se II
D irection of
w in d S
1 2
C a se I r
r
D ia g on al
r r
2 2
D irection of
w in d r
4 3
r
Fig. 7.9
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 361
the centre of columns 2 and 4. The axial forces in these columns due to wind effect
are zero. The column 1 is subjected to uplift R1. The column 3 is subjected to
thrust R1. The uplift in column 1 and thrust in column 3 are equal, since these
are at equal distance from the line of rotation. The overturning moment is equal to
the resisting couple. Therefore,
R1 × 2r = Mw
⎛M ⎞
R1 = ⎜ w ⎟ ...(7.28)
⎝ 2r ⎠
It shows that the axial force in column is more, when the direction of wind is
along the diagonal. It gives worst case of loading.
2. Axial forces in six-column towers. Figure 7.10 shows a section of six-
column tower. The horizontal section is drawn through the points of contraflexures.
Consider a case when the direction of wind is normal to the face 1–6. Let Mw be the
overturning moment due to the wind force about the section. The line XX passing
r
1 3
r
C a se 1
r 3 0° r
3 0°
r 3 r 3
2 2
D irectio n of
w in d
6 r 4
Fig. 7.10
through the c.g. of base and perpendicular to the direction of wind represents a
line of rotation. The line of rotation XX passes through the centres of columns 2
and 5. The axial forces in columns 2 and 5 due to wind are zero. The columns 1, 3,
4 and 6 are at equal distance from the line of rotation. Therefore, the axial forces
in these columns are equal. The columns 1 and 6 are subjected to uplift pressure
R, and columns 3 and 4 are subjected to thrust R.
The overturning moment is balanced by resisting couple. Therefore,
3
2R × 2r = Mw
2
362 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ Mw ⎞
R = ⎜ ⎟ ...(7.29)
⎝ 2 3 ⋅r ⎠
Consider the case, when the direction of wind is parallel to the diagonal as
shown in Fig. 7.10. Line YY represents the line of rotation. The columns 1, 2 and
3 are subjected to uplift pressure and 4, 5 and 6 are subjected to thrust. The axial
force, R in any column is proportional to perpendicular distance y, from the line of
rotation columns. Therefore
⎛M ⋅y⎞
R = ⎜ 2 ⎟
...(7.30)
⎝ ∑y ⎠
Let R1 be the axial force in columns 2 and 5, and R2 be the axial forces in
columns 1, 3, 4 and 6. Then
R2 ⎛ r⎞
= ⎜ 2⎟
R1 ⎝ r⎠
1
∴ R2 = 2
R1 ...(i)
Take the moment of all the axial forces in the columns about the line of rotation
YY. Then
⎛ r⎞
⎜ 2R1 × r × 4 R1 × ⎟ = Mw
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ R1 r ⎞
or ⎜ 2R1 × r + 4 × × ⎟ = Mw
⎝ 2 2⎠
⎛ Mw ⎞
∴ R1 = ⎜ ⎟ ...(7.31 a)
⎝ 3⋅r ⎠
⎛ Mw ⎞
and R2 = ⎜ ⎟ ...(7.31 b)
⎝ 6⋅r ⎠
It shows that the axial force in column is more, when the direction of wind is
along the diagonal. It gives worst case of loading.
When there are eight columns in the tower, and the direction of wind is along
one of the diagonals, then, axial force in the extreme column
⎛M ⎞
R1 = ⎜ w ⎟ ...(7.32)
⎝ 4r ⎠
In general, the axial forces in vertical column, when the direction of wind is
along the diagonals and the number of columns is n, then axial force in the extreme
column
⎛ Mw ⎞
R1 = ⎜ 1 ⎟ ...(7.33)
⎜ n⋅r ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 363
When the columns are inclined or battered, then, the axial forces in inclined column,
located at the extreme distance from the line of rotation, due to wind blowing along
the diagonal may be found from the following
⎛ M w cos φ ⎞
R1 = ⎜ 1 ⎟ ...(7.34)
⎜ n⋅r ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
where, n = Number of columns in the tower
r = Radius of column circle in the plane considered
φ = Inclination of the columns with the vertical.
When the inclined columns are used, then the thrust is exerted by the columns
in the inward direction against the tank. A horizontal girder is used to resist the
thrust exerted. The horizontal girder is provided at the level where the columns
are connected with the sides of circular tank. The horizontal girder is supported
on four, six, eight or twelve columns. The forces in horizontal girder due to horizontal
thrust at the top of columns are found from Table 7.5.
Table 7.5
Bending Moment Shear Compression
Number Under Midway Under Midway Under Midway
of the between the between the between
columns load load load load load
4 +0.068 H –0.0352HD1 0.50 H 0 0.50H 0.707 H
6 +0.045HD 1 –0.0225HD1 3.50 H 0 0.50H 1.00 H
8 +0.034 HD1 –0.0165 HD1 0.50 H 0 0.50H 1.31 H
12 +0.022HD 1 –0.011HD1 0.50 H 0 0.50H 1.93 H
where, H = Horizontal thrust at the top of each column
D1 = Diameter of horizontal girder.
stays fo r d ee p ta nks
A lterna tive first tie r
M ild ste el cle ats
been discussed in Sec. 7.2. The pressed steel tanks have come into use to large
extent because of their ease in the erection, facility in transport, standard
construction, ease in dismantling and re-erection
The pressed steel tanks are made of mild steel plates as shown in Fig. 7.12. These
plates are heated uniformly in a furnace and formed in press. The furnace and press
are capable of taking the whole plate at one time. These plates are also pressed cold.
It should be seen that the cracks do not develop in these plates while these are
pressed cold. When these plates are pressed depressions are formed in the plates.
These plates gain extra strength. The flanges of these plates are pressed square as
shown in Fig. 7.12 (b) or partly square and partly at an angle of 45° to the face of the
plate or all 45° to the face of the plate as shown in Fig. 7.12 (c).
P a rtly sq ua red
p artly at 45 °
P re sse d steel p la te S q ua re flan ge s flan ge s
(a ) (b ) (c)
In case of hot liquids with specific gravity not exceeding 1.0, the thickness of
plates for different depths of tanks conforms to that laid down in Table 7.6 except
that no plate of the tank is less than 6.5 mm thick. The water or liquid at a
temperature above 40°C but not exceeding 100°C is called as hot liquid.
The width of the flanges of the pressed steel plates is kept suitable for the
connecting bolts used. The holes in the flanges are accurately drilled or punched
in jigs so that the bolt holes may be alignable and interchangeable with those of
any other matching flange. These plates are joined by hexagonal bolts and nuts.
The bolts and nuts are made of mild steel. The bolts and nuts are finished black.
The spacing of bolts in the flanges should not exceed 75 mm pitch. The diameter of
the flange bolts should not be less than 14 mm. The flange bolts are fitted with a
flat washer under the nut, wherever necessary. All the joints are made leak proof
P itch
Joint Joint
C o rne r joint In te rm e d ia te jo in t
(a ) Flan ge joint
Joint P itch
Joint
C o rne r joint In te rm e d ia te jo in t
(b ) Flan ge joint
Fig. 7.13
by filling a plastic compound in the joint. The material used for joining should be
insoluble in the liquid to be stored and should be non-toxic. The flange joints, when
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 367
the flanges are partly squared, are shown in Fig. 7.13 (a). The flange joints, when
the flanges are squared, are shown in Figs. 7.13 (b) and (c).
All the outside edges of gussets should be cut nearly and accurately and the
edges should be ground, where necessary. All burns left by the drill and the sharp
edges of all bolt holes should be completely removed.
Table 7.8 Nominal capacities, typical sizes and approximate weights of tanks
with external flanges
Tanks 2.50 m deep, plates 5 mm and 6.5 thick
Nominal Number Nominal Approximate
sizes of capacity Total Approximate outside
Length × plates (litres) Weight dimensions
Breadth in tank empty
(m × m) (kN)
Length Breadth Depth
(m) (m) (m)
2.50 × l.25 14 7800 14.00 2.65 1.40 2.58
3.75 × 1.25 19 11700 19.00 3.90 1.40 2.58
5.00 × 1.25 24 15600 24.50 5.15 1.40 2.58
Contd.
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 369
Contd.
370 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
3. Vent pipe. The vent pipe may be provided if required. The vertical
vent pipe, if necessary shall be provided on the top with a flanged bend, the
mouth of the bend being fitted with a mosquito-proof netting.
4. Internal ladder. In case the depth of pressed steel tank is more than
2.5 m, a mild steel internal ladder is provided. In the case of covered tank, the
ladder shall be adjacent to the manhole. The ladder provides access to inside of
the tank.
5. Inlet pipe. A riser or inlet pipe is provided in the pressed steel tank. The
inlet pipe is arranged so as to minimize the vibrations.
6. Pipe connections. Pads for connection, tapped bosses, screwed flanges
or stockets as required should be welded to the inside or outside or bolted to the
tank plate. Pads shall be machined over full width of the face and drilled and/or
tapped to suit flanges. Single pads shall be provided for connections on one side of
the plate and double pads for connections on both sides of the plates. The connection
shall be so proportioned to avoid embossment of the plate.
7. Overflow. A bell mouth type overflow pipe shall be provided through the
bottom of the tank.
All parts of steel tanks are finished with two coats of suitable anti-corrosive
paint. The paint shall be suitable for storage of the water or liquid for which the
tank is intended.
B e am s B e am s
Tow e r Tow e r
W ind b racin g
W ind b racin g
C o lu m n s
C o lu m n s
(a ) E levatio n
W ind b racin g in
h orizo ntal plan e
(b ) P lan
Fig. 7.14
Example 7.1 Design an overhead riveted steel rectangular flat bottom tank of
capacity 70000 litres. The available width of plates is 1.22 m and lengths upto
6.1 m.
The staging consists of 4 columns, spaced 4.88 m × 3.66 m and the bottom of
the tank is 9.14 m above the ground level. Design also the supporting beams.
Show by a neat sketch the tank with the staging indicating a suitable arrangement
of the braces you will propose.
Solution
Design :
Step 1. Capacity of tank = 70000 litres
= 70000 × l03 × l03 mm3
= 70 m3
Assume normal depth of water in the tank = 2.35 m
374 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 70 ⎞
Area of bottom of the tank = ⎜ ⎟ = 29.787 m2
⎝ 2.35 ⎠
The length of tank is adopted as 6.90 m. This length is provided by 5 plates each
1.22 m, in width and 0.40 m overhangs on both sides as shown in Fig. 7.15.
2 .50 m
IS L B 45 0 IS L B 32 5
@ 6 5-3 kg/m @ 4 3.1 kg/m
9 .14 m
6 .90 m
0 .40 m
1 mm 1 .22 m
a
3 .66 m
4 .46 m 1 .22 m
b
1 .22 m
0 .40 m
0 .44 m
1 .22 m
1 .22 m
1 .22 m
1 .22 m
1 .22 m
0.4 0 m
Fig. 7.15
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 375
⎛ 29.787 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 4.317 m
⎝ 6.90 ⎠
Provide 4.46 m width. This width is provided by 3 spacings between four
longitudinal beams @ 1.22 m and 0.40 m overhangs on both sides as shown in
Fig. 7.15.
∴ Capacity of tank = (6.90 × 4.46 × 2.35) = 72.30 m3 > 79 m3
Allow a free board of 150 mm.
∴ Overall height of tank = (1.35 + 0.15) = 2.50 m
∴ Size of tank = (6.90 m × 4.46 m × 250 m)
The length of bottom plates is available upto 6.10 m. The length provides the
width of bottom of the tank. The remaining length is bent on both sides which
forms but joints in the vertical sides at 0.82 m height.
Ste 2. Thickness of plates
Consider 1 mm width of the plate in the bottom of tank as shown in Fig. 7.15.
The plates are assumed simply supported at the joint. The unit weight of water is
10 × 10–6 N/mm3.
Span of the plate = 1.22 m
The tank is assumed full including the free board
Height of water column = 2.50 m
Weight of water column acting on this strip of 1 mm width
= (l0 × 10–6 × 2500 × 1220 × 1) = 30.50 N
1
The self-weight of the plate may be assumed as th of weight of water column.
2
∴ Self-weight of the plate
⎛ 1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 30.50 ⎟ = 1.525 N
⎝ 20 ⎠
Total weight acting on 1 mm width of the strip
= (30.50 +1.525) = 32.025 N
Maximum bending moment
⎛ 32.045 × 1110 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 4883.l N-mm
⎝ 8 ⎠
Allowable stress in bending in plate is 0.8 × (0.66 × 250) N/mm2.
Section modulus required
⎛ 4883.8 ⎞
Z = ⎜ ⎟ = 36.991 mm
3
⎝ 0.8×165 ⎠
Let the thickncss of plate be t mm
376 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛1 2⎞
⎜ × 1 × t ⎟ = 36.998
⎝ 6 ⎠
t = 14.9 mm
Provide 16 mm thick plates. The side plates are also kept 16 mm thick.
Step 3. Tee-covers
The tee-sections are used in the inner side of the tank to cover the joints of the
bottom plates. The flat strips are provided on the outer side to cover all these
joints. The tee-sections support the weight of water column over it, the weight of
plates and the self weight.
Consider the tee-section, ab as shown in Fig. 7.15.
Span = 1.22 mm
Width of water column = 1.22 m
Height of water column = 2.50 m
∴ Weight of water column
⎛ 2500 × 1220 × 1220 ⎞
= ⎜10 × 10−6 × ⎟
⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 37.210 kN
From ISI Handbook No. 1 weight of plates, 16 mm thick and 1.22 m × 1.22 m size
⎛ 16 ⎞
= ⎜ 79 × × 1.22 × 1.22 ⎟ = 1.88 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Self-weight of tee-section ISNT 100. @ 150 N/m as shown in Fig. 7.17
= (0.150 × 1.22) = 0.183 kN
Weight of the flat strip
⎛ 100 10 ⎞
= ⎜ 79 × 1.22 × × ⎟ kN
⎝ 1000 1000 ⎠
= 0.096 kN
Total weight
= (37.210 + 1.88 + 0.183 + 0.096) kN
= 39.37 kN
Maximum bending moment
⎛ 39.37 × 1.22 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 4.803 kN-m
⎝ 10 ⎠
Section modulus required
⎛ 4.803 × 1000 × 1000 ⎞
Z1 = ⎜ 3
⎟ = 36.386 ×10 mm
3
⎝ 0.8 × 165 ⎠
The tee-sections, outer flat strip and portion of bottom plates of the tank are
considered as effective for resisting this bending moment. Let 16 mm diameter
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 377
rivets be used for connections. The c.g. of combined section after deducting two
rivet holes lies at a distance y from bottom as shown in Fig. 7.16.
⎛ 4 ⎞
Z1´ = ⎜ 421.74 × 10 3
⎟ = 43.3 ×10 mm
3
⎝ 126 − 30.8 ⎠
10 m m
9 5..2 m m 1 00 m m
10 m m
y = 30 .8 m m 16 m m
10 m m
1 00 m m
Fig. 7.16
The section modulus provided is greater than that required. Hence, safe.
Maximum shear force
⎛ 39.70 ⎞
F = ⎜ ⎟ = 19.85 kN
⎝ 2 ⎠
F ⋅ Ay
Horizontal shear per mm is
I
378 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
T
h 2 .50 m
S ta y
P
h = 2 .50
3 3 m
wh x1 W a te r
x3 p ressure
x2
O verh an g
Fig. 7.17
with the tee-sections which act as stiffeners. The stays are provided at the middle
height of the tank. The stays resist the water pressure and weight of overhanging
portion of the tank as shown in Fig. 7.17.
The water pressure (unit weight of water = 10 kN/m3)
⎛1 ⎞
P = ⎜ × 10 × 2.50 × 2.50 × 1.22 ⎟ = 38.13 kN
⎝2 ⎠
This water pressure acts at one-third height from the bottom.
Weight of water column
W1 = (10 × 0.40 × 1.22 × 2.50) = 12.2 kN
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 379
⎛ 79 × 2.50 × 1.22 × 16 ⎞
W2 = ⎜ ⎟ = 3.855 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
This acts at x2 = 0.40 in from point of contact with the beam
Weight of bottom plates
⎛ 79 × 1.22 × 0.40 × 16 ⎞
W3 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.617 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
This acts at about x3 = 0.250 m from point of contact with the beam.
Take moment of all these forces about the point of contact with the beam as
shown in Fig. 7.17.
2.50 ⎡ 1.50 ⎤
T× = ⎢38.13 × + 12.20 × 0.20 + 3.85 × 0.40 + 0.617 × 0.25 ⎥
2 ⎣ 3 ⎦
∴ T = 28.73 kN
It is to note that the tension in stay and water pressure are the horizontal
forces, and both these forces are not equal. The difference between these forces is
resisted by the plates.
Allowable stress in direct tension is 0.8 × (0.6fy) N/mm2
Cross-sectional area required
⎡ 28.70 × 1000 ⎤
= ⎢ 0.8 × (0.6 × 250) ⎥ = 239.42 mm
2
⎣ ⎦
Provide 45 mm wide × 10 mm thick flat strips. The longitudinal stays also rest
on these transverse stays.
Step 5. Longitudinal beams
The rectangular steel tank is supported on four longitudinal beams as shown
in Fig. 7.15. The longitudinal beams are kept 1.22 mm centre to centre. The
longitudinal beams rest on transverse beams spaced at 4.88 m as shown in Fig.
7.15. The tee-sections transmit the load to the longitudinal beams. The load
transmitted to each intermediate longitudinal beam is shown in Fig. 7.18.
W2 W1 W1 W1 W1 W2
0 .40 0 .40
1 .22 m 1 .22 m 1 .22 m 1 .22 m 1 .22 m
W W W W
W
3 .66 m
Fig. 7.19
Section-modulus required
⎛ 144.414 × 1000 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0.66 × 250 ⎠
3
= 875.236 × 10 mm 3
π 3
= 0.2 πd3 + d = 0.283 πd3
12
∴ 0.2837πd3 = 200 m2, d = 608 m, say d = 6.10 m
Height of cylindrical shell of the tank
= 0.80 × 6.10 = 4.88 m
Step 2. Thickness of plates
The stress in the plates (hoop stress) in cylindrical shell from Eq. 7.6.
5h ⋅ d
σ = N/mm2
t
382 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 5h ⋅ d ⎞
t = ⎜
⎝ n ⋅ σ ⎟⎠
Allowable stress in tension in the plates is 0.8 × (0.60 × 250) N/mm2
⎛ 5 × 4.88 × 6.10 ⎞
∴ t = ⎜⎝ 0.70 × (0.6 × 250) × 0.8 ⎟⎠ = 1.772 mm
C o nica l roo f
6 .10 m
1 .5 m 1 .5 m
Fig. 7.20
⎛ 1 ⎞
∴ h = ⎜ 4.88 + × 6.10⎟ = 7.93 m
⎝ 2 ⎠
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 383
1
r = × 6.10 m
2
Thickness of bottom plates
⎡ 5 × 7.93 × 6.10 ⎤
t = ⎢ 0.8 × (0.6 × 250) × 0.70 × 2 ⎥ = 1. 44 mm
⎣ ⎦
Provide 16 mm thick plates in the hemispherical bottom of the tank.
Step 3. Riveted connections
Hoop stress in the vertical joint of cylindrical shell of the tank, from Eq. 7.6
5h ⋅ d
σ = N/mm2
t
The stress per linear vertical 1 mm of the plate
sh ⋅ d
F1 = (t ) = 5h ⋅ d N/mm
t
= (5 × 4.88 × 6.10) = 148.84 N/mm
Provide 16 mm diameter rivets for 6 mm thickness of the plate.
Strength of rivet in single shear
⎡ π (17.5)2 × 0.8 × 100 ⎤
=⎢ × ⎥ = 19.23 kN
⎣4 1000 ⎦
Strength of rivet in bearing on 6 mm thickness
⎡ 6 × 0.8 × 300 ⎤
= ⎢⎣17.5 × ⎥⎦ = 25.2 kN
1000
∴ Riveted value, R = 19.23 kN
Provide double riveted lap joint. There are two rivets.
⎛ 2 × 19.23 × 1000 ⎞
Pitch of rivets = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 258 mm
148.14
The spacing between the rivets along the caulked edges of the plates should not
be greater than 10 times the thickness of plates i.e., 10 × 6 = 60 mm. Provide 16
mm diameter, two rivets in a row and at 60 mm spacing. Provide double riveted
lap joint for horizontal joint. Provide rivets at 60 mm spacing.
The stress in the radial joint per 1 mm of the circumference (hoop stress) of the
hemispherical bottom, Eq. 7.9
⎛ 6.10 ⎞ 6.10
= 5 × h × r = 5 × ⎜ 4.88 +
⎝ ⎟× N/mm
2 ⎠ 2
= 120.93 N/mm < 148.84 N/mm
∴ Provide 16 mm diameter rivets at 60 mm spacing.
Step 4. Riveted connections between sides and bottom plates
There are no inclined or compressive stresses in a hemispherical bottom of the
tank. Therefore, the horizontal connection between the side and bottom plate is
384 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
IS A 2 00 x 2 00 m m 5 8.8
x 25 m m mm
0 .75 m
5 8.8 IS A 2 00 m m x
mm 2 00 m m x 25 m m
Fig. 7.21
⎛ 177.71 × 1000 ⎞
t v.cal = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 6.4 N/mm
2
⎝ 27760
Total shear stress
= (73.85 + 6.4) = 80.25 N/mm2
< 100 N/mm2. Hence safe.
Moment of inertia of the section
⎡1 ⎤
I = ⎢ × 0.6 × (150)3 + 2 × 243.3 + 2 × 93.8 (75 − 5.88)2 ⎥ ×104 mm4
⎣12 ⎦
= 1053486.6 ×104 mm4
Section modulus of the section
⎛ 4⎞
Z = ⎜ 1053486.6 × 10 ⎟ = 14046.5 × 103 mm3
⎝ 750 ⎠
> Section modulus required. Hence, safe.
Bendings stress
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ 93.39 × 106 ⎞
σbt = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ = 6.65 N/mm3
⎝ Z ⎠ ⎝ 14046.5 × 103 ⎟⎠
Hoop stress
⎛ 5h ⋅ d ⎞
σ = ⎜ N/mm2
⎝ t ⋅ η ⎟⎠
⎛ 5 × 4.88 × 6.10 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 35.44 N/mm2
⎝ 6 × 0.70 ⎠
∴ σ + σbt + = (35.44 + 6.65) = 42.09 N/mm2
Total shear stress = 80.25 N/mm2
Principal stress
1/2
42.09 ⎡⎛ 42.09 ⎞ 2 ⎤
σ1 = + ⎢⎜ ⎟ + (80.25)2 ⎥
9 ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
= 104.04 N/mm2 < 0.8 × 150 N/mm2
(Allowable stress in tension in the plate). Hence, safe.
The circular girder provided is shown in Fig. 7.20 along with circular tank.
It is to note that if eight number of columns would have been provided, then
magnitude of torsion would have been less. Then, light angle sections would have
also sufficed.
Example 7.3 An elevated rectangular steel water tank, open at top is required
to have a capacity of 90,000 litres with a free board of not less than 150 mm. The
bottom of the tank is at 10 m above ground level. Using 1.25 m × 1.25 m standard
pressed steel plates and suitable allowable stresses, design the tank, its stays and
supporting beams.
Solution
Design: Step 1. Capacity ot pressed steel tank
= 90,000 litres = 90,000 × 103 × 103 mm3 = 90 m3
Let the overall height of the tank be 2.50 m
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 387
1 .25 m
2 .50 m
1 .25 m
10 m
3 .75 m
Fig. 7.22
388 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
1 .25 m
2 .50 m
1 .25 m
4 5° 4 5° 4 5° 4 5°
(E leva tio n)
D ia g on al stay a t
e ach jo in t
C1 C1
L6 L6
1 .25 m
L5 L5
1 .25 m
L4 L4
6.2 5 m
D ia g on al stays 1 .25 m
L3 L3
1 .25 m
L2 L2
1 .25 m
L1 L1
1.2 5 m 1 .25 m 1 .25 m 1 .25 m 1 .25 m
C1 C1
6 .25 m
(P lan )
Fig. 7.23
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 389
Consider top 1.25 m height of the tank as shown in Fig. 7.24 (a). Water pressure,
P1= ( 12 × wh × h × 1.25) kN, (w = 10 kN/m3)
⎛ 9.766 × 1.25 ⎞
1.25 × T1 = ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ 3
∴ T1 = 3.255 kN
The inclination of stays with the horizontal is 45°.
∴ Force in top stay.
F1 = T1 sec 45° = 3.255 2 = 4.60 kN
Consider 2.50 m height of the tank as shown in Fig. 7.24 (b).
1
Water pressure P2 = 2
× wh × h × 1.25 kN, (w = 10 kN/m3)
T1
S tay
T2
T1 P2
1 .25 m P1
1 2 .50 m 2 .50 m
× 1.25 m 3 3
3
wh wh
(a ) (b )
Fig. 7.24
The stays connecting bottom plates and the vertical side plates are inclined 45°
with the horizontal. The stays carry tension. The vertical components of stays act
upward at the bottom and downward at the sides. The longitudinal beams resist the
weight of water, weight of tank, and the vertical components of the stays. The
beams are also designed to take the weight of water in the tank when the tank is full
of water including free board. Weight of water (including free board), (w = 10 kN/m2)
= (l0 × 2.5 × 6.25) = 976.56 kN
From IS : 804–1958
Weight of empty lank = 68.500 kN
Total weight = 1045.06 kN
Weight on intermediate longitudinal beams
⎛ 1045.06 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 209.01 kN
⎝ 5
Weight on end longitudinal beams
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 209.01⎟ = 104.51 kN
⎝2 ⎠
Vertical component of force in top stay (Figs. 7.25, 7.26)
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 391
1
V1 = 4.60 cos 45° = 4.60 × = 3.25 kN
2
Vertical component of force in bottom stay
1
V2 = 27.68 cos 45° = 27.60 × = 19.53 kN
2
Step 3. Longitudinal beams L3L3 and L4L4
Weight of water + tank on each beam is 209.01 kN
Assume self-weight = 4.3 kN
Total weight W = 213.31 kN
L3 L 3
The forces acting on intermediate beam are shown in Fig. 7.25.
L 4 L4
V1 V1 V1 V1
V2 V2 V1 V1 V2 V2
W
1 .25 m 3 .75 m 1 .25 m
6 .25 m
Fig. 7.25
V2 V2
V2 V2 V2 V2 V2 V2
1 25 m 1 25 m 1 25 m 1 25 m 1 25 m
W
1 25 m 3 .75 m 1 25 m
6 .25 m
Fig. 7.26
W
1 .25 m 3 .75 m 1 .25 m
6 .25 m
Fig. 7.27
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 393
Reaction at support
⎡109.16 + 2 × 19.53 + 2(19.53 + 3.25) ⎤
R1 = ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
2
= 96.89 kN (Fig. 7.28)
Bending moment at the support
⎛ 109.16 1.252 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ × ⎟ = 13.645 kN-m
6.25 2 ⎠
Bending moment at the centre
⎡ 1 ⎛ 109.16 6.25 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 19.53 × 3.75 ⎞ ⎤
⎢ ×⎜ × ⎟ + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎝ 6.25 2 ⎠ 2 ⎥
= ⎢ ⎥
⎛ 96.89 × 3.75 ⎞ 1.25
⎢− ⎜ ⎟⎠ + (19.53 + 3.25) × ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 2 ⎦⎥
= – 45.53 kN-m (Sagging)
R2 R1 R2 R1
1 .25 m 1 .25 m 1 .25 m 1 .25 m 1 .25 m
W kN /m
6 .25 m
Fig. 7.28
394 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 20 × 41.5 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 8.30 m
3
⎝ 100 ⎠
Wind pressure on staging, (Fig. 7.30)
P = 1.50 × 8.30 = 12.45 kN
⎛ 8.365 ⎞
The wind pressure acts at ⎜ ⎟ = 4.182 m above the ground level.
⎝ 2 ⎠
Take moment above the base of the columns.
∴Overturning moment due to wind about the base
⎛ 8.36 ⎞
Mw = ⎜ 31.05 × 8.865 + 12.45 × ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 327.23 kN-m
Figure 7.29 shows the plan of columns at the base.
The line YY represents line of rotation. The line of rotation YY is perpendicular
to the direction of wind and it passes through the c.g. of base. The columns 2 and
3 are subjected to thrust and columns 1 and 4 are subjected to uplift. All these
columns are at equal distance from the line of rotation. Therefore, the forces in
these columns are equal. The thrust in column 2 and 3 and uplift in columns 1
and 4 are equal and act in opposite directions, and provide a resisting couple. The
resisting couple is equal to overturning moment
∴ 2R × 3.66 = Mw
where, R = Axial force in each columns due to wind
⎛ 327.33 ⎞
∴ R = ⎜ ⎟ = 44.72 kN
⎝ 2 × 3.66 ⎠
396 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Y
1 2
C
4 .88 m
O
D irectio n of
w in d
4 3
Y
3 .66 m
Fig. 7.29
The axial load on each column due to weight of tank and water and the self-
weight of beams is equal to reaction at the end of each transverse beam.
Step 3. From Example 7.1
Reaction at the end of transverse beam
⎛ 1.00 × 3.66 ⎞
= ⎜ 2 × 117.00 + ⎟ = 235.83 kN
⎝ 6 ⎠
When the effect of wind load is taken into account, the permissible stresses are
exceeded by 33 12 percent.
The axial load in column due to wind is less than one-third the axial load in the
column due to weight of water and tank. Therefore, the columns are designed for
weight of water and tank, weight of beams, and self-weight of column.
∴ Axial load on column (assumed) = 8.17 kN
Self-weight of column (assumed) = 8.17 kN
∴Total load = 244.00 kN
8.365
Length of one panel = = 2.788 m
3
∴ Effective length of column = 2.788 m
Assume allowable stress in axial compression = 100 N/mm2
⎛ 244.00 × 1000 ⎞
∴ Area required = ⎜ ⎟ = 2440 mm
2
⎝ 100 ⎠
From ISI Handbook No. l, select ISHB 150, @ 271 N/m
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 397
2 .50 m
P1 P2
0 .77 5
P
2
P
6
9 .14 m
P
8 .86 5 m 6
P
P
6
4 .18 2 m
P θ
6
P
2
3 .66 3 .66
m m
(a ) (b )
Fig. 7.30
398 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 4.15 ⎞
= ⎜ 31.05 + 5 × ⎟ = 41.425 kN
⎝ 2 ⎠
This horizontal shear is distributed in two parallel faces, since, the wind bracing
are provided in two parallel faces.
∴ Horizontal shear due to wind to be resisted by bracing in one face
1
= × 41.425 = 20.72 kN
2
In addition to this the bracings are designed for transverse shear equal to 2.5
percent of column load
∴Transverse shear in a panel
2.5
= [2(235.83 + 44.72) + 2(235.83 – 4472)] kN
100
= 23.583 kN
Transverse shear to be resisted by bracing in one face
1
= 2
× 23.583 = 11.792 kN
∴Total lateral force to be resisted by bracing in a panel in one face
= (20.72 +117.92) = 32.512 kN.
Step 5. Diagonal bracing
The diagonal member of bracing subjected to tension is considered as effective
⎛ 2.788 ⎞
tan θ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.763, θ = 37. 21´
⎝ 3.66 ⎠
Force in a diagonal bracing
= 32.512 × sec θ = 32.512 × 1.259 – 40.93 kN
Allowable stress in axial tension with wind
= 1.33 × 0.8 × (0.6 × 250) N/mm2
Net area required
⎛ 40.93 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 256.45 mm
2
⎝ 1.33 × 0.8 × 0.6 × 250 ⎠
From ISI Handbook No. l, provide ISA 65 mm × 65 mm × 6 mm for the diagonal
bracing member.
Use 16 mm diameter rivets.
∴ Net area provided = A1 + kA2
Net sectional area of the connected log
1
A1 = (65 – 1.75 – 2 × 6) × 6 = 267 m2
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 399
⎛ 3 A1 ⎞ ⎛ 3 × 267 ⎞
k = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 0.683
⎝ 3 A1 + A2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 × 267 + 372 ⎠
Net effective sectional area
An = (267 + 0.683 × 372) = 521.076 mm2
> 256.45 mm2. Hence, safe.
Step 6. Horizontal bracing
The horizontal bracing is subjected to compression.
∴ Force in horizontal bracing = 32.512 kN
It is assumed that the horizontal bracing is connected by more than one rivet.
∴ Effective length = 0.85 × 3.66 × 1000 = 3111 mm
The maximum slenderness ratio for a compression member in wind bracing
should not be more than 350
⎛ 3111 ⎞
∴ rmin = ⎜ ⎟ = 12.444 mm
⎝ 250 ⎠
From IS I Handbook No. 1, try ISA 80 mm × 80 mm × 8 m
∴ rmin = 15.5 mm
Cross-sectional area = 1221 mm2
⎛ 311 ⎞
∴ Slenderness ratio = ⎜ ⎟ = 200.71
⎝ 15.5 ⎠
∴ Allowable stress in axial compression with wind with steel
fy = 250 N/mm2
= 1.33 × 27.787 N/mm2
∴ Force carrying capacity of the member
Lengths of projections, a = b = 50 mm
Thickness of base plate
bf A
a
b h b
Fig. 7.31
1/2
⎡ 3w ⎛ 2 b2 ⎞ ⎤
t = ⎢ ⎜ a − ⎟⎥
⎢⎣ σbs ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎥⎦
1/2
⎡3 × 4 ⎛ 2500 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢ 185 ⎜⎝ 2500 − 4 ⎟⎠ ⎥ = 11.03 mm
⎣ ⎦
Provide 12 mm thick slab base. It is to note that the slab base is designed for
maximum allowable bearing pressure, instead of actual bearing pressure. In case,
the axial load in the column increases, such that the allowable bearing pressure is
reached in the cement concrete even then, the crushing of slab does not occur
Step 8. Foundation
Let the bearing capacity of soil = 200 kN/m2
Axial force in column = 235.83 kN
Let the self-weight of foundation = 70.00 kN
Additional thrust in the column due to wind = 44.72 kN
Total load in the column
= (235.83 + 70.00 + 44.72) = 350.55 kN
Area of concrete pedestal required
⎛ 350.55 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 1.753 m
2
⎝ 200 ⎠
Provide 1.40 m × 1.40 m × 1.0 m concrete pedestal.
Weight of foundation
= (l.40 × 1.40 × 1.0 × 24.00) = 470.4 kN
> 70 kN. Hence, safe.
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 401
Example 7.5 Design the staging for the circular steel tank of Example 7.2. The
bottom of tank is 8.95 m above the ground level. Take intensity of wind pressure
as 1.50 kN per square metre.
Solution
Design
Step 1.
Height of the bottom of tank from ground level = 8.95 m
Depth of bottom of tank = 3.05 m
∴ Height of the junction of cylindrical shell and hemispherical bottom above
ground level, (i.e., length of the columns)
= (8.95 + 3.05) =12 m
The circular steel tank is supported over staging, consisting of six columns.
The staging is divided into three panels.
⎛ 12.00 ⎞
∴ Height of panel = ⎜ ⎟ = 4.00 m.
⎝ 3 ⎠
Step 2. Vertical load
From Example 7.2. Weight of water in the tank = 2000 kN
Weight of tank including weight of conical roof and increase of 20 percent for
rivets and overlap = 101.81 kN
Weight of circular girder = 30.646 kN
Total vertical load supported by columns = 2132.53 kN
Number of columns provided = 6
∴Weight supported by one column
⎛ 2132.53 ⎞
= ⎜
⎝ ⎟⎠ = 355.42 kN
6
Assume self-weight of column = 4.58 kN
∴ Total vertical load supported by one column = 360 kN.
Step 3. Wind load
Intensity of wind pressure = 1.50 kN/m2
Shape factor for the circular tank = 0.7
The projected area of tank consists of projected area of the conical roof the
cylindrical shell andlhe hemispherical bottom.
∴ Projected area
⎡1 6.10 1 π ⎤
= ⎢ × 6.10 + (4.88 × 6.10 ) + × × (6.10 )2 ⎥ m2
⎣2 4 2 4 ⎦
= (4.65 +29.8+14.6) = 49.05 m2
Wind load acting on the tank (Figs. 7.32, 7.33)
P1 = (l.50 × 0.7 × 49.05) = 51.50 kN
402 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
1
x 6.10 m
4
6 .10 m
P1
4 .88 m
1 .57 m
y = 4 .62 m
3 .05 m
Fig. 7.32
The wind load acts at the c.g. of the projected area of tank. The c.g. of projected
area of tank is at y from the bottom of tank as shown in Fig. 7.32.
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
1 ⎢4.65 ( 3 × 4 × 6.10 × 4.88 + 3.05) ⎥
y = ⎢ ⎥
49.05 ⎢ + 29.8(2.44 + 3.05) + 14.6 ⎛ 4 × 3.05 ⎞ ⎥
⎜ 3.05 − ⎟
⎢⎣ ⎝ 3π ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 4.62 m
The line of action of wind is (4.62 – 3.05) = 1.57 m above the junction of cylindrical
shell and the bottom of tank.
When the direction of wind is along the diagonals i.e., as shown in Fig. 7.33, it
gives worst case of loading.
Wind force on columns and bracing (Fig. 7.33)
⎛ ⎞
P = ⎜ 20 × 12 × 2 × 3 × 3.05 × 1.50 ⎟
⎝ 100 2 ⎠
= 19 kN
This acts at 6 m above the ground level.
Step 4. Overturning moment due to wind above base
Mw = [l9 × 6.+ 51.50(12 + 1.57)] = 812.855 kN-m
From Eq. 7.31,
Additional axial thrust in the extreme column
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ 812.855 ⎞
R1 = ⎜ w ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 88.84 kN
⎝ 3 ⋅ r ⎠ ⎝ 3 × 3.05 ⎠
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 403
P1 P1
1 .57 m
P
6
4m
P
6
P
6
P 12 m 4m
P
6
P
6m 6
4m
P
θ 6
3 .05 m 3 .05 m
(a ) (b )
Fig. 7.33
When the effect of wind load is taken into account the permissible stresses are
exceeded by 33 13 percent.
The additional axial thrust in the column due to the wind is less than one-third,
the vertical loads in the column. Therefore, the column is designed for vertical
load only.
Step 5. Design of Column
Total vertical load supported by one column = 360 kN
Length of one panel of column = 4 m
Effective length of column = 4 m
Assume allowable stress in axial compression for steel
fy = 250 N/mm2
σ = 100 N/mm2
⎛ 360 × 1000 ⎞
∴ Area required = ⎜ ⎟ = 3600 mm
2
⎝ 100 ⎠
From ISI Handbook No. 1, select ISHB 200, @ 373 N/m
404 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 4 × 1000 ⎞
Maximum slenderness ratio is ⎜ ⎟ = 88.69
⎝ 45.1 ⎠
From IS : 833–1994
Allowable stress in axial compression for seel fy = 250 N/mm2
= 91.44 N/mm2
Safe load carrying capacity of column
⎛ 4754 × 91.44 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 434.71 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
< 360 kN. Hence, safe.
Wind force in each panel
P 19
= = = 6.33 kN
3 3
The wind force in each panel is assumed to act at its two ends as shown in Fig.
7.33 (b). The maximum shear due to wind occurs in the lowermost panel. Therefore
the horizontal shear due to wind in the lowermost panel
⎛ 6.33 ⎞
P = ⎜ 51.50 + 5 × ⎟ = 67.325 kN
⎝ 2 ⎠
The horizontal shear due to wind is assumed to be distributed equal in all the
columns. The horizontal shears in the diagonal truss bracings are obtained by
resolving the horizontal shears in the planes of diagonal bracings are shown in
Fig. 7.34.
The maximum horizontal shears in a diagonal truss bracing in a panel occurs
when the direction of wind is as shown in Fig. 7.34 (a).
∴ Maximum horizontal shear in a panel
⎛F⎞ ⎛ 67.325 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ = 22.44 kN
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
This bracing is provided between two columns.
∴ Transverse shear due to axial load in two columns
⎛ 2.5 ⎞
= ⎜ × 2 × 360 ⎟ = 18 kN
⎝ 100 ⎠
Total shear in the diagonal bracing
= (22.44 +18) = 40.44 kN
Step 6. Diagonal bracing
The diagonal member of bracing subjected to tension is considered as effective
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 405
⎛ 4 ⎞
tan θ = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.327, θ = 55°, sec θ = 1.662.
⎝ 3.05 ⎠
F
F 3 F F F
6 6 3 3 6
F
F F F 6
6 r = 3 .05 m r 3 6 3 3
F 2
6
F
6
W ind
r = 3 .05 m F r 3
F 6 F
2 6 F
6 F
3 3
F 6
F F F
F 6 3 3
6 6
3
(a ) (b )
Fig. 7.34
⎛ 67.21 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 336.89 mm
2
⎝ 1.331 × 150 ⎠
From ISI Handbook No. 1, provide ISA 65 mm × 65 mm × 6 mm for the
diagonal bracing member.
Use 16 mm diameter rivets
Net area provided = A2 + kA2
1
A1 = (65 – 175 – 2 × 6) × 6 = 267 mm2
⎛ 3 A1 ⎞ ⎛ 3 × 267 ⎞
k = ⎜ 3A + A ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.683
⎝ 1 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 × 267 + 372 ⎠
Anet = (267 + 0.683 × 372) = 521.076 mm2
> 336.89 mm2. Hence, safe.
Step 7. Horizontal bracing
Horizontal bracing is subjected to compression
406 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ l ⎞ ⎛ 2592.5 ⎞
⎜r ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 167.26
⎝ min ⎠ ⎝ 15.5 ⎠
Allowable stress in axial compression with wind for steel
fy = 250 N.mm2
= 1.33 × 38.1 N/mm2
Force carrying capacity of the member
⎡ π (23.5)2 × 100 ⎤
= ⎢ × ⎥ = 43.35 kN
⎣4 10000 ⎦
Strength of rivet in bearing
⎛ 300 ⎞
= ⎜ 6 × 23.5 × ⎟ = 42.3 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Rivet value, R = 423 kN
⎛ 360 ⎞
Number of rivets = ⎜ ⎟ = 8.5
⎝ 42.3 ⎠
Provide 14 rivets.
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 407
The connection of column to tank is made in such a manner that the centre line
of the column, the centre line of balcony girder, web, and the outside of the first
tank ring are concurrent. Two ISA 90 mm × 60 mm × 10 mm are used for the
connection. The connection of column to the tank is shown in Fig. 7.35.
Tan k
2x7
2 2.0 R ive ts
W eb
2 IS A 9 0 m m H e m isph erica l
60 m m x 10 mm b ottom
IS H B 2 00
@ 3 7.3 kg /m
Fig. 7.35
Problems
7.1 Design an over head riveted steel rectangular flat bottom tank of capacity
1,20,000 litres. The staging consists of six columns. The bottom of the
tank is 10 mm above the ground level. Design the supporting beams also.
7.2 Design the staging for the rectangular steel tank of Problem 7.1. Take
intensity of wind pressure at 1.50 kN/m2.
7.3 Design an elevated steel tank, circular in shape for 2,40,000 litres capacity
with circular girder supported on eight number of columns. The shape of
bottom may be assumed suitably. The roof and staging for the tank need
not be designed.
408 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
7.4 Design the staging for the circular steel tank of Problem 7.3. The bottom
of the tank is 12.60 m above the ground level. Take misty of wind pressure
as 1.50 kN/m2.
7.5 An elevated rectangular steel water tank, open at the top, is required to
have a capacity of 2,00,000 litres with a free board of not less than 150
mm. The bottom of the tank is to be at 12 m above the ground level.
Using 1.25 m × 1.25 m standard pressed steel plates and suitable allowable
stresses design the tank its stays and supporting beams.
7.6 Design an elevated circular steel tank to hold 2,50,000 litres of water.
The staging and the circular supporting beam need not be designed.
7.7 Design an overhead rectangular steel tank with flat bottom of 1,00,000
litres capacity. The staging consists of six columns. Also design the
supporting beams. The staging and foundation need not be designed.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The bunkers are defined as large size shallow containers to store grains, cement
and coal. The bunkers are also known as shallow bins. In the shallow bins or
bunkers, the plane of rupture intersects the free surface of the material stored,
before it strikes the opposite side of the container. The steel bunkers are commonly
used for storing coal. The steel bunkers are used in loco-running sheds and power
plants. The storage structures are generally described as bins. The shape of bunker
is decided by the position of plant and the need for natural light inside the power
station more than the capacity requirement.
In general, the shapes of bunkers are kept square and rectangular in plan.
The deep steel girders are provided in the upper portion of the bunkers in the
direction parallel to the longitudinal sides of the bunkers as shown in Fig. 8.1.
These girders are known as main or longitudinal girders. These main girders are
supported on end girders. The end girders are placed parallel to the width of the
bunkers. The sloping or inclined plates are provided in the bottom portions of the
bunkers. The stiffeners are provided with the inclined plates. The stiffeners are
connected to the longitudinal girders at the top and bottom plates at the bottom.
In order to keep the bottom of bunkers self-cleaning, the inclination of bottom
plates kept more than the angle of repose of the material. The openings for discharge
of material are provided at the bottom of the bunkers. These openings are kept
about 500 mm square in size.
In the deep bins or silos, the plane of rupture drawn from the bottom edge does
not intersect the free surface of material stored. Ordinarily, a bin may be called as
a silo, if its depth is greater than twice the breadth. Silos are generally circular in
cross-section.
The material stored in bunkers or silos exerts horizontal pressure on its sides
in addition to the vertical forces. The horizontal pressure varies during the filling
410 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
and the emptying processes. It also varies with the location of the discharge hole.
This horizontal pressure is determined by the conventional methods based on
C ro ss g ird er
L on gitud in al
(M ain) girde r H o rizon ta l
H o rizon ta l
b ea m b ea m
G un ite
lining
1 0 cm th ick
In clin ed b un ker
p la tes
B o tto m plate
L on gitud in al
g ird er
B o tto m
o pe ning
B o tto m L en gth
p la te
B o tto m
o pe ning
E n d girde r
Fig. 8.1
Janssen’s theory and Airy’s theory. In actual cases these forces increase during
filling and emptying. The increase in forces is about two to eight times that
determined by Janssen’s theory. These forces also vary with powdery or granular
nature of the material.
The planes of rupture in shallow and deep bins have been shown in Fig. 8.2.
The particular size, moisture content, method of filling, method of emptying
and the duration of storage of the material are the parameters which effect the
design of bins. The powdery or granular nature of material is decided depending
on the particle size and the angle of repose. The shape of material may change due
DESIGN OF STEEL AND BUNKERS AND SILOS 411
P lan e of
ru ptu re P lan e of
ru ptu re
A n gle of
re po se
Funnel flow bunkers and silos may be designed in order to overcome arching
and piping effect of the stored material.
h
f = μ´p h μ´p h
pv
ph ph ph
pv + dp v
Fig. 8.3
412 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
able to apply Rankine or Coulomb’s lateral pressure theory. The vertical walls of the
bin shown in Fig. 8.3 are subjected to vertical force and the horizontal pressure.
Consider an elementary layer of thickness, dh at a depth, h from the top. Let pv
and (pv + pv) be the vertical intensities of pressures acting at the top and bottom of
the layer, respectively. Let ph be the horizontal pressure and f be the stress due to
friction. Considering the equilibrium of the vertical forces.
pv . A + w . A . dh = (pv + dpv) . A + f . P . dh
or pv . A + w . A . dh = (pv + dpv) . A + (μ´ . ph) . P . dh ...(i)
where, w = Unit weight of material stored
A = Cross-sectional area of stored material
P = Interior perimeter of the bin
⎛A⎞
R = Hydraulic mean depth of the section ⎜ ⎟
⎝P⎠
μ´ = tan φ´
φ ´ = Angle of friction of the walls of the bin
φ = Angle of internal friction of stored material
From the expression (i),
Ph
w . dh = dpv+ μ´ ⋅ dh
R
⎛ P ⎞
or dpv = ⎜ w − μ´ h ⎟ dh ...(ii)
⎝ R ⎠
∴ ph = K . pv
⎛ ph ⎞
∴ dpv = ⎜ w − μ´ K ⋅ ⎟ dh ...(iii)
⎝ R⎠
dpv
or ∫⎛ pv ⎞
= ∫ dh
⎜⎝ w − μ´ K ⋅ R ⎟⎠
⎛ p ⎞
log ⎜ w − μ´K ⋅ v ⎟
⎝ R⎠
∴ = h + constant
K
–μ´
R
⎛ p ⎞ K
or log ⎜ w − μ´K ⋅ v ⎟ = μ´ ⋅h +C
⎝ R⎠ R
when h = 0, pv = 0 ∴ C = log w
DESIGN OF STEEL AND BUNKERS AND SILOS 413
⎛ K ⎞
⎜ w − μ´ pv ⋅ R ⎟ K
∴ log ⎜ ⎟ = – μ´ .h
⎝ w ⎠ R
K
μ´ K −μ´ ⋅h
1– ⋅ ⋅ pv = e R
w R
∴ pv =
w⋅R
1−e
−
( μ´K ⋅h
R ) ...(8.1)
μ´K
∴ ph = K . pv
∴ ph =
w⋅R
1−e
−
( μ´K ⋅h
R ) ...(8.2)
μ´
or ph =
w⋅R
μ´
−
1 + e Z0( h
) ...(8.3)
⎛ R ⎞
where Z0 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ μ´K ⎠
D
= ph ⋅ ...(iv)
2
where D = Diameter of the silo
In addition to the hoop tension, the vertical wall will be subjected to vertical
pressure transferred due to friction Pw.
h h ⎛ μ´K ⋅h ⎞
−
Pw = ∫ h
μ´⋅ p dh = ∫ w ⋅ R ⎜
⎜⎝
1 − e R
⎟ dh
⎟⎠
0 0
∴ pw
⎡
⎢
= w⋅R h−
Ρ −
1−e R ⎥ (
μ´K ⋅h ⎤
) ...(8.4)
⎣⎢ μ´ K ⎥⎦
⎡
⎢
= w⋅ A h−
R −
1−e R
μ´K ⋅h
( )⎤⎥
⎢ μ´ K ⎥
⎣ ⎦
= (w . A . h – Apw) ...(8.5)
⎛ 1 − sin φ ⎞ ⎛ 1 + sin φ ⎞
The pressure ratio, K lies between ⎜ ⎟ and ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ 1 + sin φ ⎠ ⎝ 1 − sin φ ⎠
Its exact value is found experimentally only. Some codes specify the values of
pressure ratio, (K = Kf) and angle of friction as given in Table 8.2.
DESIGN OF STEEL AND BUNKERS AND SILOS 415
Table 8.2
S. No. Material Pressure ratio Angle wall friction
during φ during
Filling Emptying Filling Emptying
1. Granular material 0.5 1.0 0.75 φ 0.6 φ
s > 0.2 mm
2. Powdery material 0.5 1.0 1.0 φ 1.0 φ
s < 0.6 mm
⎛ W − μ´Ph ⎞
∴ Rn = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ μ ⋅ sin θ + cos θ ⎠
Resolving the forces acting on the wedge in the horizontal direction
Ph + μ . Rn cos θ = Rn . sin θ
⎛ Ph ⎞
∴ Rn = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ sin θ − μcos θ ⎠
From the expressions (ii) and (iii),
⎛ W − μ´Ph ⎞ ⎛ Ph ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ μsin θ + cos θ ⎠ ⎝ sin θ − μcos θ ⎠
416 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎡ W (sin θ − μcos θ) ⎤
∴ Ph = ⎢ (μ + μ´ ) sin θ + (1 − μμ´) cos θ ⎥ ...(iv)
⎣ ⎦
A C
W
P lan e o f
ru ptu re
μP R μR
h
Pn
R2 R1
θ
B
b
Fig. 8.4
wh2 ⎡ (tan θ − μ) ⎤
Ph = ×⎢ ⎥ ...(8.6)
⎢⎣ (μ + μ´ ) ⋅ tan θ + (1 − μμ´) tan θ ⎥⎦
2 2
⎛ wh2 u ⎞
or Ph = ⎜⎜ 2 ⋅ v ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
where, u = (tan θ – μ)
v = (μ + μ´) tan2 θ + (1– μμ´) tan θ
dPh
For maximum value of Ph, =0
dθ
⎡ (tan θ − μ) ⎤
∴ ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ (μ + μ´ ) tan θ + (1 − μμ´) tan θ ⎦⎥
2
⎡ sec2 θ ⎤
= ⎢ 2 2 ⎥
⎣ 2(μ + μ) tan θ ⋅ sec θ + (1 − μμ )sec θ ⎦
After rearranging and simplifying
DESIGN OF STEEL AND BUNKERS AND SILOS 417
μ(1 − μμ )
tan2 θ– 2μ . tan θ – =0
(μ + μ)
1/ 2
⎡ μ(1 + μ2 ) ⎤
∴ tan θ = μ + ⎢ ⎥ ...(8.7)
⎣ (μ + μ) ⎦
Substituting the value of tan θ in Eq. 8.6 and simplifying the expression
2
wh2 ⎡ 1 ⎤
∴ Ph = ⎢ ⎥ ...(8.8)
2 ⎢
⎣ (1 + μ2 ) + μ (μ + μ´) ⎥⎦
Ph represents the total horizontal force per unit length of the wall at a depth, h.
The pressure per unit area
2
dph ⎡ 1 ⎤
Ph = = wh ⋅ ⎢ ⎥
dh ⎢⎣ (1 + μ ) (
2 + μ μ + μ´
) ⎥⎦
...(8.9)
Substituting μ = tan φ, and μ´ = tan φ, then Eq. 8.9 may be written as follows :
2
⎡ cos φ ⎤
Ph = w ⋅ h ⋅ ⎢ ⎥
⎣1 + sin φ sec φ sin( φ + φ´) ⎦
...(8.10)
Vertical load carried by wall is Pw. Then
Pw = μ´ . Ph
Pw = μ´ . p
Total load carried by the wall will be perimeter times Pw. The maximum depth
upto which the shallow bin acts as a bunker may be found as follows:
hmax μ(1 + μ 2 )
= tan θ = μ +
b (μ + μ´)
⎡ μ(1 + μ 2 ) ⎤
or hmax = b ⎢μ + ⎥ ...(8.11)
⎢⎣ ( μ + μ´) ⎥⎦
It is to note that Eq. 8.9 is applicable for maximum depth h = hmax as given by
Eq. 8.11. When the depth of bin, h is greater than hmax then the bin becomes a
deep bin (silo).
A silo is shown in Fig. 8.5. In case of silo, the plane of rupture intersects opposite
wall at C.
CD = (h – b tan θ) ...(v)
1
∴ W = w .bh – 2 .w .b .b tan θ
418 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
A D
W
C
μP n
R μR
Pn
R2
R1
B θ
b
Fig. 8.5
1
or W = wb . [h – 2 b tan θ] ...(vi)
As determined for the shallow bin, from the expression (vi),
⎡ W (sin θ − μ cos θ) ⎤
Ph = ⎢ μ + μ sin θ + (1 − μμ ) cos θ) ⎥ ...(vii)
⎣ ⎦
Substituting the value of W and simplifying
⎡ b tan θ ⎤
wb ⋅ ⎢h − (tan θ − μ)
Ph = ⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
(μ + μ´) tan θ + (1 – μμ´)
⎡⎛ bμ ⎞ b ⎤
wb ⋅ ⎢⎜ h + ⎟ tan θ − tan2 θ − hμ ⎥
⎣⎝ 2⎠ 2 ⎦
∴ Ph =
(μ + μ´) tan θ + (1 − μμ´)
⎛ dP ⎞
For maximum value of Ph, ⎜ h ⎟ = 0.
⎝ dθ ⎠
⎡⎛ bμ ⎞ b ⎤ ⎛ bμ ⎞ 2 2
2
⎢⎜⎝ h + 2 ⎟⎠ tan θ − 2 tan θ − hμ ⎥ ⎜⎝ h + ⎟⎠ sec θ − b tan θ sec θ
⎣ ⎦ = 2
or
(μ + μ´) tan θ + (1 − μμ´) (μ + μ´) sec2 θ
DESIGN OF STEEL AND BUNKERS AND SILOS 419
1 ⎡ 2h ⎤
∴ tan θ = × ⎢ −(1 − μμ´) + (1 − μμ´)(1 + μ 2 ) + (1 + μ 2 )(μ + μ´) ⎥
(μ + μ´) ⎣ b ⎦
...(8.12)
Substituting the value of tan θ and simplifying
wb2 ⎡ 2h ⎤
Ph = 2 ⎢ (μ + μ´) + (1 − (μμ´) − 1 + μ ⎥ ...(8.13)
2(μ + μ´) ⎣ b ⎦
⎡ 1 + μ2 ⎤
W ⋅ b2 ⎢1 − ⎥
∴ Ph = ⎢ 2h ⎥ ...(8.14)
2( μ + μ )´ ⎢ ( μ + μ´) + (1 − ( μμ´) ⎥
⎣ b ⎦
In case of rectangular silos, b may be adopted as length of the side adjacent to
the wall on which pressure to be determined. The vertical load taken by wall is Pw
= μ´ . Ph´ . The total vertical load is perimeter × Pw.
The values of μ and μ´ for some common materials have been given in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3
S.No. Material μ μ´
1 Wheat 0.466 0.443
2 Maize 0.521 0.432
3 Cement 0.316 0.554
4 Bituminous coal 0.700 0.700
Contd.
420 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
wh ⋅ cos2 φ
ph = ...(8.15)
⎡ sin φ + φ´)sin φ ⎤
⎢1 + ⎥
⎣ cos φ´ ⎦
(ii) Maximum pressure
In deep bins, the maximum values of the horizontal pressure on the wall (ph)
the vertical pressure on the horizontal section of stored material (pv), and the
vertical load transferred to the wall per unit area due to friction may be adopted as
given in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5
Type of pressure Maximum values of pressures during
Filling Emptying
R w⋅R
Pv w⋅
K f ⋅ μ´ f K eμ´e
w⋅R w⋅R
Ph μ´ f μ´e
Pw w.R w.R
where,
w = Unit weight of material stored
R = Area/perimeter ratio
Kf = Pressure ratio during filling (= 0.5)
Ke = Pressure ratio during emptying (= 1.0)
μf´ = Coefficient of wall friction during filling
μe´ = Coefficient of wall friction emptying.
DESIGN OF STEEL AND BUNKERS AND SILOS 421
The approximate value of R for the square bins may be adopted as follows:
R = 0.283 a
where, a = sides of the square bin.
The approximate value R for the rectangular bins may be taken as below :
(i) For obtaining pressure on the short side
R = 0.283 a
(ii) For obtaining pressure on the long side
0.283 (2ab − a 2 )
R =
b
ph
b p h d uring
e m p tyin g
p h d uring
h fillin g
1 .2 b o r
0 .75 H
(a ) h (b )
where, a and b are the short and long sides of the rectangular bin.
(iii) Variation of pressures along the depth
The variation of pv, ph and pwwith depth for deep bins is shown in Fig. 8.6. It is
obtained from Eq. 8.16 as given below :
pi (h) = pi (max) . ⎡
h ⎤
− ...(8.16)
⎢⎣1 − e z0 ⎥⎦
Suffix i stands for v, h or w corresponding to the pressure to be calculated.
w⋅R
Value of z0 during filling =
K f ⋅ μ´f
Value of z0 during emptying = Ri . Ke . μe ´
(iv) Governing cases for loading Governing cases for loading are as follows :
Pressure Granular material Powdery material
ph Emptying Filling-emptying
pv Filling Filling
pw Emptying Filling-emptying
422 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎡ B 2 ph ( L2 − B 2 )I B ⋅ L ⎤
M = – ⎢ ph + ⋅ ⎥ ...(i)
⎣ 12 12 L ⋅ I B + B ⋅ I L ⎦
where,
IB = Moment of inertia of the wall along the width, and
IL = Moment of inertia of the wall along the length.
The second term in the expression (i) is due to the distribution of unbalance
moments at the ends of both the walls. On simplifying, the expression (i) reduces
as follows :
ph ⎡ L3 ⋅ I B + B 3 ⋅ I L ⎤
M = ⎢ ⎥ ...(i)
12 ⎣ L ⋅ I B ⋅ + B ⋅ I L ⎦
In case IB = IL
ph ⎡ L3 + B 3 ⎤
then M = ...(ii)
12 ⎢⎣ L + B ⎦⎥
ph 2
or M = – (B + L2 – BL) ...(iii)
12
For square bunker L = B, then
ph ⋅ L2
M = = – 0.083 ph . L2 ...(iv)
8
Positive moment at the centre of rectangular bunker
B2 ( 2 2 )
M(centre) = ph ⋅ − ph B + L − BL
8 12
ph ( B 2 + 2BL − 2L2 )
= ...(v)
24 12
For square bunker,
ph ⋅ L2
M(centre) = ...(vi)
24
(ii) Rectangular bunkers with trough-spaced bottom
(a) Symmetrical. The cross-section of bunker is symmetrical about the centre
line as shown in Fig. 8.7.
DESIGN OF STEEL AND BUNKERS AND SILOS 423
Consider the unit length of bunker. The bursting forces acting at the various
levels as shown in Fig. 8.7 are found as follows :
PH
1
W1
h1
Ph
1
PH PH W2
2 3
B W3
C .G .
h2 Ph
R1 2
R2 Ph
3
O PH C
4
b1
(i) (ii)
(a )
TB
PNB
RB
B
H2
PN
h2
P NC
RC
H4
C
W3 TC
(I) (II)
(b )
Fi.g. 8.7
Ph1
PH1 = ...(8.18 a)
3
2Ph1
PH1 = ...(8.18 b)
3
By taking the moment about, the intersection of vertical through B and
horizontally through C.
424 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
1 ⎡ W1 ⋅ b1 2b Ph ⋅ h2 Ph3 ⋅ h3 ⎤
PH 2 = ⎢ + W2 ⋅ 1 + W3 ⋅ b1 − 2 − ⎥ ...(8.18 c)
h2 ⎣ 2 3 2 3 ⎦
By taking the moment about B
1 ⎡W1 ⋅ b1 W2 ⋅ 2b1 W3 ⋅ b1 Ph2 ⋅ h2 2Ph3 ⋅ h2 ⎤
PH4 = + + + + ...(8.18 d)
h2 ⎢⎣ 2 3 3 2 2
⎥
⎦
The forces acting on the sloping sides are obtained as follows. In case, PnB and
PnC are the normal pressures at B and C, then the total normal road acting on the
sloping side at the centroid of pressure diagram is given by
⎛ P + PnC ⎞
RN = ⎜ nB ⎟⎠ ⋅ h3 ⋅ cosec α ...(8.19 a)
⎝ 2
Pn = Pv cos2 α + Pb. sin2 α + Ws . cos α ...(8.19b)
Pt = (Pv– Ph) sin α . cos α + Wi . sin α ...(8.19 c)
where Ws = Self-weight of the hopper
α = Angle of inclination of the hopper to the horizontal.
The normal and tangential components of forces at B and C are needed in the
design. These components are obtained as under :
RB = R1. cos α – PH2 cos α ...(8.20 a)
RN = RB + RC ...(8.20 e)
(b) Asymmetrical. The cross-sectional of bunker is not symmetrical about
the centre line as shown in Fig. 8.8.
A
PH
PH 8
1
W1
h1 PH
W2 1
PH PH PH PH
2 3 7 6
B
W3
R1 R2 h2 PH
P H2
3
O PH C PH
4 5
b1 2b 2 2b 2
(a ) (b )
Fig. 8.8
DESIGN OF STEEL AND BUNKERS AND SILOS 425
Consider the unit length of bunker. The bursting forces acting at the various
levels as shown in Fig. 8.8 are found as follows :
PH
PH = 1
...(8.21 a)
1
3
2Ph1
PH = PH7 = ...(8.21 b)
3
3
1 ⎡ W4 ⋅ b2 2W5 ⋅ b3 Ph ⋅ h2 Ph3 ⋅ h2 ⎤
PH5 = ⎢ + + W3 ⋅ b3 − 2 + ⎥ ...(8.21 e)
h2 ⎣ 2 3 2 3 ⎦
1
(iii) Silos. The silos are designed for hoop tension equal to 2 . ph diameter.
The longitudinal tension in the wall may be avoided by supporting the silos at the
waste. In case the silos are supported above the waste, the longitudinal tension per
unit length of the wall may be determined for the weight of material and the self-
weight below the plane under consideration.
Consider any horizontal plane AD at a depth h below the top surface of the material
intersecting with the conical hopper as shown in Fig. 8.2. Let Wg be the weight of
the material and W c be the self-weight of the cone below this plane.
The meridional tension N is given by
N . sin α . 2πb = pv . πb2 + Wg + Wc
⎛ 2 ⎞
N = ⎜ pv ⋅ πb + Wg + Wc ⎟ ...(8.24)
⎝ 2πb ⋅ sin α ⎠
Let pn be the normal pressure and ws be the self-weight of the cone per unit
area. Then from Fig. 8.9,
pn . EG = pv . EF cos α + ph . FG sin α + wv. EG cos α
pv = ph – cos2 α + ph . sin2 α + ws ...(8.25)
The hoop tension T at any plane
T = pn . rn = b . cosec α
O
rn
pv
b b E F
N Pv N
pn
Wg + Wc pn
G
α α α
(a ) (b )
Fig. 8.9
The vertical pressure pv and horizontal pressure pb for deep bins are determined
from the expressions developed earlier. pv for shallows bins on any horizontal
section is equal to the weight of the material above the section. pn for shallow bins
is found from Eq. 8.15 by substituting values of φ and φ´.
(ii) Pyramidal hoppers. Pyramidal hoppers are subjected to bending
moment and direct tensions besides meridional tensions along the slope. The hoppers
of a rectangular bin is analyzed by considering each horizontal strip as a continuous
frame subjected to the normal pressure pn. The meridional tension shall be calculated
in the same manner as for the conical hopper.
(iii) Level bottom. The bottom of bin is kept and hopper is not provided
separately. The vertical load for the design of level bottom of a deep bins is equal to
(i) the gross weight of the material stored to the full capacity of the bin minus the
total vertical load carried by the walls due to friction during filling or (ii) the
weight of the material of the bin standing upto a height corresponding to that of a
shallow bin, whichever is more.
DESIGN OF STEEL AND BUNKERS AND SILOS 427
symmetrical about the centre line. As such the calculations have been done for
half portion of the bunker. It is assumed that the mean size of particle is greater
than > 0.2 mm and the bunker is filled upto the level with the top. From Table 8.2,
for granular material with φ as 35°.
For filling, φf´ = 0.75,φ = 26.25°
For emptying φe´ = 0.60, φ = 21.0°
Pressure ratio
For filling, Kf = 0.5
For emptying, Kc = 1.0
Angle of friction on the wall of bunker
For filling, μf́ = tan φf´ = 0.4931
For emptying, μe´ = tan φe ´ = 0.3839
6m 4m
4m
6 mm
p late
8 mm
p late
4m
2 .5 m 2 .5 m C o lu m n s
Fig. 8.10
A ⎛ 12 × 6 ⎞
R = = =2
P ⎜⎝ 2(12 + 6) ⎟⎠
Z 0e R ⎛ 2 ⎞
= = ⎜ ⎟ = 5.209
μ´e ⋅ K e ⎝ 0.3839 × 1.0 ⎠
Z0 f R ⎛ 2 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 8.113
μ´f ⋅ K f ⎝ 0.4931 × 0.5 ⎠
h
is more for emptying. Therefore, the pressures developed during emptying
Z 0e
the bunker are high.
h ⎛ 4 ⎞
At B, Z 0e = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.768
⎝ 5.209 ⎠
∴ (1 − e−h / z0 ) = 0.586
Horizontal pressure at B from Eq. 8.3
⎛ 8×4 ⎞
ph = ⎜ ⎟ × 0.536 = 22.34 kN/m
2
⎝ 0.3839 ⎠
h
⎛ 8×2 ⎞
At C, = ⎜ = 1.536
Z 0e ⎝ 5.209 ⎟⎠
∴ (1 − e−h / z0 ) = 0.785
Horizontal pressure at C,
8×2
hh = × 0.785 = 32.72 kN/m2
0.3839
(0 + 22.34)
Ph1 = × 4 = 44.68 kN/m
2
Ph2 = 22.34 × 4 = 89.36 kN/m
(32.72 − 22.34)
Ph3 = × 4 + 20.76 kN/m
2
Step 4. Bursting forces on the bunker
1
PH1 = × Ph1 = 14.89 kN/m
3
430 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
2
PH3 = × Ph1 = 29.78 kN/m
3
The moment about 0, Eq. 8.18 (c)
PH2 42.84
∴ = kN/m = 10.71 kN/m
4
Take moment about B, Eq. 8.18 (d)
483.25
PH4 = = 120.81 kN/m
4
PH1 + PH3 + PH4 − PH2 = 154.78 kN/m
⎡ 2 2⎤
At B, pnB = ⎢32 × ⎛⎜ 2.5 ⎞⎟ + 22.34 × ⎛⎜ 4 ⎞⎟ ⎥ kN/m2
⎣ ⎝ 4.517 ⎠ ⎝ 4.717 ⎠ ⎦
= 8.99 + 16.06 = 25.05 kN/m2
DESIGN OF STEEL AND BUNKERS AND SILOS 431
2 2
⎛ 2.5 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
At C, pnC = 64 × ⎜ + 32.72 × ⎜
⎝ 4.717 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 4.717 ⎟⎠
= 17.98 + 23.52 = 41.50 kN/m2
Tangential pressure from Eq. 8.19 (c)
(32 − 22.34) × 4 × 2.5
At B, pt B = = 4.34 kN/m2
4.717 × 4.717
32 2 5.0 5
4 .34 2 5.0 5
B
2 2.3 4 B
4 1.5
4 .71 7 m 64
4 1.5
3 2.7 2 C
C
1 4.0 6
(a ) (b )
Fig. 8.11
Pressure at point B and C are shown in Fig. 8.11 (a), Normal pressure diagram
is shown in Fig. 8.11 (b).
(iii) Normal load on trough wall without self-wt.
⎛ 25.05 + 41.50 ⎞
RN = ⎜ ⎟⎠ ×4.717 = 156.96 kN
⎝ 2
Assuming self-wt. of trough plate = 3.6 kN
Normal component of self-wt. = 3.05 kN
Total normal load = 160.01 kN
Tangential component = 1.90 kN
Step 6: Design of plate in trough portion
Provide stiffeners at 600 mm spacing. The plate bends in two directions.
The moment is reduced to half
Let the thickness of plate be 8 mm
Maximum bending moment
⎛ 2⎞
= ⎜ 41.5 × 0.60 ⎟ = 0.6225 kN-m
⎝ 12 × 2 ⎠
432 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 0.6225 × 106 × 6 ⎞
Bending stress = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 97.27 N/mm
2
⎝ 600 × 82
< 165 N/mm2
Step 7. Design of stiffeners in trough portions
Bending moment at the mid-point per 1 m length
⎡ 2 2 ⎤
= ⎢ 25.05 × 4.717 + (41.5 − 25.05 × 4.717 ) ⎥
⎣ 8 2×8 ⎦
= 92.55 kN-m
For 600 mm spacing of stiffeners
B.M. = 92.55 × 0.60 = 55.53 kN-m
Direct tension at the mid-point of the stiffener
⎛ 4.34 + 14.06 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ + 1.9⎟ × 4.717 × 0.6 kN
2 ⎠
⎛ 8085.5 × 104 ⎞
Ixx = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 627.269 × 103 mm3
128.9
Maximum bending stress
⎛ 92.55 × 106 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 147.54 N/mm2
627.269 ⎠
< 165 N/mm2
Actual tensile stress
⎛ 31.42 × 108 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 4.284 N/mm2
7335 ⎠
In adddition to the trough stiffeners, the trough plate is also stiffened by plate
stiffeners at 600 mm spacing. The bending moment is made half for two way
bending of the plate.
⎛ 2 ⎞
Bending moment = ⎜ 1 × 41.5 × 0.6 × 0.6⎟ = 0.3735 kN-m
⎝2 12 ⎠
DESIGN OF STEEL AND BUNKERS AND SILOS 433
⎛ 6⎞
Z = ⎜ 0.3735 × 10 ⎟ = 2263.64 mm4
⎝ 165 ⎠
1/ 2
⎡ 2263.64 × 6 ⎤
Required depth, d = ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ = 36.85 mm
10
Provide 10 mm × 45 mm plate.
Step 8. Vertical wall place
Between columns at spacing of 4 m, horizontal beams are used at A and B as
shown in Fig. 8.10. The vertical wall plate is stiffened by the vertical stiffeners
and plate stiffeners. The bending moment is made half for two way bending of the
wall plate. Let the thickness of wall plate be 6 mm.
Horizontal pressure at B
= 22.34 kN/m2
⎛ 22.34 × 0.602 ⎞
Bending moment = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 0.335 kN-m
2 × 12
⎛ 0.335 × 106 × 6 ⎞
Bending stress = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 93.06 N/mm
2
⎝ 600 × 62
< 165 N/mm2
Step 9. Vertical Stiffeners
Horizontal pressure at A = 0
Horizontal pressure at B = 22.34 kN/m2
Length of stiffener = 4m
⎛ 2⎞
Bending moment = ⎜ 22.34 × 4 ⎟ = 22.34 kN-m
⎝ 2×8 ⎠
Try tee-section ISST 200, @ 284 N/m with 24 mm wide plate. The properties of
built-up section are as follows. [See Fig. 8.12 (b)].
IS S T 25 0, IS S T 20 0
@ 3 75 N /m @ 2 84 N /m
4 0 t = 3 20 m m 4 0 t = 2 40 m m
Fig. 8.12
⎛ 22.34 × 106 ⎞
Bending stress = ⎜ = 67.55 N/mm2
⎝ 330.7 × 103 ⎟⎠
< 165 N/mm2.
Step 10. Design of horizontal beams
(i) Horizontal beam at A
Length of beam = 4m
PH1 = 14.89 kN/m
⎛ 2⎞
Bending moment = ⎜ 14.89 × 4 ⎟ = 29.78 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
Section modulus required
⎛ 6⎞
= ⎜ 29.78 × 10 ⎟ = 180.48 ×103 mm3
⎝ 165 ⎠
Provide ISLB 225, @ 235 N/m. The section modulus provided is 222.40 × 103 mm3.
(ii) Horizontal beam at B
Length of beam = 4m
PH2 = 10.71 kN/m
Bending moment = 59.56 kN-m
Section modulus required
⎛ 6⎞
= ⎜ 59.56 × 10 ⎟ = 360.96 × l03 mm3
⎝ 165 ⎠
Provide ISLB 325, @ 431 kg/m. The section modulus provided is 6077.103 mm3,
which one has been kept more to take up additional moments due to downward
vertical load.
Example 8.2 Design a circular steel silo of 12 m eight and 4 m internal diameter
to store cement of bulk density 15.50 kN/m3 angle of internal friction 25°.
The dimensions of silo is shown in Fig. 8.13 (a) with stiffeners.
Solution
Design:
Step 1. The silo is designed for symmetrical discharge. It is assumed that the mean
size of particle is less than or equal to 0.06 mm. From Table 8.2 for powdery material.
For filling φf´ = 1.0 φ
For emptying φs´ = 1.0 φ
Pressure ratio
For filling, Kf = 0.5
DESIGN OF STEEL AND BUNKERS AND SILOS 435
4m
IS A 6 5 m m x 6 5 m m x 6 m m
a t 1 .5 m sp a cing
IS A 6 5 m m x 6 5 m m
12 m x 6 mm
8 m m plate
65 m m
25 m m
IS A 6 5 m m × 6 5 m m
× 6m m
3m 8 m m plate
12 m m 1m
1 .7 1 .7
m m 25 m m
0 .3 m
(a ) (b )
Fig. 8.13
πd 4 / 4 4
R = = = 1.0
πd 14
wR = 1.55 ×1.0 = 1.55
R ⎛ 1 ⎞
Z0e = =⎜ = 3.064
μ´e K s ⎝ 0.4662 × 0.7 ⎟⎠
R ⎛ 1 ⎞
Z0f = =⎜ = 4.289
μ´f K f ⎝ 0.4663 × 0.5 ⎟⎠
h
is more for emptying condition.
Z0
For vertical pressure and powdery material, severe case is during filling.
436 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 15.5 ⎞
ph = ⎜ × 0.624⎟ = 20.74 kN/m2
⎝ 0.4663 ⎠
⎛ 20.74 ⎞
pv = ⎜ = 41.48 kN/m2
⎝ 0.5 ⎟⎠
(ii) At 6 m from top
h ⎛ 6 ⎞
= ⎜ = 0.958
Z0e ⎝ 3.064 ⎟⎠
⎛ −h ⎞
⎜⎝ z0 e ⎟ = 0.859
1−e ⎠
⎛ 15.5 ⎞
ph = ⎜ × 0.859⎟ = 28.55 kN/m2
⎝ 0.4663 ⎠
⎛ 28.55 ⎞
pv= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 57.10 kN/m2
0.5 ⎠
(iii) At 9 m from top
h ⎛ 9 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 2.937
Z0e 3.064 ⎠
⎛ −h ⎞
= 0.947
⎜⎝ z0 e ⎟
1−e ⎠
⎛ 15.5 × 0.947 ⎞
ph = ⎜ = 31.48 kN/m2
⎝ 0.4663 ⎟⎠
⎛ 31.48 ⎞
Pv = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 62.96 kN/m3
0.5 ⎠
At 12 m from top
h ⎛ 12 ⎞
Z0e = ⎜⎝ 3.064 ⎟⎠ = 3.916
DESIGN OF STEEL AND BUNKERS AND SILOS 437
⎛ −h ⎞
⎜ z0 e ⎟
⎝1 − e ⎠ = 0.980
⎛ 15.5 × 0.980 ⎞
ph = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 32.57 kN/m2
0.4663 ⎠
⎛ 32.57 ⎞
pv = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 65.15 kN/m2
0.5 ⎠
Horizontal pressure is maximum at 12 m from top
⎛ 65.14 ⎞
Hoop stress = ⎜ = 8.143 N/mm2
⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞
Total vertical load = ⎜ πd × 12 × 15.5⎟ = 2336.2 kN
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ π42 ⎞
pv = ⎜⎝ × 6.515⎟ = 818.28 kN
4 ⎠
Vertical load on side wall
= (2336.2 – 818.28) = 1517.9 kN
Weight of silo including stiffeners
= 0.80 kN/m3 (assumed)
Self-weight = 0.80 × π × 4 × 12 = 120.6 kN
Weight of lining for thickness used is assumed as 1.20 kN/m3
Self-weight of lining = (l.20 × π × 4 × 12) = 180.864 kN
Weight of top cover for thickness used is assumed 4 kN/m2
Self-weight of top cover
⎛ π × 42 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ × 4⎟ = 50.24 kN
4 ⎠
Vertical load per 1 mm of periphery
⎛ 1869.6 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ = 148.85 N/mm
⎝ π × 4 × 1000 ⎟⎠
438 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 148.85 ⎞
Compressive stress = ⎜ = 18.606 N/m2
⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
Assuming Poisson’s ratio as 0.3
Total compressive stress
= (l8.606 + 0.3 × 8.143) = 21.049 N/mm2
Tensile stress = (8.144 + 0.3 × 18.606)
= 13.725 N/mm2
These stresses are small. Hence, it is safe. Provide ISA 65 mm × 65 mm × 6
mm (nominal size) horizontal stiffeners at 1.50 m spacing to avoid buckling of the
plate. Six vertical stiffeners are provided (staggered).
Step 4. Design of hopper
⎛ 2 ⎞
Vertical load = ⎜ π4 × 65.15⎟ = 818.3 kN
⎝ 4 ⎠
Weight of material in hooper portion
⎛ π × 42 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ × 3 × 15.5⎟ = l94.68 kN
12 ⎠
Assuming self-weight = 40 kN
Total load = (818.3 + 194.68 + 40) kN
= 1052.98 kN
Length of sloping side = 3.448 m
Longitudinal tension
⎛ 1052.98 × 1000 × 3.448 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ π × 4 × 3 × 1000
= 96.36 N/mm
Assuming thickness of plate as 8 mm.
⎛ 96.36 ⎞
Longitudinal stress = ⎜ = 12.04 N/mm2
⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
Hoop stress as before = 8.143 N/mm2
These stresses are small. Hence safe.
Step 5. Design of ring beam
A ring beam is provided at the waist on eight supports. It supports load of
material stored, weight of the silo, platform etc.
Weight of material stored
= (2336.2 + 194.68) = 2530.88 kN
Self-weight
Silo = 120.6 kN
Lining = 180.864 kN
Cover = 50.20 kN
Platform = 50.00 kN (assumed)
Total load = 2932.54 kN say = 3000 kN
DESIGN OF STEEL AND BUNKERS AND SILOS 439
⎛ 3000 ⎞
Reaction = ⎜ = 375 kN
⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
⎛ 3000 ⎞
Shear = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 187.5 kN
16 ⎠
Bending moment at support
= 0.00827 × 3000 × 2 = 49.62 kN-m
Torsion = 0.00063 × 3000 × 2 = 3.78 kN-m
⎛ 0.5 × 3000 × 3 ⎞
Compression = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 2647.l kN
⎝ 1.7
Try a built-up I-section for the ring girder as shown in Fig. 8.13 (b).
Cross-sectional area = 27000 mm2
Moment of Inertia,
Ixx = 493984.37 × l04 mm4
Zx x = 9409.226 × l03 mm3
Moment of inertia,
Iyy = 11250 × l04mm3
Zy y = 750 × 103 mm3
rxx = 427.7 mm, ryy = 64.5 mm
Length between two adjacent columns
⎛ π × 4 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 1570 mm
8
Slenderness ratio
I ⎛ 1570 × 0.8 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 19.47
ryy 64.5 ⎠
Allowable compressive stress for steel
fy = 250 N/mm2
σac = 148.106 N/mm2
Allowable bending compressive stress
σac = 165 N/mm2
Actual compressive stress
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Any building structure used by the industry, where at least a part and usually the
most of the enclosed area is of one storey height, is known as industrial building.
The industrial buildings are designed and constructed to store the raw materials
or manufactured products of the industry or to support and house a manufacturing
process for the industry. The industrial buildings may be categorised as (i) normal
type of industrial building and (ii) special type of industrial buildings. Industrial
buildings in first category are shed type buildings. These are simple roof structures
on open frames. These structures provide some protected areas. These are used to
house the industries, workshops and warehouses etc. These buildings have one
common requirement These buildings require large and clear areas unobstructed
by the columns. The large floor areas provide sufficient flexibility and facility for
later change in the production layout without major building alterations. The
industrial buildings are constructed with adequate head room for the use of an
over head travelling crane.
The industrial buildings in second category include steel mill buildings, buildings
used for manufacture of heavy machines, etc. These industrial buildings may be
highly sophisticated type. These buildings may house manufacturing process in
spaces needing specific and precisely controlled environmental conditions and
elaborate appurtenant services. The function of the industrial building, dictates
the degree of sophistication. For the proper design of the industrial building, the
designer should have knowledge of the manufacturing process and the purpose for
which the industrial buildings are installed. Economy is always a primary factor
in the design of the industrial buildings. In a real sense, the cost of the manufactured
products will depend upon the initial cost of construction, maintenance and
operating cost of the industrial buildings. The designer should be able to provide
442 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
optimum balance between the function and the economy. From the external
architectural point of view, the industrial buildings should be properly related
aesthetically to the community and its natural environment. The internal
architecture of the industrial building should provide for the development of design
so as to satisfy the requirements of the occupants. The total area and volume
requirements are determined for proper planning and layout of the industrial
building. The exterior dimensions for the structure surrounding the manufacturing
process are then developed by the designer.
These type of buildings may require extra large spans, extra height and may
involve very heavy loads. The steel mill building is defined as a structure with a
R ise
R o of tru ss
K n ee b race
C o lu m n
S p an o f truss
Fig. 9.1
self-supporting steel frame-work. When a roof truss its attached to and supported
by columns, then, the assembly is known as a bent. Since the bents have its usual
DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS 443
Fig. 9.2
series of transverse bents supporting the roof. The distance between two adjacent
transverse bents is known as bay length or simply bay. The bay size (i.e., unit
area-volume requirements) within the total area volume is decided by the designer.
In general, the individual bays are finalised on the basis of minimum area and
clear height, which are only the functional requirements. Whereas in some industrial
buildings, the manufacturing process dictates the span of individual bays in one
or both the directions. The minimum bay shall be of the smallest dimensions
capable of providing machinery and/or storage space. The unit cost of individual
bays depends on the bay area, volume and the ratio of length-to-width dimensions.
The square bays have been seen to be advantageous. The weight of steel increases
as one departs from the square bay. The distance between two column lines is
444 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
(a ) (b )
(c) (d )
The industrial buildings are classified into two categories (namely, braced and
unbraced). The braced industrial buildings have been described in Sec. 9.12.
L ow e r cho rd
b racin g
U p pe r cho rd
b racin g
Co Ro
lu m o f t r u
ns sse
s
T ra
nsv
e rs
eb )
en
t a ls
o rt
(P
n ts
l be
in a
it ud
ng
Lo
Fig. 9.4
and width of the industrial building. For wide industrial buildings, the column
rows are located at wide distances. This requires less number of columns and long
span trusses. The steel used in this type of location is less than closely spaced rows
of tall columns with short span trusses. The spacing of column in its row is decided
446 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
resistance and insulating properties. The type of wall construction used for
industrial buildings should be durable, and easily maintained. The wall construction
should be pleasing in appearance. The bearing walls are made strong enough to
support, in addition to their self-weight, the loads from floors, the roof which frame
into them. The solid masonry, hollow masonry, plain cement concrete and
reinforcement concrete are used for wall construction.
The corrugated cement asbestos sheets, trafford cement-asbestos sheets,
galvanized-iron corrugated sheets are also used for wall construction. The glass
enclosures are also becoming common.
9.7 STAIRCASES
The staircases provided in the industrial buildings should allow safe, easy and
comfortable passage from one floor to the other. The staircases provided should
have sufficient width. The landing should be provided between the flights of
staircases. The proportions of tread and rise should be suitable. The number of
staircases and its width are governed by the size of area to be served and the
number of persons to be accommodated.
9.8 LIGHTING
As far as possible, attempt is made to use day light most satisfactorily. The
industrial buildings are made with monitors as shown in Fig. 9.1 (b) to allow the
sky light. The monitors in the industrial buildings are provided lengthwise. The
north light roof trusses or saw tooth roof truss as shown in Fig. 9.1 (f) are also
used in the industrial buildings. The north light roof trusses provide uniform day
light throughout the day.
There are some plants and industrial buildings which depend entirely upon
artificial illumination. The ordinary filament bulbs provide yellow-white light.
The mercury-vapour tube lights and lamps provide blue light. Sometimes, the
bulbs and the mercury lights both are provided to produce a desirable colour quality.
heatings units deliver heated air at lower velocity. These types of heating units
are of low capacity. In general, in manufacturing areas overhead unit heaters are
used. In these types of heating units, there is a saving on the production floors. In
these types of heating units, the steam and return pipes are installed in the truss
spaces easily. There is one more type of heating system which is known as radiant
heating. In this type, the hot water grid system is placed in the concrete floor.
These types of heating units are suitable where the manufacturing areas are not
likely to be changed. These types of heating units are used in aircraft plants and
air port hangers. Depending upon the requirement of the plant and the climate of
the locality, the types of heating and ventilating system are selected.
H o ok b olt C la m p
B ra cke t
(a ) (b ) (c)
B ra cke t
Ve rtica l
stiffe ne rs
(d ) (e )
The magnitude of vertical loads, lateral loads and longitudinal forces, spacing
between the columns (i.e., span of the gantry girder, clear height necessary above
the floor and clearance below the roof truss are the various factors, which are
given consideration for selecting a type of gantry girder. The maximum allowable
stresses, maximum allowable deflections, lateral stability and torsional rigidity
are also considered while selecting a trial section for the gantry girder.
The section of gantry girder shown in Fig. 9.5 (a) is used for light cranes and
moderate spans. In order to increase lateral stability and the torsional rigidity,
the channel section is connected at the top as shown in Fig. 9.5 (b). The channel
sections are also attached with web instead of the flange as shown in Fig. 9.5 (c).
In order to further improve the torsional rigidity, the bracket plates shown by
dotted lines are also used. The section of gantry girder shown in Fig. 9.5 (d) is the
riveted plate girder. The plate girder section is used for long span gantry girder.
The plate girder section is also used for moderate span and for heavy loads. The
plate girder section is a symmetrical section. The top flange of plate girder section
for the gantry girder is made wider than the bottom flange. The box girder section
for gantry shown in Fig. 9.5 (e) is used when the lateral loads are high, and lateral
stability and the torsional rigidity are important.
Where structural support for the crane way is not practical, gantry cranes,
which are mounted on rails in the floor, are used in the same manner as overhead
travelling bridge cranes.
Jib cranes are used to handle loads within a limited area. A jib crane consists
of a hoist mounted on a rail. The rail is pivoted at one end. It is cantilevered from
a vertical column or from one of the building column.
The various forces acting on the gantry girder and the design of crane gantry
girder have been discussed in Vol. I.
(a ) (b )
(c) (d )
(e ) (f)
Fig. 9.6
normal to the plane of transverse bents of the industrial buildings. Therefore, the
industrial buildings are thoroughly braced in the following three mutually
perpendicular planes:
(i) transverse plane (viz., horizontal plane at the level of roof truss).
(ii) longitudinal vertical plane (viz., vertical plane along the longitudinal
section of columns).
(iii) vertical planes in the end cross-sections (usually at the gable ends).
The wind loads in the braced industrial buildings are resisted efficiently. However,
the braced provide obstructions in some bays. The braces cause higher forces
(uplifts) at some places. There is no sway in the braced industrial buildings.
The bracings of industrial buildings in two separate directions have been discussed
separately in the following articles.
(a ) (b )
(c) (d )
The method of bracing the bent without knee braces as shown in Fig. 9.7 (d) is
adopted. In this method, the column and truss connections are made rigid. The
columns are fixed at the bases, and the foundations are made large.
The rigid cable frames (solid-web or open web type) may also be designed for
industrial buildings. The ends of gable frames may be either fixed or hinged.
G irt
E n d w all
G irt Fra m in g co lu m ns
(a ) In du stria l bu ildin g be nt
ES S S S ES
D D D D D D D D
ES S S S ES
ES T T T ES
ES T T T ES
D D D D D D D D
ES S S S ES
ES T T T ES
ES T T T ES
D D D D D D D D
ES ES
S S S
ES S S S ES
(a ) In du stria l bu ildin g be nt
Fig. 9·9
bracing is provided in the plane of bottom chord. The bracing struts form a complete
truss system. These transmit longitudinal forces at the ends of the buildings.
These forces are transmitted to the ground by cross-frames in end framing. The
456 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
cross-diagonal bracings are provided in the end bays in the plane of top chord of
the roof truss also.
An industrial building should not be overbraced. The light fabricated bracing
increases the cost and interferes with the functional use of the building, location of
wall openings and architectural appearance. A good practice to follow is that the
geometry must be such that the structure shall be stable under lateral loads. All
the lateral loads are transferred through the structure to the foundation system,
viz., the combined geometry of primary structure and the bracing system.
The single bay or multiple bays of gables are the examples of unbraced
buildings. The unbraced industrial buildings are also shown in Fig. 9.2. In
unbraced frames, the lateral load (either due to wind or earthquake) is resisted
by bending moment in the beams and columns. Even, the unbraced buildings may
require bracing in some directions to provide stability and minimize drifts.
⎡ P ⋅ (h1 + h2 ) ⎤
VA = VB = ⎢ ⎥⎦ ...(9.2)
⎣ L
The maximum bending moment, ME occurs at the foot of knee brace
⎛P ⎞
ME = ⎜ ⋅ h1 ⎟ ... (9.3)
⎝2 ⎠
It is necessary to consider the conditions existing in the columns, before the
determination of stresses in the members of roof truss. The horizontal load P is
carried to the points of supports by means of the columns. The horizontal load
DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS 457
acts perpendicular to the columns. Figure 9.10 (b) shows the industrial bending
bent under distortion. The distortion of one column is shown on enlarged scale in
Fig. 9.10 (c). The column is riveted at the top i.e., at the point C, and to the knee
brace at the point E. It is assumed that the columns remains vertical between E
and C. The column is subjected to bending moment Mx, shear Fx, and the direct
force Vx . The maximum bending moment ME occurs at the foot of knee i.e., at the
point E as given by Eq. 9·3. The bending moment varies uniformly to zero at the
h
D
P C
F E h2
h1
HB
A HA
B A B
VA VB
(a ) (b )
E ME
MX
H1
x
HB
VB
(d )
(c)
Fig. 9.10
top, and at the bottom of the column as shown in Fig. 9·10 (d). The values of shear
force and the direct force in the portion CF of the column depends upon the force in
the knee brace, which is still to be determined.
⎛ P⎞
HB = HA = ⎜ ⎟ ... (9.4)
⎝ 2⎠
Figure 9·11 (b) shows the bent under distortion. It is to note that the change of
curvature occurs at the point O, mid-way between E and B. This is the point of
inflection or zero bending moment. Therefore, it is assumed that the points of
h
D C
P
h2
F E
h1 1
2
O O
1 h
1
2
A HA B HB
MA L MB A B
VA VB
(a ) (b )
C
C
H2 h2
Ph 1
E E ME =
4
1 h
2 1 1 h1
P 2
2
P O
2
1
1 h
2 h1
2 1
B B
HB
MB
(d )
VB
(c)
⎡ ⎛ h1 ⎞⎤
⎢ P ⎜⎝ 2 + h2 ⎟⎠ ⎥
VA = VB = ⎢ ⎥ ... (9.5)
⎣ h ⎦
The deformed shape of one column is shown in Fig. 9.11 (c) on enlarged scale.
The maximum bending moment occurs at the point E and at the point of support B.
⎛ Ph1 ⎞
∴ ME = MB = ⎜⎝ ⎟ ... (9.6)
4 ⎠
The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 9.11 (d). The bending moment
varies uniformly to zero at the top of column and at the point of contraflexure.
An industrial building bent with knee braces and columns fixed at the base has
stresses less than that with columns hinged at the base.
h
D C D C
P
h2
F E F
E
2h
3 1
O1 O
1 h1
HB
3
A HA B
MB MB A B
VA VB
(a ) C o lu m n b ases (b ) C o lu m n u nd er
p artia lly fixed d isto rsion
h2
M E = Ph1
3
2
3 h1
O O
1
h
3 1
M E = Ph1
6
(c) (d ) B e nd in g mo m en t d ia gram
Fig. 9.12
The stresses in various members of the roof truss due to wind load are found
analytically or graphically. The wind load acting above the point of contraflexures
are considered.
4 .5 m
A1
A
2m
B
B1
18 m
4m
8m
C
C1
2m
D
D1
P a rtially P a rtially fixe d
fixe d
Fig, 9.13
Step 2. Load
The load at each panel point is determined as under:
(i) Dead load
Weight of galvanized corrugated iron sheets = 0.1331 kN/m2
Weight of purlins (assumed) = 0.150 kN/m2
Weight of bracings (assumed) = 0.015 kN/m2
1 ⎛l ⎞ 1 ⎛ 18 ⎞
Self-weight of truss w = ⎜⎝ + 5⎟⎠ = × ⎜ + 5⎟
⎝ ⎠
100 3 100 3
= 0·110 kN/m2
Total dead load = 0.4081 kN/m2
Spacing of roof truss = 4 m
Panel length = 2.55 m
Panel length in span = 2.55 × cos 26° 35´ = 2.28 m
Load at each intermediate panel due to dead load
= (0.0481 × 4 × 2.28)
= 3.722 kN (say, 4 kN)
∴ Load at end panel due to dead load = 2 kN
(ii) Live load
Access is not provided for roofing except for maintenance
Slope of roof truss = 26° 34´ = 26° 57°
10
∴ Live load =× (75 – 10 – 2 × 6.57)
100
= 0.5186 kN/m2
∴ Live load at each intermediate panel due to live load
DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS 463
W
W W
E F W
W
D 6 8 G
W W W W
C 5 9
2 H 2
4 7 10 I
B 2 3 11 12
A 1 13 K
4W 4W
16 m
D e ad lo ad W
L ive loa d W
Fig, 9.14
The forces in various members of the roof truss due to dead load and live load
are shown in Fig, 9.14. The vertical reaction at support is 4W, where W is as
shown in Fig, 9.14.
Note. The forces in various members of the roof truss may be found analytically
or graphically as if the roof truss is simply supported or stresses in the knee
braces are zero.
(iii) Wind load
Slope of roof truss = 26° 34´
Intensity of wind pressure, p = 1.50 kN/m2
The roof trusses are used over industrial buildings, It is assumed that the
industrial buildings has normal permeability.
From Table 8.1, Vol. 1, external wind pressure plus internal air pressure on
roof sheeting. ‘
Windward slope
For 20° slope = – 0.60 p = – 0.60 × 1.50 = – 0.90 kN/m2
For 30° slope = – 0.30 p = – 0.30 × 1.50 = – 0.45 kN/m2
10 ⎡ ⎛ −90 + 45 ⎞ ⎤
For 26° 34' slope = −90 − ⎜ × 6.57
⎢
1000 ⎣ ⎝ 10 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
= 0.604 kN/m2
Leeward slope
For 26°34´ = 0.70 p = – 0.70 × 1.50 = –1.05 kN/m2
From Table 8.2, Vol. 1 external wind pressure plus internal air section on roof
sheeting .
Windward slope
For 20° slope = – 0.20 p = – 0.20 × 1.50 = – 0.30 kN/m2
464 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
1 WN 1 SN
2 2
WN SN
WN SN
WN SN
1 WN θ 1 SN
θ
2 θ θ 2
WHA W H A1
A A1
2m 2m
WHB W H B1
B 5 .72 m 6 .56 m 5 .72 m B1
4m 18 m 4m
WHC (a ) WHC1
C 4 S N . sin θ C1
4W N
4 W N . sin θ 4W N
θ = 6 3° 26 6 3° 2 6 = θ
4 W N . cos θ 4 S N . co s θ
WHA W H A1
A A1
2m 5 .72 m 6 .56 m 5 .72 m 2m
WHB B B1 W H B1
18 m
4m 4m
RV C EVC 1
(b )
Fig. 9.15
External wind pressure plus internal air suction on vertical side sheeting
Windward side = + 0.50p + (+0.20p) = + 0.70p = + 0.70 × 1.50
= +1.05 kN/m2
Leeward side = 0.50p + 0.20p = – 0.30p = – 0.30 × 1.50
= – 0.45 kN/m2.
Windward load at each intermediate and end panel points due to external
wind plus internal air pressure
DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS 465
Windward slope
Intermediate panel = – 0.604 × 4 × 2.55 = – 6.16 kN/m2
WN (say) = – 6.20 kN/m2
End panel
1
W = – 3.10 kN/m2
2 N
Leeward slope
Intermediate panel = – 1.05 × 4 × 2.55 = – 10.71 kN/m2
SN (say) = – 10.80 kN/m3
1
End panel S = – 5.40 kN/m2
2 N
Wind loadat A, WHA = 0.45 ×1 × 4 = 1.80 kN
Wind load at B, W HB = 0.45 × (2 + 1) × 4 = 5.40 kN
Wind load at C, WHC = 0.45 × (2 + 1) × 4 = 5.40 kN
Wind load at A1 WHA1 = –1.05 × 1 × 4 = – 4.20 kN
1
End panel W = – 0.021 kN
2
Leeward slope
Intermediate panel SN = – 0.450 × 4 × 2.55 = – 4.59 kN
(say, – 4.60 kN)
End panel
1
S = – 2.30 kN
2 N
Wind load at A, W HA = +1.05 × 1 × 4 = +4.20 kN
Windload at B, W HB = +1.05 × (2+1) × 4 = + 12.60 kN
Wind load at C, W HC = +1.05 × (2 +1) × 4 = + 12.60 kN
Wind load at A1 WHA1 = – 0.0450 × 1 × 4 = – 1.80 kN
1 WN 1 SN
2 2 SN
WN
WN SN
WN SN
1 WN θ 1 SN
θ
2 θ θ 2
WHA W H A1
A 2m A1
2m
WHB W H B1
B 5 .72 m 6 .56 m 5 .72 m B1
4m 18 m 4m
WHC (a ) W H C1
C C1
4 W N . sin θ 4 W N . sin θ
4W N 4W N
θ = 6 3° 26 6 3° 26 = θ
4 W N . cos θ 4 S N . co s θ
WHA W H A1
A A1
2m 5 .72 m 6 .56 m 5 .72 m 2m
WHB B B1 W H B1
18 m
4m 4m
RV C RV C 1
(b )
Fig. 9.16
DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS 467
Horizontal reaction at C
1
RHC =[(1.80 + 4.20) + 2 × 5.40 + 2 × 12.60
2
+ (8.24 – 0.075)] = 25.08 kN
For vertical reaction at C, take moment about C1.
∴ Vertical reaction at C
1
RVC = [(12.60 + 5.40) × 4 + (4.20 + 1.80) × 6
18
+ (8.24 – 0.075) × 6 + 17.40 × 5.72 + 0.15
× (6.56 + 7.52)] = 14.37 kN
Vertical reaction at C1
RVC1 = (17.40 + 0.15 –14.38) = 3.17 kN
Horizontal reaction at C1 = 25.08 kg
Step 4. Forces in various members
The forces in the various members of the knee braced roof truss may be found
by graphical method. Since the columns are subjected to moment, shear and axial
trust, a temporary frame work or an auxiliary framework is added to the truss
system. The temporary framework is arranged such that the moment at the foot
of the knee brace causes stress in the members of the temporary framework. The
temporary framework consists of T–18, S –19, 18 –19 and M –15, N –16 and 15 –16 as
shown in Fig. 9.17. The knee braced roof truss becomes a perfect determinate frame.
1 1
2 W N J 2 SN
WN E F SN
WN D 6 8 G SN
W N 5 9 H
1 C SN 1
2 WN B 3
4 7 10 I 2 SN
1 2 11 1 2 K
A 13
WHA W H A1
T 17 14 M
18 15
WHB W H B1
19 16
S N
WHC RHC RHC1 WHC1
R Q P O
RV C RV C 1
Fig. 9.17
These members may be of any convenient lengths. The wind load acting on the
windward side are assumed to act at the joints of temporary or auxiliary framework.
The addition of temporary frameworks do not change the forces in members of the
knee braced roof truss.
Note. The forces obtained in columns by this graphical method are not correct.
The forces in columns are found after removing the temporary framework, from
loading and reactions on the columns.
468 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
For the design of various members and the joints, the maximum force in each
member may be found for the combination of loads whichever is severe. The members
and joints may be designed for maximum forces in them.
The design for crane gantary girder for the industrial building may be done as
explained in Vol. I.
Example 9.2 Design gable rafter, side rails, gable columns and gable wind
girder for the industrial building in Example 9.1.
Solution
1. Design of Gable Rafter
Step 1
The gable end of this industrial building is divided into four parts of 4.5 m each
by providing three gable columns as shown in Fig. 9.18. The gable rafter is supported
over columns. The purlins are supported by the gable rafter.
D
G ab le ra fte r
E E1
4 .5 m
B C B1 A1
A
G ab le G ab le G ab le
colum n colum n colum n 8m
4 .5 m 4 .5 m 4 .5 m 4 .5 m
16 m
Fig. 9.18
⎛ 33.60 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 8.40 kN
4 ⎠
Basic intensity of wind pressure, p = l.50 kN/m2
When the direction of wind is normal to gable ( i.e., parallel to ridge)
External wind pressure on both slopes = – 0.6 × p
Internal air pressure = – 0.2 p
∴ Total wind pressure
= – 0.8 × p = – 0.8 × 1.50 = – 1.20 kN/m2
Uplift pressure due to wind (sec 26° 34´ = 1.118)
= 1.20 × 2 × 4.5 × sec 26° 34´ = 12.07 kN
Since, the permissible increase of stress is 50 percent, the uplift pressure does
not govern the design. The design is governed by vertical load 8.40 kN per span.
Step 3. Maximum bending moment
⎛ 8.40 × 4.5 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 4.725 kN-m
⎝ 8
From ISI Handbook No. 1
Try 2 ISA 100 mm × 65 mm × 8 mm for gable rafter.
Section modulus provided = 2 × 18.7 × 103 mm3
⎛ 4.725 × 106 ⎞
Bending stress, σb = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 126.34 N/mm
2
3
2 × 18.7 × 10 m
Hence, safe.
2. Design of Side Rails (Girts)
Step 1. The sides and ends of the industrial buildings are covered with asbestos
sheets. The siding is supported by side rails or girts composed of rolled steel sections.
The horizontal span of girts is equal to the spacing of roof trusses or columns.
∴ Horizontal span of side rails = 4 m
Let the vertical spacing of side rails = 1.60 m
Provide ISA 125 m mm × 95 mm × 10 mm with long leg horizontal
Step 2. Loads
(i) Vertical load
Weight of asbestos sheets
= (4.0 × 1.60 × 0.156) = 0.998 kN
Self-weight of side rails
= (4.0 × 0.165) = 0.66 kN
470 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 1.658 × 4.0 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 0.829 kN-m
⎝ 8
Maximum compressive stress in bending (ly = 163.7 × 104 mm)
⎛ 6.72 × 4.0 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 3.36 kN-m
⎝ 8
Maximum compressive stress in bending (Ixx = 325.8 ×104 mm4)
−12.18 ± 88.90 ⎫
⎪ N/mm2 <1.1×1.65 N/mm2
−12.18 ± 40.015⎬
or Henc, safe.
or +36.23 ± 40.015⎪⎭
Six side rails are provided for 8 m height.
3. Design of Gable Column
Consider the central gable column.
DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS 471
Step 1. Loads
(i) Vertical load
Reaction from adjacent gable rafter = 8.40 kN
Weight of side sheeting
= (12.5 × 4.5 × 0.156) = 8.775 kN
Weight of side rails = (0.165 × 4.5 × 6) = 4.455 kN
Self-weight of gable column = 4.37 kN (assumed)
Total vertical load = (8.40 + 8.775 × 4 .455 + 4.37)
= 26.00 kN
(ii) Horizontal load
External wind pressure = + 0.5 p
Internal air pressure = + 0.2 p
Total wind pressure = + 0.7 p
= 0.7 × 1.50 = 1.05 kN/m2
The gable column is supported by the foundation at the base and by a member
AA running across the end of the industrial building at the eaves height as shown
in Fig, 9.18 and by the gable rafter at the roof line.
Total wind load on column
= 1.05 × 4.5 × 8 = 37.80 kN
Step 2. Maximum bending, moment
⎛ 37.80 × 8 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 37.80 kN-m
⎝ 8
It is assumed that the gable column is laterally supported by a bracing at 4 m
above the base.
∴ Effective length of gable column = 4 m
From lSI Hand Book No.1, try ISHB 225 @ 431 N/m
Cross-sectional area A = 5494 mm2
Modulus of section,
Zxx = 469.3 × 103 mm3, rxx= 98.0 mm, ryy = 49.6 mm
Slenderness ratio,
⎛ 4000 ⎞
rmin = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 80.6
49.6 ⎠
From IS : 800–84 allowable stress in axial compression for steel fy, = 250 N/mm2
σac = 100.34 N/mm2
Actual stress in axial compression
26.00 × 103
σac.cal = = 4.73 N/mm2
5494
Actual bending stress,
472 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 37.80 × 106 ⎞
σbc.cal = ⎜ = 80.545 N/mm2
⎝ 469.3 × 106 ⎟⎠
Allowable stress in bending in compression (assumed)
σbc = 80 N/mm2
The gable is subjected to axial compression and bending. It is checked for
combined stress
Hence, safe.
4. Design of Gable Wind Girder
Step 1. The gable wind girders are provided in both the end panels of the
industrial buildings at the eaves level as shown in Fig. 9.19 (b). The gable wind
A re a fo r w in d pressu re
a cting o ver
w in d w a rd g irde r
4 .5 m
4m
4m
4 .5 m 4 .5 m 4 .5 m 4 .5 m
R (a ) R
ES ES
4m
4 .5 m 4 .5 m 4 .5 m 4 .5 m
1 1
2 WN WN WN WN 2 WN
(b )
Fig. 9.19
girder resist the wind load acting on the gable end. The gable columns and the
lower panel points of the roof trusses are braced together. This forms gable wind
girder. The eaves struts (ES) are provided at the eaves level. The struts are also
provided at the ridge.
DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS 473
It is assumed that the wind pressure acting over the portion upto half of the
eaves height i.e., upto 4 m from the base is transferred to the foundation by the
gable columns. The wind pressure acting over the shaded portion of the gable end
as shown in Fig. 9.19 (a) acts over the wind girder.
Step 2. Winds pressure
Basic wind pressure p = l .50 kN/m2
External wind pressure = + 0.50 p
Internal air pressure = + 0.20 p
Total wind pressure = + 0.70 p
= + 0.70 × 1.50 = 1.05 kN/m2
Average wind load per metre length of gable wind girder
⎛ 4.5 ⎞
= 1.05 ⎜ 4 + ⎟ = 6.5625 kN/m
⎝ 2 ⎠
Step 3. Wind load
Wind load acting on the panel point
WN = 6.5625 × 4.5 = 29.53 kN
1
Wind load acting on the end panel point 2
W N = 14.76 kN
Reaction at the end of wind girder
1
= 2
(2 ×14.76 + 3 × 29.53) = 59.055 kN
The wind loads, W N and the reactions acting on the gable girder are shown in
Fig. 9.19 (b).
The forces in the various members of the gable girder may be found by resolving
the forces about the join or by method of section, and the members and joints may
be designed.
Example 9.3 Design vertical side bracing and the rafter bracing for the
industrial building in Example 9.1 and Example 9.2. The horizontal force along
the rails over the gantry girder due to electrically operated overhead crane is
23.40 kN. The height of rails is 5 m above the base. Take maximum compressive
force in one rafter of the root truss as 86.00 kN.
Solution
1. Design of vertical side bracing
Step 1. The vertical side bracing is provided to transfer the longitudinal load of
the industrial building to the foundation. The reaction of gable wind girder acts at
the eaves level in the longitudinal direction. The horizontal force along the rails
over the gantry girder due to crane is 23.40 kN. This horizontal force acts 5 m
above the base. This force also acts in the longitudinal direction. The cross-diagonal
bracing as shown in Fig. 9.20 is provided to resist the longitudinal loads. The
diagonal member subjected to tension is considered as effective.
474 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
WH1
c f k
3m
b e h
WH2
8m
5m 9 0°
a d g
4m 4m
Fig. 9.20
⎛ 3 A1 ⎞ ⎛ 3 × 333 ⎞
∴ k = ⎜ =⎜ ⎟ = 0.684
⎝ 3 A1 + A2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 3 × 333 × 462 ⎠
Net area provided is
(A1 + kA1) = (333 + 0.684 × 462) = 649. 01 mm2
∴Stress in axial tension
DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS 475
⎛ 3⎞
= ⎜ 104 .22 × 10 ⎟ = 160.58 N/mm2
⎝ 649.01 ⎠
< (1.10 × 150 = 165 N/mm2)
The eaves strut, cf, may be designed for 59.055 kN
2. Design of Rafter bracing
Step 1. As per IS : 800–1984 in the case of a series of lattice beams, girder of
roof trusses which are connected together by the same system of restraint members,
the sum of the restraining forces required shall be taker as 3.5 percent of the
maximum force in the compression flange plus 1.25 percent of this force for every
member of the series other than the firs upto a maximum of 7.5 percent.
The rafter bracings are provided in the end panels for the industrial buildings as
shown in Fig, 9.21. The rafter bracing supports three roof trusses in the lateral direction,
4 .5 m
8m
Ve rtica l
bra cing
1
4m
2 4m
3 4m
4m
4
5 4m
9m 9m
6
4m
4m
7
R a fte r b racin g
Fig. 9.21
476 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 2.5 + 2 × 1.25 ⎞ 5
= ⎜
⎝ ⎟⎠ × 86.00 × 100 × 86.00
100
= 4.30 kN
Length of rafter bracing
= [92 + (4.5)2 + 82]1/2 = 12.88 m
Step 2. Force in bracing in tension
⎛ 4.30 × 12.88 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 6.923 kN
⎝ 8
Provide ISA 75 mm × 50 mm × 6 mm, which one is a nominal size for a member.
ISA 75 mm × 50 mm × 6 mm is also provided for the bracing in the plane of lower
chord of the roof trusses.
Example 9.4 Design the columns supporting the roof trusses for the industrial
building in Example 9.1.
Solution
Design:
Step 1. For the design of columns it is necessary to determine the forces in the
knee braces of the roof trusses.
Step 2. Forces in knee braces due to wind and internal air pressure
(i) Left side knee brace
Forces acting on the roof truss and columns due to wind and internal air pressure
are shown in Fig. 9.15. The forces in the knee braces may be found by taking
moments about the top of respective columns.
(ii) Left side knee brace (Fig, 9.22, Case I)
Let the inclination of knee brace with the vertical be θ, and force in it be F1.
2.86 2.86
sin θ = = 0.817, tan θ = 0.572
2 2
2.86 + 2 2.862 + 22
Take moment at the top of left side columns
∴ F1 sin θ × 2 = (25.10 – 5.40) × 6 – 5.40 × 2 kN
∴ F1 = 65.73 kN (Tension)
Horizontal component of force in knee-brace, (Fig. 9.22) at B
F1 sin θ = 65.73 × 0.817 = 53.70 kN
Vertical component of force in knee-brace, (Fig. 9.22) at B
F1 cos θ = 65.73 × 0.572 = 37.60 kN
(iii) Right side knee brace (Fig. 9.22, Case I)
Let the force in knee brace be F 2. Take the moment about the top of right side
column
DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS 477
3 9.4 0 kN 1 .50 kN
1 .80 kN 3 7.6 0 kN
A 1 9.7 0 x 4
2m (– ) = 78 .8 0 kN -m
1 9.7 0
5 .40 kN BM D
B 5 3.7 0 kN
4m
+ Ten sio n
C
5 .40 kN
2m 2 5.1 0 kN SFD
D +1 .8 0 kN
1 .80 kN
2 5.1 0 x 2 2 5.1 0 kN 3 6.1 0 kN 5 0.2 0 kN -m
kN -m
3 6.1 0 kN C a se I
2 5.0 2 kN 3 .07 kN
4 .20 kN
A 1 1 7.4 3 kN 1 2.4 8 x 4
2m (– ) = 49 .9 2 kN -m
1 2.4 8
1 2.6 0 kN
2 4.9 0 kN
B1
4m
+ Te nsio n
C1
1 2.6 0 kN
2m 2 5.0 8 kN SFD
D 1 + 4.20 kN
4 .20 kN
2 5.0 8 x 2 2 5.0 8 kN 1 4.3 6 kN 5 0.1 6 kN
kN -m
1 4.3 6 kN C a se II
Fig. 9.22
At A1, M A1 = 0.00
Step 5. Forces
The forces acting on the left side column for two cases of wind are shown in Fig.
9.22. The shear force axial force, (tension or compression) and bending moment
diagrams for the loadings, have been drawn.
4m
C
1 2.6 0 kN
2m
(9 5.1 0 kN +4.20 kN ) 4 .20 kN
D 2 5.1 0 x 2 2 5.1 0 kN 2 4.6 6 kN 5 0.2 0 kN -m
kN -m
2 4.6 6 kN C a se I
3 9.3 6 kN 4 0.6 7 kN
A 1 1 .80 kN
3 7.5 0 kN 1 9.6 8 x 4
+ = 78 .7 2 kN -m
Ten sion
B1 5 .40 kN 1 9.6 8 kN
5 3.6 0 kN BM D
5 .40 kN
C1
(2 5.0 6 kN +1 .8 0 kN ) SFD
Fig. 9.23
480 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Forces acting on the right side column for two cases of wind are shown in Fig.
9.23. The shear force, axial force, (tension or compression) and bending moment
diagrams for the loadings have been drawn.
The columns are subjected to moment, shear and axial thrust. Load on the
column due to dead load
= (4W = 4 × 4.00) = 16.00 kN
Step 6. Right side column (Fig, 9.23, Case I)
(i) Shear force
At D, FD = (25.10 + 4.20 – 4.20) = 25.10 kN
At C, FC = (25.10 – 12.60) = 12.50 kN
At B, FB = (l2.50 – 24.84 –12.60) = – 24.94 kN
At A, FA = –24.94 kN
(ii) Axial force
At D, PD = 24.66 kN (Tension)
At C, PC = 24.66 kN (Tension)
At B, PB = (24.66 + 11.40) = 42.06 kN
At A, PA = 42.06 kN
(iii) Bending moment
At D, MD = 25.10 × 2 = 50.20 kN-m
At C, MC = 0.00 kN-m
At B, MB = 12.50 × 4 = 50.00 kN-m
At A, MA = 0.00 kN-m
Step 7. Right side column (Fig, 9.23, Case II)
(i) Shear force
At D1, FD1 = (25.08 + 1.80 – 1.80) = 25.08 kN
At A1, M A1 = 0.00
Self-weight of the column (assumed) = 2.80 kN
Load on column due to live load
= 4 × W = 4 × 4.80 = 19.20 kN
Total load due to dead load, self-weight and live load
= (16.00 + 2.80 + 19.20) = 38.00 kN
Step 8. Design conditions of loads
The column should be designed for the following conditions of loadings:
(a) Maximum compression = 38.00 kN
(b) Bending moment = 78.80 kN-m
Tension (36.10 –16.00 – 2.80) = 17.30 kN
(c) Bending moment = 49.92 kN-m
Compression (16.00 + 2.80 – 14.38) = 4.42 kN
(d) Bending moment = 50.00 kN-m
Tension (24.66 – 16.00 – 2.80) = 5.86 kN
(e) Bending moment = 78.72 kN-m
Compression (16.00 + 2.80 – 3.17) = 15.63 kN
The column is designed for condition (a). Then, the column is checked for
conditions (b) and (d). It is necessary to consider the conditions (c) and (e)
Length of the column for the base upto knee brace is 6 m.
The column is partially fixed at the base,
∴ Effective length of column
= 1.5 × 6000 = 9000 mm
Let the side rails are provided at 1.60 m, distance centre to centre,
∴ Effective length of column normal to its length = 1600 mm
From lSI Handbook No.1, try ISLB 300,@ 377 N/m
A = 4808 mm2, rxx. = 123.5 mm, ryy = 28.0 mm
Zx x = 488.9 × 103, Zyy = 50.2 × 103 mm3
Slenderness ratio parallel to length of column
⎛ 9000 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 72.87
123.5 ⎠
Allowable stress in axial compression for steel
fy = 250 N/mm2, σac = 108.84 N/mm2
Slenderness ratio normal to length of column
⎛ 1600 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 57.14
28.0 ⎠
Allowable stress in axial compression for steel
fy = 250 N/mm2, σac = 124.86 N/mm2
Actual stress in compression
482 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 3⎞
σac.cal = ⎜ 38.00 × 10 ⎟ = 7.9 N/mm2. Hence, safe
⎝ 4808 ⎠
Step 9. Check for condition (b)
Actual stress in tension
⎛ 3⎞
σac.cal = ⎜ 17.30 × 10 ⎟ = 3.6 N/mm6
⎝ 4808 ⎠
Actual bending stress
⎛ 78.80 × 103 ⎞
σac.cal = ⎜ = 161.2 N/mm2
⎝ 488.9 × 103 ⎟⎠
⎛ 5.61 × 550 ⎞
M = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 3.08 kN-m
1000 ⎠
Height of eaves level above the base, h = 8 m
Height of crane level above the base = 5 m
Height of top of column above the crane level, a = 3 m
Horizontal reaction at the top of column for column of uniform section
⎛ a2 ⎞ ⎛ 3 × 3⎞
3 M ⎜1 − ⎟ 3 × 3.08 ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ h2 ⎠ ⎝ 8 × 8 ⎠ = 0.497 kN
=
2⋅h 2×8
Moment at the base level of the column (Fig. 9.24)
= (0.497 × 8 – 3.08) = 0.896 kN-m
The bending moment diagrams is shown in Fig. 9.24.
2 6° 34 ' 2 6° 34 '
0 .00 0 .00
3m
1 .59 kN -m
1 .49 kN -m 1 .49 kN -m
5m
0 .89 6 kN -m 0 .89 6 kN -m
Fig. 9.24
484 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
It is to note that the reaction due to the weight of side rails and sheeting does
not cause any moment in the column. The side rails and sheeting are attached to
the columns. The reaction due to weight of side rails and sheeting acts eccentrically.
But there is no side sway due to dead load because of symmetry of the loading and
the frame.
(iii) Wind load
Pitch of roof truss = 1 in 4
∴ Slope of roof truss = 26° 34´
Intensity of wind pressure = 1.50 kN/m2
The roof trusses are used over industrial buildings. It is assumed that the
industrial building has normal permeability.
From Table 8.2, Vol, I, external wind pressure plus internal air pressure on
roof sheeting [Fig, 9.25, a (i)),
Windward slope
For 20°, slope = –0.60 p = – 0.60 × 1.50 = – 0.90 kN/m2
For 30°, slope = – 0.30 p = – 0.30 × 1.50 = – 0.45 kN/m2
⎛ −0.9 + 0.45 ⎞
For 20° 34', slope = – 0.90 – ⎜
⎝ ⎟⎠ × 6.57
10
= –0.624 kN/m2
Leeward slope
For 26º 34´ = –0.70p = – 0.70 – 1.50 = – 1.05 kN/m2
From Table 8.2, Vol. I, external wind pressure plus internal air suction on roof
sheeting [Fig, 9.25, b (i)],
Windward slope
For 20°, slope = = –0.20p = – 0.20 × 1.50 = – 0.30 kN/m2
For 30°, slope = + 0.10p = + 0.10 × 1.50 = – 0.150 kN/m2
⎛ −0.30 + 0.15 ⎞
For 26° 34', slope = –30 – ⎜
⎝ ⎟⎠ × 6.57
10
= – 0.004 kN/m2
Leeward slope
For 26° 34´ = –0.30p = – 0.30 × 1.50 = – 0.45 kN/m2
External wind pressure plus internal air pressure on vertical side sheeting
[Fig. 9·25, a (i)].
Windward side = 0.50p +(– 0.20p) = + 0.30p
= + 0.30 × 1.50 = + 0.45 kN/m2
Leeward side = – 0.50p + (+ 0.20p) = – 0.70p
= – 0.70 × 1.50 = –1.05 kN/m2.
External wind pressure plus internal air suction on vertical side sheeting [Fig.
9·25 b (i)].
Windward side = + 0.50p + 0.20p = 0.70p
DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS 485
0 .60 4 kN /m 2 1 .05 kN /m 2
0 .00 4 kN /m 2 0 .45 kN /m 2
-0.3 0p =0 .4 50 kN /m 2
-0.7 0 p =0 .4 50 kN /m 2
-0 .3 0 p =0 .4 5 kN /m 2
-0.7 0 p =1 .5 0 kN /m 2
E xte rna l w in d E xte rna l w in d
in te rna l air in te rna l air
p ressure suction
(i)
2 7.9 0 kN 3 2.8 8 kN 5 .64 kN 11 .91 kN
4 .10 kN 4 .10 kN 4 .08 kN 4 .08 kN
4 .2 0 kN /m
4 .2 0 kN /m
1 .80 kN /m
(ii)
2 0 kN -m 2 0.4 0 kN -m
(iii)
(a ) C a se I (a ) C a se II
Fig. 9.25
Figure 9.25 [a (i)] shows the external wind pressure plus the internal air pressure
acting on the roof and vertical side sheeting, Fig. 9.25 [b (i)] shows the external
wind pressure plus the internal air suction acting on the footing and vertical side
486 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
sheeting. The load diagrams and bending moment diagrams for the columns have
also been shown with them.
Spacing of columns = 4 m
Case 1 [Fig. 9.25 a (ii)]
Load acting on windward column = 4 × 0.45 = 1.80 kN/m
Load acting on leeward column = 4 × 1.50 = 4.20 kN/m
Case II [Fig. 9.25 b (ii)]
Load acting on windward column = 4 × 1.05 = 4.20 kN/m
Load acting on leeward column = 4 × 4.05 = 1.80 kN/m
Case I [Fig. 9.25 a (ii)]
It is assumed that horizontal reactions at the top of columns are equal
= 41.94 kN-m
Windward column at the base
⎡ 4.20 × 82 ⎤
⎢(3.60 + 4.08) × 8 +
= ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
= 195.84 kN-m
Leeward column at the crane level
⎡ 1.80 × 32 ⎤
= ⎢(4.08 − 3.60) × 3 + ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
= 9.54 kN-m
Leeward column at the base
⎡ 1.80 × 82 ⎤
= ⎢(4.08 − 3.60) × 8 + ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
= 61.44 kN-m
(iv) Crane load
(a) Vertical load
Weight of trolley + lifted load is (300 + 100) = 400 kN
When the trolley is at nearest distance to gantry girder as shown in Fig, 9.26,
then, the vertical loads on the crane wheels are maximum.
Take moment about B, then, reaction at A
1 ⎡ 17 ⎤
RA = 400 × 15.8 + 190 × ⎥ = 466.76 kN
17 ⎢⎣ 2⎦
∴ RB = (400 + 190 – 466.7) = 123.24 kN
Maximum vertical load on each left side wheel of the crane
1
=
× 466.76 = 233.38 kN
2
Maximum vertical load on the right side wheel of the crane
1
= × 123.24 = 61.62 kN
2
4 00 kN
1 90 kN w e ig ht of cra n e
1 .2 m
17 m
Fig. 9.26
Maximum force on the left side bracket supporting the gantry girder occurs of
the opposition of wheels as shown in Fig. 9.27.
2 33 .38 kN 2 33 .38 kN
3 .5 m 0 .5
4m
C o lu m n C o lu m n
Fig. 9.27
∴ Maximum reaction
⎛ 0.5 ⎞
= ⎜ 233.38 + 233.38 × ⎟ = 262.55 kN
⎝ 4 ⎠
Allow for 25% impact = 1.25 × 262.55 = 328.19 kN
Maximum reaction on right side bracket
⎛ RB ⎞ ⎛ 0.5 ⎞
⎜⎝ = 61.62 kN ⎟ + 1.25 × ⎜ 61.62 + 61.62 × ⎟ = 86.65 kN
2 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
11 3.68 kN -m
4 3.3 2 kN -m 4 3.3 2 kN -m
1 64 .1 kN -m
0 .5 m 0 .5 m 3 0.4 2 kN -m
(a ) (b ) (c) 9 0.3 6 kN -m
3 0.4 2 kN -m
Fig, 9.28
Horizontal reaction on the top of left side column for no sway, for column of
uniform section
⎡ ⎛ a2 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 3 × 3⎞ ⎤
⎢ 3 M1 ⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟ ⎥ =
⎝ ⎢ 3 × 164.1 ⎜⎝1 − 8 × 8 ⎟⎠ ⎥
= ⎢ h ⎠⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 2×8 ⎦
= 26.44 kN
The structure has tendency to sway towards right. Therefore, this horizontal
reaction acts towards left.
Horizontal reaction at top of right side column
⎡ ⎛ 3×3 ⎞⎤
⎢ 3 × 43.325 ⎜⎝1 − 8 × 8 ⎟⎠ ⎥
= ⎢ ⎥ = 6.98 kN
⎣ 2×8 ⎦
Unbalanced shear at the top of columns
= (26.44 – 6.98) = 19.96 kN (towards left)
19.96
In order to account for the sway, apply = 9.73 kN towards right at the top
2
of each column.
∴ Force acting at the top of left side column
= (26.44 – 9.73) = 16.71 kN (towards right)
Force acting at the top of right side column
= (6.98 + 9.73) = 16.71 kN (towards left)
Moment acting at the base of left side column [Fig. 9.28 (c)]
= (16.71 × 8 – 164.1) = – 30.42 kN-m
Moment acting at the base of right side column [Fig. 9.28 (c)]
= (16.71 × 8 – 43.325) = 90.36 kN-m
The bending moment diagrams are shown in Fig. 9.28 (c).
Lateral load
Horizontal force (lateral load)
= 10 % of wt. of trolley + lifted load
1
= (300 + 100) = 40 kN
10
This load is transferred to the crane gantry girder through four wheels of crane
∴ Load on one wheel = 10 kN
∴ Lateral load on the column
⎛ 10 × 0.5 ⎞
= ⎜⎝10 + ⎟ = 11.25 kN
4 ⎠
The bending moment at the base of each column is as shown in Fig. 9.29.
M3 = 11.25 × 5 = 56.25 kN-m
Table 9.1
Left side column Right side column
Load Base Crane level Base Crane level
Thrust Moment Thrust Moment Thrust Moment Thrust Moment
kN kN-m kN kN-m kN kN-m kN kN-m
Dead load 45.00 + 0.896 45.00 +1.59 45.00 – 0.896 45.00 –1.59
Live load 19.20 — 19.20 — 19.20 — 19.20 —
Wind
Case I – 27.90 ± 119.20 –27.90 ± 31.20 –32.86 ± 134.90 –32.86 ± 20.40
Case II –5.64 ± 195.84 –5.64 –41.94 –11.91 ± 61.44 –11.91 ± 9.54
Crane load
(a) Vertical load 328.19 –30.42 328.19 164.2 86.65 –90.36 86.65 1.50
(b) Lateral load — ± 56.25 — — — ±56.25 — —
DL. + L.L. 329.39 – 86.67 392.39 165.69 150.85 147.506 150.85 –0.09
+ Crane loadl
D.L. + W.L. 364.49 282.51 364.49 207.63 117.99 –281.906 138.94 20.31
DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
∴ The bending moments and thrust on the left side and right side columns are
tabulated in Table 9.1.
The column section designed would be checked for following two conditions :
(a) Bending moment = 282.51 kN-m
Thrust = 392.39 kN
(b) Bending moment = 281.906 kN-m
Thrust = 117.99 kN
11 .25 kN 11 .25 kN
5 6.2 5 kN -m 5 6.2 5 kN -m
Fig. 9.29
⎛ 282.52 × 106 ⎞
σbc.cal = ⎜ = 79.80 N/mm2
⎝ 3540 × 103 ⎟⎠
R id g e
P u rlins R o of sh ee ts
G utte r
G utte r H e ig ht of ga ble
C ra ne
C ra ne b racket
b racket
C la dd in g
C la dd in g
Fra m e Fra m e
R a ils
colum n colum n
R a ils
(S p acing / 2 ) (S p acing / 2 )
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The multistorey buildings are also known as beam and column buildings and
high tier buildings. In multi-storey buildings, the beam to the column systems
are superimposed on top of each other storey by storey or tier by tier. In heavily
populated cities, the available land for buildings is becoming scarcer and scarcer,
and the cost of land is becoming higher and higher. The multi-storey building
requires a small size of the costly land and provides required floor area. The
multi-storey buildings are built for office buildings, hotels, hospitals, schools
apartment houses and other residential buildings. The present trend is to build
large number of tall buildings. A tall building is defined as one in which the
structural system is modified to make it sufficiently economical to resist lateral
forces due to wind or earthquakes within the prescribed criteria for strength,
drift and the comfort of the occupants. There are several factors which limit the
heights of tall buildings. In certain cities, the building codes and municipal bye-
laws prescribe the maximum height upto which the buildings may be constructed.
At certain places, the foundation conditions may not be satisfactory to support
the buildings of several storeys. The cost of elevators, plumbing, heating and
air conditioning, glazing interior walls increase with the increase of height of
tall buildings. Many storeys above a certain height may not be rentable. The
overall approach for the design of multi-storey buildings should cover structural
safety (specially against wind and earthquake forces) and protection
arrangements.
The construction of multi-storey buildings is of skeleton type. The loads are
transmitted to the foundation by a frame work of steel beams and columns. The
columns for multistorey buildings can be fabricated for one, two, or more storeys.
The size of columns can be changed theoretically at each floor level. However,
DESIGN OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS 497
the cost of splices is usually more than the savings in column weights. The
erection of columns of three or more storeys in height is difficult. Therefore, the
columns are generally made continuous over two-storey heights. The columns
are arranged where these are least disturbing to architecture, but at spacings
close enough to allow a minimum depth of floor. It is desirable to establish a
regular column grid in both single and multi-tenant office buildings. It will
result in repetitive bays in one or both the directions. The regularity of bays is
important, since repetition leads to economy. The exterior column spacings and
bay sizes are controlled to a great extent by architecture and aesthetics. The
bay sizes ordinarily should be selected to produce a minimum storey height. At
the same time, columns cannot be spaced so closely as to detract from the
usefulness of the spaces they pass through. A compromise has to be done between
these two considerations for the selection of bay sizes. The columns are spaced
6 m to 10 m centre to centre. The beams and girders are connected to the columns.
Sometimes, it becomes necessary to provide large open areas between columns
for dining-rooms, ball rooms, etc., on some of the floors. In such cases, large
beams or plate girders are provided to support column loads for many floors
above it. In order to achieve optimum utilization of column properties, the
columns are arranged with flanges parallel to the long axis of the structure,
since the transverse wind condition is the most severe. The plates may be
connected to the flanges of rolled-steel sections to take heavier loads. It will
increase the bending properties of the columns for wind moments as well. The
plates attached with the flanges of rolled steel sections may also remain
inadequate in the modern high-rise buildings. In such cases special built-up
columns are to be designed to suit the various loads and geometric requirements.
In proportioning the columns for heavy loads, in addition to large cross sectional
area needed, the scheme for wind bracing should be properly thought. In a long
and a narrow multi-storey building, the wind is a major problem in one direction
only. However, when the plan is that of approximately square shape, all the
faces of columns need moment resisting connections. In addition to the strength,
the stiffness must be achieved so that the residents are not conscious of sway in
slender buildings.
For multi-storey buildings, the usual footings may not be sufficient to support
the loads. In case, the bearing strength of soil is high, the steel grillage footings
may be provided for the foundations. In case, the bearing capacity of soil is poor,
it may be necessary to provide pile or pier foundations. The exterior and interior
walls may be built in masonry or concrete. These walls are often surfaced with
decorative finished. These exterior walls in modern multi-storey buildings are
made of glass. These reduce the weight of walls and have a pleasing appearance.
These provide problems in the transmission of lateral forces and in thermal
insulation. The partition walls are made of hollow masonry or various panels
using metal, wood, gypsum, or plaster. The floors of multi-storey buildings are
made of concrete slabs. Many materials such as metal decks, foam concrete, or
light weight concrete are also used economically in the floors. In the multi-
storey buildings, the steel frame members are made fire-resistant by encasing
them in concrete or gypsum or other proofing materials.
498 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 10.1
500 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
windows, and other wall openings. In many multi-storey buildings, the interior
partition walls are movable. The presence of diagonal bracing greatly reduces
the flexibility. In the multi-storey buildings the complete diagonal bracing cannot
be provided through its elevator shaft. In general, the multi-storey buildings
should depend on the rigidity of connections to resist the lateral forces. At the
same time, it is not known that to what extent, the diagonal bracings resist the
lateral forces. The moment resistant connections are most commonly used to
Fig. 10.2
provide the resistance against the lateral forces in the multi-storey building.
The design of moment resistant connections has been discussed in Vol. I. The
multi-storey building with moment resistant connections is shown in Fig. 10.2.
The various other types of lateral bracings are shown in Fig. 10.3. Figure
10.3 (a) shows lateral bracings with knee braces. This type of bracing is suitable
for exterior walls unless the glass area is extremely large. This type of bracing
is also suitable for interior walls. This type of bracing docs not interfere with
DESIGN OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS 501
the normal bracings. Figure 10.3 (b) shows portal bracings in each storey of the
multistorey buildings. Figure10.3 (c) shows K-bracing. This type of bracing is
suitable in the multistorey buildings which have small openings. In case, the
building is square, or nearly square, then, this type of bracings is provided in
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 10.3
both the directions of building, since the intensity of lateral forces are usually
assumed to be equal against all the sides of the building. In case, the length of a
multistorey building is several times the width, then, the bracing is not provided
along the long directions. The wind forces spread over many columns. The
building provides sufficient resistance without bracing.
The various more types of lateral bracings are shown in Fig. 10.4.
The bracings shown in Fig. 10.4 (g) are the most satisfactory. These types of
bracings form fully trussed systems. These type of bracings may be made highly
resistant to stress and the lateral deflections. The K-type bracings shown in
Fig. 10.4 (d) and (e) are of additional advantage. The elastic shortening of columns
under the vertical loads does not introduce heavy stresses into the diagonals.
The bracing shown in Fig. 10.4 (h) to (l) allow large door and window openings.
502 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
These types of partial bracing provide wind moments in the columns or in the
beams or in the both.
(a ) (b ) (c) (d )
(e ) (f) (g ) (h )
Fig. 10.4
Fig. 10.5
equal to 18. A building bent with 100 storeys and 10 stacks of columns would
have 900 beams. The degree of indeterminacy of such a building bent is 2700.
Even a 20 storey building bent with 5 stacks of columns would have 80 beams.
The degree of indeterminacy of such a bent is 240.
Nowadays, with the availability of the digital computer facilities, it is possible
to have exact analysis in appreciably short time. But, without the aid of computer
facility, the exact analysis of such a high degree of indeterminate structure is
not feasible. Therefore, the analysis of multistorey building is done by the
approximate methods. The following approximate methods are very popular for
the analysis of multistorey buildings acted upon by lateral forces.
1. Portal method. 2. Cantilever method. 3. Factor method.
In the exact methods of analysis, the elastic properties of at least some of the
members of the building frame (e.g., moments of inertias of columns and girders)
are needed. The accurate member size determination is seldom possible in the
504 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
P1
P2
There are six beams in this building. The building is statically indeterminate to
the eighteenth degree. For the approximate analysis, based on statics, only the
number of assumptions essential are equal to the degree of indeterminacy of
the building, viz., eighteen assumptions are necessary for the analysis. The
distortion of building under the action of lateral loads is shown in Fig. 10.6 (b),
DESIGN OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS 505
Fig. 10.7
three beams in each storey of the bent. The number of assumptions necessary
for the analysis as discussed in the first paragraph above is eighteen. There are
twenty assumptions made in the portal method. The two additional assumptions
are consistent with the necessary assumptions. The portal method does not
result in any inconsistency of forces as found by the statics.
After determining the shears in the columns of each storey, the moments at
the top and at the bottom of each column in a storey are found by multiplying
the shear, and half the length of that column. The moment at the end of beam
joining to an outside column is equal to the sum of the column moment at the
joint, which is also clear from Fig. 10.8 (a). Next there is a point of contraflexure
at the centre of each beam. Therefore the end moments on the beam are
numerically equal. Thus, the end moment at the interior end of the beam is also
N
E F
K I M
L
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 10.8
known. This is clear from Fig. 10.8 (b). Next at any interior joint, the sum of
column moments is equal to the sum of beam moments. This is clear from Fig.
10.8 (c). From this condition, the end moments of the interior beams are
determined. The shear in any beam is determined by dividing the sum of the
moments of the beam by the span. The axial force in any column of any storey is
equal to the sum of the shears on all the beams joining to it above that storey.
The portal method is easy in its application. For 25 storey high buildings
with moderate height-width ratio, the portal method is considered to be generally
satisfactory. The outstanding weakness of the method appears when it is used
for building over 100 m height.
W ind
Fig. 10.9
The thrust is caused due to later force P on the columns which are on the
leeward side from the line of rotation. The forces f1and f2 act upward to resist
the thrust due to lateral force P. The force F3 and F4 act downward to resist the
uplift due to the lateral forces, as these columns are on the windward side from
the line rotation.
In order to obtain the axial stresses in the columns the moments are taken
above an assumed plane of contraflexure through the mid-depth of the columns
on each level.
A lateral force P acting at the top storey of a building frame is shown in Fig. 10.
10. The axial forces in the columns are represented by F1,F2, F3 and F4. The
distances of these columns are marked in Fig. 10.10. By taking the moments
about the plane of contraflexure (i.e., about the c.g. of columns of the storey).
(P × h – F1 x1 –F2x2+ F3x3 + F4 x4) = 0
508 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The axial force in one column may be assumed as F. The axial forces in the
remaining columns may be expressed in terms of F. The axial forces in the
various columns may be found from Eq. 10.1.
The shears at the ends of beams are determined from the axial stresses in
the columns. The end moments in the beams are found by multiplying the beam
shears by half lengths of the beams. The moments in the columns are found
from the moments in the beams. The shears in the columns are found by dividing
the moments in the columns by half the height of columns.
The cantilever method is suitable for building of moderate height-width ratio
not more than 25 to 35 storeys high. The cantilever method is not as popular as
the portal method. The cantilever method is superior to the portal method for
high and narrow buildings.
L in e o f C .G . o f co lu m n s of
P ro tatio n top sto rey
h
P lan e of
con tra fle xure
F4 F3 X3 X2 F2 F1
X4 X1
(a )
(b )
⎛ K IL ⎞
MIL = DFIL . M = ⎜ ⎟⋅ M ...(b)
⎝∑K ⎠
⎛ K IM ⎞
MIM = DFIM . M = ⎜ ⎟⋅M ...(c)
⎝ ∑K ⎠
⎛ K IN ⎞
MIN = DF . M = ⎜ ⎟⋅M ...(d)
⎝ ∑K ⎠
The sum of the bending moments in the beam meeting at a joint shall be
equal to the sum of the bending moments in the columns meeting at the joint,
since the joint is in equilibrium. Therefore,
(MIK + MIM) = (MIL + MIN) ...(viii)
⎛ K IL K IN ⎞
(MIK + MIM) = ⎜ + ⎟⋅ M ...(e)
⎝ ∑K ∑K ⎠
⎛ ∑ Kc ⎞
(MIK + MIM) = ⎜ ⎟⋅ M ...(f)
⎝ ∑K ⎠
∑Mbeams = g.M ...(g)
where,
g = girder factor
⎛ ∑K c ⎞
g = ⎜ ⎟ ...(10.2)
⎝ ∑K ⎠
where, ∑Kc= Sum of relative stiffnesses of the column members meeting at
the joint
∑K = Sum of the relative stiffnesses of all the members meeting at
the joint
Each value of girder factor g, is written at the near end of each girder meeting
at the joint.
Step 2. The column factor, c is found for each joint from the following
expression:
Let c be the column factor. Then
∑ Mcolumns = c.M ...(ix)
∑ Mcolumns + Mbeams = M ...(x)
c.M + g.M = M ...(xi)
Therefore,
(c + g) = 1 ...(xii)
Then,
c = (1 – g) ...(10.3)
Each value of column factor c is written at the near end of each column meeting
at the joint. The column factor for the column fixed at the base is adopted as
1.00.
DESIGN OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS 511
Step 3. The girder factors g, are written at each end of the each girder as
per step 1. The column factors c, are written at each end of each column.
Therefore, at each end of each member, there are numbers. In these numbers,
half the values of the numbers at the other end of the same member are added.
Step 4. The sum obtained as per step 3 is multiplied by the relative stiffness
K of the respective members. This product is termed as column moment factor
C, for the columns, and girder moment factor G, for the girders.
Step 5. The column moment factors C, give the approximate relative values
of moments at the ends of the columns for the storey in which the columns
occur. It would be seen by statics that the sum of column end moments is equal
to the horizontal shear on that storey multiplied by the storey height. Therefore,
the column moment factors, C may be converted into end moments for the
columns by direct proportion for each storey.
Step 6. The girder moment factors G, give the approximate relative values
of the moments at the ends of girders for each joint. It would be seen from the
statics that the sum of the girder end moments at each joint is equal to the sum
of the end moments in the columns at the joints. Therefore, the girder moment
factors G, may be converted into end moments for the girders by direct proportion
for each storey.
Step 7. The moments at the ends of columns are determined as below :
A single storey three bays portal frame with rigid joints is shown in Fig.
10.10 (2). The horizontal shear in each column multiplied by its height gives the
sum of moments at its two ends. Therefore,
HAE × h1 = (MAE + MEA) ...(i)
HBF × h1 = (MBF + MFB) ...(ii)
HCG × h1 = (MCG + MGC) ...(iii)
HDH × h1 = (MDH+ MHD) ...(iv)
Let H1 be the sum of horizontal shears in all the columns of one storey under
consideration.
Then, H1 shall be equal to PH1 (lateral force) for the storey. It is known.
Therefore,
H1 . h1 = ∑(MAE + MEA) ...(v)
= sum of moments at the two ends of all the
columns
Let MAE ∝ CAE, ...(vi)
and MEA ∝ CEA ...(vii)
where, CAE, CEA ... etc. are the column moment factors. Therefore
H1 . h1 ∝ ∑ (CAE+ CEA) ...(viii)
∴ H1 . h1 = A1 ∑ (CAE + CEA) ...(ix)
⎡ H 2 ⋅ h1 ⎤
∴ A1 = ⎢∑ C + C ⎥ ...(10.4)
⎣ ( AE )
EA ⎦
512 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
In case, the portal frame would have been two storey frame, then, for second
storey
⎡ H 2 ⋅ h1 ⎤
A2 = ⎢∑ C + C ⎥ ...(10.5)
⎣ ( IK KI ) ⎦
P H E F G H
1
h1
H AE HBE HCE H DE
A B C D
where, A1, A2... etc. are the storey constants. These storey constants are used
to find the moments at the ends of columns. For the portal frame as shown in
Fig. 10.10 (2).
MAE = A1 . CAE ...(x)
MEA = A1 . CEA ...(xi)
Step 8. The moments at the ends of beams are found as under. The equilibrium
of each joint of the frame is considered.
(i) For the joint E, Fig. 10.10 (2),
MEA (column) = MEF (beam) ...(xii)
(as far as their magnitudes are concerned)
Let MEE ∝ GEF ...(xiii)
Then MEF = BE . GEF ...(xiv)
where,
GEF... etc. = girder constants, and
BE.... etc. = constants of the joints
Therefore,
⎛ M EF ⎞
BF = ⎜ G ⎟ ...(10.6)
⎝ EF ⎠
(ii) For the joint F, Fig. 10.20 (2)
The joint F is in equilibrium. The sum of moments at the column ends shall
be equal to sum of the moments at the ends of the beam meeting at the joint.
Therefore,
DESIGN OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS 513
⎛ M FB ⎞
BF = ⎜ G + G ⎟ ...(xvix)
⎝ FE FG ⎠
where, BE, BF, ... BI are the joint constants for the beams meeting at a joint.
The factor method of analysing the building frame has been illustrated by
working out an example.
L1 L2 L3
10 10 10
L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3
(a ) (b )
Fig. 10.11
the building frame acts as a rigid frame. When the beams are carrying uniformly
distributed load w kN permetre over whole span, as shown in Fig. 10.12 (a),
514 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
then both the ends of beam rotate as shown in Fig. 10.12 (b). The joints act as
partially restrained against the rotation. In case the joints are assumed to be
completely fixed against the rotation as shown in Fig. 10.12 (c), then the rotation
at both the ends are zero. The bending moment diagram for the uniformly
distributed loading is also shown in Fig. 10.12 (c). The points of contraflexures
occur at 0.24 L from the supports. In case the ends are assumed as simply
supported or hinged as shown in Fig. 10.12 (d), then the complete or free rotations
of the ends take place. The bending moment diagram is as shown in Fig. 10.12
kN /m etre
L L L
10 10
L
(a) (b )
L L
BM D BM D
0 .21 4 L 0.21 4L
(c) (d )
Fig. 10 12
(d). The bending moment is zero at supports. Therefore, when the ends of joints
are partially fixed, then the points of contraflexures may be assumed at a
distance somewhere in between 0.00 L to 0.214 L from the supports. The points
of contraflexures are assumed at a distance L/10 from the supports. The axial
thrust in the beams, under the action of vertical or gravity loads is small and
hence neglected.
Therefore, the following assumptions are made for the approximate analysis
of the multi-storey building frames under vertical loads:
1. The axial thrust in the beam is zero.
2. A point of contraflexure occurs at a distance L/10 from left hand support
in beam.
3. A point of contraflexure occurs at a distance L/10 from right hand
support in the beam.
As per these assumptions, the building frame as shown in Fig. 10.11 (a) may
DESIGN OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS 515
(a ) (b )
Fig. 10.13
that the live-loads should be placed in the alternative spans as shown in Fig.
10.13 (b) to give the maximum sagging moments at the centre of span AB. This
type of lading is know as checker board loading. The columns bend in single
curvature, the columns carry vertical load from one span and moments.
The columns are designed for either adjacent spans loaded or alternate spans
loaded as shown in Fig. 10.13 (b); whichever gives worst condition. The worst
516 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
condition of loading occurs usually, when the checker board loading is there,
over the beams.
Example 10.1 Determine the shear forces and end moments in the columns
and the beams of the building frame with moment-resistant joints as shown in
Fig. 10.14 by the portal method. Also determine axial forces in the columns.
1 1 1
K= K= K=
4 2 .5 2
1 00 kN
I J K L
P2 2P2 2P 2 P2
3m
1 2 1 1
P2 K = K= K= K= P2
7 .5 7 .5 3 5
1 1 1
K = K= K=
4 2 .5 2
1 00 kN
E F G H
P1 2P1 2P1 P1
X1 X1 4 m
P1 1 1 1 3
K= 2P1 K = 2P1 K= K= P1
10 5 4 20
A B C D
4m 5m 6m
Fig. 10.14
Solution
Step 1: The columns of building frame are fixed at the supports. There are
six beams in the frame.
∴ Degree of redundancy of the frame
= 3n = 3 × 6 = 18
The following assumptions are made in the portal method.
Points of contraflexures occur in the centre of beams
= 2×3=6
Points of contraflexures occur in the centre of columns
= 2×4=8
Column shear relations (m = number of columns in one storey)
= (m – 1) × 2 = (4 – 1) × 2 = 6
Total number of assumptions
= (6 + 8 + 6) = 20
DESIGN OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS 517
2 5 kN -m 2 5 kN -m 2 5 kN -m
25 J 25 25 J K 25 25 K L 25
I J J K
2 5 kN -m 2 5 kN -m 5 0 kN -m 2 5 kN -m 5 0 kN -m 2 5 kN -m 25
I 2 5 kN -m 5 0 kN -m K 5 0 kN -m 2 5 kN -m
E 2 5 kN -m 5 0 kN -m 5 0 kN -m 2 5 kN -m H
2 5 kN -m 5 0 kN -m 5 0 kN -m 2 5 kN -m
E 9 1.6 6 9 1.6 6 kN -m F 9 1.6 6 F F 9 1.6 6 kN -m G 9 1.6 6 G 9 1.6 6 9 1.6 6 kN -m H H
E G
9 1.6 6 kN -m
6 6.6 6 kN -m 9 1.6 6 kN -m 1 33 .34 kN -m 9 1.6 6 kN -m 1 33 .34 kN -m 9 1.6 6 kN -m
6 6.6 6 kN -m
E 6 6.6 6 kN -m F 1 33 .34 kN -m G 1 33 .34 kN -m 6 6.6 6 kN -m H
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
A B C D
⎛ M + M2 ) ⎞
F = ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ L ⎠
where, (M1+ M2) = Algebraic sum of moments acting at the ends of a beam
L = Length of the beam
The shears in beams may be calculated by considering the free-body diagrams
of the beam members as shown in Fig. 10.16. For the beam IJ, the moments MIJ
and MJI and equal and also act in the same direction. Therefore,
⎛ M + M JI ⎞
F = ⎜ IJ ⎟ (Since MIJ+ MJI)
⎝ LIJ ⎠
⎛ M +2⎞
F = ⎜ IJ ⎟
⎝ LIJ ⎠
The moments at both the two ends of beam IJ act in the clockwise directions.
Since, the beam is in equilibrium, the shear forces at the two ends provide a
moment acting in the anti-clockwise direction. The shear force at the left end
acts downward and that at the right end acts upward,
2
FIJ = FJI = 25 × = 12.50 kN-m
4
2
FJK = FKJ = 25 × = 10.00 kN-m
5
2
FKL = FLK = 25 × = 8.33 kN-m
6
2
FEF = FFE = 91.66 × = 45.83 kN-m
4
2
FFG = FGF = 91.66 × = 36.66 kN-m
5
2
FGH = FHG = 91.66 × = 30.55 kN-m
6
Step 6 : Axial forces in the columns
The axial forces in the colums are found by considering the free-body diagrams
of the joints and free-body diagrams of the beam and column members meeting
at the respective joints as shown in Fig. 10.16.
The shear force at the end I of beam IJ acts downward. The shear force in the
portion of beam at the joint I acts upward. The joint I is in equilibrium. The
force in the portion of column acts downward. As such, the axial force in the
column IE at the end I acts upward and that at the bottom end acts downward.
The axial forces in the columns are determined and these are as follows :
Column IE = 12.50 kN (Tensile)
Column JF = 2.50 kN (Compressive)
Column KG = 1.67 kN (Compressive)
Column LH = 8.33 kN
Column EA = 58.33 kN (Tensile)
522
Fig. 10.16 Shear forces in the beams and axial forces in the columns
DESIGN OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS 523
2
PCG = − PAE
7
524 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
8
PDH = − PAE
7
∴ Let X1 be the point of contraflexure of column DH. Consider a horizontal
plane passing through X1. Take the moment of all the forces acting on the frame
above this plane above X1.
100 × (3 + 2) + 100 × 2 – PAE × 15 – PBF × 11 + PCG × 6 + PDH × 0 = 0
⎛ 3 2 ⎞
⎜100 × 5 + 100 × 2 – PAE × 15 – PAE × 11 + PAE × 6 ⎟ = 0
⎝ 7 7 ⎠
4m 5m 6m
1 00 kN
1 .3 m
X2
3m
1 00 kN
E F G H
7m 8m 2m
3m 2m
X1
PAE 3 P 2 8 P
7 AE P
7 AE 7 AE
Ve rtica l lin e th rou gh C .G . of colum ns
(a )
2 8 PAB
PAE
7 7
PAE 3 P
7 AE
(b )
Fig. 10.17
∴ PAE = + 38.9 kN
∴ PBE = + 16.7 kN
∴ PCG = – 11.1 kN
∴ PDH = – 44.4 kN
For the top storey, let X2 be the point of contraflexure of column HL. Consider
a horizontal plane passing through X2. The forces in the columns are in the
same proportion as those in the columns of the ground storey. Take moment of
all the forces acting above this horizontal plane above X3
DESIGN OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS 525
C D
FFG = 43.69 kN (upward)
A B C D
Note. Above internal forces are in the directions opposite to reactions due to external forces
DESIGN OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS 527
(ii) Joint G
FGF = 43.69 kN (downward)
PGC = 11.10 kN (upward)
PGK = 2.38 kN (downward)
FGK = –l(–43.69 +11.10 – 2.38) kN
= 34.97 kN (downward)
The shear at end G of the beam GH
FGK = 34.97 kN (downward)
The shear at end H of the beam GH
FHG = 34.97 kN (upward)
The force in the portion of beam GH at the joint H
FHG = 34.97 kN (downward)
(iv) Joint H
FHG = 34.97 kN (downward)
PHD = 44.40 kN (upward)
FHL = 34.97 kN (downward)
The joint H satisfies the check for the equilibrium of vertical forces.
(v) Joint I
PIE = 8.33 kN (upward)
∴ FIJ = 8.33 kN (downward)
The shear at end I of the beam IJ
FIJ = 8.33 kN (upward)
The shear at end J of the beam IJ
FJI = 8.33 kN (upward)
The force in the portion of beam IJ at the joint J
FJI = 8.33 kN (downward)
(vi) Joint J
FJI = 8.33 kN (downward)
PJF = 3.58 kN (downward)
FJK = – (– 8.33 – 3.58) =11.91 kN (upward)
The shears at the ends J and K of the beam JK
FJK = 11.91 kN (downward)
FKJ = 11.91 kN (upward)
The force in the portion of beam JK at the joint K
FKJ = 11.91 kN (downward)
(vii) Jont K
FKJ = 11.91 kN (downward)
PKG = 2.38 kN (upward)
FKL = –1(–11.91 + 2.38) = 9.53 kN (upward)
The shears at the ends K and L of the beam KL
528 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
1 6.6 6 kN -m 5 8.3 6
E F 4 6.4 2 kN -m G 2 8.6 0 kN -m H
4 6.4 2 kN -m 5 8.3 6 1 05 .0 kN -m 2 8.6 0 kN -m
6 1.1 4 6 1.1 4 kN -m 6 1.1 4 1 09 .2 1 09 .2 kN -m 1 05 .0 kN -m
F G G H 1 05 .0
E F G H
A B C 1 55 .84 kN -m 7 6.4 0 kN -m D
4 4.4 8 kN -m 1 23 .92 kN -m
MHG = 105.0 kN-m (clockwise)
D
The moment at the end H of beam GH and end H of the column LH
⎡ (1 / 7.5) + (1 /10) ⎤
(i) Joint E, gE = ⎢ ⎥ = 0.482
⎣ (1 / 7.5) + (1 /10) + (1 / 4) ⎦
⎡ (2 / 7.5) + (1 / 5) ⎤
(ii) Joint F, gF = ⎢ (2 / 7.5) + (1 / 5) + (1 / 4) + (1 / 2.5) ⎥ = 0.418
⎣ ⎦
⎡ (1 / 3) + (1 / 4) ⎤
(iii) Joint G, gG = ⎢ ⎥ = 0.393
⎣ (1 / 3) + (1 / 4) + (1 / 2.5) + (1 / 2) ⎦
⎡ (1 / 5) + (3 / 20) ⎤
(iv) Joint H, gH = ⎢ (1 / 5) + (3 / 20) + (1/ 2) ⎥ = 0.411
⎣ ⎦
⎡ (1 / 7.5) ⎤
(v) Joint I, gI = ⎢ (1 / 7.5) + (1 / 4) ⎥ = 0.347
⎣ ⎦
⎡ (2 / 7.5) ⎤
(vi) Joint J, gJ = ⎢ ⎥ = 0.291
⎣ (2 / 7.5) + (1/ 4) + (1/ 2.5) ⎦
⎡ (1 / 3) ⎤
(vii) Joint K, gK = ⎢ (1 / 3) + (1/ 2.5) + (1/ 2) ⎥ = 0.270
⎣ ⎦
⎡ (1 / 5) ⎤
(viii) Joint L gL = ⎢ ⎥ = 0.286
⎣ (1 / 5) + (1 / 2) ⎦
DESIGN OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS 533
The values of grider factors are written at the ends of the beams meeting at
the joint as shown in Table 10.1.
Step 2. Column factors. The column factors at various joints are found
as follows :
(i) Joint E, CE = (1 – gE ) = (1 – 0.482) = 0.518
(ii) Joint F, CF = (1 – 0.418) = 0.582
(iii) Joint G, CG = 1 – 0393 = 0.607
(iv) Joint H, CH = 1 – 0.411 = 0.589
(v) Joint I, CI = 1 – 0.347 = 0.653
(vi) Joint J, C J = 1 – 0.291 = 0.709
(vii) Joint K, CK = 1 – 0.270 = 0.730
(viii) Joint L, CL = 1 – 0.286 = 0.714
(ix) Joint A, CA = 1 = 1.000
(x) Joint B, CB = 1 = 1.000
(xi) Joint C, CC = 1 = 1.000
(xii) Joint D, CD = 1 = 1.000
The values of column factors are written at the ends of the columns meeting
at joints as shown in Table 10.1.
Step 3: Half values of girder and column factors. The half values of
girder factors are added to those of opposite ends. Similarly, the half values of
column factors as shown in Table 10.1, Col. 4 added to those of opposite ends as
shown in Col. 5.
Step 4: Relative stiffnesses of members. The relative stiffnesses of the
members are written in Col. 6. The girder/column moment factors are obtained
as the product of Col. 5 and Col. 6, and these are written in Col. 7.
Step 5: Storey constant for ground storey. The moments at the ends of
columns are found as follows :
Let A1 be the storey constant for the determination of moments at the ends of
columns of the ground storey. Then
⎛ H1h2 ⎞
A1 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Sum of the column end moment factors of the storey ⎠
H1 ⋅ h1
A2 =
∑C
where, H1 = Total horizontal shear of the ground storey
= 100 + 100 = 200 kN
h1 = Height of the ground storey = 4 m
⎡ 200 × 4 ⎤
∴ A1 = (0.26 + 0.102) + (0.258 + 0.216) ⎥ = 482
⎢
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ +(0.326 + 0.276) + 0.194 + 0.163 ⎦⎥
534 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Table 10.1
Joints Members Girder/ Half values (3) + (4) Relative Girder/
columns of factors stiffness column
factors of opposite = I/L moment
= (5) × (6)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
E EA 0.518 0.500 1.018 1/10 0.102
EI 0.518 0.327 0.845 1/7.5 0.112
EF 0.482 0.209 0.691 1/4 0.173
F FB 0.582 0.500 1.082 1/5 0.216
FJ 0.582 0.355 0.937 2/7.5 0.250
FG 0.418 0.197 0.615 1/2.5 0.246
EF 0.418 0.241 0.659 1/4 0.165
G GC 0.607 0.500 1.107 1/4 0.276
GK 0.607 0.365 0.972 1/3 0.323
G GF 0.393 0.209 0.602 1/2.5 0.241
GH 0.393 0.206 0.599 1/2 0.300
H HD 0.589 0.500 1.089 3/20 0.163
HL 0.589 0.357 0.946 1/5 0.189
HG 0.411 0.197 0.608 1/2 0.304
I EI 0.653 0.256 0.912 1/7.5 0.121
IJ 0.347 0.146 0.493 1/4 0.123
J JI 0.291 0.174 0.465 1/4 1.116
JF 0.709 0.291 1.000 1/7.5 0.267
JK 0.291 0.135 0.426 1/2.5 0.170
K KJ 0.270 0.146 0.416 1/2.5 0.166
KG 0.730 0.304 1.034 1/3 0.344
KL 0.270 0.143 0.413 1/2 0.206
L LK 0.286 0.135 0.421 1/2 0.210
LH 0.714 0.295 1.009 1/5 0.202
A AE 1.000 0.259 1.259 1/10 0.126
B BF 1.000 0.291 1.291 1/5 0.258
C CG 1.000 0.304 1.304 1/4 0.326
D DH 1.000 0.295 1.295 3.20 0.194
DESIGN OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS 535
⎛ H 2 ⋅ h2 ⎞
A2 = ⎜ Sum of the column end moment factors of the storey ⎟
⎝ ⎠
where, H2 = Horizontal shear of the top storey = 100 kN
h2 = Height of the top storey = 3 m
⎡ 100 × 3 ⎤
∴ A2 = ⎢ (0.112 + 0.121) + (0.250 + 0.267) ⎥ = 166
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ +(0.323 + 0.344) + (0.182 + 0.202 ⎥⎦
⎛ M + M EI ⎞
BE = ⎜ EA ⎟
⎝ GE ⎠
536 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 20.2 ⎞ ⎛ 44.4 ⎞
BI = ⎜ ⎟ = 16.40, BJ = ⎜ ⎟ = 155.0
⎝ 0.123 ⎠ ⎝ 1.116 + 1.170 ⎠
⎛ 57.0 ⎞ ⎛ 33.6 ⎞
BK = ⎜ ⎟ = 153.2, BL = ⎜ ⎟ = 159.8
⎝ 0.166 + 0.206 ⎠ ⎝ 0.210 ⎠
Setp 11: Moments at the ends of beams
The moments at the ends of beams are as follows :
MEF = Girder moment factor × BE
= 0.123 × 546 = 67.5 kN-m
MFE = 0.165 × 353.0 = 58.2 kN-m
MFG = 0.246 × 353.0 = 86.8 kN-m
MGF = 0.241 × 344.0 = 83.0 kN-m
MGH = 0.300 × 344.0 = 103.2 kN-m
MHG = 0.304 × 361.0 = 109.8 kN-m
MIJ = 0.123 × l64.0 = 20.2 kN-m
MJI = 0.116 × 155.0 = 18.0 kN-m
MJK = 0.170 × 155.0 = 26.4 kN-m
MKJ = 0.166 × 153.0 = 25.6 kN-m
MKL = 0.206 × l53-0 = 31.518 kN-m
MLK = 0.210 × 159.8 = 33.6 kN-m
It is to note that the axial forces in the columns and the beams, if required,
may be found as determined in Example 10.2.
building could be increased upto several times with the methodology developed
in the above said paper, without an increase in the cost.
In the same period, Dr. Khan also introduced the Tubular Design Concept.
This concept was applied in the construction of a 43-storey reinforced concrete
Chestnut-Dewitt apartment building in Chicago in 1963.
A still further economically feasible height of multistorey building proved to
be next innovation. It was the application of shear wallframe interaction
principles to tubular structures, creating the tube-in-tube concept (a new
phrased coined by Khan). This concept was first applied to the Brunswick
Building in Chicago. This concept was soon applied to many other structures. A
52-storey shell Oil Plaza in Houston was also designed with this concept. This
building was the tallest reinforced concrete building.
A 100-storey John Hancock Building in Chicago in 1960s was designed and
constructed as Khan’s first steel version of the tubular structure. This building
was a diagonally braced structure. It became another milestone, particularly
due to the strong expression of its dominant structural features in the
architectural exterior front of the building.
The design and construction of the Sears Tower a 110-storey building with
441.96 m height proved to be a further innovation. In this building, the nine
tubes were bundled into a single structural system. It is the world’s tallest
building. Like the John Hancock building, half of the steel needed for a
conventional design was used.
Dr. Khan’s more innovations include the composite buildings, combining the
advantages of the rigidity of a concrete tubular structure and the speed of erection
of steel slab systems and interior columns. Since 1965, the numerous ultra
high-rise composite structures upto 66 storeys in height have been built.
The exterior tubular configurations used to be made highly efficient to carry
the lateral loads imposed on the multi-storey buildings. The interior frames
carry lateral loads less efficiently. Khan’s innovations improved the rigidity of
tall buildings (which resulted in their superior performance) and achieved
substantial economy over the cost of buildings designed using traditional
schemes.
Professor Khan, F.R. published two papers (in Proceedings, Symposium on
Tall Buildings, University of Southhampton England, April 1966) titled as
‘Current Trend’s in concrete high Rise Buildings’ and ‘On some Special Problems
of Analysis and Design of Shear Wall Structures’, Professor Khan, F.R. published
a paper co-authored with Fintel, Mark titled as ‘Effects of column Exposure in
Tall structures, Analysis for Length changes of Exposed columns’, in ACI Journal
Proceedings, volume 63 (8), August, 1966. A special publication SP-36 ACI,
Detroit, 1973 was published by Professor Khan, F.R. and Amin, N.R. Most of
the ultra highrise buildings today have been constructed on the principles
introduced by Khan. These buildings represent an economic answer to the needs
of the day, utilizing advanced technology and the art of engineering. Professor
Khan believed that there is beauty and simplicity in the structural form of a
building that is natural. Instead of going for a preconceived architectural
538 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
stiffness between the spandrels and the columns is kept so that both of these
elements are efficiently utilized to provide stiffness of the structure against
lateral sway and the overall strength of the tube system to resist the lateral
forces is assumed. In most recent structures, stiffness for limiting lateral sway
controlled the proportions more often than the strength requirement.
Virendeel system as shown in Fig. 10.20 (a) and the cross braced systems
shown in Fig. 10.20 (b) are two types of exterior tubular framing systems.
Virendeel systems consist of closely spaced building columns and spandrel
girders. The cross-braced systems consist of multistorey diagonals, columns and
spandrel girders.
Tube-within-a-tube framing systems are primarily multiple tube
frameworks. When the interior columns and girders are also engaged to create
vertical tubular cantilever beams, then various systems are possible.
Fig. 10.20
540 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
D C
A ctu al
A ctu al colum n stress as true colum n stress
can tileve r w itho ut she ar la g (w ith sh ea r lag )
A ctu al colum n stress w ith sh ea r lag
C o m p re ssive stresses
stre sses in co lu m ns d ue to w ind lo ad
Fig 10.21
The framed tube system combines the behavior of a true cantilever, such as a
shear wall, with that of a beam-column frame. The tubular cantilever beam
action resists the overturning under lateral load and tends to produce tensile
stresses in the columns in the windward face and compressive stresses in the
columns in the leeward face. The shear from the lateral load is resisted by bending
in the columns and beams primarily in the two sides of building parallel to the
direction of lateral load. In case, the lateral loads are acting parallel to faces AD
and BC, the frames on these faces undergo usual shearing acting combined
with an independent rigid frame.
Therefore, for all practical purposes, the bending moments in these columns
may be found by judicious choice of the point of contraflexure in each storey. It
is true that in the lower few storeys, as well as in the upper few storeys, the
point of contraflexure does not remain in the middle of storey height. The
intermediate storeys constitute the major portion of the building. Generally
these intermediate storeys have the point of contraflexure at mid-height of each
storey. It is therefore, possible to calculate the bending moments in these columns
with reasonable accuracy for any unknown lateral shear at each storey. One
DESIGN OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS 541
W ind fo rce
Flec Flec
Flec Flec
Fig. 10.22
542 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
channels flanges normally should not be more than half the depth of the web
(walls parallel to lateral load) or more than about 10 percent given conservative
values of shear and moment as compared to the actual forces in the exterior
columns obtained by the exact analysis carried subsequently by a generalized
computer programme.
Problems
10.1 Determine the shears and end moments in the columns and the beams
of the beams of the building frame with moment resistant joints as
shown in Fig 10.23 by the portal method. Also determine the exial
forces in the coulmns.
DESIGN OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS 543
100 kN
3m
100 kN
4m
8m 6m 4m
Fig. P.10.1
10.2 Determine the end moments in the columns and the beams of the
building frame with moment-resistant joints as shown in Fig. P.10.1
by the cantilever method. Also determine the axial forces in the columns
and the end shears in the beams.
10.3 A six storey frame is as shown in Fig. P. 10.3. Design the frame by the
cantilever method. State all the assumptions made. The wind and
gravity loads are as shown in Fig. P. 10.3.
1 2 kN /m
7 kN
2 0 kN /m
1 4 kN
2 0 kN /m
1 4 kN
2 0 kN /m
1 4 kN 6x5m
2 0 kN /m
1 4 kN
2 0 kN /m
1 4 kN
8m 8m
Fig. P. 10.3
544 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
11.1 INTRODUCTION
The light gauge steel members are defined as structural members cold formed
to shapes in rolls or press brakes from carbon or low-alloy steel sheets or strips
or flats, generally not thicker than 12.5 mm. The steel sheets or strips used for
light gauge steel members conform to IS : 1079–1968. The minimum guaranteed
yield strength for the steel conforming to IS: 1079–1973 is 232 N/mm2 and the
ultimate strength is 390 N/mm2. The use of hot-rolled steel sections becomes
uneconomical for the steel structures subjected to light and moderate loads,
and for the structural members of short span lengths (e.g., joints, purlins, girts,
roof trusses, complete framing for one and two-storey residential, commercial
and industrial structures). The stresses produced even in the smallest available
hot-rolled steel sections are very small. The light gauge steel members are widely
used for such steel roof, floor, decks, wall panels, etc. where the load carrying
members also provide useful surface. The light gauge steel members are also
used in many industries (e.g., automotive truck and trailer bodies, railway cars
etc.). The light gauge steel members are specially used in aircrafts. The light
gauge steel members are also used for various types of buildings from large
hangers to small quonset huts. The light gauge steel members are manufactured
by cold rolling process for mass production of standardized structural elements.
For repetitive mass production, these are formed economically by cold-rolling.
In case the light gauge steel members of special shapes and in small quantities
are to be manufactured, then these are manufactured by press-brakes.
The mechanical properties of sheet and strip steel may be significantly altered
by the cold work that is exerted on it in forming it into structural sections. The
strength of a cold formed structural members is increased due to the forming
process. The strengthening effect of forming operations varies widely, depending
on the composition and prior treatment of the material, the extent to which it is
cold worked in forming, the nature of forming operations and the proportions of
section. A compact section that is formed from a narrow strip in roll forming
546 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
(a ) (b ) (c) (d )
(e ) (f) (g ) (h )
(m ) (n ) (o ) (p )
(q ) (r)
(a ) (b )
(c)
(d )
(e ) (f)
(g ) (h )
Fig. 11.2
Figure 11.2 shows types of cross-sections of light gauge steel members used
for roof, floor decks, siding and walls. The light gauge steel members of several
other shapes or cross-section can also be manufactured.
548 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
11.3 DEFINITIONS
11.3.1 Stiffened Elements
When any flat compression element (i.e., a plane compression flange of a flexural
member or plane web or flange of a compression member) is stiffened on both
edges parallel to the direction of stress by connected stiffeners or by formed
lips, or flanges offering a specified resistance to lateral deflection, then the
element is considered as stiffened. The vertical webs of light gauge steel member
shown in Fig. 11.1 (i) are stiffened by flanges. The horizontal flanges of the
members shown in Fig. 11.1 (j,k and o) are stiffened along one edge by the
stiffening lips and along the other edge, by the vertical webs. All the elements
of light gauge steel members shown in Fig. 11.1 (r) are stiffened. The light gauge
steel member of tubular section shown in Fig. 11.1 (s) is stiffened in case
longitudinal stiffeners shown by dotted lines are provided. When the gradually
increasing loads are applied on the stiffened elements, then the buckling waves
develop gradually. The effective section of the stiffened elements are reduced
by the buckling waves, and redistribution of stress takes place. In the stiffened
elements, the sudden buckling of the elements does not occur.
In case of section such as I, T, channel and Z-shaped sections, the flat width
is the width of flat projection of flange from web exclusive of the fillets and of
any stiffening lip that may be at the outer ege of the flange. In case of multiple
web sections, such as hat, U, or box-shaped sections, the flat with, w is the flat
width of flange between adjacent webs exclusive of fillets.
σ 2 .m a x
σ1 .m a x
b2 b2
2 2
Fig. 11.3 Effective width of stiffened compression element and distribution of longitudinal
compressive stress
a a
b
b
perfectly plane and it is subjected to uniform compressive load along the opposite
edges. When the compressive load is gradully increased, the plate will be
compressed uniformly until the buckling stress is reached. When the buckling
stress is reached, the plate buckles in a single wave or a series of waves (as
shown in Fig. 11.5) depending on the boundary (edge) conditions and length to
a b
b
b
b
b
σcr
σcr
⎡ kc π2 E ⎤
σcr = ⎢ 2⎥ ...(11.1)
⎢12 2 ⎛b⎞ ⎥
⎢⎣ (1 − μ ) ⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
where,
E =
Young’s modulus of elasticity
t =
Thickness of plate
b =
Width of plate
μ =
Poisson’s ratio
kc =
Buckling coefficient. The value of k c depends upon the aspect
ratio a/b, and m
a = Length of plate
m = Number of half waves into which the plate buckles
When the critical stress in the plate exceeds the proportional limit, the inelastic
buckling of the plate occurs. The critical inelastic buckling stress is given by
⎡ kc ⋅ π 2 ⋅ E ⋅ λ ⎤
σcr = ⎢ 2⎥ ...(11.2)
⎢12 2 ⎛ b⎞ ⎥
( )
⎢⎣ 1 − μ ⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
a
When the edges parallel to the compressive stress are simply supported, =m
b
and n = 1, the value of k is 4. Terms m and n appear in the expression (i) due to
series solution to develop the plate equation. Factor λ is used so that the tangent
modulus is obtained as Et = λ.E. When λ is unity, Et = E. In general
⎛ σ y − σ cr .σ cr ⎞
λ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ σ y − σ pl .σ pl ⎠
where, σpl is the stress at limit of proportionality.
The critical buckling stress for shear may be derived in a similar manner as
that for compression. The buckling coefficient kc is replaced by k s. The critical
buckling stress for shear is given by
552 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎡ ks π 2 λ ⋅ E ⎤
⎢ 2⎥
σcrs = ...(iii)
⎢12 2 ⎛ b⎞ ⎥
( )
⎢⎣ 1 − μ ⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
The four edges of the plate are assumed simply supported in shear. The critical
buckling stress in shear is given by σy 3 . The permissible shear stress is found
by using a factor of safety, F.S.
⎛ σcrs ⎞ ⎛ σy ⎞ ⎛ σy ⎞
σs = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ F .S × 3 ⎠ ⎝ 1.67 × 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2.89 ⎠
L en gth
Fig. 11.6
buckling of two adjacent edge strips after buckling of middle strip of a thin
plate is known as post-buckling. It is assumed that the distribution of load is
unifrom across these strips. The middle strip of the thin plate is disregarded.
These two strips are considered as long simply supported rectangular plates.
The concept of effective width, be is applied as the sun of two strips, widths on
each side of the buckled zone. When the load is increased, the effective stress on
these two edge strips (stress on width of 2c = be ) reaches the value of critical
stress equal to the yield stress (as shown in Fig. 11.7) is given by
DESIGN OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL MEMBERS 553
⎡ π2 E ⎤
σcr = ⎢ ⎥ ...(11.3)
⎢12 (1 − μ2 ) ⎛ t ⎞ ⎥
2
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥
c ⎦
a σy
a
b c
2
σy b
be = 2c , 2 c =
b σ
After the yield, the deformation of the plate continues at constant load. It is
considered that the ultimate load or full load carrying capacity of the plate has
been reached. The difference between this ultimate load and initial buckling
load is known as post-buckling strength of thin plate elements.
In airplane construction, the question of economy in weight of the structure
is of primary importance. In such cases, the additional (reserve) strength of
plate after buckling (i.e., post-buckling strength) is commonly ultilized.
⎡ πt E ⎤
∴ c = ⎢ ⎥ ...(11.4)
(
⎢⎣ 12 1 − μ 2 ) σy ⎥
⎦
⎡ E ⎤
2c = ⎢1.90t ⋅ ⎥ (for μ = 0.3) ...(11.5)
⎢⎣ σ y ⎥⎦
⎡ πt2 E σ y ⎤
Pult = ⎢ ⎥ ...(11.6)
⎢ 12 (1 − μ 2 ) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
It is to note that the ultimate load or ultimate strength of buckled thin
elements of plate is independent of the width of the sheet. The ultimate strength
554 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
π2 E
σcr = 2
...(11.7 a)
⎛l⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝r⎠
σy
then σcr =
2
1
⎛l⎞
2 ⎛ 2π2 E ⎞ ⎛ l ⎞ ⎛ 2π2 E ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ , ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ...(11.7 b)
⎝r⎠ ⎝ σy ⎠ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎝ σy ⎠
IS : 801–1968 recommends the following parabolic formula for critical stress
σy
more than
2
⎡ σ2y ⎛ l ⎞2 ⎤
σcr = ⎢σ y − 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(11.8)
⎣ 4π E ⎝ r ⎠ ⎦
The allowable stress in axial compression fa, may be found by dividing the
critical stress by a factor or safety m.
1
⎛l⎞ ⎛ 2π2 E ⎞ 2
For ⎜ ⎟ < ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝r⎠ ⎝ σy ⎠
1 ⎡ σ2y ⎛ l ⎞2 ⎤
fa = ⎢σ − ⎥ ...(11.9)
m ⎣ y 4 π2E ⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠ ⎦
1
l ⎛ 2π2 E ⎞ 2
For > ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
r ⎝ σy ⎠
⎡ 1 π2 E ⎤
fa = ⎢ × 2⎥ ...(11.10)
⎢m ⎛ l ⎞ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎥
r ⎦
1/ 2
l ⎛ 2π2 E ⎞
When the slenderness ratio is greater than ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ , then the light gauge
r ⎝ σy ⎠
steel column fails in elastic buckling. This slenderness ratio as in Eq. 11.7 (b) is
known as limiting slenderness ratio.
The form factor Q, defined in Sec. 11.7 is introduced in Eq. 11.9 and Eq. 11.
10 to account for the effect of local buckling.
556 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
1/2
l ⎛ 2 π2 E ⎞
∴ For < ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ...(as in Eq. 11.7 (b))
r ⎝ σy ⎠
⎡ σy (Qσ y )2 ⎛ l ⎞2 ⎤
fa = ⎢Q ⋅ − 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(11.11)
⎣ m 2π E ⋅ m ⎝ r ⎠ ⎦
1/2
l ⎛ 2 π2 E ⎞
and for > ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ...(as in Eq. 11.7(b))
r ⎝ σy ⎠
⎡ 1 π2 E ⎤
fa = ⎢ ⋅ 2⎥ ...(11.12)
⎢m ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝r⎠ ⎦
For steel sheets and strips conforming to IS : 1079–1973
m = 2.16, σy = 232N/mm2
E = 2.08 × 105 N/mm2.
⎛ fc ⎞ ⎛ Aeff ⎞
Q = Qs . Qa = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ...(11.15)
⎝ fb ⎠ ⎝ Agross ⎟⎠
member remains effective for stress upto yield stress σy, when the width to
w ⎛w ⎞
thickness ratio, is greater than some limiting value ⎜ ⎟ then, the stiffened
t ⎝ t ⎠lim
elements buckle at loads less than the yield load. The load carrying capacity of
member does not diminish due to this buckling. The failure of stiffened
compression elements occur at loads approximately greater than the initial
buckling load. The ultimate load for the stiffened compression elements can be
found satisfactorily by substituting effective width, be , for the actual width
subjected to uniform compressive stress, equal to maximum edge stress.
Pult, = (σmax . Aeff) = (σmax .be . t) ...(11.16)
In case the edge stiffeners provide adequate rigidity, then the value of fmax
may be taken equal to yield stress σy.The effective width, be may be found from
an empirical expression.
⎡ k2 E ⎤ 1/2
be = k1 ⎢
1= ⎥ ⋅t ⋅ ⎛ E ⎞
⎢ ⎛ w⎞ σ max ⎥ ⎜ σ
⎝ max ⎟⎠
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
⎢⎣ t ⎥⎦
E ) ⎢1 − (k2 E )
⎡ ⎤
be
=
(k1 ⎥ ...(11.17)
⎛w⎞
t σmax ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ σmax ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎛w ⎞ ⎛w ⎞
For the flanges with ⎜ ⎟ larger than ⎜ ⎟
t
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠lim
be ⎡ 465 ⎤
2110 ⎢1 − ⎥
= w ...(11.18 a)
t σ ⎢ σ⎥
⎣ t ⎦
⎛w ⎞
where, ⎜ ⎟ = flat width ratio
⎝t ⎠
c = effective design width in cm and
a = actual stress in the compression elements calculated on the basis
of the effective design width in kg/cm2.
k1 E = 2120, k2 E = 465 for E = 2.074 × 106 kg/cm2
k1 = 1.472 and k2 = 0.3228855
1. (B) (S.I.Units)
⎛w ⎞
The flanges are fully effective (be = w) upto ⎜ ⎟
⎝ t ⎠lim
453.787
=
σ
⎛w⎞ ⎛w ⎞
For the flanges with ⎜ ⎟ larger than ⎜ ⎟
⎝t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠lim
be ⎡ 147.046 ⎤
670.412 ⎢1 −
t
= ⎛w⎞ σ ⎥ ...(11.18 b)
σ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝t ⎠ ⎥⎦
where, be is the effective design width in mm and a is the actual stress in
N/mm2.
2. (A) (M.K.S. Units)
2. The flanges of considered square and rectangular tubes are exceptions
for Eqs. 11.18 (a) and (b). The flanges are treated fully effective (be = w) upto
⎛w ⎞ 1540 ⎛w ⎞ ⎛w ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = . For the flanges with ⎜ ⎟ larger than ⎜ ⎟
⎝ t ⎠lim σ ⎝t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠lim
560 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
be ⎡ 420 ⎤
2120 ⎢1 − ⎥
= ⎛ w⎞ ...(11.19 a)
t σ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ σ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎛w ⎞ 486.99
(be = w) upto ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ t ⎠lim σ
⎛w ⎞ ⎛w ⎞
For ⎜ ⎟ larger than ⎜ ⎟
⎝t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠lim
be ⎡ 132.816 ⎤
670.412 ⎢1 − ⎥
t = ⎛ w⎞ ...(11.19 b)
σ ⎢ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ σ ⎥
⎣ t ⎦
When the members are subjected to stresses produced by wind or earthquake
forces, the effective design width bt is found for 0.75 times the stress caused by
wind or earthquake loads alone, or 0.75 times the stress caused by wind or
earthquake plus gravity loads, when the use is made of the increased allowable
stress.
(B) For determination of deflection
1. (A) (M.K.S. Units)
1. The flanges are considered fully effective
⎛w ⎞
(bt = w) upto ⎜ ⎟ = 1850 σ
⎝ t ⎠lim
⎛w ⎞ ⎛w ⎞
For ⎜ ⎟ larger than ⎜ ⎟
t
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠lim
be ⎡ 600 ⎤
= 2710 ⎢1 − ⎥ ...(11.20 a)
t ⎛w ⎞
σ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ σ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎦⎥
k1 E = 2710, k2 E = 600. For E = 2.074 × 106 kg/cm2
k1 = 1.881763 and k 2 = 0.4166264.
1. (B) (S.I. Units)
⎛w ⎞ 585.02
(be = w) upto ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ t ⎠lim σ
DESIGN OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL MEMBERS 561
⎛w ⎞ ⎛w ⎞
For ⎜ ⎟ larger than ⎜ ⎟
⎝t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠lim
be ⎡ 189.736 ⎤
856.977 ⎢1 −
t
= ⎛ w ⎞ σ ⎥⎥ ...(11.20 b)
σ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟
⎣⎢ ⎝t ⎠ ⎦⎥
2. (A) (M.K.S. Units)
2. For the flanges of closed square and rectangular tube as exception
⎛w ⎞ 1990
(be = w) upto ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ t ⎠lim σ
be 2710 ⎛ 545 ⎞
t
= ⎜1 − ⎛ w ⎞ ⎟ ...(11.21 a)
σ ⎜
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ σ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝t ⎠ ⎠
k1 E = 2710, k2 E = 545
∴ k 1 = 1.881763, k 2 = 0.378436, for E = 2.074 × 106 kg/cm2
2. (B) (S.I. Units)
⎛w ⎞ 486.99
(be = w) upto ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ t ⎠lim σ
⎛w ⎞ ⎛w ⎞
For ⎜ ⎟ larger than ⎜ ⎟
⎝t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠lim
be 856.977 ⎡ 172.340 ⎤
t
= ⎢1 − ⎛ w ⎞ ⎥ ...(11.21 b)
σ ⎢
⎜ ⎟ σ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝t ⎠ ⎦⎥
The light gauge steel members are stiffened by providing stiffeners (a web,
flange or lip) along the longitudinal edge (parallel to the direction of stress of
the light gauge steel section. The stiffeners should provide sufficient rigidity.
The rigidity of stiffening element is defined as minimum of moment of inertia,
Imin of the stiffener about its centroidal axis parallel to the stiffening element.
The moment of inertia of stiffening means, the provided stiffeners should
have minimum of moment of inertia
1/2
⎡ ⎛w⎞ 28120 ⎤
2
Imin = 1.83 × t4 ⎢⎜ ⎟ − ⎥ × 104 mm4 ...(11.22)
⎢⎣⎝ t ⎠ σv ⎥⎦
where, Imin = minimum allowable moment of inertia of stiffener (of any shape)
about its own centroidal axis parallel to the stiffened element in
mm4, and
⎛w ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = flat-width ratio of the stiffened element.
⎝t ⎠
The light gauge steel sections are also stiffened by providing simple lip bents
at right angles to the stiffened element. The required overall depth, dmin of such
lip bent is found as below.
1/ 6
⎡ 28120 ⎤
dmin = 28 × t ⎢1 − mm ...(11.23)
⎣ σ y ⎥⎦
or = 48 t.
A simple lip bent shall not be used as an edge stiffener for any element having
a flat-width ratio grater than 60.
bs bs
Fig. 11.8
be bs ⎡b ⎤
= − 0.10 ⎢ s − 60 ⎥ ...(11.25)
t t ⎣t ⎦
where, bs = the effective design of an edge stiffened sub-element defined by
Eqns. (11.17 to 11.21)
be = effective design width of sub-element or element to be used in
design calculations.
For calculating the effective structural properties of a member having
compression sub-elements or element subject to the above reduction in effective
width, the area of stiffeners (edge stiffeners or intermediate stiffeners) shall be
considered reduced to an effective area as under.
⎛w ⎞
For ⎜ ⎟ between 60 and 90:
⎝t ⎠
Aeff = a . Ast
⎡ ⎛ be ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ be ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ w ⎞
where, α = ⎢3 − 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎜ ⎟ ...(11.26)
⎣ ⎝ w ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ 30 ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ w ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ t ⎠
⎛w ⎞
For ⎜ ⎟ greater than 90 :
⎝t ⎠
⎛b ⎞
Aeff = ⎜ e ⎟ . Ast ...(11.27)
⎝w⎠
where, Aeff and Ast are the areas of the stiffener sections, exclusive of any portion
of adjacent elements.
The centroid of the stiffener is to be considered located at the centroid of the
full area of the stiffener, and the moment of inertia of the stiffener about its
own centroidal axial shall be that of the full section of the stiffener.
The above specifications hold good subject to the following limitations :
(i) In case, the spacing of stiffeners between two webs is such that the
⎛ w⎞
flat-width ratio of the sub-element between stiffeners is larger than ⎜ ⎟ as
⎝ t ⎠ lim
in Sec. 11.8, only two intermediate stiffeners (those nearest to each web) shall
be considered effective.
(ii) In case, the spacing of stiffeners between a web and an edge stiffener is
such that the flat-width ratio of the sub-element between stiffeners is larger
⎛w ⎞
than ⎜ ⎟ is Sec. 11.8, only one intermediate stiffener shall be considered
⎝ t ⎠lim
effective.
(iii) In case the intermediate stiffeners are spaced so closely that the flat-
564 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛w ⎞
width ratio between stiffeners does not exceed ⎜ ⎟ as in Sec. 11.10, all the
⎝ t ⎠lim
stiffeners may be considered effective. Only for the purpose of calculating the
flat-width ratio of the entire multiple stiffened element, such element shall be
considered as replaced by an element without intermediate stiffeners whose
width, ws is the whole width between webs or form web to edge stiffener and
whose equivalent thickness, t s is found as under
1/ 2
⎡12 × ls ⎤
ts = 10 × ⎢ ⎥ ...(11.28)
⎣ (ws ) ⎦
where, Is is the moment of inertia of the full area of the multiple stiffened element,
including the intermediate stiffeners, about its own centroidal axial.
⎛w ⎞
The maximum allowable over-all flat-with ratio ⎜ ⎟ disregarding intermediate
⎝t ⎠
stiffeners and taking t as the actual thickness of the element, shall be as below
as recommended in IS : 801–1975.
(i) Stiffened compression element having one longitudinal edge connected
to a web or flange element, the other edge stiffened by
Simple bent lip ... 60
Any other kind of stiffener ... 90
(ii) Stiffened compression element with longitudinal
edges connected to other stiffened elements ... 500
(iii) Unstiffened compression element ... 60
It is to note that the elements that have flat-width ratios exceeding
approximately 30 and stiffened compression elements that have flat-width ratios
exceeding approximately 250 are likely to develop noticeable deformation at
the full allowable working stresses, without affecting the ability of the member
to carry design loads.
The stiffened elements having flat-width ratio larger than 500 may be used
with safety to support loads, but substantial deformations of such elements
under the load may occur and the design formulae given in IS : 801–1975 may
become inapplicable.
⎛w ⎞
When the flat-width ratio, ⎜ ⎟ is approximately less than 12, (as per IS : 801–
⎝t ⎠
1958), then the unstiffened elements fail by yielding without buckling. When
⎛w ⎞
the flat-width ratio, ⎜ ⎟ is more than 12, the unstiffened element fails by
⎝t ⎠
DESIGN OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL MEMBERS 565
buckling at predictable unit stresses, which may be less than the yield strength
of the element.
Note. The values given in M.K.S. units have been converted in S.I. units.
The allowable stresses are usually based upon the specified properties of the
unformed steel. The increase in strength may be utilised in case the methods
and limitations prescribed in IS : 801–1975 are observed and satisfied.
⎛w⎞ 530
(i) For ⎜ ⎟ ratio not greater than
⎝t ⎠ σy
σc = 0.60 σy kg/cm2 ...(11.29 a)
⎡ ⎛ 3.15 ⎞ ⎛ w ⎞ ⎤
σc = σ y ⎢0.767 − ⎜ 4 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ σ y ⎥ kg/cm2
⎣ ⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎦
...(11.30 a)
⎛w⎞ 1210
(ii) For ⎜ ⎟ ratio greater than but not greater than 25
⎝t ⎠ σy
562000
σc = 2
kg/cm2 ...(11.31 a)
⎛w ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝t ⎠
⎛w⎞
(iv) For ⎜ ⎟ ratio from 25 to 60.
⎝t ⎠
For angle strut
562000
σc = 2 kg/cm2 ...(11.32 a)
⎛w ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝t ⎠
For all other sections
⎛w ⎞
σc = 1390 – 20 ⎜ ⎟ kg/cm2 ...(11.33 a)
⎝t ⎠
⎛ w⎞
where, for ⎜ ⎟ is the flat-width ratio and σy = 2320 kg/cm2.
⎝t⎠
1. (B) (S.I. Units)
⎛w⎞ 167.6
(i) For ⎜ ⎟ ratio not greater than
⎝t ⎠ σy
DESIGN OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL MEMBERS 567
⎡ ⎛ 9.96 ⎞ w ⎤
σc = σy ⎢0.767 − ⎜ 4 ⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ σ y ⎥ N/mm2
⎣ ⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎦
...(11.30 b)
⎛w⎞ 382.64
(iii) For ⎜ ⎟ ratio greater than but not greater than 25
⎝t ⎠ σy
56200
σc = 2 N/mm2 ...(11.31 b)
⎛w⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝t ⎠
⎛w ⎞
(iv) For ⎜ ⎟ ratio from 25 to 60
⎝t ⎠
For angle strut
26200
σc = 2 N/mm2 ...(11.32 b)
⎛w⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝t ⎠
For all other sections,
⎛w ⎞
σd = 1390 – 20 ⎜ ⎟ N/mm2 ...(11.33 b)
⎝t ⎠
⎛w ⎞
where, for ⎜ ⎟ is the flat-width ratio and σv = 2320 kg/cm2.
⎝t ⎠
2. Stiffened elements in compression
P
The average axial stress σac = in compression (having doubly-symmetric
A
shapes, closed cross-sectional shapes or cylindrical sections and any other
sections in which the torsional-flexural buckling will not occur) and for the
members braced against twisting, will not exceed the permissible stresses. The
permissible stresses are found form the following expressions as recommended
in IS : 801–1975.
2. (A) (M.K.S. Units)
⎛ K ⋅L⎞ CC
(i) For ⎜ ⎟ less than Q
⎝ r ⎠
568 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
3 (Q ⋅ σ y ) ⎛ K ⋅ L ⎞
2 2
12
σ∝1 = Q ⋅ σy − ⎜ ⎟
23 23 π2 ⋅ E ⎝ r ⎠
...(11.34 a)
2 2
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎛ K ⋅L⎞
σ∝1 = 0.522 Qy σy – ⎢ ⎥ (Q . σy)2 × ⎜ ⎟ kg/cm2 ...(11.35 a)
⎣12500 ⎦ ⎝ r ⎠
⎛ K ⋅L⎞ CC
(ii) For ⎜ ⎟ equal to or greater than
⎝ r ⎠ Q
12 π 2 E
σ∝1 = kg/cm2 ...(11.36)
23 ⎛ KL ⎞ 2
⎜⎝ ⎟
r ⎠
10.68 × 106
σ∝1 = 2
kg/cm2 ...(11.37 a)
⎛ KL ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ r ⎠
2. (B) (S.I. Units)
⎛ K ⋅L⎞ Cc
(i) For ⎜ ⎟ less than
⎝ r ⎠ Q
2
⎡ 1 ⎤ 2 ⎛ K ⋅L ⎞
σ∝1 = 0.522Q . σc – ⎢ × Q . σ × ⎜ ⎟ N/mm2 ...(11.35b)
⎣ 3952.847 ⎥⎦
ψ
⎝ r ⎠
K ⋅L⎞ Cc
(ii) For ⎛⎜ ⎟ equal to or greater than
⎝ r ⎠ Q
10.68 × 105
σ∝1 = 2 = N/mm2 ...(11.37 b)
⎛ K ⋅L⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ r ⎠
1/2
⎡ 2π2 E ⎤
where Cc = ⎢ ⎥ (limiting slenderness ratio)
⎣⎢ sy ⎦⎥
P = total load
A = complete (unreduced) cross-sectional area of the member
σ∝1 = allowable average compressive stress under concentric loading
E = modulus of elasticity (2.074 × 105) N/mm2
K = effective length factor
L = unbraced length of the member
r = radius of gyration
Q = form factor
σy = yield stress of the steel
DESIGN OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL MEMBERS 569
When the value of form-factor Q is equal to unity, the thickness of the element
⎛ K ⋅L⎞
is 2.29 mm or more and ⎜ ⎟ is less than Cc.
⎝ r ⎠
(A) (M.K.S. and SI Units)
⎡ ⎛ K ⋅L⎞ ⎤
2
1 ⎢ 1⎜ ⎥
σ∝1 = ⎢ 1− r ⎟ ⎥ ⋅ σy ...(11.38)
m ⎜ ⎟
⎢⎣ 2 ⎜⎝ Cc ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
where, m = factor of safety
⎡5 3 ⎛ K ⋅ L ⎞ 1 ⎛ K ⋅ L ⎞ 2 ⎤
m = ⎢ + ⎜ ⎟− ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(11.39)
⎢⎣ 3 8 ⎝ r / Cc ⎠ 8 ⎝ r / Cc ⎠ ⎥⎦
P
The average axial stress, σac = in the compression members (having singly
A
symmetric or non-symmetric shapes of open cross-sections or intermittently
fastened singly symmetrical components of built-up shapes having form-factor,
Q equal to unity and which may be subjected to torsional buckling) and the
members which are not braced against twisting, will not exceed σcc given above
1
or σcc2 as specified in IS : 801–1975. (M.K.S. and SI units)
(i) For σTFO > 0.5 σy
⎛ σ2y ⎞
σcc = ⎜ 0.522σ y − ⎟ ...(11.40)
1 ⎜ 7.67σTFO ⎟⎠
⎝
(i) For σTFO > 0.5 σy
σcc2 = 0.522 σTFO ...(11.41)
where, σcc = allowable average compressive stress under concentric loading
2
σTFO = elastic torsional-flexural buckling stress under concentric
loading which one is calculated as under
(i) For the compression members having one axis of symmetry in its cross-
section, σTFO is less than both σex and σt and is given by
1
σTFO = ⎡( σ + σ ) − {( σ + σ ) − 4βσ ⋅ σ }1 / 2 ⎤ ...(11.42)
2β ⎣ ex t ex t ex t ⎦
where
π2 E
σex = 2
⎛ K ⋅L ⎞
⎜ r ⎟
⎝ x ⎠
1 ⎡ π2 ⋅ E ⋅ Cw ⎤
σex = ⎢G.J + ⎥
Ar02 ⎢⎣ ( K ⋅ L )2 ⎥⎦
570 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎡ ⎛x ⎞ ⎤
β = ⎢1 − ⎜ 0 ⎟ 2⎥
⎣ ⎝ r0 ⎠ ⎦
A = cross sectional area
( )
1/2
r0 = ⎡ rx2 + ry2 + x 02 ⎤
⎣ ⎦
= polar radius of gyration of the cross-section about the shear
centre
rx , ry = radii of gyration of the cross-section about the centroidal
principal axes
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity (2.074 × 105 N/mm2)
G = shear modulus (0.795 ×105) N/mm2
K = effective length factor
L = unbraced length of the compression member
x0 = distance from the shear centre to the centroid along the principal
x-axis
J = Saint-Venant torsional constant of the cross-section in mm4.
For the thin-walled section composed of n segments of uniform thickness
⎛1 ⎞
J = ⎜ ⎟ ⎡⎣l1 ⋅ t1 + l2 ⋅ t2 + ... + liti + ... + lntn ⎤⎦
3 3 3 3
⎝3⎠
ti = thickness of segment i
li = length of the middle line of segment i, and
cw = warping constant of torsion of the cross-section.
When the compression members do not have any symmetry, either about an
axis or about a point, the stress σTFO is calculated by the rational analysis.
P
The average axial stress σac1 = in the compression members composed of
A
singly symmetric or non-symmetric shapes or intermittently fastened singly
symmetrical components of built-up shapes having the form-factor, Q less than
unity and which are subjected to torsional-flexural buckling, and which are not
braced against twisting may be conservatively proportioned by replacing σy
by Q . σy in Eqs. 11.40 and 11.41.
On the cross-section of axially loaded braced and secondary members. When
L
the ratio exceeds 120 (K is taken as unity) the allowable compressive stress
r
under concentric loading is found as under
σcc
σcr = ...(11.43)
⎛ 1 L⎞
⎜ 1.3 − ⋅ ⎟
⎝ 490 r ⎠
The maximum stress σcc is obtained by Eqs. 11.35 and 11.36 or Eqs. 11.40
and 11.41, whichever is applicable.
KL
The maximum slenderness ratio or compression members shall be not
r
KL
more than 200, except during construction, shall be not more than 300.
r
DESIGN OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL MEMBERS 571
X1 X2
1 5
2 g
b
P P
6 g
3
4 7
p (P itch)
X1 X2
⎛ p2 ⎞
bnet = (b – nd + n´, ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4g ⎠
n = NUMBER OF RIVET n´ = NUMBER OF GAUGE SPACING
d = DIAMETER OF RIVET
Fig. 11.9
begins to yield or take appreciable permanent set, and second, the load at which
the fracture occurs. Appreciable yielding may be expected when the average
572 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
stress on the minimum net section reaches the tensile yield strength of the
material. Fracture may be expected when the stress on the minimum net section
is equal to the tensile strength of the material.
In establishing the minimum net section, the following comments may be
helpful. The net section of a riveted tension member is the sum of the net sections
of its components parts. The net section of a part is the product of the thickness
of the part multiplied by its least net width. The net width for a single line of
holes extending across the part may be obtained by deducting from the gross
width the sum of all the holes in the line. Where the holes are stagged in two or
more lines across the members, the net width for a broken line of holes may be
obtained by deducting from the gross width the sum of diameters of all the holes
⎛ p2 ⎞
in the broken line and adding ⎜ ⎟ for each gauge space in the chain line, where
⎝ 4g ⎠
p = spacing (pitch) parallel to the direction of load of any two
successive holes in the as shown in Fig. 11.9, and
g = spacing (gauge) perpendicular to the direction of load of the same
holes as shown in Fig. 11.9.
The minimum or controlling net section of a part is obtained from that
chain of holes which gives the least net width.
It is well-known fact that the holes and other discontinuities produce localized
concentration of stress. For the wrought aluminium alloys, however, such stress
concentration can ordinarily be ignored in calculating the static strength of
tension members. All the wrought materials considered herein have sufficient
ductility to permit adequate allevation of stress concentrations by local yielding
before static fracture occurs. The stress concentration is important, however,
when a load is applied repeatedly for a large number of cycles so that the fatigue
failure is a possibility.
Fig. 11.10
Figure 11.11 shows the channel section. The web portion of the section is
kept horizontal. The bending of section occurs about the neutral axis but out of
plane of symmetry. The bending stress in the extreme fibre of compression flange
C o m p re ssio n fla ng e
Fig. 11.11
is less than that in the tension flange. Therefore, the extreme fibres in tension
yield. In case the load is increased beyond the initial yield of tension flange,
then the neutral axis shifts upward towards the compression flange. The
redistribution of stress takes place. The tension area and the effective
compression area are stressed upto yield.
Figure 11.12 shows the channel section. The web portion of the section is
kept horizontal, opposite to that shown in Fig. 11.11. The bending stress in the
extreme fibre of compression flange is more than that in the tension flange. The
buckling or yielding of the compression flange takes place first. Beyond the
initial strain, very little strain may occur upto failure. Almost the linear
distribution of stress occurs.
574 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The maximum ratio of depth of web, h and the thickness of web, t of the
⎛h⎞
flexural member ⎜ ⎟ has been recommended in IS :801 – 1975 in order to
⎝ t ⎠max
limit the maximum allowable depth of the web.
⎛h⎞
(i) For the beams with unstiffened webs ⎜ ⎟ shall not exceed 150.
⎝ t ⎠max
(ii) For the beams which are provided with adequate means of transmitting
concentrated loads or reactions or both into the web
⎛h⎞
⎜ ⎟ shall not exceed 200
⎝ t ⎠max
where h = clear distance between the flanges measured along the plane of
web,
t = thickness of web
and
⎛h⎞
where, the web of beam consists of two or more sheets, the ⎜ ⎟ ratio shall be
⎝t⎠
calculated for the individual sheets.
The beams supporting concentrated loads may have unusual short spans.
When the span of beam is less than 30 wf and it carries one concentrated load or
several concentrated loads spaced farther apart than 2 wf, the effective design
width of any flange, whether in tension or compression shall be limited as in
Table 11.2 given in IS : 801–1975.
where, L is the full span for simple spans ; or the distance between inflection
points for continuous beams ; or twice the length of cantilever beams in mm and
wf is the width of flange projection beyond the web for I-beam and similar
sections of half the distance between the webs of box or U-type sections in mm.
Table 11.2 Maximum allowable ratio of effective design width to actual width
⎛ L ⎞ ⎛ L ⎞
⎜w ⎟ Ratio ⎜w ⎟ Ratio
⎝ f ⎠ ⎝ f ⎠
30 1.00 14 0.82
25 0.96 12 0.78
20 0.91 10 0.73
18 0.89 8 0.67
16 0.86 6 0.55
For the flanges of I-beams and similar sections stiffened by lips at the outer
edges, wf shall be taken as the sum of the flange projection beyond the web
plus the depth of lip.
When the flange of a beam is unusually wide and it is desired to limit the
DESIGN OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL MEMBERS 575
l´y h Kl3
Cs = 10.1 ×105 × 1 + 0.162 N/mm2
Z x l2 l´y h2
The second term under the radical sign may be neglected, since the value of
torsional constant K, for the open light gauge steel sections is very small.
⎛ l´ h ⎞
∴ Cs = ⎜10.1 × 106 × y ⎟ N/mm2
⎜ Z x ⋅ l2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
lx
∴ Zx = l , A ⋅ ry2 , I x = Arx2
h y
2
576 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞ ⎛h⎞ ⎛ h ⎞⎤
Pmax = 70t 2 [98 + 4.20 ⎜ ⎟ – 0.22 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ – 0.11 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠⎝t⎠ ⎝ t ⎠⎦
⎛ σy ⎞
⎛ σ ⎞
× [1.33 – 0.33 × ⎜⎜ σ y ⎟⎟ × ⎜ y ⎟ ...(11.46 a)
⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 2320 ⎠
⎝ 2320 ⎠
1. (B) (S.I. Units)
⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞ ⎛h⎞ ⎛ h ⎞⎤
Pmax = 70t 2 [98 + 4.20 ⎜ ⎟ – 0.22 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ – 0.11) ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠⎝t⎠ ⎝ t ⎠⎦
⎛ σ y ⎞ ⎛ σ y ⎞⎤
× [1.33 – 0.33 × ⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟⎥ ...(11.46 b)
⎝ 232 ⎠ ⎝ 2320 ⎠ ⎦
For other corner radii upto four times the thickness (4.t), the value of Pmax
⎛ R⎞
given by the above formula shall be multiplied by ⎜1.15 − 0.15 ⎟ viz.,
⎝ t ⎠
⎛ R⎞
Pmax = Pmax × ⎜1.15 − 0.15 ⎟ ...(11.47)
⎝ t ⎠
(ii) for reactions of interior supports or for concentrated loads located
anywhere on the span with inside corner radius equal to or less than the thickness
of sheet.
1. (C) (M.K.S. Units)
⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞ ⎛h⎞ ⎛ h ⎞⎤
Pmax = 70t 2 [305 + 2.30 ⎜ ⎟ – 0.009 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ – 0.5) ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎝t⎠ ⎝ t ⎠⎦
⎛ σ ⎞⎛ σ ⎞
× [1.22 – 0.22 × ⎜ y ⎟ ⎜ y ⎟ ...(11.48 a)
⎝ 232 ⎠ ⎝ 232 ⎠
1. (D) (S.I. Units)
⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞ ⎛h⎞ ⎛ h ⎞⎤
Pmax = 70t 2 [305 + 2.30 ⎜ ⎟ – 0.009 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ – 0.5) ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎝t⎠ ⎝ t ⎠⎦
⎛ σ y ⎞⎛ σ y ⎞
× [1.22 – 0.22 × ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ...(11.48 b)
⎝ 232 ⎠⎝ 232 ⎠
For other corner radii upto four times the thickness of sheet (4t), the value of
⎛R⎞
Pmax given by the above formula is to be multiplied by (1.06 – 0.06 ⎜ ⎟ , viz.,
⎝t ⎠
578 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
R
Pmax = Pmax (1.06 – 0.06 ) ...(11.49)
t
(2) For I-beams made of two channels connected back to back or for similar
sections, which provide a high degree of restraint against the rotation of the
web, such as I-section, made by welding two angles to a channel.
(M.K.S. Units) and (S.I. Units)
(i) For end reactions or for concentrated loads on the outer ends of cantilever
N
Pmax = t 2 . (4.44 + 0.558 ) σy ...(11.50)
t
(b) For reactions of interior supports or concentrated loads located anywhere
on the span
⎛ N⎞
P´max = t 2 ⋅ ⎜ 4.44 + 0.558 ⎟ σy ...(11.51)
⎝ t ⎠
In all the above expressions, Pmax represents the load or reactions for one
solid web sheet connecting top and bottom flanges. For webs consisting of two
more such sheets, Pmax shall be calculated for each individual sheet and the
results are added to find the allowable load or reaction for the composite web.
For the loads located close to the ends of beams. Eq. (11.48) and Eq. (11.51)
shall apply, provided that for the cantilevers, the distance from the free end to
the nearest edge of bearing, and for a load close to an end support, the clear
distance form edge of end bearing to the nearest edge of load bearing is larger
than 1.5h. Otherwise Eq. 11.46 and Eq. 11.50 shall apply,
where,
Pmax = allowable concentrated load or reactions
t = web thickness
N = actual length of bearing, except that N shall not be greater than
h.
h = clear distance between flanges measured along the plane of the
web
σy = yield stress
R = inside bend radius.
1
The maximum deflection should not be more than of the span. This limit
325
may be exceeded in a case, where the greater deflection would not impair the
strength or efficiency of the structure or lead to damage the finishings.
DESIGN OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL MEMBERS 579
⎡1275 τ y ⎤
τv = ⎢ ⎥ kg/cm2 ...(11.52 a)
⎢ ⎛h⎞ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
(with t max = 0.40 t y).
⎛h⎞ 4590
(b) For ⎜ ⎟ greater than
⎝t⎠ σy
⎡ 5.85 × 106 ⎤
τv = ⎢ 2 ⎥ kg/cm2 ...(11.53 a)
⎢ ⎛h⎞ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
1 (B) (S.I. Units)
⎛h⎞
(a) For ⎜ ⎟ not greater than 1451.485
⎝t⎠ σy
⎡ 403.19 t y ⎤
τv = ⎢ ⎥ N/mm2 ...(11.52 b)
⎢ ⎛h⎞ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥⎦
t
⎝ ⎠
(with τv max = 0.40 τy)
⎛h⎞ 1451.48
(b) For ⎜ ⎟ greater than
⎝t⎠ σy
⎡ 5.85 × 105 ⎤
τv = ⎢ 2 ⎥ N/mm2 ...(11.53 b)
⎢ ⎛h⎞ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
where, t = web thickness
h = clear distance between flanges measure along the plane of web,
and
σy = yield stress in N/mm2 (232 N/mm2)
where, the web consists of two or more sheets these shall be treated as separate
members carrying their share of the shear.
580 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
36.56 × 106
τbw = 2 kg/cm2 ...(11.54 a)
⎛h⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝t⎠
2 (B) (S.I. Units)
36.56 × 105
τbw = 2 kg/cm2 ...(11.54 b)
⎛h⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝t⎠
3. Combined bending and shear stresses in webs
When the webs of beams are subjected to both bending and shear stresses,
the beams shall be so proportioned that such stresses do not exceed the allowable
stress found by Eqs. 11.52, 11.53 and 11.54 and the following interaction
expression is satisfied.
1/ 2
⎡⎛ τ ´ ⎞2 ⎛ τ ⎞2 ⎤
⎢⎜ bw ⎟ + ⎜ v ⎟ ⎥ > 1.00
| ...(11.55)
⎣⎢⎝ τbw ⎠ ⎝ τv ⎠ ⎦⎥
where, σbw´ = actual compression stress at the junction of flange and web
σbw = allowable compression stress
σy´ = actual average shear stress, that is, the shear force per web
divided by web area
σc = allowable shear stress as specified in Eqs. 1.52 and 11.53 except
that limit of 0.4 σv shall not apply.
⎛ σ∝ σ σb⋅ y ⎞
⎜⎜ + bx + ⎟⎟ < 1.0 ...(11.57)
⎝ σ∝ σb⋅1⋅x σb⋅1⋅ y ⎠
DESIGN OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL MEMBERS 581
⎛σ ⎞
When ⎜ ac ≤ 0.15 ⎟ , the following expression may be used in lieu of the above
σ
⎝ cc ⎠
two expressions
⎛ σ∝ σbx ′ σby′ ⎞
⎜⎜ + + ⎟⎟ < 1.00 ...(11.58)
⎝ σ∝ σbx σby ⎠
where, σbc = axial stress (axial load divided by complete cross-sectional area
of the member, P/A)
σac = allowable compressive stress under concentric loading for
buckling in the plane of symmetry
σb´ = maximum bending stress (bending moment divided by
M
appropriate section modulus of the member, noting that for
Z
the members having stiffened compression elements, the section
modulus shall be based upon the effective design widths of such
elements
σb1 = maximum permissible bending stress in compression where the
bending stress only exists and the possibility of lateral buckling
is excluded
σb = maximum permissible bending stress in compression where the
bending stress only exist
(12π2 E )
Fe´ =
⎡ 23( K ⋅ Lb ⎤
⎢ rb2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
K = effective length factor in the plane of bending
Lb = actual unbraced length in the plane of bending
rb = radius of gyration about axis of bending.
The subscripts x and y in the above expressions indicate the axis of bending
about a particular stress or design property applies x-and y-axes are the
centroidal axes, x-axis is the axis of symmetry. The positive directions of x-axis
is pointed away from the shear centre.
Cm is a coefficient. The value of Cm is adopted as under :
(i) For the compression members in the frames subjected to joint translation
(sideway) the value of Cm is adopted as 0.85.
(ii) For the restrained compression members in the framed braced against
joint translation and not subjected to transverse load between their supports in
the plane of bending, the value of Cm is found from the following expression Cm
582 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛M ⎞ ⎛M ⎞
= 0.6 – 0.4 ⎜ 1 ⎟ but not less than 0.4, ⎜ 1 ⎟ is the ratio of smaller to larger
M
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ M2 ⎠
moments at the ends of the portion of the members, unbraced in the plane of
⎛M ⎞
bending under consideration, ⎜ 1 ⎟ as positive when the member bent in
⎝ M2 ⎠
reverse curvature and negative when it is bent single curvature.
(iii) For the compression members in frames braced against joint translation
in the plane of loading and subjected to transverse loading between their support,
the value of Cm may be obtained by rational analysis. However in lieu of such
analysis, the following values may be used :
(a) For members whose ends are restrained, Cm = 0.85, and
(b) For members, whose ends are not restrained, Cm = 1.00
When the cross-sections of beam members have only one axis of symmetry or
intermittently fastened singly symmetric components of built up shapes having
Q equal to unity and which may be subjected torsional flexural buckling are
subjected to both axial compression and bending applied in the plane of symmetry
are proportioned to meet the following four requirements as applicable.
⎡ σ∝ σb1 ´Cm ⎤
(1) ⎢σ + σ ⎥
< 1.00 ...(11.59)
⎢ ∝ σb⋅1 ⎛⎜1 − ∝ ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ Fe ´ ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎛ σa σb1 ⎞
⎜σ + σ ⎟ < 1.00 ...(11.60)
⎝ ac b1 ⎠
⎛ σa ⎞
when ⎜ σ ⎟ < 0.15, the following expression may be used in lieu of the above
⎝ ac ⎠
two expressions
⎛ σa σb1 ⎞
⎜ σ + σ ⎟ < 1.00 ...(11.61)
⎝ ac b1 ⎠
⎛ σ2y ⎞
σc ⎜
= ⎜ 0.522σ y − ⎟⎟ ...(11.62 a)
⎝ 7.67σTF ⎠
DESIGN OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL MEMBERS 583
⎡ ( π2 E ) ⎤
⎢ ⎥
σc = ⎢ ⎛ K ⋅ Lb ⎞2 ⎥
⎢⎜ r ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎝ b ⎠ ⎦
σTF = average elastic torsional flexural buckling stress, that is, axial
load at which torsional flexural buckling occurs divided by the
complete cross-sectional area of the member.
⎛ Mc ⋅ C ⎞
σb.c = ⎜ ⎟ = maximum compressing bending stress caused by
⎝ Iy ⎠
Mc.
For I-sections with unequal flanges, σbc may be approximated
by
⎡ ( π2 ⋅ E ⋅ d ⋅ I x ) ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢
⎣ (
L 2
⋅ Z yc) ⎥
⎦
σb.T = (MT. C/Iy) = maximum compressive bending stress caused by
MT.
For I-sections with unequal flanges, σbT may be approximated
by
(
⎡ π 2 ⋅ E ⋅ d ⋅ I xc
⎢
) ⎤⎥
⎢
⎣ (
L2 ⋅ Z yc ) ⎥
⎦
Zyc = compression section medulus of the entire section about axis
⎛ Iy ⎞
normal to the axis of symmetry, ⎜ ⎟
⎝ yc. max ⎠
584 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
load is at the shear centre, that is, the calculated values of σac
and σc for e = x0
σC2 = allowable compressive stress under concentric loading.
(2) And if the point of application of the eccentric load is located on the
side of shear centre opposite form that of the centroid, then the average
compressive stress σac shall also not exceed σC given below
σTF > 0.5 σy
σ2y
σc = 0.522 σy– ...(11.67)
7.67σTF
σTF < 0.5 σy
σc = 0.522 σTF ...(11.68)
where, CTF shall be found according to the expression
σTF CTF ⎡ σb1 ⎤
+ − σb2 ⎥ = 1.00 ...(11.69)
σex σbc ⎢ ⎛ σ ⎞
⎢ ⎜1 − TF ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ σi ⎠ ⎥⎦
σTF is a coefficient. Its value is adopted as under:
(a) for compression members in frames subjected to joint translation (side
away) CTF is taken as 0.85.
(b) For restrained compression members in frames braced against joint
translation and not subjected to transverse loading between their supports in
the plane of bending, the value of CTF is found from the expression
⎛M ⎞
CTF = 0.6 – 0.4 ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ M2 ⎠
⎛M ⎞
The ratio of ⎜ 1 ⎟ bas been defined with the coefficient, Cm above.
⎝ M2 ⎠
11.23 CONNECTIONS
The bolted, welded, and screw connections are most commonly used in the light
gauge steel members. The riveted connections and other special devices for
connecting the light gauge structural members are used only occasionally.
q q
S h ea r cen tre
1 mq 1 mq
2 2
(a ) (b )
Fig. 11.13
DESIGN OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL MEMBERS 587
Figure 11.13 (b) shows two channel sections connected back to back to form
an I-section for use as a beam (flexural member). The torque acting per unit
length
⎛1 ⎞
T1 = ⎜ m ⋅ q ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝2 ⎠
The two channel sections must be connected such that it provides an equal
internal resisting moment. Let the channel sections be connected by weld at a
vertical distance between the two rows of connections near or at top and bottom
flanges, g in mm. Then, the tension in weld per unit length
⎛1 m⋅q ⎞
Ft = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝2 g ⎠
If the longitudinal spacing between the welds is s, in mm, then the tensile
force in weld is given by
Ts = Ft.s
⎛ mqs ⎞ ⎛ 2 g ⋅ Ts ⎞
Ts = ⎜ 2 g ⎟ or s = ⎜ mq ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
The maximum permissible longitudinal spacing of welds, Smax joining two
L
channels to form as I-section to be used as a beam (flexural member) is ,
6
where, L is the span of beam. The maximum spacing Smax should not exceed
⎛ 2 g ⋅ Ts ⎞ as in expression (iv).
⎜ m⋅q ⎟
⎝ ⎠
The intensity of load q is obtained by dividing the magnitude concentrated
loads or reactions by the length of bearing. If the length of bearing of a
concentrated load or reaction is smaller than the weld spacing, s, the required
strength of the welds or connections closest to the load or reaction, P is
⎛ P ⋅m ⎞
Ts = ⎜ ⎟ ...(v)
⎝ 2g ⎠
For the compression members, the maximum permissible longitudinal spacing
of welds, Smax, joining two channels to form as I-section is given by
⎛ Lrc⋅ y ⎞
Smax = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⋅ r1 ⎠
where, L = unbraced length of the compression member
rey = radius of gyration of one channel about its centroidal axis parallel
to web, and
r1 = radius of gyration of I-section about the axis perpendicular to
the direction in which the buckling would occur for the given
conditions of end support, and intermediate bracing, if any.
588 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
In case the beam is subjected to uniformly distributed load, then the value of
q, load, per unit length is adopted as three times the uniformly distributed load
per unit length. This is done to account for effect of uneven loading of the
channels, which may be caused because of allowable errors of fabrication and
misalignment of the flanges. For the light gauge channel sections without bent
lips
⎛ 3 ⎞
m = ⎜ 3b ⎟
⎝ 6b + h ⎠
where,
m = Distance of shear centre of channel from the mid-plane of the
web
h = Depth of channel section
b = Width of channel section
For the light gauge C-shaped channels with the stiffening lips at the outer
edges
b⋅h⋅d ⎡ ⎛ 4d 2 ⎞ ⎤
m = ⎢b ⋅ h ⋅ +2d1 ⎜ h − 1 ⎟ ⎥
4Ix ⎣ ⎝ 3h ⎠ ⎦
where, b = projection of flanges from inside face of web (for channels with
flanges of unequal width, b shall be taken as the width of the
wider flange)
d1 = over all depth of lip
h = depth of channel or beam
Ix = moment of inertia of one channel about its centroidal axis normal
to the web.
IS : 801–1975 recommends the following spacing for connections in
compression elements.
The spacing of connections should not exceed :
(1) That length which is required to transmit the shear between the
connected parts on the basis of the design strength per connection.
In M.K.S. Units
⎛ 1680 t ⎞
(2) s = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i a)
⎝ σ ⎠
where, s = spacing in cm
σ = Design stress in cover plates
t = Thickness of plate in cm
In S.I. Units
⎛ 531.26t ⎞
s = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i b)
⎝ σ ⎠
where, s and t are in mm and σ is N/mm2.
DESIGN OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL MEMBERS 589
(3) Three times the total flat width b, of the narrowest unstiffened
compression element in that portion of the cover plate or sheet which is tributary
1590 t ⎛ 502.80 t ⎞
to the connections, but need not be less than in M.K.S. units ⎜ 1/ 2 ⎟
(σ y ) ⎝ (σ y )
1/2
⎠
in S.I. units) if the value of σc permitted in the unstiffened element is greater
1910 t ⎛ 603.995 t ⎞
than 0.54 σy in M.K.S. units ⎜ 1 / 2 ⎟ in S.I (units) if the value of σc
(σ y )1 / 2 ⎝ (σ y ) ⎠
permitted in the unstiffened element is less than or equal to 0.54 σy, unless
closer spacing is required under (1) or (2) above.
In case of intermittent fillet welds parallel to the direction of stress the spacing
shall be taken as the clear distance between the welds plus 13 mm. In all other
cases, the spacing shall be taken as centre to centre distance between the
connections.
The fusion welds are proportioned so that the stresses therein do not exceed
the permissible stresses. The permissible stress in shear, σc on throat for fillet
of plug welds depend on the specified minimum yield point, σy of the lowest
strength, steel being joined. IS : 801–1975 recommends the following values of
the permissible stresses.
Table 11.3
σy (N/mm2) σe (N/mm2)
<250 95.5
> 250, but < 350 110
>350 125
In some of the light gauge steel sections, the cover plates are also connected.
Figure 11.1 (m) shows the cover plates connected to the channels. These cover
plates are joined by the welds. The welds are subjected to longitudinal shear
and transverse shear due to tendency of each channel to twist when the load is
applied in the plane of web. The spacing of weld is found such that the resultant
of transverse and longitudinal shears per weld is not more than the permissible
shear per spot weld. The value of lever arm C is adopted as the depth of channel
for determining the transverse load per weld. The buckling of cover plate in the
direction parallel to line of connection should not occur.
The spot welds are commonly used for the light gauge members. IS : 819–
1957, Resistance spot welding for light assemblies in mild steel may be preferred
for the design of spot welding.
Example 11.1 A light gauge steel rectangular box section 200 mm × 100 mm
× 2.0 mm is used for a column. The effective length of column is 3.60 m. Determine
the safe load carrying capacity of the section. Take basic design stress, σb = 125
N/mm2.
590 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Solution
Step 1: The box-section is shown in Fig. 11.14. All the four elements of section
are stiffened. From IS : 811–1961.
Area, A = 1173.7 mm2
Ixx = 452.477 × 104 mm4
Iyy = 126.863 × l04 mm4
rxx = 62.1 mm, ryy = 32.9 mm
Step 2 : Slenderness ratio
⎛ l ⎞ ⎛ 3.60 × 1000 ⎞
⎜r ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 109.42
⎝ min ⎠ ⎝ 32.9 ⎠
Basic design stress = 125 N/mm2
Flat width ratio of smaller sides
⎛w⎞ ⎛ 100 − 2 × 4 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 46
⎝t ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
1 00 m m
y
0 .4 cm
9 .62 cm
2
2 00 m m
x x x x
2 mm
9 .62 cm
2
0 .4 cm
y
x 7 .85 cm
(a ) 0 .4 cm (b ) 0 .4 cm
Fig. 11.14
⎛w ⎞ 453.78
⎜ ⎟ = = 40.587
⎝ t ⎠lim 125
DESIGN OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL MEMBERS 591
⎛w⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 46 > 40.587
⎝t ⎠
⎡ 147.046 ⎤
⎛ be ⎞ 670.412 ⎢1 −
⎜ ⎟ = ⎛ w ⎞ 1/2 ⎥
⎝ t ⎠ (σ )1 / 2 ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ (σ ) ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎦⎥
670.412 ⎡ 147.046 ⎤
be = 1− × 2 mm
1/ 2 ⎢ 1/ 2 ⎥
(125 ) ⎣ 46 (125 ) ⎦
= 85.64 mm
(ii) For larger side
⎛w⎞ 200 − 2 × 4
⎜ ⎟ = = 96 > 40.587
⎝t ⎠ 2
⎛ be ⎞ 670.412 ⎡ 147.046 ⎤
⎜ ⎟ = 1−
⎝ t ⎠ 1/ 2 ⎢ 1/ 2 ⎥
(125) ⎣ 96 (125) ⎦
be = 51.74 × 2 = 103.48 mm
Area of four round corners form IS: 811–1961
= (4 × 9.4248) = 37.6992 mm2
∴ Effective area = [2 × 85.64 × 2 + 2 × 103.48 × 2 + 37.6992] mm2
= 794.18 mm2
Gross-area = 11737.7 mm2
794.18
Form factor Q = = 0.6766
1173.3
1/2
⎛ 2π2 E ⎞
Cc = ⎜ ⎟ = 132.84
⎝ 1173.3 ⎠
Cc 132.84
1/ 2 = = 161.496
(Q ) 0.6766
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ Cc ⎞
= ⎜ = 109.42 ⎟ is less than ⎜⎜ = 161.496 ⎟
1/2 ⎟
⎝r ⎠ ⎝ (Q ) ⎠
Step 4 : Allowable stress
Allowable stress in axial compression in stiffened element form Eq. 11.35 (b)
⎡ ⎛ KL ⎞ ⎤
2
⎢ ⎜ Q ⋅ σ ⎥
r ⎟ ⎥ N/mm2
y
σc = ⎢0.522 Q ⋅ σ y − ⎜ ⎟
⎣⎢ ⎝ 3952.847 ⎠ ⎦⎥
592 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎡ 2⎤
= ⎢0.522 × 0.6766 × 232 − ⎛⎜ 0.6766 × 232 × 109.42 ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 3952.847 ⎠ ⎦
= 63.059 N/mm2
Step 5 : Safe load carrying capacity
Safe load carrying capacity
Example 11.2 Two channel sections with bent lips 200 mm × 80 mm are
connected with webs to act as column. The thickness of channel is 3.2 mm. The
depth of lips is 25 mm. The effective length of column is 5.40 m. Determine the
safe load carrying capacity of the section.
Solution
Step 1 : The column section is shown in Fig. 11.15. From IS: 811–1961
80 m m 80 m m
25 m m
2 00 m m
1 9.7 2
x x
2 mm
25 m m
Fig. 11.15
⎛ l ⎞ 6.50 × 1000
⎜r ⎟ = = 183.67
⎝ min ⎠ 29.4
DESIGN OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL MEMBERS 593
453.78 453.78
= = 38.46
(σ ) 139.2
(i) Actual flat width thickness ratio of flanges (stiffened elements)
⎛w⎞ ⎛ 80 − 2 × 2 × 3.2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 21 < 38.46
⎝t ⎠ ⎝ 3.2 ⎠
∴ The flanges are fully effective (be = w)
∴ be = 80 mm
⎡ 147.046 ⎤
⎛ be ⎞ 670.412 ⎢1 − ⎥
⎜ ⎟ = ⎛w ⎞
⎝ t ⎠ (σ ) ⎢⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ( σ ) ⎥⎥
⎣ ⎝t ⎠ ⎦
670.412 ⎡ 147.046 ⎤
= ⎢1 − ⎥
(139.2) ⎣ 58.5 (139.2) ⎦
⎛w⎞ ⎛ 25 − 2 × 3.2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 5.81 < 12
⎝t ⎠ ⎝ 3.2 ⎠
Area of one corner = 24.1275 mm2
∴ Effective area
= [4 × 3.2 × (80.4 × 3.2) + 2 × 143.087 × 3.2
+ 4 × 2 × 24.1275] = 1968.94 mm2
Step 4 : Column factor
Q = Qs × Qa
594 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ σc A ⎞
= ⎜ × eff = ⎛⎜ 139.2 × 1968.94 ⎞⎟
σ
⎝ b A ⎟ ⎝ 139.2 2489.40 ⎠
gross ⎠
= 0.791
Step 5 : Permissible stress
1/2
⎛ 2π2tE ⎞
For Cc = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ σy ⎠
1/2
⎛ 2 ⎞
= ⎜ 2π × 2.074 × 105 ⎟
⎝ 232 ⎠
Cc 132.14
(Q ) = 0.791
= 149.36
⎛ K ⋅L ⎞ ⎛ Cc ⎞
⎜ = 183.67 ⎟ is greater than ⎜⎜ = 149.36 ⎟
⎟
⎝ R ⎠ ⎝ (Q ) ⎠
Permissible stress, from Eq. 11. 37 (b)
50 m m 50 m m
2 00 m m
x x
2 .5 m m
5 mm 5 mm
Fig. 11.16
⎛ 167.6 ⎞ ⎛ 167.6 ⎞
⎜ σ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 11.0035
⎝ ( y )⎠ ⎝ (232 ) ⎠
⎛ 382.64 ⎞ ⎛ 382.64 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 25.12
⎜ (σ y ) ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ (232 ) ⎠
⎛w ⎞
11.0035 < ⎜ = 18 ⎟ < 25. 12
⎝t ⎠
Step 2: Permissible stress. σc from Eq. 11.30 (b)
⎡ 0.767 − 9.96 ⎛ w ⎞
σc = σy ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ (σ y ) ⎤⎥
⎣ 104 ⎝t ⎠ ⎦
⎡ ⎛ 9.96 ⎞ ⎤
= 232 ⎢0.767 − ⎜ 4 ⎟ (18 ) (232 ) ⎥ N/mm2
⎣ ⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎦
= 232 × 0.4939 = 114.58 N/mm2
Step 3: Moment of inertia about xx-axis form IS : 811–1961
Ixx = 2 × 390.307 × 104 mm4, y = 100 mm
Zxx = 2 × 39.3 × 103 mm3
596 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ Wl ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 8.994
⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ 8.994 × 8 ⎞
W = ⎜ ⎟ = 17.888 kN
⎝ 4 ⎠
Step 6: Check for shear
Maximum shear F, occurs at the support
1
∴ F = × 17.888 = 8.994 kN
2
Average shear stress
⎡ 8.944 × 1000 ⎤
=
⎢2 × ( ⎥
⎣ 200 − 2 × 2.5 − 2 × 2.5 ) × 2.5 ⎦
= 9.415 N/mm2
Maximum allowable shear stress in web from Eq. 11.32
⎛h⎞ ⎛ 200 − 2 × 2.5 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 78
⎝t⎠ ⎝ 2.5 ⎠
1451.485 1451.485
= = 95.29
(σ y ) (232 )
⎛b ⎞
⎜ = 78 ⎟ is less than 95.29
⎝t ⎠
Permissible shear stress in the web from Eq. 11.52 (b)
⎡ 403.19 (σ y ) ⎤
⎢ ⎥
τy = ⎢ ⎛h⎞ ⎥
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝t⎠ ⎦
⎡ 403.19 (232 ) ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥ = 78.733 N/mm2
⎣ 78 ⎦
> 9.415 N/mm2
0.40 σy = 0.40 × 232 × 92.8 N/mm2
> 9.415 N/mm2. Hence safe.
Step 7: Check for deflection
Maximum deflection due to uniformly distributed load occurs at the centre.
DESIGN OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL MEMBERS 597
5 ⎛ WL3 ⎞
ymax = ×⎜ ⎟
384 ⎝ E ⋅ I xx ⎠
Problems
11.1 A right gauge steel rectangular box-section 180 mm × 90 mm × 2 mm is
used for a column. The effective length of column is 2.80 m. Determine
the safe load-carrying capacity of the section. Adopt the properties of
the box-section from IS: 811–1961.
11.2 Two channel sections with bent lips 180 mm × 80 mm are connected
with webs to act as a column. The thickness of channel section is 25 mm.
The depth of lips is 25 mm. The effective length of column is 4.40 m.
598 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The method of elastic design of a structure is defined as a method which limits
the structural usefulness of the material of the structure upto a certain load, at
which the maximum stress in extreme fibres reaches the yield stress of the
material in bending. The rest of cross-section remains under-stressed. It is a
conventional method of design based on the elastic properties of steel. This
method is also known as working stress method of design. The stresses due
to working loads do not exceed the specified allowable stresses. The working
loads are the maximum loads, which are likely to arise in normal use throughout
the life-time of the structure. The values of allowable stresses are determined
by applying adequate factor of safety to the guaranteed minimum yield stress
of steel. The factor of safety accounts for unpredictable over load, defective
workmanship, defective material etc. The elastic design does not take into
account the strength of the material beyond the yield stress.
The method of plastic design of a structure is defined as a method which
limits the structural usefulness of the material of the structure upto ultimate
load. The term plastic has occurred due to the fact that the ultimate load is
found from the strength of steel in the plastic range. This method is also known
as method of load factor design or load and resistance-factor design or
ultimate load design. In this method, the selection of members is done such
that under various combinations of the service loads, each multiplied by a load
factor, the member forces shall not exceed the specified ultimate strengths. It is
an advantageous replacement over the usual method of elastic design. The
method has its main application in the analysis and design of statically
indeterminate framed structures. The strength of steel beyond the yield stress
is fully utilized in this method. This method is rapid and simple and provides
600 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
rational approach for the analysis of the structure. The sections designed by the
method of plastic analysis and design are smaller in size than designed by
the method of elastic design. Thus, this method provides striking economy as
regards the weight of the steel. This method also provides a margin of safety,
which one is not less than that provided by the method of elastic design.
The plastic analysis and design means a better use of the material and the
intellectual resources.
Theoretically, the failure of a structure may occur due to number of reasons.
It may fail (that is, reach its limits of usefulness) due to instability, fatigue, or
excessive deflections. In case, the structure does not fail due to these reasons,
then the structure will continue to carry load beyond the elastic limit, until, the
load attains its value equal to the ultimate load. The most indeterminate
structural steel building frames collapses due to plastic deformation. The plastic
analysis and design is based on the ultimate load the structure may support
just before it plastic collapse.
15
10
B c
5 S train h arde ning
0
L ow e r yie ld
5 5 10 15 20 25
S train (P erce nt)
Fig. 12.1
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 601
It is seen that the stress-strain curve is linear within the elastic range. Point
A shown in Fig. 12.1 and also in Fig. 12.2 represents stress upto the level of
upper-yield point. From upper yield point, the stress in the material drops down
U p pe r Y ield
A
S tress kN /m m 2
25 B C
L ow e r yie ld S train h arde ning
0 .5 1 .0 1 .5 2 .0
S train (p e rcent)
Fig. 12.2
40
35
30 dσ
= E st
dt
25
σy = Yield stress
20
15
S tress (kN /m m 2 )
10
5
dσ
=E
dt
0 .5 1 .00 1 .5 2 .00
S train (p e rce nt)
Fig. 12.3
The stress-strain diagram is not similar to that for the mild steel. The ultimate
strain in concrete is only 0.4 to 0.5 percent. The simple plastic theory of bending
as applicable to steel cannot be applied to the concrete. However, there are
S tre ss (kN /m m )
0 .2 e u = 0 .4 to 0.5
S train (p e rce nt)
Fig. 12.4
several ultimate load theories which are applicable to the structures built-up of
the reinforce cement concrete. The various ultimate load theories are due to
Mensch, Dyson, Whitney, Jensin, Dr. O.P. Jain, etc. Because of the simplicity,
Whitney’s theory is more popular.
12.3.4 Brass
The brass is brittle material. It fails as soon as the stress reaches to the yield stress.
The simple plastic theory is not applicable to the structures built up of brass.
σy Ten sion
O S train
C o m p re ssio n
σy
Fig. 12.5
604 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛P⎞
σ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝A⎠
The elongation of bar takes place elastically. The elongation bar is given by
⎛ P ⋅L ⎞
Δ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ A⋅E ⎠
The load verses deflection is as shown in Fig. 12.6.
P u lt
L oa d
Δ 1 .5 pe rcen t
y D e fle ction
Fig. 12.6
The deflection Δ increases linearly with the increase of load, till the yield
point is reached. When the value of load reaches the yield load, the stress in the
material reaches yield stress
⎛ Py ⎞
σy = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ A⎠
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 605
⎛ Py L ⎞
Δy = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ A⋅E ⎠
The stress in the member is uniform. The load versus deflection relationship
becomes plastic. The deflection in the bar increases unobstructed upto the
deflection at which strain hardening occurs. The value of load Py remains
constant. This load is considered as ultimate load for the bar
∴ (Pult = Py) ...(12.1)
The deflection in the bar is about 1.5 percent of the length of the bar. The bar
does not remain structurally useful.
T1 T1
L1 = L
L =1 L T2
2 2
A
P
(a ) (b )
( P u lt )
A A A
L oa d
Δy Δu
(P u lt ) D e fle ctio n
(c) (d )
Fig. 12.7
606 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
rigid block. A load P is applied at the centre. The bars are equal in cross-sectional
area. The load is gradually increased. Let the tension in the outer bars be T1
and inner bar be T2. When the bars are in elastic state, then from equilibrium,
(2Tl + T2 = P) ...(i)
and from continuity, (since the total deflection in each bar is equal),
Δ1L1 = Δ2L2
⎛ T1 L1 ⎞ ⎛ T2 L2 ⎞
∴ ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ AE ⎠ ⎝ AE ⎠
1
∴ (L2 = L)
2 1
⎛ T2 ⎞
∴ T1 = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛P ⎞
∴ T2 = 2T1 = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝2⎠
From expression (iv) it is seen that the force in inner bar, which one is smaller
than others carries more load. The bar carrying more load would yield first.
Therefore, the first yield load may be found by substituting in expression (i).
The maximum value of load, which T2 can attain, is σyA. Therefore, yield load
Py = 2T2 = 2 × (σyA)
The deflection at the yield load
⎛ L⎞
⎛T L ⎞ ⎜ σy ⋅ A ⋅ ⎟ ⎛ σyL ⎞
Δy = ∈yL2 = ⎜ 2 2 ⎟ = 2 =⎜ ⎟ ...(v)
⎝ AE ⎠ ⎜ ⎟ 2 AE ⎠
⎝ AE ⎠ ⎝
Now, three bars have become partially plastic. The structure acts as a two
bar structure only, but the inner bar takes a constant force of σyA acting upward
as shown in Fig. 12.7 (b). Now, the value of load is further increased. The inner
bar (smaller bar) yields at constant load. The outer (bigger) bars, take more
load. The outer bars are still in elastic state. As such the unobstructed flow does
not occur. The deflection of rods continues to increase till the load in each bar
reaches yield load. Then, the deflection increases unobstructed upto strain
hardening suddenly. The system of bars does not remain structurally useful.
Therefore, the load corresponds to ultimate load,
(Pult = 3 σyA) ...(12.2)
It is to note that the ultimate load may be found easily from Eq. 12.2. In this,
the continuity conditions or the redundancy due to continuity need not be
considered while the ultimate load is found in the plastic range. The deflection,
when the ultimate load has arrived, may be found from
⎛ σyL ⎞
(Δult) = (∈yL1) = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ E ⎠
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 607
In this plastic analysis, all the elements of the structure (i.e., each bar) attains
the plastic yield condition. It also satisfies the equilibrium condition. At the
ultimate load, the deflection increases unobstructed. This is shown in
Fig. 12.7 (d).
C B A
T2
L = L2
T1 L1 L1 T1
q q
D1 D1
D = D2 D2
Fig. 12.8
⎛ T1 ⋅ L1 ⎞ ⎛ T2 ⋅ L2 ⎞
∴ ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ cos φ
⎝ AE ⎠ ⎝ AE ⎠
608 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ T1 ⎞ ⎛L ⎞
⎜T ⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⋅ cos φ ...(ii)
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ L1 ⎠
where,
L1 = Lengths of members CO and AO
L1 = L = Length of member BO
⎛ L2 ⎞
⎜ L ⎟ = cos φ
⎝ 1⎠
∴ Expression (ii) becomes
⎛ T1 ⎞
⎜ T ⎟ = cos2 φ
⎝ 2⎠
or T1 = T2 cos2 φ ...(iii)
Substituting in expression (i)
⎛ P ⎞
T2 = ⎜ 2 ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ 1 + 2cos φ ⎠
⎛ P cos2 φ ⎞
T1 = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ...(v)
⎝ 1 + 2cos φ ⎠
The value of cos φ is always less than one. It is seen that the force T2 is more
than T1. When the bar BO reaches the yield load, the whole system of bars does
not remain structurally useful as per elastic design, and the system fails.
(T2 = A . σy)
(T1 = A . σy . cos2 φ )
∴ From expression (i), the maximum load
P = (2A σy cos2 φ + A σy ) = Aσy (1 + 2 cos2 φ) ...(12.3)
The deflection corresponding to yield load
⎛ σ y ⋅ L2 ⎞ ⎛ σ y ⋅ L ⋅ ⎞
Δy = ⎜⎝ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ ...(12.4)
E ⎠ ⎝ E ⎠
The load versus deflection diagram is shown in Fig. 12.9 (a).
If the analysis of bar is done by the plastic analysis, then the bar, EO carrying
maximum load, reached yield load first.
∴ T2 = σyA ...(vi)
The system continues to take further load. The load P is gradually increased.
The force in bar BO remains constant, then the forces in bars CO and AO also
becomes equal to yield load, then,
(T1 = σyA) ...(vii)
All the three bars yield. The deflection of bars increases unobstructed and
suddenly. The system does not remain structurally useful i.e., the system fails.
The load corresponding to this is known as ultimate load.
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 609
σ A B C
y
T2
σ A co s 2 φ
y
L oa d
T1
(a ) E lastic an alysis
P u lt
Py
L oa d
σ L /E σ
O y y L co s 2 φ/E
D e fle ction
(b ) P lastic an alysis
Fig. 12.9
⎛ σ L ⎞ ⎛ σyL ⎞
Δ1 = ⎜ y 1 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ E cos φ ⎠
⎛ σyL ⎞
∴ (Δ1 = Δ2 cos φ), and ∴ Δ2 = ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ E cos φ ⎠
610 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛σ L⎞ 2
∴ Δ = ⎜ y ⎟ sec φ ...(12.6)
⎝ E ⎠
By comparing Eq. 12.4 and Eq. 12.6, it is seen that the vertical deflection in
plastic design is sec2 φ times that in elastic design. The load versus deflection
has been shown in Fig. 12.9 (b).
– – – – –
N e utral
a xis
G
E q ua l
a rea
a xis
+
+ + + +
σ σy σy σy σy σy
(a ) (b ) (c) (d ) (e ) (f)
Fig. 12.10
extreme distance from the neutral axis in this case. The stress at the top fibre
remains less than the yield stress as shown in Fig. 12.10 (c). The neutral axis
still passes through the centroid of the section. The moment at which the first
yield has occurred is termed as the yield moment
⎛ I ⎞
M = My = σy ⎜ ⎟ = σy Z ...(12.7)
⎝ y1 ⎠
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 611
⎛M⎞
When the moment is further increased, the curvature ⎜ ⎟ also increases,
⎝ EI ⎠
and the yielding of fibres spreads inside at the bottom, and the bending stress
at the top fibre reaches yield stress as shown in Fig. 12.10 (d). The neutral axis
shifts downward. The neutral axis may be located by equating total compressive
force to total tensile force over the cross-section of the beam, since the beam is
in equilibrium.
When the moment is still increased, the yield further spreads from the bottom
and also from the top towards the neutral axis as shown in Fig. 12.10 (e). The
neutral axis further shifts downward. Finally, a stage is arrived, when the yield
spreads upto an axis from bottom and top both and the section is fully plasticised.
The distribution of bending stress is shown in Fig. 12.10 (f). This axis is known
as equal area axis. The moment corresponding to this stage is termed is fully
plastic moment or the ultimate plastic moment of the section or simply plastic
moment. The fully plastic moment of a section is denoted by Mp or Mult,. The
term plastic moment MP is the ultimate moment which the section can maintain
under the assumption of an ideal elastic-plastic stress strain law.
In case the section of a beam is symmetrical about both the axes, then the
neutral axis does not shift.
(A 1) G 1 C = σy A 1
Y1
Y2
(A 2) G 2
T = σy A 1
σy
Fig. 12.11
Consider any beam section as shown in Fig. 12.11 (a). Let the moment at the
section be equal to the fully plastic moment of the section. The beam section is
fully yielded or plasticised. The bending stress in each fibre of the section is
equal to the yield stress. The distribution of bending stress is rectangular as
shown in Fig. 12.11 (b). Let the nature of the moment be sagging. The fibres
above the neutral axis are in compression. The fibres below the neutral axis are
in tension.
Total force in compression over the section
C = σy A1 ...(i)
Total force in section over the section
T = σy A2 ...(ii)
The tension in equilibrium. The resultant force over the section is zero.
Therefore C = T
(σy A1 = σy A2)
⎛A⎞
∴ A1 = A2 = ⎜ ⎟ (3A = A1 + A2 )
⎝2⎠
where, A1 = Area of the section above the neutral axis
A2 = Area of the section below the neutral axis
A = Area of the complete cross-section of the beam.
The area above the neutral axis is equal to the area below the neutral axis.
Therefore, the neutral axis of the completely plasticised section is known as
equal area axis. The equal area axis divides the cross-section in two equal areas.
These two equal and opposite forces form a couple to resist the plastic moment.
∴ MP = (σ y ⋅ A1 y1 + σ y ⋅ A2 y2 ) = σ y ( A1 y1 + A2 y2 )
A A
= σy ⋅ ( y1 + y2 ) = y ⋅ Z P (3A1 = A2 = )
2 2
...(12.8)
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 613
A
ZP =
2
( y1 + y2 )
= Plastic modulus of the section ...(12.9)
where, y1 = Distance of c.g. of the area A1, from the equal area axis
y2 = Distance of c.g. of the area A2, from the equal area axis.
The plastic modulus of the completely yielded section ZP is defined as the
combined statical moment of the cross-sectional areas above and below the
neutral axis or equal area axis. It is resisting modulus of completely plasticised
section.
b σy
N e utral
c a xis
h
σy
Fig. 12.12
section. From the value of yield moments MY, upto the stage of fully plastic
moment of the section MP, some of the middle fibres are elastic while the outer
fibres are plastic. The section is in the elastic-plastic range. The rectangular
section of the beam is partially yielded or plasticised as shown in Fig. 12.12.
In the elastic-plastic range, a middle layer of depth e, remains elastic and it
is known as elastic core. The bending stress in the outer fibres is equal to yield
stress. The bending moment resisted by the elastic core,
⎛ b ⋅ e2 ⎞
M1 = σy . ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 6 ⎠
614 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 2 2 ⎞
M2 = σy ⎜ b ⋅ h − b ⋅ e ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ 4 4 ⎠
The total moment of resistance of the partially plasticised section or the section
in the elastic-plastic region is
⎛ be2 ⎞ + σ ⎛ be2 be2 ⎞
M =M1 + M2 = ⎜ σ y ⋅ ⎟ y⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝ 4 4 ⎠
bh2 ⎡ 2 2⎤ ⎛ 2 2 ⎞
M = σy + σ y ⎢ be − be ⎥ = σ y ⎜ bh − be ⎟ ...(iii)
4 ⎣ 6 4 ⎦ ⎝ 4 12 ⎠
bh2 ⎡ e2 ⎤
∴ M = σ y 4 ⎢1 − 2 ⎥ ...(12.10)
⎣ 3h ⎦
The fully plastic moment of the section of the beam
⎛ bh2 ⎞
MP = σ y ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎡ e2 ⎤
∴ M = MP ⎢1 − 2 ⎥ ...(12.11)
⎣ 3h ⎦
The moment of resistance of partially plasticised rectangular section or the
section in elastic-plastic range may be worked out from Eq. 12.10 and also from
Eq. 12. 11, in case depth of elastic core, e, is known. If the value or applied
moment M, is known, then, the depth of elastic core e, can also be worked out.
L L L l
3 3 3
(a )
L x x x L x
2 2 2 2 2 2
My My
(b )
Fig. 12.13
The values of moment, at the adjacent section of the yield zone are more than
the yield moment upto a certain length ΔL, of the structural member. This
length ΔL, is known as the hinged length. The hinged length depends upon
type of loading and the geometry of the cross-section of the structural member.
The region of hinged length is known as region of yield or plasticity. The
lengths of region of plasticity or yield i.e., hinged lengths have been worked out
for a simply supported rectangular beam carrying a concentrated load at the
centre, and uniformly distributed load over the entire length.
Firstly, consider the simply supported rectangular beam subjected to a
concentrated load at the centre as shown in Fig. 12.10 (a). The variation of
bending moment as shown in Fig. 12.13 (b). The maximum bending moment
occurs at the centre (i.e. under the concentrated load). The concentrated load W
increases gradually. The value of bending moment reaches to fully plastic
moment MP, of the section and a plastic hinge is formed at the centre.
⎛ WL ⎞
MP =
⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 4 ⎠
Let the width of rectangular beam be b and depth be h.
The yield stress, σy is first reached at the yield moment, My
MY = σy . Z
MY = σy . ⎛⎜ 1 ⋅ b ⋅ h2 ⎞⎟ = σ y . ⎛⎜ 1 ⋅ 4 ⋅ bh ⎞⎟
2
⎝6 ⎠ ⎝6 4 ⎠
⎛ bh2 ⎞
⎜⎝∴ Z P = ⎟
4 ⎠
616 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛2 ⎞ ⎛2 ⎞
= ⎜ σ y ⋅ ZP ⎟ = ⎜ M P ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝3 ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠
Let the length of plasticity zone be x.
From the bending moment diagram shown in Fig. 12.13 (b)
L
MP 2
=
MY ⎛L x⎞
⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠
or (L – x) MP = MY . L ...(iii)
Substitute the value of My from (ii)
2
∴ (L – x) MP = M .L
3 P
⎛2 ⎞
(L – x) = ⎜ ⋅L⎟
⎝3 ⎠
x = ⎜ ⎟
⎛L⎞ ...(12.12)
⎝3⎠
The hinged length of length of plasticity zone is equal to one-third of the
span.
Now consider a section X1X1 in the region of plasticity at a distance x1 from
the centre. The bending moment at the section X1X1, when fully plastic moment
exists at the centre
⎛L ⎞
⎜ 2 − x1 ⎟
M = MP . ⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
L ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
Let the depth of elastic core at this section be e. Then, from Eq. 12.11
⎛ e2 ⎞
M = MP . ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ ...(v)
⎝ 3h ⎠
By Eqs. (iv) and (v),
⎡L ⎤
⎛ e2 ⎞ ⎢ 2 − x1 ⎥
⎜1 − 2 ⎟ = ⎢ L ⎥
⎝ 3h ⎠ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
⎛ e2 ⎞ ⎛ 2x 2 ⎞
⎜1 − 2 ⎟ = ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ 3h ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 617
⎛ 6h2̂ ⎞
e2 = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ x1
⎝ L ⎠
This shows that the depth of elastic core varies parabolically with x1. The
region of the plasticity and variation of elastic core have been shown in Fig.
12.13 (a). The regions of plasticity are wedge-shaped. It is to note that the section
is fully yielded or plasticised only at the central section. The regions of plasticity
along the span have only a point contact, which acts like a hinge.
Secondly, consider the simply supported rectangular beam subjected to
uniformly distributed load, W as shown in Fig. 12.14. The maximum bending
moment occurs at the centre. The maximum bending moment M, reaches fully
plastic moment MP.
⎛ WL ⎞
MP = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 8 ⎠
Consider a section at a distance x1 from the centre, with the region of plasticity.
The moment at this section
W 8M P
M = (L2 – 4x2) = (L2 – 4x 12)
8L 8L
⎛ 4x 2 ⎞
= MP ⎜1 − 1 ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ L2 ⎠
Let the depth of elastic core be e. Then from Eq. 12.11,
⎛ e2 ⎞
M = MP ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 3h ⎠
⎛ e2 ⎞ ⎛ 4 x12 ⎞
∴ ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ = ⎜1 − 2 ⎟
⎝ 3h ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠
⎛ x2 ⎞
e2 = 12h2 ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ L2 ⎠
⎛h⎞
e = 2 3 ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (x ) ...(12.14)
⎝L⎠
It shows that the variation of depth of elastic core is linear. The regions of
plasticity are triangular in shape.
When the depth of elastic core, e = h, then from Eq. 12.14
h = 2 2 ⎛⎜ h ⎞⎟ ( x )
⎝L⎠
618 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ L ⎞
x = ⎜ ⎟
⎝2 3 ⎠
R e gion of
p lasticity
h
L ( 3 0 − 1) L L L ( 3 0 − 1) b
W 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 W
2 2
L
Fig. 12.14
L
The hinged length or length of region of plasticity is equal to .
3
Similarly, it can be worked out that the length of region of plasticity of an I-
section simply supported beam subjected to concentrated load at the centre is
about one-eighth of the span.
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ σyZ p ⎞ ⎛Z ⎞
S = ⎜ P ⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ P ⎟ ...(12.15)
⎝ MY ⎠ ⎝ σ y Z ⎠ ⎝ Z ⎠
It is seen from Eq. 12.15 that the shape factor is also defined as the ratio of
the plastic modulus of the section to the elastic modulus of the section. The
shape factor is a geometrical property of a section. It depends wholly on the
shape of the cross-section. The values of shape factor for the various cross-sections
may be evaluated as follows :
1. Rectangular Section
A rectangular section is shown in Fig. 12.15 (a). The elastic modulus of section
⎛ 2⎞
Z = ⎜ bh ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 6 ⎠
The plastic modulus of the section
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 619
A
ZP = ( y1 + y2 )
2
b ⋅ h ⎛ h h ⎞ bh2
ZP = ⎜ + ⎟=
2 ⎝4 4⎠ 4
⎛ bh2 ⎞
ZP ⎜ 4 ⎟
∴ S = =⎜ 2 ⎟ = 1.5 ...(12.16)
Z ⎜ bh ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠
2. Diamond section
A diamond section is shown in Fig. 12.16 (b).The moment of inertia of section
about xx-axis
2
1 ⎛h⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
Ixx = 2 × × b × ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ bh ⎟ ...(i)
12 ⎝2⎠ ⎝ 48 ⎠
Therefore, the elastic modulus of the section
I xx ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
Z = = ⎜ bh × 2 ⎟ = ⎜ bh ⎟ ...(ii)
⎛ h ⎞ ⎝ 48 h ⎠ ⎝ 24 ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
The xx-axis is also the equal area axis of the section. The plastic modulus of
section,
A 1 bh 1 h 1 h
ZP = ( y1 + y2 ) = × ⎛⎜ × + × ⎞⎟
2 2 2 ⎝3 2 3 2⎠
⎛ bh 2h ⎞ ⎛ bh2 ⎞
= ⎜ + ⎟=⎜ ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 4 4 ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ bh2 ⎞
Z P ⎜ 12 ⎟
∴ S = =⎜ 2 ⎟=2 ...(12.17)
Z ⎜ bh ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 24 ⎠
3. Triangular section
The triangular section is shown in Fig. 12.15 (c). The moment of inertia of the
section about xx-axis
1
Ixx = b ⋅ h3 ...(i)
36
620 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The elastic neutral axis passes through the c.g. of the section. The distance of
2
extreme fibre from the neutral axis is 3
h. The elastic modulus of the section
⎛ 1 bh3 ⎞
I xx ⎟ = 1 b ⋅ h2
Z = = ⎜ 36 × 2 ...(ii)
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟ 24
⎜ h⎟ ⎝ 3 ⎠
⎝3 ⎠
y1 = h h y1 = h h
4 6
y2 = h y2 = h
4 6
b
(a ) (b )
h1
4r
3x
X' X' h x
b 4r
X X 3x d
(c) (d )
Fig. 12.15
The plastic modulus of the section is found by locating the equal area axis
X´X´. Let the equal area axis be at a distance h1 from the vertex, and the width
of the section at this axis be b1.
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 bh ⎞
∴ ⎜ b1h1 ⎟ = ⎜ × ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 2 ⎠
⎛ h1 ⎞ ⎛b ⎞
and also ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ 1⎟ ...(iv)
⎝h⎠ ⎝b⎠
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 621
⎛ b ⋅ h1 ⎞
b1 = ⎜ ⎟ ...(v)
⎝ h ⎠
Substituting the value of b1 in compression (iii)
1 ⎛ bh1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 bh ⎞
∴ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (h1 ) = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟
2⎝ h ⎠ ⎝2 h ⎠
h b
∴ h1 = and b1 =
2 2
1 1 h
y = h1 = × = 0.235h ...(vi)
3 3 2
1 ⎛ b + 2b ⎞
y = (h − h1 ) × ⎜ 1 + ⎟
3 ⎝ b1 b ⎠
⎛ b ⎞
+ 2b ⎟
1⎛ h ⎞ ⎜ 2
=
3 ⎜⎝
h− ⎟×⎜ ⎟
2 ⎠ ⎜ b +b ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛1 + 2 2 ⎞
= h ⎜1 − ⎟×⎜ ⎟ = 0.155h ...(vii)
3 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 1+ 2 ⎠
1 1 bh
∴ ZP = A ( y1 + y2 ) = ⋅ (0.235h + 0.155h) = 0.0986 bh2
2 2 2
The shape factor
⎛ 0.0968bh2 ⎞
ZP ⎜ ⎟ = 2.34
S = =⎜ bh2 ⎟ ...(12.17 a)
Z ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 24 ⎠
4. Circular section
A circular section is shown in Fig. 12.15 (d). Let d be the diameter of the
section and r be radius of the section. The elastic modulus of section
π
Z = ⋅ d3 ...(i)
32
The plastic modulus of section
A A ⎛ 4r 4r ⎞ 1 2 8r
ZP = × ( y1 + y2 ) = ×⎜ + ⎟ = πr ⋅
2 2 ⎝ 3 π 3π ⎠ 2 3π
2
8 3 8 ⎛d⎞ d3
= r = ×⎜ ⎟ = ...(ii)
6 6 ⎝2⎠ 6
622 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ Z P d3 ⎞
⎜ = ⎟ 16
S = ⎜ Z 6 ⎟= = 1.70 ...(12.18)
⎜ π ⎟ 3π
⎜ d3 ⎟
⎝ 32 ⎠
The shape factors for the hollow sections may be evaluated as follows :
1. A hollow circular section
A hollow circular section is shown in Fig. 12.16 (a). Let the radius of outer
circle be r1 and that of inner circle be r2. The moment of inertia of the section
about xx-axis
π 4
Ixx = (r − r24 )
4 1
...(i)
I xx π (r14 − r24 )
Z = = ...(ii)
r1 4 r1
The xx-axis is also the equal area axis of the section. The distance of c.g. of
area above equal area axis
⎛ 1 2 4 r1 1 2 4 r 2 ⎞
⎜ πr1 × 3 × π − 2 πr2 × 3 π ⎟
y = ⎜2 ⎟
π 2
⎜
⎝ 2 1
r − r2
2
( ⎟
⎠ )
4 (r1 − r2 )
3 3
= ...(iii)
3π (r12 − r22 )
⎡ 4 (r1 − r2 ) ⎤
3 3
1 1
Zp = A ( y1 − y2 ) = × π (r12 − r22 ) ⎢2 × ⎥
2 2 3π (r12 − r22 ) ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦
4 3
= (r − r23 )
3 1
...(iv)
⎡4 3
(
r − r23
ZP ⎢ 3 1
) ⎤⎥
=⎢ ⎥
S =
Z
4
(
⎢ π r1 − r2
4
)⎥
⎢4 r1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 623
16r1 (r1 − r2 )
3 3
= ...(12.19)
3π (r14 − r24 )
r2
If r1 = k
⎛ r3 ⎞
16r1 × r12 ⋅ ⎜⎜1 − 23 ⎟⎟
⎝ r1 ⎠ (1 − k3 )
Thus S= = 1.70 ...(12.20)
⎛ r ⎞
4 (1 − k4 )
3πr14 ⎜1 − 24 ⎟
⎜ r1 ⎟⎠
⎝
d
In case the outer diameter of the hollow tube is d, than rx = and r2 =
2
d − 2t
. Substituting these in Eq. 12.20, the shape factor for the hollow circular
2
section is given by
⎡ ⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎤
2
⎢1 − ⎜ 1 − ⎟ ⎥
16 ⎢ ⎝ d⎠ ⎥
S = ...(12.20 a)
3π ⎢ ⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎥
4
⎢1 − ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎥⎦
r2
h
x x x x
r1
b
(a )
(b )
Fig. 12.16
In case the thickness t, of the hollow circle is very small as compared to the
radius r of the circle, then the moment of inertia about x–x
Ixx = πr3 . t ...(i)
The elastic modulus of the section
624 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛I ⎞
Z = ⎜ xx ⎟ = πr 2t ...(iii)
⎝ r ⎠
The plastic modulus of section
ZP = 4r2. t
⎛ Zp ⎞ ⎛ 4r 2t ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
The shape factor, S = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ 2 ⎟=⎜ ⎟ ...(12.21)
⎝ Z ⎠ ⎝ πr t ⎠ ⎝ π ⎠
When the thickness of hollow circular section is very small as compared to its
diameter, then the approximate value of shape factor, S is 1.27.
2. A thin rectangular section
A thin rectangular section is shown in Fig. 12.16 (b). The thickness t is very
small as compared to the width of the section b, and the depth of section h.
The elastic modulus of the section about xx-axis
1⎡1 1 ⎤
Z = bh3 − (b − 2t )(h − 2t )3 ⎥
h ⎢⎣12 12 ⎦
2
1 ⎡1 3 1 3⎛ 2t ⎞⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎤
2
or Z = ⎢ bh − bh ⎜1 − ⎟⎜1 − ⎟ ⎥
h ⎢⎣12 12 ⎝ b ⎠⎝ h ⎠ ⎥⎦
2
⎡ ⎛ h ⎞⎤
⎢ h2t ⎜ b + ⎟ ⎥
1 1 1 ⎝ 3 ⎠⎥
or Z = ⎢ bh3 − bh3 +
h ⎢12 12 2 ⎥
2 ⎢⎣ ⎥
⎦
(Approx.)
⎛ h⎞
∴ Z = h.t ⎜ b + ⎟ (approx.) ...(i)
⎝ 3⎠
The plastic modulus of the section about the equal area axis
1 3 1
bh − (b − 2t )(h − 2t )
2
ZP =
4 4
2
1 2 1 2⎛ 2t ⎞⎛ 2t ⎞
or ZP = bh − bh ⎜1 − ⎟⎜1 − ⎟
4 4 ⎝ b ⎠⎝ h⎠
1 3 1 2 ⎛ h⎞
or ZP = bh − bh + h ⋅ t ⎜ b + ⎟ (approx.)
4 4 ⎝ 2⎠
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 625
⎛ h⎞
∴ ZP = h.t ⎜ b + ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ 2⎠
Therefore, the shape factor
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤ ⎛ 1 ⎞
ZP ⎢ ht ⎜ b + 2 h ⎟ ⎥ ⎜ b + h ⎟
⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥=⎜ 2 ⎟
S= = ...(12.22)
Z ⎢ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎥ ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎢ ht ⎜⎝ b + 3 h ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎜⎝ b + 3 h ⎟⎠
⎣ ⎦
When the thickness of thin rectangular hollow section is very small, then the
approximate value of shape factor is 1.12.
The approximate value of shape factor, S for an I-section for bending about
strong axis is 1.12 and that about weak axis is 1.55.
⎛1⎞ ⎛M⎞
or ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ EI ⎟⎠ ...(ii)
R
where, R = Radius of curvature of the beam
⎛I⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = Curvature of the beam (= φ).
R
When, the value of moment M increases, the curvature of beam also increases.
The curvature of beam is directly proportional to the moment M, upto the limit
of proportionality. The curvature of beam increases with the increase of the
moment, M. When the value of moment M, reaches yield moment My, then
⎛ MY ⎞ ⎛ σy ⎞ ⎛ E ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ...(iii)
I ⎠ ⎝ y⎠ R
If the depth of section is h, then
⎛ σy ⎞
⎛ h⎞ ⎛ E⎞ ⎛ 2σ y ⎞ ⎛ E ⎞
y = ⎜ ⎟ , ⎜ h ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ , and ⎜⎝ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ R⎠ h ⎠ ⎝ R⎠
⎝ 2⎠
1 ⎛ I ⎞ ⎛ 2σ y ⎞
or = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(12.23)
R R E ⋅ h⎠
When the value of moment M, further increases, the section becomes elastic-
plastic. The section is partially plasticised. Let the depth of elastic core be e.
626 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The curvature of beam is still governed by the elastic core. The curvature of
beam becomes
I ⎛ 2σ ⎞
= ⎜ y⎟ ...(12.24)
R ⎝ E ⋅ e⎠
The linear relation between curvature and the moment does not hold good.
When the value of moment M, reaches the fully plastic moment, MP, the section
is fully plasticised. The depth of elastic core is zero. As such the curvature of the
beam increases infinitely. The moment curvature relationship is shown in Fig.
12.17.
B C
A
M o m en t
Z
O
C u rva tu re 1 = φ
R
Fig. 12.17
When the fully plastic moment Mp, is reached, then finite change of slope can
take place over an infinitely small length of the structural member, at this section.
The section behaves like a hinge which shows the significance of the plastic
hinge developed at a section.
In case the curve follows A, B and C, the dotted portion instead of A to C
directly, then such a curve represents an idealized moment curvature
relationship.
From expression (i),
⎛1⎞ ⎛M⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = φ = ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(iv)
R EI ⎠
From expression (iii),
⎛1⎞ ⎛M ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ y = φy= ⎜ Y ⎟ ...(v)
R ⎝ EI ⎠
By dividing (iv) by (v),
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ φ ⎞
⎜⎝ M ⎟⎠ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
Y ⎝ φy ⎠
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 627
S=2 D ia m on d
2 .00 section
S = 1.70 C ircu la r
section
1 .50 S = 1.50 R e ctan gu la r
section
S = 1.11
I - S e ctio n
1 .00
(M )
My
O ( θ/ θ1 )
Fig. 12.18
M ⎛ e2 ⎞
or = ⎜1 – ⎟
MP ⎝ 3h2 ⎠
The value of e may be substituted from Eq. 12.24
2 2
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ 2σ ⎞ 1 1 ⎛ 2σ ⎞ 1
⎜⎝ M ⎟⎠ = 1– ⎜ y .R⎟ =1– ⎜ y⎟ .
P ⎝ E ⎠ 3h 2 3 ⎝ E ⎠ ⎛ h ⎞2
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
R
At the first yield, from Eq. 12.23
⎛1⎞ ⎛ 2σ ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = ⎜ y⎟
R y ⎝ E .h ⎠
628 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎡ ⎛h⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎜R⎟ ⎥
∴
M
= ⎢1 − 1 ⎝ ⎠ y ⎥ ... (12.25)
MP ⎢ 2 ⎛h⎞ ⎥
⎢ ⎜ R⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎛ Wc ⎞
Q = ⎜ ...(12.26)
⎝ Ww ⎟⎠
The load factor depends upon the nature of loading, the support conditions
and the geometrical shape of the structural member. The bending moment at
any section is directly proportional to the applied load. Therefore
M ∝ W
or M = k.W ...(i)
The fully plastic, Mp is also directly proportional to the collapse load, W W .
∴ Mp = k.Wc ...(ii)
In case, the maximum banding momement M1 crossponds to the maximum
working load, then M1 = k.Ww ...(iii)
⎛ Mp ⎞
ZP = ⎜ ⎟ ...(vi)
⎝ σy ⎠
Mp ⎛Z ⎞ ⎛ σy ⎞
Then M1
= ⎜ p⎟ .⎜ ⎟ ...(vii)
⎝ Z ⎠ ⎝ f1 ⎠
Q = S.(F.S) ...(12.27)
where, F.S. = Factor of safety, as used in elastice design.
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 629
Thus, the load factor is also defined as the product of shape factor and the
factor of safety as used in the elastic design.
The shape factor for rolled steel I-beam is about 1.12. The factor of safety as
used in elastic design as per IS: 800–1962 is 1.65. Therefore, the, the value of
load factor
Q = 1.12 ×1.65 = 1.85
The values of shape factors for rolled steel channel and I-beam sections vary.
The value of load factor Q, also varies. In general, for the gravity loads, the
value of load factor Q is adopted as 1.85.
When the wind load is considered the permissible stress is increased by 331/3
percent. Therefore,
(f1 = 1.33 × f)
where f1 = Permissible stress when the wind load is considered
f = Permissible stress, when only the gravity loads are considered.
The value of load-factor for wind
⎛ σy ⎞ σy
Qwind = ⎜ S ⎟ =S×
⎝ f1 ⎠ (1.33 f )
3 ⎛ σy ⎞ 3
= × (S ) ⎜ ⎟ = × S × F ⋅ S
4 ⎝ f1 ⎠ 4
3 ⎛3 ⎞
= × (Qgr.load) = ⎜ × 1.85⎟ = 1.4.
4 ⎝4 ⎠
12.16 MECHANISM
When any elastic body is subjected to a system of loads and deformation takes
place, and the resistance is set up against the deformation, then the elastic
body is known as structure. In contradiction to this, if no resistance is set up in
the body against the deformation, then it is known as a mechanical
mechanism.
When a statically indeterminate structure is subjected to loads and the
bending moment diagram is drawn, it is seen that there are two or more points
of peak moments. As the loads are gradually increased, the cross-section having
the maximum of these peak moments will reach yield. A plastic hinge is formed
at such a cross-section and the value of bending moment becomes MP at that
section. As further load is added, this value of bending moment, MP remains
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 631
constant and this cross-section having the plastic hinge rotates, and other
sections having the bending moments smaller than MP maintain the equilibrium
with the increased load by a proportionate increase in moment. These sections
having peak point in the bending moment diagram reach yielding and the plastic
hinges are formed in succession. The values of bending moments at these peak
points become Mp in succession. The process of moment transfer known as the
redistribution of moment due to successive formation of plastic hinges continues.
After the formation of sufficient number of plastic hinges, the structure reduces
to a plastic mechanism, and the failure or collapse of the structure occurs.
If the degree of indeterminacy of the structure is r, then the indeterminate
structure becomes a determinate structure on the formation of r number of the
plastic hinges. If one additional hinge is formed, after the structure has become
a determinate one, then a mechanism is formed. Thus, the (r + 1) number of
plastic hinges are necessary to convert a structure into a mechanism (plastic). A
simply supported beam is determinate structure. If one plastic hinge is formed,
then this structure reduces to a mechanism. The structure fails or collapse as
soon as a mechanism is formed. The load corresponding to the formation of first
plastic hinge is known as yield load, W y. The load corresponding to the formation
of a mechanism is known as collapse load, W C.
The formation of plastic hinges results in modest increase of load. The
redistribution of moment further increases the reserve strength (load carrying
capacity) of indeterminate structures loaded beyond the elastic limit. This
redistribution of moments is the basis of mechanism condition.
Types of independent mechanism
Following are the various types of independent mechanisms:
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 12.20
greater than MP) is less than or at the most equal to the collapse load. The
procedure for application of the static method for the plastic analysis based
upon an assumed equilibrium moment diagram is as follow :
1. Choose the redundant forces.
2. Draw free (statically determinate) bending moment diagram for the
structure.
3. Draw redundant bending moment diagram for the structure loaded by
the redundant forces.
4. Draw a combined bending moment diagram and determine the peak
moments. Set the peak moments equal to MP. Check the number of plastic
hinges so that a mechanism is formed.
5. Determine the value of collapse load by working out the equilibrium
equation (i.e., by statics).
A check is applied to ensure that the bending moment at any section is not
> MP).
more than the fully plastic moment of the section (i.e., M |
For the analysis of a determinate structure, the bending moment diagram is
drawn. The value of maximum bending moment is equated to the fully plastic
moment of the section. The collapse load is found by solving the equilibrium
equation.
K ine m atic
th eo re m
w 1 ≥ wc
U n iq ue ne ss
(w = w c) th eo re m
C o lla pse lo ad
(w 1 < w c)
S tatic
th eo re m
O C u rva tu re
Fig. 12.21
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 635
⎛ WcL ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = MP
4 ⎠
⎛ 4MP ⎞
∴ WC = ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(i)
L ⎠
where, Wc = Collapse load.
W
L L
2 2
A C B
L
(a )
W cL
4 = Mp
(b ) B e nd in g m o m en t d ia gram
L L
2 2
θ θ
Δ
θ Mp θ
2θ
(c) C o llap se m ech an ism diag ra m
Fig. 12.22
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 637
⎛L ⎞
The work done by the external load = W C · ⎜ θ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝2 ⎠
The work absorbed by the plastic hinge = MP · 2θ
The work done by the external load is equal to the work absorbed by the
plastic hinge. Therefore
⎛L ⎞
Wc ⋅ ⎜ ⋅ θ⎟ = MP· 2θ
⎝2 ⎠
⎛ 4MP ⎞
∴ WC = ⎜ ...(v)
⎝ L ⎟⎠
The values of collapse load obtained by static method and that by the plastic
method are equal. It shows that the mechanism corresponds to the actual collapse
mechanism. The value of collapse load corresponds to actual collapse.
⎛ Wc.a.b ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = Mp
L ⎠
⎛ M L⎞
∴ WC = ⎜ p. ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ a ⋅b ⎠
⎛ a ⋅ θ⎞
∴ θ1 = ⎜⎝ ⎟
b ⎠
638 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
where,
θ1 = Rotation at right hand support
a b
L
(a )
W cq b = M
F
L
(b ) B e nd in g m o m en t d ia gra m
a b
θ θ
θ M p θ1
( θ + θ1 )
(c) C o llap se m ech an ism diag ram
Fig. 12.23
= Mp (θ + θ1) = MP ⎛ a θ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ b ⎠
⎛ a + b⎞ L
= Mp . θ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = M P ⋅ θ ...(ii)
b b
The work done by external force is equal to work absorbed by the plastic
hinges at collapse
⎛ L⎞
∴ (W C .aθ) = ⎜ M p ⋅ θ ⎟
⎝ b⎠
⎛ M ⋅L ⎞
Wc = ⎜ P ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ a ⋅b ⎠
The bending moment, M is not greater than MP at any section.
The values of collapse load found in the static method and in the kinematic
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 639
method are equal. It shows that the mechanism corresponds to the actual collapse
mechanism. The value of collapse load corresponds to actual collapse load.
W
A C B
L L
2 2
L
(a )
W cL
8 = Mp
(b ) B e nd in g Mo m en t d ia gra m
1 1
2 2
θ θ
Δ
θ θ
Mp
2θ
(c) C o llap se m ech an ism diag ram
Fig. 12.24
⎛ WC ⋅ L ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = MP
8 ⎠
⎛ MP ⎞
WC = ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(i)
L ⎠
formed as shown in Fig. 12.24 (c). The rotations at ends are θ. The deflection at
the centre is Δ. Then
⎛L ⎞
Δ = ⎜ θ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
1
Average movement of the load = Δ
2
The work done by the external load
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ WC Lθ
= Wc θ = ...(i)
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 4
The work absorbed by the plastic hinge
= MP . (2θ) ...(ii)
The work done by the external load is equal to the work absorbed by the
plastic hinge. Therefore
⎛ WC ⋅ Lθ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = MP . 2θ
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ 8M P ⎞
WC = ⎜ ...(iii)
⎝ L ⎟⎠
It is to note that the work done by the uniformly distributed load may also be
found as
= Intensity of load × Area of collapse
mechanism diagram under the load
WC ⎛ 1 L ⎞ ⎛ W L ⋅ θ⎞
= × ⎜ × L × θ⎟ = ⎜ C ⎟ ...(iv)
L ⎝2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
Thus, the work done works out the same. The value of bending moment M, is
not greater than MPat any section. The values of the collapse load obtained by
the static method and the kinematic method are equal. It shows that the
mechanism corresponds to actual mechanism. The collapse load corresponds to
the actual collapse load.
⎛ 1 Wa3 1 Wa 2 ⎞ 1⎛ L3 ⎞
⎜⎝ + ⋅ b⎟ = ⎜ RB ⋅ ⎟
3 EI 2 EI ⎠ 3⎝ EI ⎠
⎡ a2 + (3 / 2)a2b ⎤
∴ RB = ⎢ ⎥W ...(i)
⎣ L3 ⎦
W
a b
L
(a )
W ca ·b
4 = Mp
(b ) B e nd in g m o m ent d ia gram
a b
θ θ1
θ Mp θ1
(θ + θ1)
(c) C o llap se m ech anism diag ra m
Fig. 12.25
∴ W C . aθ = MP θ + MP ⎛⎜ θ + a θ⎞⎟ ⎡ b + (a + b) ⎤ ⋅ M P ⋅ θ
⎝ b ⎠ ⎢⎣ b ⎥⎦
⎛ L + b⎞
∴ Wc = ⎜⎝ ⎟ · Mp ...(vii)
a.b ⎠
The values obtained for the collapse load by the static method and by kinematic
method are equal. Therefore, it shows that the mechanism corresponds to a
correct mechanism. The collapse load corresponds to actual collapse load.
If the propped cantilever beam is subjected to concentrated load W at the
centre, then,
L
a = b= .
2
From expression (i),
⎡ ⎛ L ⎞3 ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ L ⎞ 2 ⎛ L ⎞ ⎤
⎢W ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ W ⎥
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥ 5
RB = ⎢ = W ...(viii)
⎣⎢ L3
⎦⎥ 16
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 643
⎛ 5 WL ⎞ 3
MA = ⎜⎝ – WL + ⎟⎠ = + WL ...(ix)
16 2 16
⎛ 5 L⎞ 5
MC = ⎜⎝ – W × ⎟⎠ = – WL ...(x)
16 2 32
The bending moment at support is greater than that at the centre. The plastic
hinge is first formed at the support, and then it is formed at the centre.
Then, a beam mechanism is formed. Therefore at collapse,
L
WC ⋅ ⋅θ = MPθ +MP(θ + θ)
2
⎛ 6M P ⎞
WC = ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(xi)
L ⎠
⎛ dM P ⎞ 1 ⎡ ( L + x )( L – 2x ) – 1. ( x )( L – x ) ⎤
⎜⎝ ⎟ = – ⋅ WC ⋅⎢ ⎥=0
dx ⎠ 2 ⎣ ( L + x )2 ⎦
644 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
∴ (L + x )( L – 2x ) – x (L – x ) = 0
or x2 + 2xL – L2 = 0
∴ x = ( )
2 −1 L
= 0.414 L ...(iii)
ω kN /m
A B
x = 0 .41 4 L
L
(a )
Mp
Mp
(b ) B e nd in g m o m en t d ia g ram
θ θ1
θ θ1
M p (θ + θ1)
(c) C o llapse
Fig. 12.26
1 ⎡ L( 2 – 1) ( L – 2 + L ) ⎤
MP = W .⎢ ⎥
2 C ⎢⎣ L (1 + 2 – 1) ⎥⎦
1
= W C . ( 2 – 1) (2 – 2 ) L
2 2
⎡ 2 2 ⎤ MP
WC = ⎢ ⎥· L
⎢⎣ ( 2 – 1) (2 – 2 ) ⎥⎦
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 645
⎛M ⎞
WC = 11.656 ⎜ P ⎟ ...(v)
⎝ L ⎠
WL WL
8 4 WL
8
(b ) B .M .D
Mp
W cL
4 = 2M 1
Mp Mp
θ θ
Mp
2θ
(d ) C o lla pse m echa n ism diag ram
Fig. 12.27
646 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The values of moment reach to the fully plastic moment of the section
simultanecously at A, B and C. The plastic hinges are also formed at A, B and C
at the centre, beam mechanism is formed and the collapse occurs. The collapse
load is found as follows :
⎛ 8WC ⎞
Wc = ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(V)
L ⎠
The value of collapse load obtained by the static method is equal to the value
of collapse load obtained by kinematic method. It shows that the mechanism
corresponds to the exact mechanism. The value of load corresponds to the actual
collapse load.
of load, the plastic hinge is formed at the point C lastly. It forms a beam
mechanism. The collapse of beam occurs.
The value of collapse load is found as following :
W b 2a W ab
L L W a2b
L
(b ) B .M .D .
Mp
W c(a –b )
2M p
Mp L
Mp
(c) B .M .D . a t co lla p se
a b
θ θ1
θ Mp θ1
(θ + θ)
(d ) C o lla p se m ech an ism diag ra m
Fig. 12.28
648 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ a ⎞
⎜⎝ θ1 = θ⎟⎠ ...(iii)
b
The work absorbed by the plastic hinges
= [ M P θ + M P ⋅ θ1 + M P (θ + θ1 )]
⎡ a ⎛ a ⎞⎤
= ⎢ M P θ + M P . b θ + M P ⎜⎝ θ + b θ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎛ a ⎞ (a + b )
= ⎜⎝ 2 M P .θ + 2 M P θ⎟⎠ = 2 M P θ. ...(iv)
b b
The work done by the external force is equal to the work absorbed by the
plastic hinges.
(a + b )
∴ W C.aθ = MP.θ
a.b
(a + b )
WC = 2MP. ...(v)
a.b
⎛ 2L ⎞
WC = ⎜⎝ ⎟M ...(vi)
a.b ⎠ P
WL WL WL
12 8 12
(b ) B .M .D.
Mp
Mp Mp
(c) B .M .D . a t co lla p se
L L
2 2
θ θ
Δ
θ θ
Mp
2θ
(d ) C o lla pse m ech an ism diagra m
Fig. 12.29
650 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ WC .L ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = 2MP
8 ⎠
⎛M ⎞
WC = 16 ⎜ P ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ L ⎠
⎛ WC Lθ ⎞
∴ ⎜ 4 ⎟ = 4MPθ
⎝ ⎠
⎛M ⎞
∴ WC = 16 ⎜ P ⎟ ... (v)
⎝ L ⎠
It is to note that the values of collapse load obtained by the static method and
the kinematic method are equal. The collapse mechanism corresponds to actual
collapse mechanism. The collapse load corresponds to actual collapse load.
The value of moment at support B, may be found by any method. This value
works out to be
3
MB =
WL ...(i)
16
The value of moment under concentrated load works out to be
⎛ 5⎞
MD = ME = ⎜ ⎟ WL ...(ii)
⎝ 32 ⎠
It is seen that the value of moment at intermediate support B, is greater
than those at D and E. Therefore, the moment MB, would reach Ihe fully plastic
moment. MP first. A plastic hinge is formed at B first as compared to the other
section. Then, in each individual span, a plastic hinge would form at D in span
AB, and at E in span BC. When the beam mechanism is formed in the span, the
span would collapse. The collapse load may be lound as follows :
w w
A L D L B L E L C
2 2 2 2
L L
(a )
MD ME
MD
(b ) B .M .D
Mp Mp
Mp
θ θ
θ M θ (d )
p
( θ + θ)
θ θ
(e ) θ M θ
p
( θ + θ)
Fig. 12.30
652 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Consider span AB. A collapse mechanism diagram is shown in Fig. 12.30 (d).
There are two plastic hinges in the span AB. From the equation of equilibrium at
point D
⎛ WC L ⎞ ⎛ M ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = ⎜ MP + P ⎟
4 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 6 MP ⎞
WC = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ L ⎠
Similarly, for spans BC, a collapse mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.30 (e). The
collapse load also works out as
⎛ MP ⎞
WC = 6 ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ L ⎠
The values of collapse load for both the spans are equal, since the spans are
equal and are subjected to equal loads applied at the centre. In this case, both
the spans collapse simultaneously. In case spans are unequal, and if WC1 , WC2
etc., are the collapse loads, for different spans, then the collapse load is that
which is maximum (in case the collapse load is found by Static method, see Fig.
12.21).
⎛ MP ⎞
WC = 6 ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(iii)
L ⎠
Similarly, for the span BC, the collapse mechanism is shown in Fig.12.30 (e),
and collapse load
⎛ MP ⎞
WC = 6 ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(iv)
L ⎠
The values of collapse load for both the spans are equal, since the spans are
equal and the loads are also equal and applied at the centre. If WC1 , WC2 and WC3
etc., are the values of collapse loads found for different spans by kinematic
method, the collapse load is that which is least (see Fig. 12.21).
W W W
A E B C F D
0 .41 4 L 0 .41 4 L
L L L
(a )
Mp Mp Mp
Mp Mp
(b ) B .M .D at collap se
Fig. 12.31
been obtained. The plastic bending moment diagram is then drawn corresponding
to this combined mechanism. In case, the distribution of bending moment is
admissible, i.e., the value of moment at any section is not more than MP, then it
gives the value of collapse load.
The location of some plastic hinges may be adjusted such that, the distribution
of bending moment becomes admissible. While combining the mechanisms, it
may be seen that, the maximum number of loads do work and, the number of
plastic hinges are also reduced. The method of combining the mechanisms has
been further explained in Sec. 12.24, while determining the collapse load for
the portal frames.
The number of plastic hinges essential for the plastic analysis or to convert
the structure into a mechanism is (r + 1), where r is the degree of redundancy of
the structure. The degree of redundancy of a structure may be found by cut
method. When one cut is made on any structure, then three forces (viz., the
bending moment, the shear force and axial thrust) are introduced at the cut
section. The degree of redundancy of an indeterminate structure is equal to
three times the number of cuts less the number of forces necessary to make the
resultant portions, the determinate structures (cantilevers).
w
B L L C
w
E
Mr
MP MP L
A D
Fig. 12.32
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 655
would act as cantilever, since the support A is fixed. To make the right-hand
portion a cantilever structure, it requires one additional force, (i.e., the moment)
at the support D.
The number of possible independent mechanisms, from Eq. 12.28
n = (N – r) = (4 – 2) = 2
Namely, beam mechanism = 1
Panel or (sway) mechanism = 1
Total = 2
w
L L
θ θ
θ θ
Mp
(θ + θ)
Fig. 12.33
W
L L
Δ' Δ
M p, θ E M p ,θ
θ θ
L
θ θ
M p, θ
A D
Fig. 12.34
There are three plastic hinges in the panel mechanism of this frame. There is
a mechanical hinge at point D. From the principle of virtual work
[Wc . L . θ = MPθ + MPθ + MP θ]
⎛ MP ⎞
WC2 = 3 ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(i)
L ⎠
It is to note that there is no vertical movement. The work done by the vertical
load is zero.
B L L C
w
θ θ
M p (e + e )
θ θ θ
M p ( θ+ θ)
L
θ θ
M p' θ
A D
Fig. 12.35
WC2 ⎛M ⎞
= 2.5 ⎜ P ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ L ⎠
It is to note that in the combined mechanism, both the loads do work and one
plastic hinge is also reduced. From expressions (i) and (ii) it is seen that the
expression (iii) gives the least value of load (or maximum value of plastic
moment). The collapse loads have been found by kinematic method. Therefore,
the collapse load is given by WC3 ,
⎛M ⎞
∴ WC = 2.5 ⎜ P ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ L ⎠
The plastic bending moment diagram is drawn to apply the check.
The bending moment diagram is drawn on the tension side. The point D is a
mechanical hinge. The moment at D is zero. At the point C, the moment is MP .
It is plotted as shown in Fig. 12.36.
The plastic bending moment at C in the beam is also MP . The value of moment
at the centre E of the beam BC is MP . The total ordinate of bending moment at
E if the beam BE is simply supported is equal to
W ⋅ (2L ) WL 1 ⎛W L⎞
M = = = × 2.5 ⎜ C ⎟
4 2 2 ⎝ 2.5 ⎠
⎛ W ⋅L⎞
= 1.25 MP ⎜3 M P = C
⎝ 2.5 ⎟⎠
The bending moment at C reduces to MP at E in a distance L. The value of
moment decreases by 0 .75 MP . The variation of redundant bending moment is
658 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
linear. Therefore, the further decrease in moment is also 0.75 MP .The total
decrease of moment from MP from C is 1.50 MP . Therefore, the moment at B is
MP
0 .5 M P 0 .25 M P
B C MP
0 .5 M P
MP
A D
Fig. 12 36
100 m m 100 m m
10 m m 10 m m
X1 X1
32.5 m m
200 m m X X
10 m m
X X
10 10
77.5 m m
10 m m
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.37
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 659
⎛1 3 1 ⎞ 4 4
Ixx =
⎜ × 10 × 22 – × 9 × 203 ⎟ × 10 mm
⎝ 12 12 ⎠
= 2875 × l04 mm4
Elastic modulus of section about, xx-axis
I xx 2875 × 104
Z = = = 261.3 × 103 mm3
D 110
2
Plastic modulus of section
⎛ BD2 bd2 ⎞ ⎛ 10 × 222 9 × 202 ⎞ 3
ZP = ⎜
⎝ 4
– ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ – ⎟⎠ × 10
4 4 4
= 310 × l03 mm3
Shape factor of I-section
⎛ Z ⎞ ⎛ 310 × 103 ⎞
= ⎜ P⎟ =⎜
S = 1.183
⎝ Z ⎠ ⎝ 261.6 × 103 ⎟⎠
Step 2: Fully plastic moment of the section
⎛ 250 × 55 × 103 ⎞
MP = σy· ZP = ⎜ ⎟ = 77.5 kN-m
⎝ 106 ⎠
2. Tee - section
Step 1: Shape factor for the section
The neutral axis is located by taking moment about the top of section. Let
y be the distance of neutral axis from top of the section. Then,
The plastic modulus of tee-section is found by locating the equal area axis.
Total area of the section.
A = (100 × 10 + 100 × 10) = 2000 mm2
A
Half area of the section, = 1000 mm2
2
Axis -X1X1represents the equal area axis of the section.
Step 2: Plastic modulus of the section,
A
ZP =
2
[ y1 + y2 ] = 1000 (5 + 50 )
= 55 × 103 mm3
Shape factor of the tee-section
⎛ Z ⎞ ⎛ 55 × 103 ⎞
S = ⎜ P ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 1.805
⎝ Z ⎠ ⎝ 30.53 × 103 ⎠
Fully plastic moment of the section
⎛ 250 × 55 × 103 ⎞
MP = σy· ZP = ⎜ ⎟ =13.75 kN-m.
⎝ 106 ⎠
Example 12.2. A rectangular beam section b × h is subjected to 0.70 MP .
Determine the depth of the elastic core of the section.
Solution
A rectangular section is shown in Fig.12.38 (a). The section is subjected to
0.70 MP . The section is partially plasticised. Let the depth of elastic core be e.
The bending stress distribution diagram is shown in Fig.12.38 (a).
b σy
h –
2
X X e
h
+
2
σy
(a ) (b )
Fig. 12.38
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 661
⎡ e2 ⎤
M = MP ⎢1 – 2 ⎥
⎣ 3h ⎦
Step 2: Therefore the depth of elastic cone, e
⎡ e2 ⎤
0.70 MP = MP ⎢1 – 2 ⎥
⎣ 3h ⎦
⎡ e2 ⎤
0.70 = ⎢1 – ⎥
⎣ 3 × h2 ⎦
e2
= (1 – 0.70) = 30
3h2
e2 = 0.20 × h2
∴ e = 0.95 h.
Example 12.3. A rectangular beam 50 mm × 100 mm span 5 m is loaded by
a concentrated load at the middle of the span, till the central section becomes
fully plastic. Demarcate the region of yield. Take yield stress σy = 250 N/mm2.
The beam is simply supported at its ends.
σy C D E
σy
1 .66 m 1 .67 m 1 .66 m
5m
(a )
Mp
My My
(b ) B .M .D
Fig. 12.39
Solution
The central section of the beam is fully plastic.
Step 1: Plastic moment of the section
1 ⎛ 50 × 100 × 100 ⎞
MP = σy× ZP = 250 × × ⎜ ⎟
4 ⎝ 106 ⎠
= 31.25 kN-m ...(i)
662 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
1 ⎛ 50×100×100 ⎞
MY = σy× ZP = 250 × × ⎜ ⎟⎠
6 ⎝ 106
= 20.83 kN-m ...(ii)
Step 2: Let the value of bending moment be yield moment, MY, at a distance
x from left hand support. From the bending moment diagram
⎛ x MY 1 ⎞
⎜⎝ 2.5 = M = 1.5 ⎟⎠
P
2.5
∴ x = = 1.66 mm ...(iii)
1.5
The central section of the beam CDE has the region of yield varying from
zero to half the depth from outside from point C to D and E to D. The different
depths of elastic core have been calculated as under:
The bending moments at the sections 1.80 m, 2.00 m, 2.20 m, 2.40 m, add
2.50 m from the left and support are as under:
⎛ 31.25 × 1.80 ⎞
Step 3: M1 = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 22.6 kN-m
⎝ 2.50
⎛ 32.25 × 2.00 ⎞
M2 = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 25.0 kN-m
⎝ 2.50
⎛ 31.25 × 2.20 ⎞
M3 = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 27.6 kN-m
⎝ 2.50
⎛ 31.25 × 2.40 ⎞
M4 = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 30.1 kN-m
⎝ 2.50
M5 = 31.25 kN-m
From Eq. 12.11, the moment of resistance of the section, which is partially
plasticised
⎡ e2 ⎤
Step 4: M = MP ⎢1 – ⎥
⎣ 3h2 ⎦
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ e2 ⎞
or ⎜⎝ M ⎟⎠ = ⎜1 – 2 ⎟
P ⎝ 3h ⎠
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 663
⎛ e2 ⎞ ⎛ M ⎞
or ⎜ 2 ⎟ = ⎜1–
⎝ 3h ⎠ ⎝ M P ⎟⎠
⎛ M ⎞
e2 = ⎜1 – 2
⎟ (3h )
⎝ M P ⎠
It shows that the depth of elastic core varies parabolically. The depths of
elastic cores are as follows :
Step 5:
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ 226 ⎞
e12 = ⎜1– (3h2) = ⎜1 – 2
⎟ (3h )
⎝ M P ⎟⎠ ⎝ 312.5 ⎠
∴ e1 = 0.918 h = 91.8 mm
Similarly e2 = 0.775 h = 77.50 mm
e3 = 0.600 h = 66.00 mm
e4 = 0.348 h = 34.80 mm
e5 = 0.000 h = 0.00 mm
The region of yield has been shown in Fig. 12.39 (a).
Example 12.4. A beam fixed at both ends is subjected to uniformly distributed
load W on the right half portion. Determine the value of collapse load Wc . The
beam is of uniform plastic moment, MP .
Solution
Step 1
The fixed beam is shown in Fig. 12.40 (a). There are three plastic hinges (i.e.,
at A, B and X) in the fixed beam at collapse. The plastic hinge at X, occurs at the
section, where the bending moment in a simply supported beam is maximum.
Let the distance of point X from right hand support be x .
When the beam AB is simply supported, then
⎛ 2 ⎞
Mx = ⎜ – 0.75 W ⋅ x + 2W ⋅ x ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ L 2 ⎠
For maximum bending moment
⎛ dM x ⎞ ⎛ 2W 2 x ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = ⎜ – 0.75W +
⎝
⋅ ⎟ =0
d.x ⎠ L 2 ⎠
⎛ 2W ⎞
∴ ⎜⎝ ⋅ x⎟ = 0.75 W
L ⎠
(x = 0.375 L) ...(ii)
664 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
A B
C X
x
L L
2 2
L
(a )
MP
MP MP
(b ) B .M .D at colla pse
θ
MP θ1
MP
MP ( θ+ θ)
0 .5 L
0 .62 5 L 0 .37 5 L
(c)
Fig. 12.40
A 2 MP MP B
C
L L
2 2
L
(a ) W
θ
M P, θ
(b )
W
θ
2 M P, θ
(c)
Fig. 12.41
666 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 2M P ⎞
Step 2: WC
= ⎜ ...(ii)
⎝ L ⎟⎠
2
L L L
2 4 4
(a )
L L
2 2
θ θ
MP 2 MP
θ θ
(b )
MP
3L ( θ+ θ) L
4 4
θ θ
MP
θ 2 MP
3θ
(c) 2 M P, ( θ+ 3 θ)
Fig. 12.42
Step 2: The collapse mechanism diagram for this is shown in Fig, 12.24 (b).
The principle of virtual work
1⎛L ⎞
W C . ⎜ ⋅ θ⎟ = [MPθ + 2MPθ + MP (θ + θ)]
2⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 20 M P ⎞
WC = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ L ⎠
Let the plastic hinges be formed at A, B and D. The collapse mechanism
diagram is shown in Fig. 12.42 (c). From the principle of virtual work
3.Lθ
WC . = [MP .θ + 2MP (θ + 3θ) +2MP(3)]
4
⎛ 20MP ⎞
∴ WC = ⎜⎝ ⎟
L ⎠
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 667
5 0 kN 5 0 kN
2m 2m 1 0 kN /m
A C
D E B F
8m 6m
(a )
MP MP
MP MP
(b ) B .M .D . a t colla pse
2m 6m
θ
3θ MP
MP
M P, (3 θ+ θ) (c)
6m 2m
3θ
θ
MP MP
M P, θ θ
( +3 )
(d )
θ θ
θ
θ
MP MP
(e )
θ θ
(f)
M P, ( θ+ θ )
1
Fig. 12.43
668 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
When the plastic hinges are formed at A, B and E, then, also a beam
mechanism is formed as shown in Fig. 12.43 (d).
[50 × 2 × 3θ + 50 × 2 × θ = MPθ + MP(3θ) + MP(3θ + θ)]
(400 θ = 8MPθ)
∴ (MP3 = 50 kN-m) ...(ii)
A combined mechanism may also form in the span AB on formation of four
plastic hinges as shown in Fig.12.43 (e). From the principle of virtual work
[50 × 2θ + 50 × 2θ = MPθ+ MPθ + MPθ+ MPθ]
(200 θ = 4 MPθ)
∴ MP3 = 50 kN-m ...(ii)
2. Span BC
The span BC acts as propped cantilever beam. When the plastic hinges at B
and F are formed, then, a beam mechanism is formed as shown in Fig. 12.43 (f).
The plastic hinge at F is formed at a distance x = 0.414 × 6 = 2.484 m from the
support C.
∴ BF = (6–2.484) = 3.596 m
Then, 3.596θ = 2484θ1
⎛ 3.596 ⎞
θ1 = ⎜⎝ θ⎟ = 1.445θ
2.484 ⎠
The plastic moment for span BC
⎛ Wc ⋅ L ⎞ ⎛ 10 × 6 × 6 ⎞
MP = ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ 50 kN-m
1 ⎝ 11.656 ⎠ ⎝ 11.656 ⎠
∴ MP = 50 kN-m
The maximum value of MP gives plastic moment. The bending moment
diagram at collapse shows that M at any section is not more than MP .
Example 12.8. A continuous beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 12.44 (a).
Determine the collapse load for the beam. MP is less than MP .
Solution
Step 1.
(i) Span AB
When three plastic hinges are formed in the span AB at A, B and D, as shown
in Fig. 12.44 (b) then a beam mechanism is formed. At B a plastic hinge is
formed in the weaker section, i.e., in span AB, in which case M´P< MP . From the
principle of virtual work,
⎡ L ⎤
⎢⎣2W ⋅ 2 θ = M P′ θ + M ´ P θ + M P′ (2θ )⎥⎦
4 M P′
WC1 = ...(i)
L
(ii) Span BC
When two plastic hinges are formed in the span BC at B and E, as shown in
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 669
Fig. 12.44 (c), then the beam mechanism is formed. From the principle of virtual
work
⎡ L ⎤
⎢⎣W ⋅ 2 × θ = M P′ θ + M P (θ + θ )⎥⎦
⎛ 4 M P + 2 M P′ ⎞
WC = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
2 ⎝ L ⎠
2W W
A D B E C
L L L L
2 2 2 2
MP MP
(a )
θ θ
M 'P M 'P
θ θ
M 'P
( θ + θ)
(b )
θ θ
M 'P
θ θ
(c) MP
MP
M 'P
(d ) B .M .D . a t colla pse
Fig. 12.44
WC = ⎛⎜ 4M'P ⎞⎟
⎝ ⎠ L
The plastic bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 12.44(c). The plastic
moment at A may be at the most equal to M´P . The moment M, at any section is
not more than MP of the section.
670 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Example 12.9. A continuous beam ABC is loaded as shown in Fig. 12.45 (a).
Determine the collapse load in case (a) the beam is of uniform section, and (b)
the beam is of unequal section.
Solution
Step 1: Case (a) : The continuous beam ABCD is of uniform section. The
spans AB and CD act as propped cantilever beams. For a propped cantilever
beam carrying uniformly distributed load, the collapse load
⎛M ⎞
WC = 11.656 ⎜ P ⎟
⎝ L⎠
6 0 kN /m 8 0 kN /m 1 00 kN /m
4m 6m 4m
(a ) MP
MP
(b )
MP
3
(c)
MP MP MP
1 MP 2 3
1
X (d )
Fig. 12.45
1. Span AB
⎛ 11.656 ⋅ M P ⎞
Collapse load WC = ⎜ ⎟⎠
1 ⎝ L
⎛ WC × L ⎞ ⎛ 60 × 4 × 4 ⎞
∴ MP = ⎜ 1 = = 82.6 kN-m
⎝ 11.656 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 11.656 ⎟⎠
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 671
2. Span CD
⎛ 100 × 4 × 4 ⎞
MP = ⎜ = 137.2 kN-m
⎝ 11.656 ⎟⎠
3. For span BC
When three plastic hinges are formed in the span BC at B, C and one at the
centre, then a beam mechanism is formed as shown in Fig. 12.45 (c). From
principle of the virtual work.
⎡ 1 ⎛1 ⎞ ⎤
⎢WC 2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⋅ Lθ⎟⎠ = M P θ + M P θ + M P (θ + θ )⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎛ 16 M P ⎞
WC = ⎜
⎝ L ⎟⎠
⎛ 80 × 6 × 6 ⎞
MP = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 180 kN-m
⎝ 16
The maximum value of plastic moment gives the value of fully plastic moment
for the beam of uniform section.
∴ MP = 180 kN-m
From the bending moment diagram as shown in Fig. 12.45 (b), it is seen that
M at any section is not greater than MP . The moment at B may be at the most
equal to MP .
Step 2: Case (b). The continuous beam ABCD consists of different sections.
The span AB and CD act as propped cantilever beam. The value of collapse load
for the uniformly distributed load is 11.656 MP/L .
1. Span AB
⎛ 60 × 4 × 4 ⎞
Plastic moment, MP = ⎜ ⎟ = 82.6 kN-m
1 ⎝ 11.656 ⎠
2. Span CD
⎛ 100 × 4 × 4 ⎞
Plastic moment, MP = ⎜ ⎟ = 137.2 kN-m
3 ⎝ 11.656 ⎠
3. For span BC
Let the maximum moment occur at a distance x from support B in the span
BC.
The bending moment at this section
⎡ 1 WC x 2 ⎛ M P3 – M P1 ⎞ ⎤
Mx = ⎢ – ⋅ WC ⋅ x + ⋅ +⎜ ⎟ x + M P1 ⎥
⎣⎢ 2 L2 2 ⎝ L2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
For maximum bending moment
672 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ dM x ⎞ ⎡ – 1 W + WC2 ⋅ x + ⎛ M P3 – M P1 ⎞ ⎤
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢ 2 C2 L2 ⎜⎝ L2 ⎟⎠ ⎥ = 0
⎝ d.x ⎠ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
⎛ WC2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 M P3 – M P1 ⎞
∴ ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠ ⋅ x = ⎜⎝ + 2 WC2 – L3 ⎟⎠
2
⎛ 1 M P3 – M P1 ⎞
∴ x = ⎜ + ⋅ L2 – ⎟
⎜ 2 WC ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎡ 1 80 × 6 (2.886)2 ⎤
∴ MP = Mx = ⎢ – × 80 × 6 × 2.886 + – × ⎥
2
⎢ 2 6 2 ⎥
⎢ (137.2 – 82.6 ) ⎥
⎢ + × 2.886 + 82.6 ⎥
⎣ 6 ⎦
= – 253.1 kN-m
The plastic bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 12.45 (d). The value of
moment M, in each span is not greater than corresponding plastic moment of
the section. Therefore, the plastic moments are as follows :
Span AC, MP = 82.6 kN-m
1
Span BC, Mp = 253.1 kN-m
2
Span DD, MP = 137.2 kN-m.
3
Example 12.10. A propped cantilever beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 12.46.
Find the ultimate load for the beam, in case the fully plastic moment, MP of the
beam is uniform.
Solution
The ultimate load is determined by kinematic method. It is likely to form a
mechanism either as shown in Fig. 12.46 (b) or as shown in Fig. 12.46 (c).
1. Over hanging span BC
In case plastic-hinge is formed at B, from the principle of virtual work
⎛W L ⎞
⎜⎝ × θ⎟⎠ = MP . θ
8 3
⎛ M ⎞
or WC1 = ⎜ 24 P ⎟ ... (i)
⎝ L ⎠
2. Span AB
Step 1:
In case a mechanism is formed as shown in Fig. 12.46 (c), the load acting at
the free end of beam at C lifts up (in the direction opposite to that of the load),
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 673
since the link DBC is free to rotate at simple support B. Thus a negative work is
done by load acting at C. From the principle of work done
⎛ L W L ⎞
⎜⎝ W ⋅ θ – ⋅ ⋅ θ⎟⎠ = (MP· θ – MP . 2 θ)
2 8 3
72 ⎛ M P ⎞
∴ WC2 = ⎜ ⎟
11 ⎝ L ⎠
⎛M ⎞
or Wc3 = 6.545 ⎜ P ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ L ⎠
Step 2:
The ultimate load for the beam is that which is least, since the analysis is
carried out by the kinematic method. Therefore, the ultimate load for the beam
⎛M ⎞
Wc = 6.545 ⎜ P ⎟
⎝ L ⎠
W
W 8
D B
A C
L L L
2 2 3
MP MP
(a ) W
L 8
D B 3
A C
θ
M P. θ
(b )
W
8
M P. θ W
D B θ
A C
θ θ
L
3
( M P · 2 θ)
MP (c)
MP
B .M . D ia gra m
(d )
Fig. 12.46
674 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
A D
Fig. 12.47
L L
B 2 2 C
θ θ
MP MP
θ θ
MP
(2 θ)
Fig. 12.48
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 675
⎛ 1 ⎞
= ⎜ 2P θ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 2 ⎠
Work absorbed by the plastic hinges
(MPθ + MP2θ+ MPθ) = 4MPθ ...(ii)
⎛ L ⎞
∴ ⎜ 2P θ ⎟ = 4MPθ
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ M ⎞
PC = ⎜4 P ⎟ ...(iii)
1 ⎝ L ⎠
2P
L L
2 2
P B C
E
MP MP
θ θ
θ θ
MP MP
A D
Fig. 12.49
⎛ 4M P ⎞
PC = ⎜ ...(iv)
2 ⎝ L ⎟⎠
⎛ L ⎞
= ⎜ PLθ + 2P ⋅ θ ⎟ = 2PLθ ...(v)
⎝ 2 ⎠
Work absorbed by the plastic hinges
= [MP θ+ MP .2θ + MP (θ + θ) + MP(θ)]
= 6MPLθ ...(vi)
∴ 2P.Lθ = 6MPLθ
⎛ 3M P ⎞
∴ PC = ⎜
3 ⎝ L ⎟⎠
⎛ 3M P ⎞
∴ PC = ⎜ ... (vii)
⎝ L ⎟⎠
L 2P L
B 2 2 C
P
θ θ
θ θ MP
MP
( θ + θ) θ
MP MP
θ θ
A D
Fig. 12.50
Step 4: Check for (M < Mp)
The bending moment diagram corresponding to the collapse mechanism
(combined mechanism) is shown in Fig. 12.51.
Total ordinate of free bending moment diagram (sagging) for beam BC
⎛ 2P ⋅ L ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
PL ⎛ 1 PL ⎞ 3
= = ⎜ ×3×
⎝2 ⎟ = (M )
L 3 ⎠ 2 P
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 677
MP
B 0 .5 M P C MP
MP
A D
MP MP
Fig. 12.51
W
B 2m 2m C
W
1 .5 M P
MP MP 4m
A D
Fig. 12.52
678 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Solution
The collapse load is found by kinematic method.
Number of possible plastic hinges, N = 5
Degree of redundancy of the frame, r = 3
Number of independent mechanism = 5 – 3 = 2.
Step 1: Beam mechanism
The beam mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.53. It is to note that at the ends B
and C of the beam, the plastic hinges arc formed in the section, which is weak
(i.e., in the column section).
1 .5 W
B 2m 2m C
θ θ
θ θ
MP MP
θ θ
1 .5 M P ( θ + θ)
Fig. 12.53
The work done by external force is equal to work absorbed by the plastic hinges.
∴ 1.5W × 2θ = [MPθ + 1.5 MP (θ+ θ) + MPθ]
3W C θ = 5MPθ
1
WC = 1.67 MP ...(i)
1
Step 2: Panel mechanism
The panel mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.54. The plastic hinges are formed
at the section, which are weak.
1 .5 w
B 2m 2m C
W
E
MP MP
θ θ
4m
θ θ
MP MP
A D
Fig. 12.54
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 679
The work done by the external force is equal to the work absorbed by the plastic
hinges
∴ W × 4θ = (MPθ + MPθ + MPθ + MPθ )
∴ WC = 1.67 MP ...(ii)
2
Step 3: Combined mechanism
The combined mechanism is shown in Fig.12.55.
1 .5 w
B 2m 2m
C
w
θ θ
E
MP
θ θ
( θ + θ)
1 .5 M P
θ
( θ + θ)
θ θ
A MP MP D
Fig. 12.55
The work done by the external force is equal to the work absorbed by the plastic
hinges
(∴ 1.5 × 2θ + W × 4θ) = [MPθ+ 1.5MP (2θ) + MP 2θ + MP ]
7W C . θ = 7MP θ
3
∴ WC = MP ...(iii)
3
The collapse load is that which is least.
∴ WC = W C = W
2 3 C
∴ Wc = MP
Step 4: Check for (M ≤ Mp)
The bending moment diagram corresponding to combined mechanism is shown
in Fig. 12.56.
The bending moment M, at any section is not more than the fully plastic moment
of this section.
It is to note that at joint B the value of moment M is MP in the bending
moment diagram. It shows that a plastic hinge also exists at B in the column
section. It shows that there are five plastic hinges corresponding to the collapse
mechanism. The number of plastic hinges are such that there is one more plastic
hinge than required. It shows that it is a case of over complete collapse. This
also reflects from (ii) and (iii) since W C = WC = W C.
2 3
680 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
MP
B MP C MP
MP
E
1 .5 M P
MP MP
A C
Fig. 12.56
Example 12.13. Determine the value of fully plastic moment of the frame,
when loaded upto collapse as shown in Fig. 12.57. The plastic moment of the
frame is uniform throughout.
5 0 kN
L oa d
2 0 kN B 2m 4m C
MP
2m MP MP
4m
A
Fig. 12.57
Solution
The plastic moment for the frame is found by the kinematic method.
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 681
5 0 kN
2m 4m
C
B
θ θ
2 MP
MP
θ
θ
E 2
MP
θ
θ+
2
Fig. 12.58
∴ 2θ = 4θ1
⎛θ⎞
∴ θ1 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
The work done by the external force is equal to the work absorbed by the
plastic hinges
⎡ θ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
∴ 50 × 2θ = ⎢ M P θ + M P . 2 + M P ⎜ θ + 2 ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
100 θ = 3MP θ
MP1 = 33.3 kN-m ...(i)
Step 2: Panel mechanism
The panel mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.59. The lateral deflections at the
top of columns are equal
∴ 2θ = 4θ2
⎛θ⎞
θ2 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
The work done by external force is equal to the work absorbed by the plastic
hinges
⎡ ⎛θ⎞ ⎛ θ ⎞⎤
∴ 20 × 2θ = ⎢MP θ + MP θ + MP ⎜ 2 ⎟ + MP ⎜ 2 ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
682 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
40 θ = 3MPθ
MP = 13.3 kN-m ...(ii)
2
5 0 kN
B 2m 4m C
2 0 kN
MP E MP
θ
θ
2m 2
θ
MP 4m
A
θ
2
MP
Fig. 12.59
2m 4m C
2 0 kN B
θ θ/2
MP
θ θ θ θ
E +
2m 2 2 2
MP
θ θ
θ+
2
MP θ
θ 2 4m
A 2
D
Fig. 12.60
⎡ ⎛ θ⎞ ⎛θ θ⎞ ⎛ θ ⎞⎤
∴ (20 × 2θ + 50 × 2θ ) = ⎢ M P θ + M P ⎜ θ + ⎟ + M P ⎜ + ⎟ + M P ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
140 θ = 4MP θ
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 683
MP = 35 kN-m ...(iii)
3
The plastic moment of the section for the frame is that which is maximum.
∴ MP = 35 kN-m
Step 4: Check (M ≤ Mp)
The bending moment diagram corresponding to collapse mechanism is shown
in Fig. 12.61.
3 5 kN -m
3 0 kN -m 3 1.7 kN -m
B C
3 5 kN -m
A
3 5 kN -m
D
3 5 kN -m
Fig. 12.61
A D
Fig. 12.62
θ θ
MP E ( θ + θ)
5m 5m
Fig. 12.63
MP MP
θ θ
3m
θ θ
A D
10 m
Fig. 12.64
The work done by the external force is equal to work absorbed by the plastic
hinges.
∴ 100 × 3θ = (MPθ + MPθ)
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 685
300 θ = 2MP θ
MP2 = 150 kN-m
Step 3: Combined mechanism
The combined mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.65. It is to note that, now, the
plastic hinge in between joints B and C is formed at a distance x from B and not
at the centre.
Let the vertical deflection at E be Δ
∴ Δ = θx = θ1 (10 – x)
∴ θ1 = xθ/(10 – x)
B 2 0 kN /m C
1 00 kN
θ θ1
MP
( θ + θ1 )
θ θ ( θ + θ1 ) θ
MP θ1
X (1 0 – x )
3m
θ θ
D
A
10 m
Fig. 12.65
The work done by the external forces is equal to the work absorbed by the
plastic hinges.
1
∴ (100 × 3θ + 20 × × 10 × xθ)
2
⎛ xθ ⎞ ⎛ xθ ⎞
= MP ⎜ θ + + MP ⎜ θ +
⎝ 10 – x ⎟⎠ ⎝ 10 – x ⎟⎠
⎛ xθ ⎞
(300 θ + 100 θ x) = 2MP ⎜ θ + ⎟
⎝ 10 – x ⎠
⎛ 300 θ + 100 θx ⎞ ⎛ 10 – x + x ⎞ θ
⎜ ⎟ = MP ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 10 – x ⎟⎠
⎡ 1 (10 – x ) ⎤
MP = ⎢⎣ 2 × 10 × 100 ⋅ (3 + x )⎥⎦
686 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎡ (3 + x )(10 – x ) ⎤
= ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ × 10 kN-m
2
For MP to be maximum
⎛ dM P ⎞ 10
∴ ⎜⎝ ⎟ = [(30 + x)(–1) + 1 × (10 – x)= 0
dx ⎠ 2
(– 3 – x + 10 – x) = 0
x = 3.5 m
⎛ 10 ⎞
MP = ⎜ ⎟ (3 + 3.5) (10 – 3.5) = 212 kN-m.
⎝ 2⎠
moment diagram, the lines parallel to the datum line are drawn with he ordinate
equal to the plastic moment of the beam section, the lengths of these lines give
the theoretical lengths of the cover plates. The actual lengths of the cover plates
are found by providing additional lengths at both the ends. The additional lengths
are provided to accommodate the number of rivets necessary. The rivets should
be able to resist the horizontal force due to bending stress at the theoretical cut-
off.
Example 12.15. Design a continuous beam ABCD; analysed in Example 12.9.
Provide a uniform section throughout. The yield stress for mild steel is 250
N/mm2.
Solution
Design
Step 1: The continuous beam ABCD of Example 12.9 (a), is shown in
Fig. 12.45. The continuous beam with uniform section is designed for the
maximum value of plastic amount. From Example 12.9, the maximum, plastic
moment
MP = 180 kN-m
Yield stress, σy = 250 N/mm2
Step 2: Plastic section modulus
ZP = (M P/σ y )
⎛ 720 ⎞
Z = ⎜ × l03 mm3
⎝ 1.12 ⎟⎠
= 642.86 × l03 mm3
From ISI Handbook No. 1 select ISWB 300 @ 431 N/m.
Elastic section modulus provided
Zxx = 6548 × 103 mm3 > 636 × 102 mm3.
Hence, safe.
Provide ISWB 300 @, 481 N/m for the continuous beam.
Example 12.16. Design a continuous beam ABCD, analysed in Example 12.9.
Provide most economical section. The yield stress for mild steel is 250 N/mm2.
Solution
Design :
Step 1: The continuous beam ABCD, of Example 12.9 is shown in Fig. 12.45.
The continuous beam with most economical section is designed for the least
value of moment. From Example 12.9 (b), the plastic moments for the different
spans are as follows :
688 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 103 ⎞
ZP = ⎜⎜ 330.4 × ⎟⎟ = 295 × l03 mm3
⎝ 1.12 ⎠
From ISI Handbook No. 1, select ISLB 250 @, 279 kN/m
Zxx = 297.4 × 103 mm3 > Z required.
Plastic modulus of ISLB 250, @ 279 N/m
ZP = 1.12 × 297.4 × 103 = 333.08 ×103 mm3
Plastic moment of the section
⎛ ZP ⎞ ⎛ 679.32 × 103 ⎞
⎜ h ⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 2717.28 mm2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 250 ⎠
Provide two 100 mm × 14 mm plates. The plastic modulus of the plates
provided
= (2 × 100 × 14) × (250 + 14)
= 739 × 103 > 679.32 × 103 mm3
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 689
⎛ x2 ⎞
⎜⎜ 80 × ⎟⎟ = 168.3 x = 2.06 m
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 215.72 × 103 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 862.88 mm3
⎝ 250 ⎠
Provide 100 mm × 10 mm plates. The plastic modulus of the plates
provided
= 100 × 100 × (250 + 10)
= 260 × 103 mm3 > 215.72 × 103 mm3
Step 7: Length of cover plates
Let x1 be the distance of point of cut-off from the centre of span CD
⎛ x12 ⎞
⎜⎝ 100 × ⎟ = 53.93. x1 = 1.038 m
2 ⎠
Provide 2.20 m length for the cover plates in the centre of span CD.
Problems
12.1 Determine the shape factor for the following sections :
(a) An I-section consists of 8 mm thick web and 12 mm thick flanges. The
depth of web excluding flanges is 300 mm. The width of flanges is
120 mm.
(b) A channel section consists of 8 mm thick web and 12 mm thick flange.
The depth of web excluding flanges is 200 mm. The width of flange is
100 mm.
(c) A tee-section consist of 8 mm thick web and 10 mm thick flanges. The
depth of a web is 80 mm. The width of flange is 80 mm.
12.2 A propped cantilever beam is subjected to a concentrated load at the
centre. Determine the collapse load for the beam.
690 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
12.3 A beam fixed at both the ends is subjected to two concentrated loads,
each at one-third point of the span. Determine the collapse load for the
beam.
12.4 A two span continuous beam ABC has span lengths AB = 6 m, and BC
= 6 m, and carries a uniformly distributed load of 30 kN per metre
completely covering the span AB and BC, A and C are simply support.
If the load factor is 1.80 and the shape factor of the I-section is 115
design a suitable section. Assume yield stress for the material as less
250 N/mm2. Indicate any method by which economy of material may
be achieved.
12.5 The beam ABC shown in Fig. P. 12.5 is to be designed by the plastic
method. Determine MP if the load factor is 1.6. Draw the B.M. diagram
at collapse.
1 20 kN 1 80 kN
1 0 kN /m 8m 8m
A C
B
MP 2 MP
12 m 24 m
Fig. P. 12.5
12.6 A fixed beam ABCD is shown in Fig. P. 12.6. Prove that the collapse
load for the beam is
8 ⎛ M P′ + M P ⎞
WC = ⋅
9 ⎜⎝ L ⎟
⎠
W W
MP M 'P MP
3 3
L L L
2 2
B M 'P < M P C
Fig. P. 12.6
12.7 For the portal frame shown in Fig. P. 12.7, find the value of plastic
moment Mp and also indicate the collapse mechanism. The section of
the portal frame is uniform.
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 691
2W
L L
0 .75 W 2 2
Fig. P. 12.7
12.8 For a portal of uniform section shown in Fig. P. 12.8, determine the
collapse load in terms of MP (plastic moment of resistance of the section).
P
B C D
P
2
3m 3m
3m
A E
Fig. P. 12.8
12.9 A portal frame is loaded as shown in Fig. P. 12.9. Determine the plastic
moment for the frame. The frame is of uniform section.
692 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
1 00 kN
2 .5 m 2 .5 m
2 0 kN
6m
8m
Fig. P. 12 .9
12.10 A portal frame is loaded as shown in Fig. P. 12.10. Determine the plastic
moment for the frame.
2 0 kN /m
2 00 kN
2 MP
6m
MP MP
4m
Fig. P. 12.10
12.11 A portal frame is loaded as shown in Fig. 12.11. The members of the
frame are of uniform cross-section having a plastic moment of resistance
Mp , Determine the ultimate collapse load P in terms of MP and L .
12.12 A portal frame is loaded as shown in Fig. 12.12; the members of the
frame are of uniform section having a plastic moment of resistance
Mp. Determine the collapse load P in of MP´. Draw B.M.D. at collapse.
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 693
L 3L
4 4 2P
0 .5 P
L L
2 2
L.2
L L
12.13 A continuous beam ABC is loaded as shown in Fig. 12.13. The beam is
having a uniform section throughout its entire length. The plastic
moment of resistance of the beam is MP . Find the collapse load P in
terms of MP and L. Draw B.M.D. at collapse.
P P 2P
B C
A
L' L L L L
L L
Fig. P. 12 .13
d3 d3
(a) (b)
3 4
d3 d3
(c) (d)
6 9
12.9 The shape-factor of an isosceles triangle for bending about the axis
parallel to the base is
(a) 1.34 (b) 1.64
(c) 2.34 (d) 1.64
12.10 The bending moment at a plastic hinge is
(a) equal to zero
(b) equal to yield moment of the section
(c) equal to plastic moment of the section
(d) greater than plastic moment of the section
12.11 When a section of a beam is plasticised due to given system of loading,
then
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 695
13.1 INTRODUCTION
The tall structures with relatively small cross-section and with a large ratio between
the height and the maximum width are known as towers or masts. A tower is
also known as a pylon. A tower is a single cantilever freely standing self-supporting
structure fixed at its base. A mast is a structure pin-connected to its foundation
and braced with guys or other elements. The water towers, radio and television
towers, the towers of power transmission lines and radio relay systems, etc., are
examples of structures belonging to the tower family. The towers of power
transmission lines are used to support transmission cables transmitting voltage
exceeding 132 kV over longer distances. The tall transmission towers provide
necessary clearance, where the transmission cables have maximum sag. The towers
may be built-up with three or more legs. In general, the towers are constructed
with four legs, spaced suitably. The four legs of towers maintain stability of the
towers. The transmission line towers are self-supporting type, flexible type,
semi-flexible type, self-supporting wide base and guyed type. The self-supporting
type of towers are rigid in both the transverse and the longitudinal directions. The
flexible type of towers are not rigid in longitudinal direction, i.e., in the direction
along the transmission cables. In the straight portion of the power line, the line
towers are used. When the direction of power line is changed, then, the angle
towers are provided. The transmission line towers are shown in Fig. 13.1.
IS : 802 (Part I)–1967 Code of practice for use of structural steel in overhead
transmission line towers has recommended four types of towers, viz. (i) tangent
towers with not more than (2° line deviation), (ii) small angle towers with not
more than (10° line deviation with suspension insulators), (iii) medium angle
towers (upto 30° line deviation), and (iv) large angle (60° deviation) and dead
end towers.
DESIGN OF STEEL TOWERS, TRESTLES AND MASTS 697
The height of towers ranges from 20 to 40 metres. The towers of such heights
provide 6 to 10 m height from the ground surface to the point of the maximum sag
of the cables. The types of towers depend on the loading conditions and type terrain.
E levatio n
P lan
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 13.1
These towers also known as single circuit tower, double circuit tower, or
multiple circuit tower depending upon the number of circuits supported by the
towers.
Figure 13.2 shows towers consisting of battered trusses formed in plan a triangle,
square or regular polygon. The towers are used for viaduct construction and as
supports for elevated tanks. The ratio of width of the side face b, at the base (or the
diameter d, of a circular base) to the height of the tower H, varies within wide
limits according to the function of the tower. The dimensions b and d in case of
self-supporting towers should, not be less than one-eighth or one-tenth of their
height, H.
698 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Figure 13.2 (a) shows tower with single diagonal bracing. The bracing have
long free length. The alterations of stresses take place in them. Figure 13.2 (b)
shows towers with cross diagonal or double diagonal bracing. The towers in this
case are assumed to act as single diagonal bracing.
a b a b
(a ) (b )
a b
(c) (d )
Fig. 13.2
The radio and television transmission towers and masts are shown in Fig. 13.3.
Figures 13.3 (a) and (b) show self-supporting radio and television towers. Figure
13.3 (c) shows mast. The masts are guyed with wire ropes at one or more levels.
DESIGN OF STEEL TOWERS, TRESTLES AND MASTS 699
The rigid diaphragms are provided at the top and at several intermediate sections
in self-supporting towers to increase the stiffness of the cross-sections of the towers.
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 13.3
W = kH(M)0.5 ...(i)
where, W = Weight of tower in tonnes
H = Overall height of tower above ground in metres
M = Overturning moment at the ground level in kg-m due to wind
k = Constant. Its value lies between 0.35 to 0.46
W = CKh (F10.67 + 0.875 F00.5 + F10.67) kg ...(ii)
where, C = Constant. Its value lies between 0.2 to 0.3
h = Height of centre of gravity of conductor of loads above ground in
metres
F1 = Total transverse loads in conductors in kg
F1 = Total vertical loads due to conductors in kg
P1 = Longitudinal loads in conductor in kg
For suspension towers
0.5
⎛ L2 ⎞
K = ⎜⎜1.44 ⎟⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 37 ⎠
For dead end towers
0.5
⎛ L2 ⎞
K = ⎜⎜ 2.89 ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ 13.5 ⎟⎠
L = Maximum torque arm for longitudinal load
in metres
The weight of conductors and ground wires on a tower depends on the appropriate
weight span. The horizontal distance between the lower points of the conductors in
the two adjacent spans is known as weight span. The weight of lineman with tool
to be included in the design is taken as 150 kg.
The transmission line towers are exposed to open atmospheric conditions. These
towers are subjected to severe temperature variations. The minimum and maximum
values of temperatures noted from appendices C and D of IS : 800–1962. These
values are increased by 17°C to permit the radiation due to sun and effects of heat
to current in the conductors.
When the symmetry exists in the arrangement of legs of the towers (columns),
then the vertical loads are assumed to be distributed equally between the columns.
It is assumed that the struts and diagonals are not stressed by such vertical loads.
The towers are also subjected to wind load. The wind load is assumed to acts as
horizontal loads. The wind loads are adopted from IS : 875–1964. The wind pressure
on conductors and the ground wires may be adopted 25 percent less than the
specified values to allow for swing effect of the wires, and to allow for possibility of
wind gust and the front not covering the full span. The cross-sectional area for the
circular conductors and ground wires may be adopted as 0.67 times the sectional
projected area exposed to wind. The exposed area of tower to the wind consists of
projected area of the tower on the windward side plus fifty percent of that on the
leeward side. For the purpose of determining transverse loads due to wind span is
DESIGN OF STEEL TOWERS, TRESTLES AND MASTS 701
considered. It is taken as half the sum of two adjacent spans to the tower being
considered. For the conditions of broken wire, it is taken as fifty percent of the
normal span plus ten percent of the broken span. In case of transmission towers,
the towers are also subjected to unbalanced wire pull, and wind load on the
wires. The unbalanced wire pull is caused by broken wires and when the wires
change their direction. Such loads are longitudinal loads. The unbalanced pull
due to broken conductors on one side exerts a torque on the tower. The tower
members are subjected to torsional stresses.
The unbalanced wire pull due to broken conductor is adopted as 60 percent of
the maximum working tension in the cable in case of supports with suspension
cables.’When the ground wire is broken then the unbalanced wire pull is taken as
100 percent or such percent of ground wire tension for which the ground wire
clamp is designed. The unbalanced wire pull depends on the number of cables
broken and type of tower.
For single circuit towers of all the four categories, any one power conductor
of one ground wire is considered as broken, whichever is more serious for a particular
member.
For double circuit towers of first two categories, any one power conductor or
one ground wire is considered is broken. For medium angle tower any two of the
power conductors are considered as broken on the same circuit and on the same
span or any one of the power conductor and one ground wire are considered as
broken on the same span. For large angle tower and dead tower, three power
conductors are considered as broken or any two of the power conductors and any
one of ground wires are considered as broken.
Figure 13.4 shows the rectangular base of a tower. In case the pull in the
transmission cable is parallel to AB and CD trusses, then PV and PH are the
vertical and the horizontal components of the pull in the cables. The vertical
component of pull in the cable PV, is distributed equally in the four legs of the
tower, because of symmetry. The horizontal component PH is distributed equally
in the two trusses AB and CD.
A D A D
PV
B C B C
PH
Figure13.5 shows the rectangular base of a tower. The pull in the cable P, is
included with the plane of AB and CD trusses. The pull in the cable is resolved into
three components PV,PH and PY. The horizontal component PH, is parallel to AB
and CD trusses. The component PY is parallel to AD and BC trusses. The horizontal
component PH is distributed equally in AB and CD trusses. The component PV is
distributed equally in AD and BC trusses. The vertical component PV is distributed
equally in the four legs of the tower.
Figure 13.6 shows the rectangular base of a tower. In case some transmission
cables are snapped, then the pull in the wire are eccentrically, at a distance a,
from the centre. The pull in the wire P1 is resolved into its three components,
PT
2
D
A
PT
1
PV PY
b
PT
1
B C
PT
2
e
PH
a
Fig. 13.6
⎛M ⎞
PT = ⎜ t ⎟ , PT = ⎛⎜ M i ⎞⎟
1 ⎝ 2⋅ a⎠ 2 ⎝ 2 ⋅ b⎠
DESIGN OF STEEL TOWERS, TRESTLES AND MASTS 703
A B HB = PH X
d1
d2
C1
X
C2
S p an = L
The shape of the conductor (with the conductor chord AB, horizontal) with origin
at the support A is given by
4 ⋅ dx
y = (L – x) ...(13.1)
L2
In general, the sag of conductor (dip) carrying uniform distributed load of
intensity w kN per linear metre of horizontally projected conductor is given by
⎛ w ⋅ L2 ⎞
d = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ...(13.2)
⎝ 8PH ⎠
where, PH = Horizontal component of tension in the conductor
L
d = Sag of the conductor at .
2
It is worthwhile to note that the horizontal component, PH, of the tension in the
conductor, T shall be same at any point of the conductor, since all the loads acting
on the conductor are vertical. The horizontal reactions at the supports A and B
will be each equal to PH .
When the conductor is spread and stretched over the supports A and B, the
length of conductor along its arc is given by
⎛ 8 d2 ⎞
s = ⎜⎜ L + ⎟⎟ ...(13.3)
⎝ 3 L ⎠
704 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The stretch in the chord length AB with the tension in the conductor, T is found from
⎛ TL ⎞
ΔL = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ EA ⎠
where, E = Young’s modulus of elasticity of the conductor material, and
A = Cross-sectional area of the conductor.
The tension in the conductor becomes maximum when the atmospheric
temperature, t 1 is the least. The maximum tension in the cable, nmax should not
exceed the allowable tension in the conductor d1. At the centre of the conductor at
L
x= , the horizontal component of the tension in the conductor is also equal to T.
2
As such, the dip of the conductor in its position AC, B is given by
⎛ w L2 ⎞
d1 = ⎜ 1 ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 8T1 ⎠
The vertical load per linear metre of horizontally projected conductor, w1 is
found as the vector sum of the self-weight of the conductor and the maximum
intensity of wind. The arc length of conductor AC1B is calculated from Eq.13.3,
⎛ 8 d12 ⎞
S1 ⎜
= ⎜ L + ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ 3 L ⎟⎠
Substituting the value of d1 from the expression (i) the arc length of conductor
AC1B is found as below :
⎛ 8 w12 ⋅ L4 ⎞
S1 = ⎜⎜ L + ⎟⎟
⎝ 3L 64 T12 ⎠
⎛ w12 ⋅ L3 ⎞
or S1 = ⎜⎜ L + ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 24T12 ⎟⎠
The stretch of the conductor
⎛T L ⎞
ΔL1 = ⎜ 1 ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ EA ⎠
The tension in the conductor becomes minimum when the atmospheric
L
temperature, t 2 is the maximum. At the centre of the conductor at x = , the
2
horizontal component of the tension in the conductor is equal to T2. The dip of the
conductor in its position AC2B is given by
⎛ w2 L2 ⎞
d2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ...(v)
⎝ 8T2 ⎠
DESIGN OF STEEL TOWERS, TRESTLES AND MASTS 705
⎛ w22 ⋅ L3 ⎞
or S2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟ ...(vii)
⎝ 24T2 ⎠
The change in arc length AC1B at temperature t 1 is given by
⎡ w12 L3 ⎤
Δs 1 = ⎢L + 2
– ( L + ΔL1 ) ⎥
⎢⎣ 24T1 ⎥⎦
⎛ w12 L3 T1 L ⎞
or Δs 1 = ⎜⎜ – ⎟ ...(viii)
⎝ 24T1
2 EA ⎟⎠
The change in arc length AC2B at temperature t 2 is given by
⎡ w22 L3 ⎤
Δs 2 = ⎢ L + 2
– ( L + ΔL2 ) ⎥
⎣⎢ 24T2 ⎦⎥
⎛ w22 ⋅ L3 T2 L ⎞
Δs 2 = ⎜⎜ – ⎟ ...(ix)
⎝ 24T2
2 EA ⎟⎠
The change in arc length when the temperature varies form t 1to t 2 shall be
α (t 2 – t 1) . L (Δs2 – Δs1) ...(x)
Substituting for Δs1and Δs2 from the expression (viii) and (ix) respectively
⎛ w22 L3 T2 L w13 L3 T1 L ⎞
α (t 2 – t 1) L = ⎜⎜ − − + ⎟
⎝ 24T2
2 EA 24T12 EA ⎟⎠
⎡ (T2 – T1 ) w2 L2 ⎤ ⎛ w2 L2 ⎞
or ⎢ + α (t2 – t1 ) + 1 2 ⎥ = ⎜ 2 2 ⎟ ...(xi)
⎢⎣ EA 24T1 ⎥⎦ ⎜ 24T ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎡ w12 L2 ⎤ ⎛ w22 L2 ⎞
or (T2 – T1 ) + α (t2 – t1 ) EA +
T22 ⎢ ⎥ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ EA
⎢ 24T12 EA ⎥⎦ = ...(13.4)
⎣ ⎝ 24 ⎠
706 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
X
H=b 2
X
X
b q b q Y Y
q X
H=b 3 X
q h=
2
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 13.8
The towers are analysed as a trussed squared beam fixed at its base. The vertical
loads are uniformly distributed between the posts (chords). The total force induced
by the vertical and horizontal loads in a tower post is equal to
F = (Fy ± Fh)
P
where Fy is equal to cos α ; the case in post induced by vertical loads uniformly
N
DESIGN OF STEEL TOWERS, TRESTLES AND MASTS 707
distributed between N posts of the tower, forming with the vertical axis an angle
α (if inclined) and Fh is force in post induced by horizontal forces and originated by
tilting moment.
In a quadrangular tower, the maximum force in a chord is obtained when the
horizontal (wind) is directed towards a rib of the tower and only chords are subjected
to bending Fig. 13.8 (a),
⎛M ⎞
Fq = ⎜ 2⎟ ...(13.5)
⎝ b ⎠
In a triangular tower, the maximum force in a chord induced by the horizontal
load q is given by Fig.13.8 (b)
⎛ 2M ⎞
Fq = ⎜ 3⎟ ...(13.6)
⎝ b ⎠
In a multipost tower, the force Fh in a post with a section of A is found in
accordance with the tilting moment with respect to axis xx (Fig.14.8 (c)) from the
expression
⎛M ⎞ ⎛ MR ⋅ A ⎞ ⎛ 2 M ⎞
Fq = σ . A ⎜ ⋅ A⎟ = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ ...(13.7)
Z
⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ I x ⎠ ⎝ N .r ⎠
where, the equatorial moment of inertial Ix in symmetrical sections is equal to
half the polar moment of inertia, J,
J ⎛ Nr A ⎞
2
Ix = = ⎜⎜ ⎟ ...(13.8)
2 ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
The plane of the maximum radius of gyration of the post sections, as a rule, is
arranged along the radii of the tower. When investigating the posts for stability in
compression, their effective length in the plane of a tower side is taken equal to the
distance between the horizontal rings and the joints of the lattice. In towers with
four and six points, the effective length of a post in buckling in a radial direction is
taken equal to the distance between joints of the lattice, whereas with eight or
more posts, this length is taken equal to the total length (height of tower), if in a
horizontal plane, there are no rigidly secured membranes possessing adequate
stiffness in a vertical plane.
The lattice of a tower is subjected to shear force and is analysed on the assumption
that this force is resisted by two plane vertical trusses.
13.5 MASTS
A mast with guys consists of a shift or a pole of a triangular, square or round
cross-section. The chords of a triangular or quadrangular shaft are made of tubes
connected by means of flanges in the same way as tower members. It is possible to
use angle sections, although this will be less rational. A round shaft section is
formed of a rolled and welded plate.
The guys are made of steel ropes with a steel core. They are embedded in concrete
anchor slabs in the ground. The guys are arranged along the height of mast either
parallel to each other and at an angle of 45 degree to the mast, each guy having its
708 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
own foundation or a group of guys are directed to several tiers of the mast from one
foundation and are braced with yards. In the latter case, the maximum angle of
inclination of a top tier guy to the horizontal is 60 degree. In a plan view, the guys
are arranged in a radial direction in relation to the axis of the mass shaft, three
being used with a triangular or round section of the shaft and four with a
quadrangular section. The ends of guy ropes are embedded in steel sleeves with
the aid of zinc or other alloys.
The radio masts are lighter and cheaper than radio towers, but require a greater
area for arrangement of the guys.
The radio masts are investigated mainly for the wind load and the vertical
component of the guy tensioning forces with various combinations of temperatures
and magnitudes of the wind velocity head. In case there is wire antennae between
masts, the possibility of their complete or partial rupture should be taken into
consideration. Allowance must also be made for the formation of an ice crust on all
the elements of the members.
The maximum bending deflection of the mast shaft at the places of guy
⎛ 1 ⎞
connections should not exceed ⎜ ⎟ th or the height of these connections form
⎝ 100 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
the foundation. The top of mast should not deflect more than ⎜ ⎟ th of the
⎝ 100 ⎠
length of the cantilever.
A mast is investigated in two stages. In the first stage, the shaft is considered
as a bar in compression and bending on stiff supports (guys). The longitudinal
force is determined as the sum of the weight of the members and the equipment
located on the mast, and of the vertical components of the guy reactive forces.
These forces are used to select the sections of the mast shaft and guys after which
the second more precise stage of investigation is carried out. In this stage, the guy
is analysed as a tension flexible cable with an initial tension (or a predetermined
sag) and the possible horizontal displacement of the guy connections are determined.
Next the mast shaft is investigated as a bar in compression and bending of flexible
yield bearings.
The shaft of a mast rests on a central bearing. In insulated masts, the bearing
is made barret-shaped porcelain insulators carrying a cast steel equalising bearing.
13.6 TRESTLES
The trestles are the frames made of horizontal pieces of wood with spreading lets
at each end. The trestles made of steel are known as steel trestles. Figure13.9
shows a usual form of a vertical bent.
The horizontal bracings consist of horizontal members AB, CD, EF and GH.
These horizontal members are capable of resisting either compression or torsion.
The diagonal bracing consists of members. These members are designed for the
tension only. The posts AG and BH are inclined. These posts may be vertical.
DESIGN OF STEEL TOWERS, TRESTLES AND MASTS 709
P P
2 2
A B
C D
E F
G H
Fig. 13.9
These posts may also be vertical on one side and inclined on the other side. In case
the posts are inclined on both the faces, it is assumed that these are equally
inclined. The stress or forces in the various members due to vertical loads and the
horizontal loads have been found in Secs. 13.7 and 13.8, respectively.
1
2
P tan θ. In order to find the stresses in the members below the point D, the
additional dead load should be taken into consideration.
In case of double track structure, or a tructure on a curved track, the loads are
applied unsymmetrically. The loads at A and B are not equal. If the load is near to
the point B, then AD, CF, and EH diagonals are subjected to tension. The diagonals
subjected to tension are assumed to be active and other diagonals remain dummy
as shown in Fig. 13.10 by dotted lines.
710 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
y1
y2
y3
d
W1
e
P
F
W2
W3
A B
S1
h1
X1 X1
W4
C D
S2
X2
h2
X3 X3
E F
X5
S3
h3
G S4 H
Fig. 13. 10
Let e be the eccentricity of the centre line. The point O represents the point of
the centre lines of the posts when produced. The height of point O above the horizontal
plane AB is d. The forces in the various members may be found by taking moments
as follows.
The force in AC is found by considering a section X1X1 . The section X1X1 intersects
AC, AD and BD. The lines of foces in AD and BD intersects at D. Therefore force in
AC is found by taking moment about D. The force in AC
⎡ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎤
⎢ P ⎜ 2 S2 – e ⎟ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎥
∴ FAC = ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⋅ AC ⎥
⎜ ⎟
⎢ S 2 ⎝ h1 ⎠ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
DESIGN OF STEEL TOWERS, TRESTLES AND MASTS 711
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⋅ S1 + e ⎞ ⎛ X BD ⎞⎤
∴ FBD = ⎢ P ⋅ ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ⋅ ⎜ h ⎟⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ S1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎦⎥
The force in AD is found by taking moment about O.
⎡ ⎛ e ⎞ ⎛ x AD ⎞⎤
∴ FAD = ⎢P ⋅ ⎜ ⎟⋅⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ d + h1 ⎠ ⎝ S1 ⎠⎦
Consider section X2X2 . The section X2X2 intersects AC, CD and DF. The force
in CD may be found by taking moment about O.
⎛ e ⎞
∴ FCD = P ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d + h1 ⎠
Consider section X3X3. The section X3X3 intersects CE, CF and CF. The force in
CF is found by taking moment at F.
⎛ ⎛ 1 S – e ⎞ ⎛ xCE ⎞⎞
∴ FCE = ⎜ P ⎜⎜ 2 3 ⎟⎟ ⎜ . h ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎜
⎝ ⎝ S3 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠
The force in member DF is found by taking moment about point C.
⎛ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎞
⎜ S2 + e ⎟
∴ FCD ⎜
= ⎜P 2 (x ) ⎟
⎟⎟ DF ⎟⎟
⎜ ⎜⎜ S
⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎠
The force CF is found by taking moment about point O.
⎛ ⎛ e ⎞ ⎛ xCF ⎞⎞
∴ FCF = ⎜ P ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ d1 + h1 + h2 ⎠ ⎝ S2 ⎠⎠
where, x is the perpendicular distance from the point at which the moment is
taken to the member under consideration.
⎡ (σ y – k ) ⎛ l ⎞⎤
σUC = ⎢σ y ⎜ – 20 ⎟ ⎥ ...(ii)
⎣⎢ 130 ⎝ r ⎠ ⎦⎥
For slenderness ratio greater than 150 and less than 200
⎡ π2 E ⎤
σUC = ⎢ ⎥ ...(iii)
⎢⎣ (l / r 2 ) ⎥⎦
where, σUC = Ultimate compresive strength
σy = Yield strength in steel (250 N/mm2)
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity (2.047 × 105 N/mm2)
DESIGN OF STEEL TOWERS, TRESTLES AND MASTS 713
⎡ π2 E ⎤
k= ⎢ 2⎥
⎣ (150 ) ⎦
The maximum slenderness ratio of compression members should not exceed
the values given in Table13.1. These values have been recommeded in IS : 802–
1967.
Table 13.1 Maximum slenderness ratio of compression members
⎛ l ⎞
S.No. Type of members ⎜ ⎟
⎝ rmin ⎠
1. For main members of cross-arms and for leg members 140
2. For other members having calculated stresses 200
3. For members having nominal stresses 250
4. For members other than those covered in (1)
carrying tensile streses 400
As per IS : 802–1967 (Part I), the tension in the conductor; at 32°C in absence
of any internal load should not be thirty five percent of ultimate tensile strength
for the initial unloaded tensions and twenty five percent that for final unloaded
tensions.
Example 13.1. Analyse the steel trestle subjected to loads as shown in Fig.
13.11.
Solution
Step 1: Reactions at Supports. The support G is a fixed support and support
H allows expansion
:. Horizontal reaction at G
= (135 + 270 + 104 + 48) = 557 kN
The lateral loads cause overturning moment. The overturning moment is
balanced by resiting couple provided by two vertical equal and opposite reactions
at G and H. Take the moment of all the force about G
28 × VH = 48 × 2.96 + 104 (2.96 + 1.86 + 1.18)
+ 270 (2.96 + 1.86 + 1.18 + 0.7)
+ 135 (2.96 + 1.86 + 1.18 + 0.7 + 0.95)
∴ VH = 1300 kN (Acts upward)
∴ VG = 1300 kN (Acts downward).
Step 2: Force in member DE
Consider a section X1X1 as shown in Fig. 13.11. The section intersects GE, EF
and DF. The members GE and EF meet at E. The force in DF is found by taking
moment of all the forces about E. The force in member DF is resolved vertically
and horizontally. The vertical component of force DF.
714 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
O
0 .35 m
1 35 kN
0 .95 m
2 .00 m
2 70 kN
0 .7 m
1 04 kN 0 .46
A B m
0 .8 m 1 .18 m
0 .72 m
C D
1 .11 m 0 .72 m
X2 X2
1 .76 m
1 .14 m
X1
4 8 kN
E 1 .7 6 m
F
1 .14 m
X1
2 .96 m
1 .82 m
5 57 kN
G 1 .4 m 1 .4 m H
2 .8 m
1 30 0 kN 1 30 0 kN
Fig. 13.11
1
VDF = [104 (1.18 + 1.86) + 270 (0.7 + 1.18
1.76
+ 1.86) + 135 (0.95 + 0.7 + 1.18+ 1.86)]
= 1138 kN
Length of member BH works out to be 609 m. Vertical height of B from H =
2(2.96 + 1.86 + 1.18) = 6.00 m.
Let the inclination of BH with vertical be θ.
⎛ 6.09 ⎞
Then sec θ = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.015
⎝ 6.00 ⎠
∴ Force in member DF
= VDF × sec θ = 1138 × 1.015
= 1152 kN (compression).
DESIGN OF STEEL TOWERS, TRESTLES AND MASTS 715
Step 3: Force in EF
The section X1X1 is also suitable for determining the force in member EF. The
section X1X1 intersects GE, EF and DF. The prolonged directions of GE and DF
meet at point O. The force in member EF may be found by taking moment about
O.
FEF = (1.86 +1.18 + 2.0) = 48 (1.86 + 1.18 + 2.0)
+ 104 × 2.0 + 270 (0.95 + 0.35 + 135 × 0.3)
FEF = 160 kN (Compression).
Step 4: Force in DE
Consider a section X2X2. The setion X2X2 intersects CE, DE and DF. The prolonged
directions of members CE and DF meet at point O. The force in member DE is
resolved horizontally and vertically at the point of intersection of this member
with the centre line. The moment of its vertical component is zero.
∴ HDF × (0.72 + 1.18 + 2.0) = [ l35 × 0.35 + 27 × (0.35 + 0.25) + 104 × 2]
∴ HDE = 145 kN
The force in member DE may be found by multiplying horizontal component by
secant of its inclination with the horizontal.
2.35
∴ HDE = 145 = 237 kN (Tension)
1.44
The forces in the various members may be found in the similar manner.
Data
The various concerning data are as under:
(i) Voltage of transmission = 132 kV
(ii) Power conductor
30 mm diameter A.C.S.R (aluminium cable steel reinforced conductors
consisting of 54 strands of 3 mm diameter of aluminium and 7 strands of 3 mm
diameter of steel) shall be used.
Unit weight of conductor = 16.76 N/m (0.01676 kN/m)
Permissible axial tension = 35.60 kN
Young’s modulus of elasticity = 0.842 × l05 N/mm2
Coefficient of expansion = 0.00001992/°C
Shape factor for conductor = 0.67
(iii) Ground wire
10 mm diameter galvanised steel wire shall be used
Permissible axial tension = 25.40 kN
(vi) Clearance requirements
Vertical height of conductor above ground
= 6.7 m (min)
Vertical spacing between power conductors
= 3.5 m (min)
Horizontal spacing between power conductors
= 6.25 m (min)
Height of ground wire above topmost power conductor shall be half of the
horizontal spacing of power conductors.
Telegraph wires shall not be provided under the transmission line.
(v) Variation of temperature
Range = 5° C to 60°C
(vi) Wind. Uniform intensity of wind
= 1.50 kN/m2
(Vii) Snow. Snowfall is not expected.
(viii) Tower. Tangent type of towers with not more than 2° line deviation shall
be erected, weight span of tower = wind span = 240 m.
Suggest the geometry of the tower and determine the length of every member
of the tower.
Solution
Step 1: Geometry of tower
The total height of tower is decided keeping in view the clearance requirements
and maximum sag for power conduction.
DESIGN OF STEEL TOWERS, TRESTLES AND MASTS 717
1. Clearance requirements
Vertical height of conductor above ground = 6.70 m (min)
Vertical spacing between power conductors = 4.00 m
Provided more than min. of 3.5 m
Height of ground wire above top-most
1
power conductor × 6.25 m = 3.12
2
Total 13.82 m
2. Maximum sag for power conductor
Sag below lowest wire support, from Eq.13.1
⎛ w ⋅ L3 ⎞
d = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 8PH ⎠
Step 2: Tension in transmission cable
Both the supports of wire are considered at one level. The weight span of tower
is 240 m. Weight of conductor at maximum temperature and not wind, w2 = 16.76
N/m.
Horizontal component of wire pull, P from Eq. 13.4.
⎡ 2 2
⋅L EA ⎤ ⎛ w22 ⋅ L2 EA ⎞
T22 ⎢(T2 – T2 ) + W 1 + (t2 – t1 ) α ⋅ EA ⎥ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎢⎣ 24T1
2
⎥⎦ ⎝ 24 ⎠
where, T1 = Permissible tension in the conductor = 35.60 kN
T2 = Tension in the cable at mid-span
A = Effective cross-sectional area. (It is calculated on the basis of net
area of each stand)
π
A = (54 + 7) × 32 = 431.18 mm2
4
(t 2 – t 1) = Variation of temperature
= (60 – 5) = 55°C
E = 0.842 × 105 N/mm3
Since, the wind gusts are not likely to cover complete span, and the swinging of
conductors continues, the intensity of wind is decreased to 75 per cent.
Wind load = (0.75 × 1.50) × 0.667 × 0.03 kN/m
w1 = 0.0225 kN/m
Weight of the conductor at minimum temperature with wind,
w1 = [0.02252 + 0.016762]1/2
= 0.02806 kN/m
⎡ ⎛ 2 2 5 ⎞ 55 × 0.00001992 ⎞ ⎤
T22 ⎢T2 – 35.60 + ⎜ 2.806 × 240 × 0.842 × 10 × 431.18 ⎟ + ⎛⎜
⎝ 100 × 100 × 24 × 35.60 × 35.60 × 1000 ⎠ ⎝ 1000 ⎠⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ × 0.842 × 10 × 431.18 ⎥⎦
5
⎣
718 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
G ro un d w ire
H
1 .0
m
G G' 1 .0
m
1 .0
P o w er F G' m
con du ctor 1 .0
m
4 .00 m 1 .0
P o w er m
E E' con du ctor
2 .0 m
P o w er D D'
con du ctor
2 .0 m
C C'
2 1.0 m
6 .0 m
B B'
6 .0 m
A A'
G ro un d 5 .50 m L evel
Solution
Step 1: Various forces acting on the tower under the normal operating
conditions of the conductors are as below :
1. Lateral force due to wind. The lateral force due to wind acting at
every panel joint is found as a product of intensity of wind and the exposed area of
members of the tower consists of the projected area of the windward face plus fifty
percent of that of the leeward face. In order to estimate the projected area, the
sizes of members taken are as under:
Column sizes for complete length : ISA 130 mm × 130 mm × 10 mm
Horizontals for bottom panel joint: ISA 80 mm × 80 mm × 6 mm
Other horizontals, diagonals and the secondary members of nominal (minimum)
size : ISA 65 mm × 65 mm × 6 mm.
The members sizes are compared with those found after their design.
(i) Panel joint B (Exposed area for windward plus leeward faces)
⎛ AB + BC ⎞
Columns: 2× ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.130 × 1.50
⎝ 2
150
2 × (6.0467 + 6.0467) × 0.130 × = 2.358 m2
2
Horizontal: 1 × BB´ × 0.080 × 1.50
1 × 4.00 × 0.080 ×1.50 = 0.480 m2
⎛ BA´+ BC´ ⎞
Diagonals : 2 × ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.065 × 1.50
⎝ 2
⎛ 7.6526 + 6.8236 ⎞
2× ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.065 × 1.50 = 1.411 m
2
⎝ 2
Secondaries: 5.0 (measured) × 0.065 × 1.50 = 0.488 m2
Total = 4.737 m2
Lateral force due to wind = 1.50 × 4.737 = 7.1055 kN
(ii) Panel joint C (Exposed area for windward plus leeward faces)
⎛ CB + CD ⎞
Columns: 2 × ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.130 × 1.50
⎝ 2
⎛ 6.0467 + 2.0155 ⎞
2× ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.130 × l.50 = 1.572 m
2
⎝ 2
Horizontals : 1 × CC´ × 0.065 × 1.50
1 × 2.50 × 0.065 × 1.50 = 0.244 m2
⎛ CB´+CD´ ⎞
Diagonals : 2 × ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.065 × 1.50
⎝ 2
DESIGN OF STEEL TOWERS, TRESTLES AND MASTS 721
⎛ 6.8236 + 3.0104 ⎞
2× ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.065 × 1.50 = 0.959 m2
⎝ 2
Secondaries : 3.5 (measured) × 0.065 × 1.50 = 0.341 m2
Total 3.116 m2
Lateral force due to wind
= 1.50 × 3.115 = 4.6740 kN
(iii) Panel joint D (Exposed area for windward plus leeward faces).
⎛ DC + DE ⎞
Columns : 2× ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.130 ×1.50
⎝ 2
⎛ 2.0155 + 2.0155 ⎞
2× ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.130 × 1.50 = 0.786 m2
⎝ 2
Horizontals:1 × DD × 0.065 × 1.50
1 × 2.00 × 0.065 ×1.50 = 0.195 m2
⎛ DC´+ DE´ ⎞
Diagonals : 2 × ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.065 × 1.50
⎝ 2
⎛ 3.01104 + 2.6575 ⎞
2× ⎜ ⎟ × 0.065 × 1.50 = 0.533 m2
⎝ 2 ⎠
Total 1.514 m2
Lateral force due to wind
= 1.50 × 1.514 = 2.2710 kN
(iv) Panel joint E (Exposed area of windward plus leeward faces)
⎛ ED + 2.00 ⎞
Columns: 2 × ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.130 × 1.50
⎝ 2
⎛ 2.0155 + 2.00 ⎞
2× ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.130 × 1.50 = 0.783 m
2
⎝ 2
Horizontals : 1 × (EE´ × 0.75) × 0.065 × 1.50
1 × (1.50 × 0.75) × 0.065 × 1.50 = 0.219 m2
⎛ ED´ ⎞
Diagonals: ⎜ + 2 × 1.8021 ⎟ × 0.065 × 1.50
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 2.6575 ⎞
⎜ 2 + 2 × 1.8028 ⎟ × 0.065 × l.50 = 0.481 m2
⎝ ⎠
Cross arm (assumed) = 0.750 m2
Total 2.233 m2
Step 2: Lateral loads
(i) Lateral load due to wind
= 1.50 × 2.233 = 3.3495 kN
722 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
θ P θ
L L
Fig. 13.13
Panel joint G
Total lateral load at the panel joint G is equal to that for the panel joint F
= 11.0549 kN
Panel joint H
Cross arms and bracings (assumed)
= 0.80 m2
(i) Lateral load due to wind
= 1.50 × 0.80 = l.20 kN
(ii) Lateral load due to wind acting on the ground wire (10 mm diameter
galvanised steel wire)
= 240 × 0.010 × (0.667 × (l.50 × 0.75)
= 1.8009 kN
(iii) Lateral load due to deviation of the ground wire from the tangent line
= 2T sin 1.5° = 2 × 2540 × 0.026176
= 1.32794 kN
Total lateral load at the panel joint H
(1.20+ 1.8009+ 1.32974) = 4.3306 kN
These lateral loads are resisted by two faces of the tower. As such, the lateral forces
acting on one tower are made half and these loads have been listed in Table 13.2.
Table 13.2 Lateral loads resisted by one tower at different panel joints
M = PH × 21 × PG × 20 = PF × 18 × PE × 16 + PD × 14 + PC × 12 + PB ×
6 PP
∴ M = 4.3306 × 21 × 11.0549 × 20 + 11.0549 ×18 +10.6160 × 16 + 2.2710
× 14 + 4.6740 × 12 × 47.1055 × 6
= 90.9426 + 221.098 + 198.9882 + 169.856 + 31.794 + 56.088 + 42.623
= 811.3998 kN-m
Therefore,
W = 0.0004 × 21 × (811.3908)1/2 × 100 kN
= 23.9273 kN
Trial weight of the tower
The sizes of various members have been assumed to determine the lateral forces
due to wind. The trial weight of the tower may be found by measuring the lengths
and by multiplying by their respective unit weights (which may be noted form ISI
Handbook No. 1).
Columns : ISA 130 mm × 130 mm × 10 mm @ 0.107 kN/m
4 × [2 + 5.467 + 4 × 2.0155 + 4] × 0.197
= 15.8580 kN
Diagonals : ISA 65 mm × 65 mm × 6 mm @ 0.058 kN/m
4 × [2 + 7.6526 + 2 × 6.8236 + 2 × 3.0104 + 2 × 2.6575] × 0.058
= 3.3468 kN
4 × [8 × 1.8028] × 0.58 = 3.3460 kN
Horizontals : ISA 80 mm × 80 mm × 6 mm @ 0.073 kN/m
4 × 4.00 × 0.73 = 1.1610 kN
ISA 65 mm × 65 mm × 6 mm @ 0.058 kN/m
4 × [2.5 × 2.00 + 5 × 1.5] × 0.58
= 2.7840 kN
Secondaries ISA 65 mm × 65 mm × 6 mm @ 0.058 kN/m
4 × (5.0 × 3.5) × 0.58 = 1.9720 kN
Cross-arms (assumed)
= 5.5252 kN
Total estimated weight of tower
= 40.00 kN
Weight of 3 power conductors
3 × 240 × 0.01676 = 12.0672 kN
Weight of ground wire
240 × 0.006 = 1.44 kN
Weight of lineman with tools as recommended in IS : 802
= l.50 kN
Total dead load = 55.0072 kN
Step 4: Various forces acting on the tower under top-most power
conductor in broken condition are as below :
DESIGN OF STEEL TOWERS, TRESTLES AND MASTS 725
T
F1
F1
F1
F1
2F1 × a = T × b
2 × F1 × 1.50 = 21.36 × 3.125
∴ F1 = 22.25 kN
(ii) Dead load
As one conductor is broken, its 40 percent weight is reduced from that calculated
above
(0.40 × 240 × 0.01676) = 1.6089 kN
Total dead load = (55.0072 – 1.6089) kN = 53.3982 kN
3. Various forces acting on the tower under ground wire in broken condition
are as below :
726 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
PH
PG
PF
X2 X2
PE
PD
X1 X1
XC
PB
Fig. 13.15
⎛ 405.6992 ⎞
∴ Vertical reaction = ⎜ ⎟ kN
⎝ 5.50 ⎠
= 73.7636 kN
The axial forces in column and diagonal members of the bottom panel are found
by resolving the forces horizontally and vertically at A´.
∴ Axial force is column
= 68.96306 kN
Axial force in diagonal = 6.80344 kN
The axial forces in column and diagonal members of the third panel from bottom
are determined by the method of section and by horizontal equilibrium.
∴ Axial force in the column
= 44.6882 kN
Axial force in the diagonal
= 6.90945 kN
The axial forces in column and diagonal members of the fifth panel from bottom
are obtained by the method of section and by horizontal equilibrium:
∴ Axial force in the column
= 24.2907 kN
Axial force in the diagonal
= 7.9444 kN
728 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 384.3889 ⎞
∴ Vertical reaction = ⎜ ⎟ kN
⎝ 5.50 ⎠
= 69.3843 kN
The horizontal reaction at the foot of each column is equal to half the sum of
total lateral load acting on one tower
= (12.7767 – 50 × 11.0549 + 0.5 × 8.8938) kN
= 11.6962 kN
The axial forces in column and diagonal members of the bottom panel are found
by resolving the forces horizontally and vertically at A´
∴ Axial force in column
= 65.8914 kN
Axial force in diagonal
= 5.67595 kN
The axial forces in column and diagonal members of the third panel from bottom
are determined by the method of section and by horizontal equilibrium.
Axial focre in the column
= 41.7224 kN
Axial force in the diagonal
= 6.63155 kN
The axial forces in column and diagonal members of the fifth panel from bottom
are obtained by the method of section and by horizontal equilibrium.
Axial force in the column
= 22.39945 kN
Axial force in the diagonal
= 7.2951 kN
DESIGN OF STEEL TOWERS, TRESTLES AND MASTS 729
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 21.36 × 20 ⎟ = 213.60 kN-m
⎝2 ⎠
⎛ 213.60 ⎞
Vertical reaction = ⎜ ⎟ = 38.83636 kN
⎝ 5.50 ⎠
Horizontal reaction
= 0.5 × (0.5 × 21.36) kN-m
= 5.340 kN
Axial force in column
= 38.40398 kN
Axial force in diagonal
= 0.92862 kN
The axial force in column and diagonal members of the third panel from bottom
are determined by the method of section and by horizontal equilibrium.
Moment about point of intersection of diagonal members
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 21.36 × 6.889 ⎟ kN-m
⎝2 ⎠
= 73.57452 kN-m
Axial force in the column
= 33.36878 kN
Axial force in the diagonal
= 1.9348 kN
The axial forces in column and diagonal members of the fifth panel from bottom
are obtained by the method of section and by horizontal equilibrium.
Axial force in the column
= 24.92 kN
Axial force in the diagonal
= 6.4179 kN
3. Stress in the members due to torsional force acting on the tower
The stresses developed in the columns due to torsional forces on adjacent faces
cancel each other. However, the torsional forces develop stresses in the web members.
The maximum bending moment at the base
= 22.25 × 20 = 445.00 kN-m
730 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 445.00 ⎞
Vertical reaction = ⎜ = 80.9091 kN
⎝ 5.5 ⎟⎠
Horizontal reaction
= 0.5 × 22.25 = 11.125 kN
Axial force in diagonal
= 17.9233 kN
Axial force in the diagonal member of third panel from the bottom is found by
the method of section and by horizontal equilibrium.
Axial force in the diagonal
= 14.1019 kN
Axial force in the diagonal member of fifth panel from the bottom is obtained by
the method of section and by horizontal equilibrium
= 13.37059 kN
Step 3: Stresses in the various members of the tower under the ground
wire in broken condition are as follows :
(a) Stresses due to lateral forces
Let the total moment due to lateral forces about the base be M´. It is noted from
Table 13.2, that there is difference in magnitude of lateral forces at the panel joint
H. As such
M´´ = M – PC × 21 – PC´´ × 21
= 811.3998 – 21 (4.3347 – 3.61014)
= 796.27224 kN-m
The maximum bending moment about the base of one tower
= 0.5 × 796.27224 kN-m
= 398.13612 kN-m
⎛ 398.13612 ⎞
Vertical reaction = ⎜ ⎟ kN
⎝ 5.5 ⎠
= 72.38838 kN
Horizontal reaction = (12.7767 – 0.50 × 4.3306 + 0.5 × 3.16024)
= 12.41652 kN
Axial force in the column
= 67.9591 kN
Axial force in the diagonal
= 6.44324 kN
The axial forces in the diagonal and column members of the third panel from
the bottom are determined by the method of section and by horizontal equilibrium.
DESIGN OF STEEL TOWERS, TRESTLES AND MASTS 731
⎛ 266.70 ⎞
Vertical reaction = ⎜ ⎟ = 48.49091 kN
⎝ 5.5 ⎠
Horizontal reaction
= 6.35 kN
Axial force in the column
= 48.4310 kN
Axial force in the diagonal
= 0.4446 kN
The axial forces in the column and diagonal members of the third panel from
the bottom are obtained by the method section and by horizontal equilibrium.
Axial force in the column = 33.9202 kN
Axial force in the diagonal = 1.0783 kN
The axial force in the column and the diagonal members in the fifth panel are
found by the method of section and by horizontal equilibrium.
Axial force in the column = 38.10 kN
Axial force in the diagonal = 7.63175 kN.
Problems
13.1 Figure P.13.1 shows an open gantry trestle with the forces acting upon
it. The section of the vertical member is formed of single RSJ 250 × 114 ×
0.377 kN/m and that of the inclined member a single channel 250 × 80 ×
0.304 kN/m. Bending stress is limited to 1575 N/mm2. The permissible
direct stress can be calculated by any formula you know of. Assume the
weight of vertical member as 6 kN. The effective length of the vertical
member perpendicular to the plane of horizontal forces is 0.85 times of
actual length.
732 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
1 7.3 kN
1 kN
1 kN 0 .75 0 m
1 kN
0 .07 5 m
Fig. P. 13.1
(a) Force in all the members forming th trestle including the reactions
at the supports
(b) Check the adequacy of the sections of vertical and inclined members.
(A vertical load at apex 287 kN acts with eccentricity of 76 mm from
centre of RSJ web).
CHAPTER
14
Design of Aluminium Structures
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Aluminium is a very light silver like metal. Aluminium is produced by an
electrolytic process from bauxite ore. The ultimate tensile strength of aluminium
in its pure form is only 91 N/mm2. The strength of aluminium may be raised by
adding alloying elements, by cold working, and by heat treatment. By cold working
the tensile strength of pure aluminium may be increased to about 168 N/mm2.
The tensile strength of heat treated alloy is about 560 N/mm2. The unit weight of
aluminium is about 35 per cent as much as that of steel. The value of Young’s
modulus of elasticity of aluminium is about one-third that of steel. The value of
coefficient of thermal expansion is approximately twice that of steel. Aluminium
alloys are used for structural work. The aluminium alloys are classified in two
categories, viz., heat treatable and non-heat treatable alloys. The manganese and
magnesium are the principal ingredients, which are used in the non-heat treatable
aluminium alloys. The strength and durability of these alloys are raised by cold
working. These alloys are mainly used for corrugated roofing sheets, wall panels
for office buildings, storage tanks and pressure vessels. The aluminium alloys,
which are commonly used for structural work are heat treatable alloys whereas
some of the aluminium alloys are non-heat-treatable. These alloys are commercially
known as 2014–T6 and 6061–T6. The composition of alloy is identified by number
6061. Four digits have been used to distinguish that it is a wrought alloy rather
than cast alloy. The alphabetic letter T refers that the alloys has been heat treated.
The type of heat treatment is indicated by the last numeric 6. An aluminium
alloys 3003–H14 is an example of a non-heat-treatable alloy. The number in four
digits 3003 designates the alloys and is wrought condition. The significance of
letter H is that the temper has been developed by strain hardening instead of heat
treatment. The specific temper is indicated by the final number 14.
734 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Indian Standard Institution has not published specifications which cover design
procedure and method of fabrication. The specifications published by the American
Society of Civil Engineers for the design have been followed. In general, aluminium
alloys have excellent resistance to corrosion. These alloys are considered as general
purpose structural alloys. These alloys do not need any paint or other protection.
However some of the high-strength aluminium alloys, (e.g., 2014–T6) require to
be protected against corrosion by painting or anodizing. Alloy 6061–T6 is used for
medium strength and high resistance to corrosion. Alloy 2014–T6 is used for high
strength.
The wrought aluminium and aluminium alloys, bars, rods and sections (for
general engineering purpose are given in IS : 733–1967. The aluminium bars,
rods and sections are made from three grades of wrought aluminium and from
eleven wrought aluminium alloys in various conditions. The letter symbol E is
used to indicate the bar, rod and section. Similarly other letters are used to indicate
the other products. The prefix letter N is used to represent non-heat treatment.
The prefix letter H is used to represent heat treatable alloys, that is, those which
are strengthened by heat treatment. For example NE indicates non-heat treatable
alloys in the form of bar, rod and section. Similarly HE represents that treatable
alloys in the form of bar, rod and section.
The different grades of pure aluminium and aluminium alloys have been assigned
numerical and designations and the same number has been used to indicate any
pure grade of aluminium or aluminium alloy in whatever wrought form it may be
obtainable. For example, aluminium of 99.99 percent purity have been assigned
the number 1 and the three other grades of aluminium have been shown as 1A, IB
and 1C.
The aluminium structural members are available in various shapes, which are
either rolled or extruded. Aluminium sheets, plates, tubes, bars and rivets are
manufactured by rolling process. Aluminium angle sections, I-sections, channel
sections, Z-sections, bulb angle sections, hat-sections are manufactured by extrusion
process. In this process the hot material is forced through an orifice. The shape of
orifice is kept as for the shape of desired cross-section. This process allows the
manufacture of many shapes which cannot be obtained from the rolling process.
Alcoa Structural Handbook of the aluminium company of America gives the
geometrical properties of the various aluminium structural sections.
The aluminium I-beams manufactured in our country are designed at IS ALB.
The designation is followed by the depth of section, width of flange in millimetres
and weight in newton per metre of the section (e.g., ISALB 120 × 60 @ 0.47 N/m).
The dimensions and section properties of Indian Standard Aluminium I-beam
sections are given in IS : 5384–1969. The weights of Indian Standard Aluminium
beam sections have been calculated on the basis of 2.7 gm/cm3 as the density of
aluminium. The aluminium beams are extruded from aluminium alloys. HE 9,
HE 14, HE 15, HE 19, HE 20, HE 30, NE 4, NE 5, NE 6 and NE 8). These alloys
are specified in IS : 733–1967.
The aluminium channel sections are designated as ISALC followed by depth of
the section, width of flange and thickness of web expressed in millimetres (e.g.,
DESIGN OF ALUMINIUM STRUCTURES 735
yield for the aluminium alloys is defined as the stress, which gives a permanent
set of 0.2 percent of the initial gauge length. The yield strength of the aluminium
alloys lies in between 65 percent and 90 percent of the ultimate tensile strength.
S tress N /m m 2
Yie ld
sten g th
S train
0 .00 2
(B a sed on S tructu ra l H a nd bo o k, A lco a)
Fig. 14.1
Elongation on 4 ( S0 percent 30 25 20
(min.)
The strength to unit weight ratio of the aluminium alloys is more than that of
the steel. In general, the aluminium alloys have good resistance to corrosion by
weather. The aluminium alloy 6061–T6 resists corrosion so nicely that it is
commonly used in the open conditions without any protective covering. The
aluminium alloy 2014–T6 is used after appying some paint or other protective
coating, where corrosion is likely to take place. A pure aluminium coating is applied
to 2014–T6 aluminium sheets and plates. The aluminium structures are light in
weight. The structures have better appearance. The aluminium structures require
less maintenance. The aluminium alloy 6061–T6 is readily weldable. The
aluminium alloys are easily machined. These alloys allow rapid fabrication and
less tool trouble. The aluminium alloys have high workability when subjected to
pressing, rolling, or forging, which makes it possible to manufacture articles of a
complicated configuration. The aluminium alloys retain their high mechanical
characteristics at temperatures below freezing point. When the aluminium alloys
strike with various articles, then the spark is not there.
The disadvantages of aluminium alloys are as follows :
The initial cost of aluminium structures is high. The aluminium is not available
in abundance. The value of modulus of elasticity E for the aluminium is low. As a
result of which the stiffness of aluminium structural members is reduced,
Therefore, the aluminium structural members need thick sections. The aluminium
alloys 2014–T6 is not very suitable for welding. The factor of safety used for
aluminium structures is more than that of steel. The aluminium is less ductile
than the steel. The aluminium alloys have high coefficient of thermal expansion.
The supply of aluminium alloys is also short. The aluminium alloys have
comparatively low refractoriness.
Contd.
DESIGN OF ALUMINIUM STRUCTURES 739
⎡ π2E ⎤
⎛I ⎞ ⎢ 2⎥
For ⎜ > Cc ⎟ , σc = ⎢ ⎛ KL ⎞ ⎥
...(14.1)
⎝r ⎠
⎣⎢ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎛I ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ KL ⎞ ⎤
and, for ⎜ ≤ Cc ⎟ , σc = ⎢⎣Bc − Dc ⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦ ...(14.2)
⎝r ⎠
where, Bc, Dc and Cc are constants depending upon mechanical properties, L is the
length of column in mm, r is appropriate radius of gyration in mm, K is effective
length factor and E is Young’s modulus of elasticity in N/mm2.
Based upon experimental evidence, it is seen that column strength for aluminium
members correspond closely to the Euler’s column formulae in the elastic range
and the tangent modulus formula in the inelastic range.
According to Professor J.W. Clark and R.L. Rolf, the tangent modulus column
formula may be approximated nearly by a straight line in the elastic range.
(K L )
σc =B c – Dc r
KL
≤ Cc
r
π2E
U ltim ate colum n
S tre ng th N /m m 2
σc = 2
⎛ KL ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
r
Bc
The values of these constants depend upon the mechanical properties of the
material.
The values of constants Bc, Dc and Cc are determined from the following formulae.
For all wrought aluminium alloys except those which are artificially aged (all
DESIGN OF ALUMINIUM STRUCTURES 741
tempers except those from T5 to T9) and cast aluminium product. These expressions
for Cc and Dc are in kips per square inch units. (Reference : Structural Engineering
Hand Book by Gaylord and Gaylord).
⎡ 1/2 ⎤
Bc = σc.y ⎢1 + ⎛ σc⋅y ⎞ ⎥ ...(i)
⎜ ⎟
⎣⎢ ⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎦⎥
Bc ⎛ 16Bc ⎞ 1/2
Dc = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
20 ⎝ E ⎠
2 ⎛ Bc ⎞
Cc = ... (iii)
3 ⎜⎝ Dc ⎟⎠
For artificially aged wrought aluminium alloys
Bc = σc.y ⎡1 + ⎛ σc⋅ y ⎞
1/ 2 ⎤
...(iv)
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 2250 ⎠ ⎦⎥
Bc ⎛ Bc ⎞ 1 / 2
Dc = ⎜ ⎟ ...(v)
10 ⎝ E ⎠
⎛ Bc ⎞
Cc = 0.41 ⎜⎝ D ⎟⎠ ...(vi)
c
where σcy is the compressive yield strength and E is Young’s modulus of elasticity.
Table 14.5 gives values of Bc, Dc and Cc for sheet and plates extruded rods, bars,
and shapes and for rolled or extruded standard structural shapes.
Table 14.5 Buckling-formula constants for columns and plates
2014–T6 6061–T6
Description Bc Dc Cc Bc Dc Cc
Sheet and plate
0.025 mm to 51 mm 479.5 4.144 52 279.3 1.841 68
52 mm to 76 mm 461.3 3.906 53 279.3 1.841 68
Extruded bars, rods
and shapes
Upto 12.5 mm 429.8 2.870 50 268.1 1.414 63
from 125 mm to 19 mm 471.1 3.297 48 268.1 1.414 63
All — — — 268.1 1.414 63
Standard shapes structural
rolled or extruded
All 452.9 3.801 54 268.1 1.414 63
Note. The values based on Alcoa Structural Handbook in kips per square inch
have been converted in N/mm2. (1 kips/in2 = 7 N/mm2).
742 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Equation 14.4 for determining the value of the equivalent radius of gyration for
bending and twisting is tedius. The value of rtb may be adopted as r, given by Eq.
14.3 since the differences between these values are small.
1 68
2 01 4– T6
1 40
11 2
C om p ressive stre ss
84
K = 0 .5
N /m m 2
56
K = 0 .7 5
28
6 06 1– T6 K = 1.00
0
20 40 60 80 1 00 1 20 1 40 1 60 1 80
Fig. 14.3
effective length of column is 0.5 times the actual length. The column rarely occurs
as an isolated member. Therefore, it is difficult to know the end conditions of the
columns and consequently the effective length of column. In case it is not clearly
known that the end conditions of the columns are hinged or fixed, the effective
length of column for partially restrained at both the ends may be adopted.
⎡ 2⎛ P⎞⎤
V = ⎢ 4.5r ⎜⎝ σt – A ⎟⎠ ⎥ ...(14.5)
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ C ⋅ σb ⋅ L ⎦⎥
and V <
| 0.025 P ...(14.6)
where, P = Axial load on the columns
A = Cross-sectional area of column
L = Actual length of column
r = Appropriate radius of gyration
c = Distance of the extreme fibre from the centroidal axis of the column
σc = Allowable compressive stress
σb = Allowable bending stress.
σc ⎛ σ ⎞ ...(14.7)
+ ≤ 1.00
Fc ⎜⎜ ⎛ σ ⎞ ⎟⎟
⎜ Fb ⎜1 – F ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ CE ⎠⎠
where, σc = Average stress in compression on gross-area
DESIGN OF ALUMINIUM STRUCTURES 745
⎡ 1 ⎤
= ⎢⎛ σc ⎞ ⎥
⎢ ⎜1 − ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ FCE ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
14.14 BEAMS
When the beams of single web are not laterally supported continuously throughout
the span, the strength of beam is generally governed by buckling. It causes lateral
buckling (bending) along with twisting of the beams. The value of critical stress
(as per Eq. 6.10, Vol. I), is given by
1/ 2
π2 EI y h ⎛ 1 4GK ´l2 ⎞
Ci = ⋅ ⎜ 1 + ⋅ ⎟ ...(i)
2 Z xx l2 ⎝ π 2 EI y a 2 ⎠
π2 E
σc = 2
...(ii)
⎛l⎞
⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠
c
1/ 2
⎛ EI yh ⎞ ⎛ 1 4GK ´l2 ⎞
∴ re = ⎜ ⎟⎜ 1 + ⋅ ⎟ ...(14.8)
⎝ Z xx l2 ⎠ ⎝ π2 EI y a2 ⎠
where,
re = Equivalent radius of gyration
K´ = Torsional constant.
The allowable stress in bending in compression for beam may be found by using
the equivalent radius of gyration, re in the column curves.
The ASCE Committee recommends the allowable stress in compression in the
extreme fibre on gross area of single web beam of rolled shapes, extruded shapes,
746 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
girders and built-up sections subjected to bending. The curve is shown in Fig.
14.4. The various terms used in Fig. 14.4 are as follows :
2 04 –T 6
C o m pre ssive stre ss
N /m m 2
6 06 1 – T6
20 40 60 80 1 00 1 20 1 40 1 60 1 80
Value s of L / (B /Zxx) 1 /2
( B ased on AS C E S pecifications)
Fig. 14.4
L is the laterally unsupported length of beam (clear distance between the supports
at which the beam is prevented for deflection in laterai direction). For the cantilever
beam L is 1.33 times the laterally supported length. Zxx is the section modulus of
the beam about the axis normal to the web, and
1/ 2
⎡ I ⎛ L⎞ ⎤
2
B = I y h ⎢11.7 + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎥ ...(14.9)
⎢⎣ I y h h ⎥⎦
R a tio L 1 /2
b 3 /4
C o m pre ssive stre ss
1
1
2 2
4
N /m m 2
3
5
6
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
(a ) W idth-T hickn ess ratio b
t
1 L
2 b
3
4
C o m pre ssive stress
1
1
2
N /m m 2
3 2
4
5
6
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
(b ) W idth-T hickne ss ratio b
t
b
L b
b
Fig. 14.5
The following procedure is adopted for the design of compression members other
than angle or tee-section member. This procedure provides a suitable margin of
safety for weaking effect of local buckling of elements in compression.
748 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
L = 3
R a tio
b 4
C om p ressive stre ss
1
1
2 1
5 3 2
N /m m 2
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
(a ) W idth-T hickn ess ratio b
t
L = 3
R a tio 4
b
C o m pre ssive stre ss
1
2 1
2
5 3
N /m m 2
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
(b ) W idth-T hickne ss ratio b
t
b
be
L be
be
Fig. 14 6
The compressive stress for flat plate, web or leg is found on the gross-area for
the design loads. The compressive stress should be less than the permissible stress
in compression, corresponding to this compressive stress σc, the limiting width
DESIGN OF ALUMINIUM STRUCTURES 749
11 4 L = 3
b 4
84
1
1
C o m pre ssive stre ss
1
4
56
2
10
28
N /m m 2
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L = 3
4
C o m pre ssive stre ss
1
1
1
2
N /m m 2
2
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
(b ) W idth-T hickn ess ratio b
t
b
L L
(b e/2 ) (b e/2 )
Fig. 14.7
750 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
thickness ratio. b/t, (b/t)lim is found from Figs. 14.6 and 14.7. In case the width
thickness ratio is not more than the limiting width thickness ratio, then, the local
buckling does not occur. The gross-area of entire section is taken as effective.
In case the ratio of width to thickness of the flat plate, web or leg is more than
(b/t)lim then, the effective width is used for determining the effective area. The
effective width
⎛f ⎞
be = b ⎜ 1 ⎟ ...(14.10)
⎝ fc ⎠
where, b = Unsupported width of the elements
fc = Compressive stress on gross-area
f1 = Compressive stress obtained from Fig. 14.6 or Fig. 14.7
corresponding to b/t
The stress in compression is then found on the effective area. For the axially
loaded column, the stress in compression is equal to axial load divided by the total
effective area. For the beam and girders the stress in compression is found as
under:
The extreme fibre stress in compression, fc is found for the gross section of the
beam or girder. The ratio of gross compression flange area to the effective
compression flange area is found. Each flange area includes one-sixth the web
area. The effective stress in compression, is then, obtained as the product of fc and
the above ratio. The effective stress should not be more than the allowable stress
obtained from Fig. 14.4.
Table 14.7
Table 14.10
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1200 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 61.2
⎝ rmin ⎠ ⎝ 19.0 ⎠
DESIGN OF ALUMINIUM STRUCTURES 753
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 61.2
⎝ rmin ⎠
is less than the value of Cc = 63.
Step 3: Ultimate stress in axial compression (as per Eq. 14.2.) i.e.,
⎡ ⎛ KL ⎞ ⎤
σc = ⎢ Bc = Dc ⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠ ⎥ = N/mm
2
⎣ ⎦
From Table 14.5,
(Bc = 268.l, Dc = 1.414)
σ c = (268.1 – 1.414 × 61.2) = 181.56 N/mm2
Step 4: Allowable axial stress in compression
⎛ 181.56 ⎞
σc = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 72.625 N/mm2
2.5 ⎠
Step 5: Safe load carrying capacity of the section
⎛ 72.625 × 2273 ⎞
P = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ kN
1000
P = 165.08 kN > 160 kN. Hence, safe.
Example 14.2 An Indian Standard Aluminium Beam ISALB 200, @ 161 N per
metre is used as a column. The actual length of column is 3.20 m.
The column is partially fixed at both ends. Determine the safe load carrying
capacity of the column.
Solution
Step 1: Actual length of column = 3.20 m
The column is partially fixed at both ends. The effective length of column
l = 0.75 × 3.2 = 2.4 m
From IS : 5384–1969, for ISALB 200 @ 161 N/m
Cross-sectional area, A = 5980 mm2
Ixx = 3814.3 × 104 mm4, Iyy = 464.2 × 104 mm4
rxx = 79.9 mm, ryy= 27.9 mm
J = 49.6 × l04 mm4
∴ Iy = Ixx + Iyy= (3814.3 + 464.2) × 104
= 4278.5 × 104 mm4
Step 2: Slenderness ratio for failure by bending
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2.40 × 1000 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 86.02
⎝ rmin ⎠ ⎝ 27.9 ⎠
754 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
For failure by twisting, the equivalent radius of gyration is given by Eq. 14.3
1
⎡ Cc + 0.038J ( KL )2 ⎤ 2
rt = ⎢ ⎥ mm
⎣⎢ Ix + I y ⎦⎥
For I-section
⎛ d2 I y ⎞
Cs = ⎜
⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
⎛ 4 ⎞
= ⎜ 200 × 200 × 464.2 × 10 ⎟
4
∴ Cs = 46420 × 104 mm
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ 74.0 × 5980 ⎞
P = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 442.52 kN.
⎝ 1000
Example 14.3 An Indian Standard Aluminium Channel Section ISALC 200,
@ 153.3 N/m carries a vertical load of 120 kN at an eccentricity of 60 mm along
the xx-axis. The effective length of the column is 1.60 m. Find whether the column
is strong enough to carry the load. The column is partially fixed at both ends.
Solution
Step 1: From IS : 3921–1966, the geometrical properties of the section ISALC
200, @ 153.3 N/m are as follows:
Cross-sectional area,
A = 5678 mm2, Zxx = 349.97 × 103 mm3
rxx = 78.5 mm, ryy = 31.2 mm
∴ rmin = 31.2 mm
Step 2: Maximum slenderness ratio
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1.60 × 1000 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 51.28
⎝ rmin ⎠ ⎝ 31.2
DESIGN OF ALUMINIUM STRUCTURES 755
⎛ 120 × 1000 ⎞
σc = ⎜ = 21.13 N/mm2
⎝ 5678 ⎟⎠
Step 5: Actual bending stress in the section
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ 120 × 1000 × 60 ⎞
σb= ⎜ = ⎜ ⎟ = 20.57 N/mm
2
⎝ Z xx ⎟⎠ ⎝ 349.97 × 1000 ⎠
Step 6: Permissible bending stress (from Table 14.4)
Fb = 155.0 N/mm2
Step 7: Euler’s stress for axial of bending
⎛ π2 × 0.745 × 105 ⎞
π2 E
FCE = = ⎜ ⎛ 1600 ⎞
2 ⎟
⎛ ⎞1
2 ⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ ⎜⎝ ⎟ ⎟⎠
⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠ 78.5 ⎠
x
= 1769.92 N/mm2
Step 8: Check: The column is subjected to compression combined with bending
σc ⎡ σb ⎤ ⎡ 21.13 20.57 ⎤
∴ +⎢ = ⎢132.10 + 21.13 ⎞ ⎥
Fc
⎢ Fb ⎛⎜1 – c
σ ⎞ ⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎛
155 ⎜1 – ⎟⎥
F ⎟ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 1769.92 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣⎢ ⎝ CE ⎠ ⎦⎥
= (0.16 + 0.134 = 0.294) < 1.00. Hence, safe.
Example 14.4 An Indian Standard Aluminium Beam Section ISALB 150 @
121 N/m is used as a cantilever beam. Compute the safe uniformly distributed
load inclusive of self-weight, which the beam may carry without lateral or local
buckling. The cantilever beam is 3.20 m. For lateral buckling, the effective length
may be adopted as 0.85 times the actual length.
Solution
Step 1: From IS : 5384–1969, the geometrical properties are as follows :
Depth of section, h = 150 mm
Width of flange, b = 100 mm
Thickness of web, tw = 10 mm
Thickness of flange, t = 16 mm
Ixx = 1607.9 × 104 mm4, Zx x = 214.4 × 103 mm3
Iyy = 268.1 × l0 4 mm4, K = 353 × 104 mm4
Step 2: For lateral buckling
Effective length of beam = 0.85 × 3.20 = 2.72 m
756 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
I 2720
∴ = 1/ 2 = 23
B / Zxx ⎛ 2.28×105 ⎞
⎜⎜ 3 ⎟
⎟
⎝ 21.4 × 10 ⎠
Let the beam be made of 2014–T6 alloy. From Fig. 14.4. the allowable compressible
stress in bending
σbc = 124.0 N/mm2
For local buckling
Width-thickness ratio for outstand of the flanges
⎛ b 1 ⎞ ⎛ 100 1 ⎞
= ⎜ × ⎟=⎜ × ⎟ = 3.125
⎝ 2 t ⎠ ⎝ 2 16 ⎠
⎛ L ⎞ ⎛ 3.20 × 100 ⎞
⎜ b / 2 ⎟ ratio = ⎜ 50 ⎟ = 160
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
This for the purpose of determining the allowable stress in bending in compression
may be adopted as infinity.
From Fig. 14.7 (b),
σ = 155.0 N/mm2
The failure would occur in lateral buckling. Therefore, the allowable stress is
adopted as 124.0 N/mm3 to avoid lateral buckling.
Moment of resistance of the beam section
⎛ 3⎞
M = ⎜ 124.0 × 214.4 × 10 ⎟ = 26.58 kN-m
⎝ 1000 × 1000 ⎠
The maximum bending occurs at the support for the cantilever beam,
1
M1 = w × 3.202 kN-m
2
∴ ( 12 × w × 3.20 ) = 26.58
∴ w = 5.19 kN/m
DESIGN OF ALUMINIUM STRUCTURES 757
⎛ D⎞ ⎛ 19.4 ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ratio = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 1.615
t 12 ⎠
There is no loss of shear as per Table 14.9
Edge-distance to diameter of rivet ratio
⎛ 25 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 1.29
⎝ 19.4 ⎠
Allowable stress in bending from Table 14.10
= 211N/mm2
Strength of rivet in bearing
⎛ 12 × 211.0 ⎞
= 19.4 × ⎜ = 49.12 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎟⎠
Rivet value, R = 20.691 kN
⎛ 263.748 ⎞
Number of rivets = ⎜ = 12.746
⎝ 20.691 ⎟⎠
Provide15 rivets in five rows with 3 rivets in each row.
758 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Problems
14.1 Design an Indian Standard Aluminium Equal Leg Angle (ISALE) strut
to carry an axial load of 12 kN. The effective length of the strut is l.80 m.
Provide a single angle section.
14.2 An Indian Standard Aluminium Beam ISALB 200, @ 129 N/m is used as
a column. The actual length of column is 2.80 m. The column is partially
fixed at both the ends. Determine the safe load carrying capacity of the
column.
14.3 An Indian Standard Channel section ISALC 150, @ 102.6 N/m carries a
vertical load of 180 kN at an eccentricity of 80 mm along the xx-axis. The
effective length of the column is 2.40 m. Find whether the column is
strong enough to carry the load. The column is partially fixed at both the
ends.
14.4 An Indian Standard Aluminium Beam section ISALB 200, @ 134 N/m is
used as a cantilever beam. Compute the safe uniformly distributed load
inclusive of self-weight, which the beam may carry without lateral or
local buckling. The cantilever beam is 3.80 m. For lateral buckling, the
effective length may be adopted as 0.85 times the actual length.
14.5 Two plates 10 mm × 160 mm and 12 mm × 160 mm are connected by
rivets by lap joint. Design the connection for the full strength of the plate
subjected to tension.
15. Influence Lines for Stresses in Frames
15.1 INTRODUCTION
German Professor E. Winkler introduced the concept of influence lines in 1867.
When a structure is subjected to external loads and analysed, the reactions at the
supports, shear forces, bending moments and axial forces and deflections (referred
as some functions) are determined at some or more locations by drawing the
respective influence diagrams.
An influence line diagram is a diagram which represents some function
(e.g., reaction at the support, shear force, bending moment, deflection, stresses
in members) at a particular point of section or a given member of a girder, as a
unit load moves over the span. The influence line diagram shows the influence of
a unit load as it travels across the structure on a certain function (for which the
influence line diagram is drawn). The ordinates of influence line diagrams are
termed as influence coefficients. The influence line diagram is drawn with
span as the base line. The ordinates are drawn on some suitable scale. The ordinates
represent the value of that function at the given section or member for the various
positions of unit load on the span. The influence line diagrams are widely used
particularly in the design of truss girder bridges. The stresses in various members
are obtained for the specified live loads (moving or rolling loads) by using the
influence line diagrams for the members of the frames or truss girders.
The influence line diagrams are used for two purposes. Firstly, the influence
line diagram is essential to determine the position of live loads (moving or rolling
loads) which shall give the maximum value of the specific function for which the
influence line diagram has been constructed. Secondly, the value of the particular
function with the loads placed at the above said position is calculated. The influence
line diagrams may be drawn for both determinate as well as indeterminate
structures.
762 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The various types of bridge truss girders have been shown in Fig. 4.1 in
Sec. 4.2. The various types of truss girders are parallel chord truss girders, the
truss girders with inclined or curved chords and the truss girders with sub-
divided panels. The parallel chord truss girders are used for 30 m to 60 m spans.
The inclined or truss curved chord truss girders are used for 60 m to 120 m span.
For large spans, and to maintain economical panel length and inclination of
diagonals, the truss girders with sub-divided panels, or K-trusses are used. These
members which are essential for the stability of the truss girders are known as
main members. There are sub-members or secondary members in some truss
bridge girders. In case the sub-members are removed, even then, the trass bridge
girders remain stable.
The influence line diagrams for stresses in the various members of the truss
bridge girders have been discussed in the subsequent articles. It would be seen
from the influence line diagrams that the main members carry stresses for all
position of load on the span, and the sub-members carry stresses for some or
limited positions of load on the span.
1
I.L.D. for U 3U 4 = (I.L.D. for MLA).
7.
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 763
The influence line diagram for bending moment at panel point L4 is a triangle.
The maximum ordinate of this triangle is (20 × 20)/40 = 10. The maximum ordinate
1
of the triangle showing the influence line diagram × 10 = 1.427. In order to
7
mark the nature of force, whether compressive or tensile, consider a unit load at
3
L3 (any panel point). The reaction at support A, RA = .
8
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 U7
7m
θ
A
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 B
b a
8 P a ne ls @ 5 m = 40 m
(a ) P ra tt truss
(– ) 1 .42 7
(b ) I.L.D . for U4
(+ ) 1 .33 9
(c) I.L.D . fo r L 3 L 4
(+ ) 0 .37 5
0 .50 (+ )
(d ) I.L.D . for U 3 U 3
0 .61 4 (+ )
(– ) 0 .46 1
(e ) I.L.D . for U U
3 3
(+ ) 1 .00
(f) I.L .D . fo r U 1 L 1
Fig. 15.1
764 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Consider left hand portion of the frame. The left hand portion of the frame is in
equilibrium under the action of external forces, reaction RA, and unit load at L3,
and internal forces in U3U4 U3 and L4. The moments of L3L4 about panel point L4
are zero. The moment of external forces about L4.
⎛5 ⎞
MLA = ⎜ 8 × 20 – 1 × 5 ⎟ = + 7.5 units.
⎝ ⎠
The bending moment about a point from the left hand side of a section in clockwise
direction. The bending moment ML4 acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance
bending moment ML4, an anti-clockwise moment due to (force, stress in the member
U3U4 about L4 in needed. The stress in member U3U4 gives anti-clockwise moment
about L4, when the force in U3U4 acts right to left. This direction right to left is
marked at the panel point U3, since the left hand portion of the frame is under
consideration. This shows that the nature of stress in U3U4 is compressive
(negative). The negative sign is marked in the influence line diagram under the
unit load. Since, the influence line diagram for U3U4 is only on negative side of the
base, the nature of stress in U3U4 for all positions of unit load is compressive. The
influence line diagram (I.L.D.) for stress in U3U4 is shown in Fig. 15.1 (b).
1
∴ I.L.D. for L3 L4 = (I.L.D. for MU3)
7
The influence line diagram for bending moment at panel pointU3 is a triangle.
(15 × 25)
The maximum ordinate of this triangle is = 9.37. The maximum ordinate
40
1
of the triangle showing the influence line diagram is× 9.37 = 1.339. In order to
7
mark the nature of force, whether compressive or tensile, consider unit load at
5
any panel point say L3. The reaction at support, RA = .
8
Consider the left hand portion of the frame. The left hand portion of the frame is
in equilibrium under the action of external forces (reaction RA, and unit load at L3)
and the internal forces in the members L3L4, U3L4 and U3U4. The moments of
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 765
U3U4 and U3L4 about panel point U3 are zero. The moment of the external force
about U3,
⎛5 ⎞
MU3 = ⎜ × 15 ⎟ = + 9.37 units.
⎝8 ⎠
The bending moment MU3 is in clockwise direction, and, it is positive. In order
to balance bending moment MU3, an anti-clockwise moment due to stress in the
member L3L4 about U3 is needed. The stress in member L3L4 gives anti-clockwise
moment about U3, when the force in L3L4 acts left to right. This direction left to
right is marked at the panel point L3, since the left hand portion of the frame is
under consideration. This shows that the nature of sress in L3L4 is tensile (positive).
The positive sign is marked in the influence line diagram, under the unit load.
This influence line diagram for L3L4 is only on positive side of the base, the nature
of stress in L3L4 for all postions of unit load is tensile. The influence line diagram
(I.L.D.) for stress in L3L4 is shown in Fig. 15.1 (c).
acts upward. In order to balance this, the stress in U3L3 acts downward. The
downward direction of force is marked at L3 in the memberU3L3. This shows that
the nature of force is compressive (negative) for all positions of unit load from O to
B. This influence line diagram for stress in U3L3 is shown in Fig. 15.1(d).
of the frame are main members. They are subjected to stress for all positions of
moving load.
⎛ Moment about L2 ⎞ M L2
U1U2 = ⎜ ⎟= x
⎝ P erpendicular distance L2 to U1U2 ⎠ U1U2
⎛ 7.5 – 4.5 ⎞
tan θ = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 0.5,θ1= 26° 34´
⎝ 6
sin θ = 0.447, cos θ1 = 0.984
⎛ 4.5 ⎞ ⎛ 7.5 ⎞
PL1 = ⎜ = 9 m, PL3 = ⎜ = 15 m
⎝ tan θ1 ⎟⎠ ⎝ tan θ1 ⎟⎠
⎛ M L2 ⎞
Therefore, U1U2 = ⎜⎝ ⎟
6.7 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
I.L.D/ for U1U2 = ⎜ × I.L.D. for ML2
⎝ 6.70 ⎟⎠
The influence line diagram for bending moment at panel point L2 is a triangle.
⎛ 12 × 24 ⎞
The maximum ordinate of this triangle is ⎜ = 8.0. The maximum ordinate
⎝ 36 ⎟⎠
768 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 8 ⎞
of influence line diagram stress in member U1U2 is ⎜ = 1.93. In order to
⎝ 6.7 ⎟⎠
mark the nature of force, whether compressive or tensile, consider a unit load at
L1. The reaction at support A is RA,
⎛ 5⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6⎠
Consider left hand portion of the frame. The left hand portion of frame is in
equilibrium under the action of external forces (reaction RA, and unit load at L1);
and internal forces in U1U2, U1L2 and L1L2. The moments of internal forces in
U1L2 about panel point L2 are zero. The moment of external forces about L2,
⎛5 ⎞
ML2 = ⎜ × 12 – 1 × 6⎟ = + 4 units
⎝6 ⎠
U3
U2 U4
a b
U1 9m U5
7 .5 7 .5 4 .5
4 .5
θ1 θ m θ m
A L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 B
6 P a ne ls @ 6 m = 36 m
(a ) P ra tt tru ss w ith
curve d ch ord
(– ) 1 .19 3
(b ) I.L.D for U 1 U 2
(+ ) 1 .111
(c) I.L.D fo r L 1 L 2
0 .22 2 (+ )
(– )
0 .72 2
(d ) I.L.D . fo r U 1 L 2
(+ )
0 .86 7
(e ) I.L.D for U 2 L 2
Fig. 15.2
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 769
1
I.L.D. for L1 L2 = ×(I.L.D for MU1)
4.5
The influence line diagram for bending moment at panel point U1 is a triangle.
⎛ 6 × 30 ⎞
The maximum ordinate of this triangle is ⎜ ⎟ = 5.0. The maximum ordinate
⎝ 36 ⎠
⎛ 5.0 ⎞
of triangle which shows the influence line diagram for stress in U1U2 is ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ 4.5 ⎠
1.111 at U2 as shown in Fig.15.2 (c). In order to mark the nature of stress, whether
compressive or tensile, consider unit load at any panel-point say L1. The reaction
at support A is RA,
5
RA =
6
Consider left-hand portion of the frame. The left-hand portion frame is in
equilibrium under the action of external forces, (reaction RA, and unit load at L1),
and internal forces in U1U2,U1L2 and L1L2. The moments of U1U2 and U1L2 about
point U1 are zero. The moment of external forces about U1,
⎛5 ⎞
MU1 – ⎜ × 6 ⎟ = + 5.0 units.
⎝ 6 ⎠
The bending moment MU1 is in clockwise direction. In order to balance bending
moment MU1, an anti-clockwise moment about U1 due to stress in L1L2 is necessary.
770 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The stress in L1L2 gives anti-clockwise moment U1. when the force in L1L2 acts
left to right. This direction left to right is marked at panel point U1, since the left
hand portion of the frame is under consideration. This shows that the nature of
stress in L1L2 is tensile (positive). The positive sign is marked in the influence line
diagram under the unit load. The influence line diagram for L1L2 is only on positive
side of the base. The nature of stress in L1L2 for all positions of unit load is tensile.
The influence line diagram (I.L.D.) for stress in L1L2 is shown in Fig. 15.12 (c).
⎛ Moment about P ⎞ MP
L1 L2 = ⎜
⎝ Perpendicular distance from P to L1 L2 ⎟⎠ X U1L2
PL2 = 15 m from above. Therefore,
xU1L2 = 15 × sin θ = 15 × 0.6 = 9 m. Therefore,
⎛1 ⎞
U1L2 = ⎜ ⎟ × MP .
⎝9⎠
⎛1 ⎞
I.L.D. for U1 L2 = ⎜ × I.L.D. for M P ⎟
⎝9 ⎠
Consider left hand portion of the frame when the unit load is at support A, RA =
1.00. Thereforer, MP = 0. Hence, the stress in member U1L2 is zero. When the unit
⎛ 5⎞
load is at L1 the reaction at support A is RA, ⎜ RA = ⎟
⎝ 6⎠
⎛1 ⎞ ⎡ 5 ⎤
U1U2 = ⎜ ⎟ × ⎢1 × 9 – × 0.3 ⎥ = 0.722 (Compressive).
⎝9⎠ ⎣ 6 ⎦
The moment due to unit load is greater than that due to reaction RA, about P.
The moment MP acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, an anti-
clockwise moment due to stress in U1L2 is necessary. The force in U1L2 gives anti-
clockwise moment about P, when the direction of force is right to left upward.
This direction is marked at point U1. This shows that the stress in U1L2 is
compressive (negative).
⎛4⎞
When the unit load is at L2, the reaction at support A, RA is equal to ⎜ ⎟ . The
⎝6⎠
unit load is on right hand side of the section aa. The MP due to reaction, RA about
P is anti-clockwise. In order to balance this, the stress in member U1L2 gives
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 771
clockwise moment. The stress in member U1L2 gives clockwise moment when the
direction of force is left to right downward, i.e. tensile (positive).
⎛1 4 ⎞
U1L2 = ⎜ × × 3⎟ = + 0.222 (Tensile).
⎝9 6 ⎠
When the unit load is at support B, RA is zero. Hence, MP and stress in U1L2
are zero. The influence line diagram for stress in U1L2 shown in Fig. 15.22 (d).
⎛ MP ⎞
U1U2 = ⎜
⎝ xU2L2 ⎟⎠
⎛M ⎞
Therefore, U2 L2 = ⎜ P⎟
⎝ 15 ⎠
Where, MP is the moment of all the forces to the left of section bb.
When the unit load is at support A,RA= 1. The moment MP is zero. Hence, the
stress in U2L2 is also zero. When the unit load moves form A to L2, value of RA
⎛4⎞
becomes less than unity. When the unit load is at L2, reaction RA = ⎜ ⎟ . The
⎝6⎠
moment due to unit load at L2 about point P is greater than that due to reaction
RA. The net moment due to these external forces, MP is in clockwise direction. In
order to balance this, the stress in U2L2 gives anti-clockwise moment about P.
The stress in U2L2 gives anti-clockwise moment when the direction of force in it is
upward. This direction is marked at L2. This shows that the nature of force in
U2L2 for unit load at L2 is tensile.
⎛1 ⎞ ⎡ 4 ⎤
U1 L2 = ⎜ 15 ⎟ × ⎢1×15 – × 3⎥ = + 0.867
⎝ ⎠ ⎣ 15 ⎦
When unit load is at L3, then, the load is on right hand side of section bb. The
section at support A, RA = 0.50.
Consider left hand portion of the frame. The reaction RA , is only external force
acting on the left hand portion. The moment due to reaction RA about point P, MP
is therefore anti-clockwise. A clockwise moment due to stress in U2L2 is necessary
in order to balance MP . The moment due to stress in U2L2 is clockwise when the
772 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
direction of force in U2L2 acts downward. This direction is marked at L2. This
shows that the nature of force is compressive (negative). Therefore,
1
U1 L2 = × (0.5 × 3) = 0.1 (Compressive)
15
When the unit load is at B,RA is zero. Therefore, MP and stress U2L2 are
zero. The influence line diagram (I.L.D.) for stress in member U2L2 is shown in
Figure 15.2 (e).
3
The height of truss is 7 = 6.05 m. The bottom chord is loaded.
2
sin 60° = 0.866, cos 60° = 0.500
⎛ M L2 ⎞
I.L.D. for U2 L2 = I.L.D. for ⎜⎝ ⎟
6.05 ⎠
The influence line diagram for bending moment at panel point L2 is a triangle.
(14 × 21)
The maximum ordinate of this triangle is = 8.4. The maximum ordinate
35
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 773
⎛ 8.4 ⎞
of triangle showing influence line diagram is ⎜ ⎟ = 1.388. To mark the nature
⎝ 6.05 ⎠
of force whether compressive or tensile, consider unit load at any panel point, say
⎛4⎞
L1. The reaction at support A, RA = ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝5⎠
Consider the left-hand portion of the frame. The left hand portion of frame is in
equilibrium under the action of external forces (reaction RA , and unit load at L1
and internal forces in members U2U3, U2L2 and L1L2. The moments of stress in
U2L2 and L1L2 about L2 are zero. The moment of external forces about L1.
⎛4 ⎞
ML = ⎜⎝ × 14 – 1 × 7⎟⎠ = + 5.2 units
2 5
The bending moment ML2 is in clockwise direction. In order to balance bending
moment ML2, an anti-clockwise moment due to stress in member U2U3 is necessary.
The stress in member U2U3 gives anti-clockwise moment about L2, when the
direction of force in U2U3 is from right to left. This direction right to left is marked
at panel point U2, since, the left-hand portion of the frame is under consideration.
This shows that the nature of stress in U2U4 is compressive, (negative). The
negative sign is marked in the influence line diagram under the load. The influence
line diagram for stress in U2U3 is only on negative side of the base. The nature of
stress in U2U3 for all positions of unit load is compressive. The influence line
diagram (I.L.D.) for stress in U2U3 is shown in Fig. 15.3 (b).
If it is assumed that unit load is applied directly on the main truss at X, then
⎛ 10.5 × 24.5 ⎞
bending moment at X is equal to ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 7.36 units. The stress in member
⎝ 35
⎛ 7.36 ⎞
is equal to ⎜ ⎟ = 1.211 units. ARB as shown in Fig. 15.3 (c) would have been
⎝ 6.05 ⎠
the influence line diagram for the stress in member L1L2. PQ and TW ordinates
are drawn from panel points L1 and L2 respectively to the diagram ARB. The
b a
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5
θ= 60 °
A B
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5
b a
6 P a ne ls @ 7 m = 3.5 m
(a ) W a rren truss
(– ) 1 .38 8
(+ ) 0 .69 2
– 0.2 31 O
(d ) I.L.D . for U 2 L 2
(– ) 0 .69 2
(e ) I.L.D for U 2 L 1
Fig. 15.3
diagram APTR as shown in Fig.15.3 (c) is the required influence line diagram for
the stress in member L1L2. This is to note that this truncating of the diagram is
special feature of the influence line diagram for Warren truss and it applies to the
loaded chord.
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 775
⎛ 1.154 × 1 ⎞
= 1.154 × m = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.231
n ⎝ 5 ⎠
where, m is number of panels to the left of L1 and x is total number of panels.
The ordinates of influence line diagram for stress in member U2L2 at L2
⎛ n –m–1 ⎞ ⎛ 5–1–1 ⎞
= 1.154 ⎜ ⎟ = 1.154 × ⎜ ⎟ = 0.692.
⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
In order to mark the nature of stress in member U2L2 whether compressive or
tensile, consider unit load at any point, say, L1 for A to O1 and any other point say
L2 for O1 to B.
Consider left hand portion of frame. When unit load is at L1, the reaction RA is
4
equal to . The force in panel L1L2
5
776 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
FL ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
1L2 = ⎜1 – ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ units
⎝ 5⎠ ⎝5⎠
This shear force acts downward. The vertical component of stress in U2L2 acts
upward. The vertical component of stress in U2L2 is upward, when the force in
member acts right to left upward. The sign is marked at U2. This shows that the
stress in U2L2 for unit laod at L1 is compressive (negative). The negative sign is
marked in the influence line diagram under the unit load. Now consider, unit load
3
at L2. The reaction at support A is RA = . The unit load is on right hand side of
5
the section aa. The shear force in panel L1L2
FL ⎛3⎞
1L2 = ⎜ ⎟ units.
⎝5⎠
This shear force acts upward. The vertical component of stress in U2L2 acts
downward to balance this shear force. The vertical component of stress in U2L2
acts downward, when the force in U2L2 acts from left to right downward. This
direction is marked at U2, since the left hand portion of the frame is under
consideration. This shows that the nature of stress in U2L2 for unit load at L2 is
tensile (positive). The positive sign is marked in the influence line diagram under
the unit load at L2. The influence line diagram is shown in Fig.15.3 (d).
⎛ 4⎞ 1
FL = ⎜1 – ⎟ = units.
1L2 ⎝ 5⎠ 5
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 777
This shear force acts downward. The vertical component of stress in U2L1 acts
upward in order to balance this shear force. The vertical component of stress in
U2L1 is upward, when the force in member acts left to right upward. This sign is
marked at L1. This shows that the stress in U2L1 for unit load at L1 is tensile
(positive). The positive sign is marked in the influence line diagram under the
3
unit load. Now consider unit load at L2. The reaction at, support A, RA is . The
5
unit load is on right hand side of the section bb. The shear force in panel L1L2
⎛3⎞
FL = ⎜ ⎟ units.
1L2 ⎝5⎠
This shear force acts upward. The vertical component of stress in U2L1 acts
downward to balance this shear force. The vertical component of stress in U2L1
acts downward when the force in U2L1 acts from right to left downward. This
direction is marked at L1, since the left hand portion of the frame is under
consideration. This shows the nature of stress in U2L1 for unit load at L2is
compressive (negative). The negative sign is marked in the influence line diagram
under the unit load at L2. The influence line diagram is shown in Fig.15.3 (e).
It is to note that the influence line diagram for stress in U2L1 is identical with
that for member U2L2 except that the nature of stress is reversed.
⎛M ⎞
U1U2 = ⎜ L1 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ xU1L2 ⎠
In order to determine xU1L2 produce U2U1 and L2L0. These directions intersect
at point P,
⎛ 6–3 ⎞
tan θ1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.5, θ1 = 26°34´
⎝ 6 ⎠
sin θ1 = 0.447 = 0.5, cos θ1 = 0.894
778 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
PL0 + 3 = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟=6
⎝ tan θ1 ⎠ ⎝ 0.5 ⎠
∴ PL0 = (6 – 3) = 3 m
PL1 = (6 + 3) = 9 m
xU1U2 = PL1 sin θ1 = 9 × 0.447 = 4.02 m
Therefore,
U1U2 = ( M L1 /4.02)
member L1L2. The stress in member L1L2 is maximum, when the bending moment
at U2 is maximum. When the unit load travels across the girder it produces
maximum bending moment at U2 and therefore, the maximum stress in the
member L1L2, when the unit load is in the vertical plane U2X.
In the bridge, the unit load moves on rails. The rails are supported by stringers.
The stringers are connected to the floor beams. The floor beams are connected at
the panel points of bottom chord in the case of through type bridge. The load is
transmitted to the main truss through the floor beams.
b a
U3 U4
U2 U5
XU L U1
2 1 U6
6m 6m
7 .5 m 7 .5 m 3m
θ1 θ2 θ2
A L0 θ2 L L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 B
1
XU b a
L
2 1 6 P a ne ls @ 6 m = 36 m
(a ) W a rre n truss w ith cu rve d ch o rd
(– ) 1 .2 4
(b ) I.L.D . fo r U 1 U 2
R
P
1.12 5
0 .75 1 .00
(+ )
Q S W
(c) I.L.D . fo r L 1 L 2
+0 .8 08
– 0.2 48
(d ) I.L.D . fo r U 1 L 1
+ 0.3 93
(e ) I.L.D . fo r U 1 L 1
Fig. 15.4
When the unit load is at the centre of the stringer, which spans between the floor
beams as L1 and L2, it is transferred to the panel-points at L1 and L2 at two loads
of half unit each. Therefore the actual bending moment in the vertical plane U2X
and the stresses in L1L2 are less than those, if the whole of unit load was placed
directly to the main truss at X.
780 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
If it is assumed that unit load is applied directly on the main truss at X, then,
(9 × 27 )
the bending moment at X is equal to = 6.75 units. The stress in member
36
1
is equal to × 6.75 = 1.225. ARB as shown in Fig.15.4 (c) would have been the
6
influence line for the stress in member L1L2. PQ and TW ordinates are drawn
from panel points L1 and L2. The ordinaie PQ and TW are 0.75 and 1.00. The
diagram APTB as shown in Fig.15.4 (c) is the required influence line diagram for
stress in L1L2. This is to note that this truncating of the diagram is a special
feature of the influence line diagram for Warren truss and it applied to the loaded
chord.
In order to mark the nature of stress, whether compressive or tensile, consider
unit load at any panel point, say L1. Consider the left hand portion of the frame from
5
section aa. The reaction at support A,RA is . The bending moment about U2,
6
⎛5 ⎞
MU = ⎜ × 6⎟ = 5 units
2 ⎝6 ⎠
The bending moment acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, an
anti-clockwise moment due to stress in L1L2 about U2 is necessary. The stress in
L1L2 gives anti-clockwise moment when the direction of force is left to right. The left
to right direction is marked at L1. This shows that the nature of stress in L1L2 is
tansile, (positive). The positive sign in marked under the unit load which is at L1.
⎛6⎞
tan θ2 = ⎜ ⎟ = 2, θ2 = 60° 26´, sin θ2 = 0.894,
⎝3⎠
PL1 = 9m
∴ xU2 L1 = 9 × sin θ2 = (9 × 0.894) = 8.04 m
Consider left hand portion of the frame. When the unit load is L1, the reaction
5
at support A, RA1 is . Therefore,
6
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 781
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞
U2 L1 = ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜1 × 9 – × 3 ⎟ = 0.808.
⎝ 8.04 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠
The moment of unit load at 11 about P is greater than the moment due to reaction
RA. The net moment acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
moment due to stress in U2L1 about P should be anti-clockwise. The stress in
U2L1 gives anti-clockwise moment, whent the direction of force is from left to
right upward. This direction is marked at L1. This shows that the stress in member
U2L1 is tensile (positive). This positive sign is marked in the influence line diagram
under the unit load at L1.
4
When the unit laod is at L2, then, the reaction at support A, RA is . The unit
6
load is on right side of the section aa. Therefore,
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛4 ⎞
U2 L1 = ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ × 3 ⎟ = 0.248.
⎝ 8.04 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠
The moment due to reaction RA about point P acts in anti-clcockwise direction.
In order to balance this moment, a clockwise moment due to stress in U2L1 about
P is necessary. The moment due to stress in U2L1 about P is clockwise, when the
direction of force in U2L1 is from right to left downward. This direction is marked
at L1. This shows that the nature of stress in U2L1 for unit load at L2 is compressive
(negative). The negative sign is marked in the influence line diagram under the
unit load. The influence line diagram for stress in U2L1 is shown in Fig.15.4 (d).
3
tan θ3 = = 1,θ3 = 45°
3
sin θ2 = 0.707
PT1 = 9m
∴ xU1L1 = 9 × sin θ3 = (9 × 0.707) = 6.36 m.
In order to obtain the stress in U1L1, consider the equilibrium of left hand
portion of the frame. When unit load is at A, RA is 1, the moment MP is zero. When
the unit load is at L1, the load is on the right side of the section. The reaction at
5
support A, RA is .
6
782 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛5 ⎞
U1 L1 = ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ × 3 ⎟ = 0.393.
⎝ 6.36 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠
The moment due reaction RA about P acts in anti-clockwise direction. In order
to balance this, a clockwise moment due to stress in U1L1 about P is necessary.
The moment due to stress in U1L1 is clockwise, when the direction of force, in
U1L1 is from left to right downward. This sign is marked at L1. This shows that
the nature of stress in U1L1 for unit load at L1 is tensile (positive). The positive
sign is marked under the unit load, which one is at L1. The influence diagram for
stress in U1L1 is shown in Fig.15.4 (e).
10
When the unit load is at L2, the reaction at support A,RA is . Consider left
12
hand portion of truss
⎛ 19 ⎞
ML = ⎜ × 32 – 1 × 16 ⎟ = 10.67 units
4 ⎝ 12 ⎠
This moment acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, an anti-
clockwise moment due to stress in U2U4 about L4 is necessary. The moment due
to stress in U2U4 is’anti-clockwise, when the direction of force in U2U4 is right to
left. This ‘shows that the stress is compressive (negative). The stress in U2U4 is
1 ⎛ 10.67 ⎞
U2 L4 = M × ⎜ 20 ⎟ = 0.533
20 L4 ⎝ ⎠
The negative sign is marked in the influence line diagram under the unit load,
which one is at L2.
9
When the unit load is at L3, the reaction at support A, RA is . The unit load
12
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 783
is on right side of the section aa. The left hand portion of frame is under cosideration,
therefore, moment about L4
⎛ 9 ⎞
ML = ⎜ × 32⎟ = 24 units
4 ⎝ 12 ⎠
This moment acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this moment, an
a de
b U2 U4 U6 U8 U 10
M1
M3 M5 M7 M9 M 11 20 m
A L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L 10 L 11 L 1 2 B
b a c d e
1 2 P an els @ 8 m = 9 6 m
(a ) B a ltim ore truss
– 0.53 3
1 .20
(b ) I.L.D fo r U 2 U 4
+ 0 .6 67
(c) I.L.D fo r U 2 U 4 a nd U 2 U 4
+ 0 .96 1
– 0.21 3
(d ) I.L.D fo r U 2 M 3
+ 1.00
(e ) I.L.D fo r U 2 L 2
+ 1 .00
0 .33 3
+ 0.16 7
(– ) 0 .58 3 (–)
0 .25
(i) I.L.D fo r U 4 L 4
Fig. 15.5
784 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
From the influence line diagram of U2 L4 , for the right side portion from panel
point L3
⎛ 1.20 ⎞ ⎛ 1.0665 ⎞
⎜ 72 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.553
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 64 ⎠
The variation of axial force in U2U4 is along one straight line.
From the influence line diagram of U2 L4 , for the left side portion from panel
point L3
⎛ 1.0665 ⎞ ⎛ 0.553 ⎞
⎜ 32 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.0333
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 16 ⎠
However, the ordinate of 1.20 lies out of one straight line from L0 to L4.
It is to note that I.L.D, does not follow the same straight line as that from L0 to
L3but it changes its direction. It follows same straight line from L3to L12. It is a
special feature for the top chord member U2U4, as main panel L2L4 is subdivided
and load is transferred from the joint L2 to M3 and then from M3 to U4 upper joint.
The negative sign is marked in the influence line diagram under the unit load
which one is at L3. The influence line diagram is shown in Fig.15.5 (b). The
influence line diagram from stress in member U2U4 is on negative side of the base.
This shows that the stress in U2U4 is compressive for all positions of uit load over
the span.
M3L3 is a vertical member. Therefore, the stress in L2L3 is equal to the stress in
L2L4. The influence line diagram for stress in member L3L4.
The stress in member L2L3 is obtained by considering the section aa. Section aa
as shown in Fig.15.5 (a) intersects U2U4, U2M3 and L2L3. The members U2U4 and
U2M3 meet at U2. The stress in member L2L3 is determined by dividing the bending
moment about U2 by the height of truss girder. Therefore,
⎛ M U4 ⎞
U2 L3 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 20 ⎠
1
I.L.D. for U2U3 = ×(I.L.D for MU )
20 2
The influence line diagram for bending moment about point U2 is a triangle.
⎛ 16 × 80 ⎞
The maximum ordinate of this triangle is at U2 and is equal to ⎜ ⎟ = 13.33
⎝ 96 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
units. The ordinate of influence line diagram for stress in L2L3 is ⎜ × 13.33 ⎟ =
⎝ 20 ⎠
0.667. To mark the nature of stress, whether compressive or tensile, consider the
left hand portion of the frame from section aa. Consider unit load at L1. The
10
reaction at support A, RA is
12
⎛ 10 ⎞
MU = ⎜ × 16 ⎟ = 13.33 units.
2
⎝ 12 ⎠
This moment acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, an anti-
clockwise moment due to stress in member L2L3 is necessary. The moment due to
stress in L2L3 about U2 acts in anti-clockwise direction, when the direction of force
in L2L3, is from left to right. This direction is marked at point L2, since the left
hand portion of the frame is under consideration. This shows that the nature of
stress in L2L3 is tensile (positive). The positive sign is marked in the influence line
diagram under the unit load, which one is at L2. The influence line diagram for
stress in L2L3 (and L3L4) is shown in Fig.15.5 (c). This influence line diagram is
only on positive side of the base. This shows that the nature of stresses in L2L4 and
L3L4 are tensile for all positions of unit load on the span.
U2 L3 = FL × cosec θ
2L3
22 20
sin θ = 1/2
= = 0.78
(202 + 162 ) (656 )1 / 2
cosec θ = 0.625, cosec θ = 1.28
∴ U2M3 = 1.28 × FL L
2 3
I.L.D. for U2M3 = 1 .28 × I.L.D. for FL
2L3
Consider left hand portion of the frame from section aa. When unit load is at 12,
the reaction at support A is
10
RA =
12
FL ⎛ 10 ⎞ 1
2L3 = 1 – ⎜ ⎟ = units
⎝ 12 ⎠ 6
The shear force in panel L2L3 acts downward. In order to balance this, the
vertical component of stress in U2M3 acts upward. The vertical component of
stress in U2M3 acts upwards when the direction of force in U2M3 acts from right to
left upwarrd. This direction is marked at the joint U2. This shows that the nature
of the stress in U2M3 is compressive, (negative). The negative sign is marked in
the influence line diagram. The ordinate of influence line diagram for unit load at
L2 is
⎛ 1⎞
U2 M 3 = ⎜1.28 × ⎟ = 0.213.
⎝ 6⎠
When the unit load is L2, the load is on right side of the section. Consider the
9
left hand portion of the frame from section aa. The reaction at support A, RA is
12
⎛9⎞
FL = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75 units.
2L3
⎝ 12 ⎠
This shear force acts upward. In order to balance this, the vertical component
of stress in U2M3 acts downward. The vertical component of stress in U2M3 acts
downward, when the direction of force in it acts left to right downward. This
direction is marked at the joint U2, since the left hand portion of the frame is
under consideration. This shows that the nature of stress in U2M3for unit load at
L3 is tensile (positive). The positive sign is marked in the influence diagram under
the unit load at L2. The ordinate of influence line diagram is
⎛ 1.28 ⎞
U2 M 3
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.961.
⎝ 0.75 ⎠
When the unit load is at A or B, the shear force in panel L2L3 and stress in
member U2M3 are zero. The influence line diagram for stress in U2M3 is shown in
Fig.15.5 (d).
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 787
⎛ 1 × 16 ⎞
Therefore U2L2 = ⎜ 16 ⎟ = 1.00
⎝ ⎠
The moment due to reaction RA about A is zero. The moment due to unit load at
L2 about A is clockwise. In order to balance this, an anti-clockwise moment due to
stress in U2L2 is necessary. The moment due to stress in U2L2 about A is anti-
clockwise when the direction of force in U2L2 acts upward. This sign is marked at
L2 in member U2L2. This shows that nature of stress in U2L2 for unit load at L2 is
tensile.
When the unit load is L3, the load is on right side of the section aa. The load is
on right side of the section for all positions of unit load beyond L2. The external
force on left hand portion of the frame from section bb is only RA. The moment of
reaction RA is zero. Therefore, stress in U2L2 is zero. The influence line diagram
for U2L2 is shown in Fig.15.5 (e).
It is to note that when the unit load moves from A to L1 the sub-member M1L1
becomes active. This sub-member transfers one-half of its load to the member
788 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
U2L2. When the unit load moves from L1 to L2 and approaches panel point L2 more
load is transferred at panel point L2 from stringer in panel L1L2 and less in the
memberU2L2. When the unit load reached to joint L2, then, unit load is wholly
carried by U2L2. When the unit load travels on the stringer in panel L1L2 then,
reaction at point L2 decreases and that at L3 increases. When the unit load is at L3
the whole load is carried by member M3L3 and the force in U2L2 becomes zero.
The influence line diagram for stress in U2L2 shown in Fig.15.3 (e).
⎛ M L4 ⎞
Therefore, M 3U4 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ x M 3U4 ⎠
xM U
3 4 = 20 cos θ = (20 × 0.625) = 12.5 m
Now consider the equilibrium of portion of the frame within horse-shoe section.
When the unit load is at L2 then the load is outside the section. There is no
external force acting on the portion of the frame. Therefore, ML4 is zero, and stress
in M3M4 is also zero. Similarly, when the unit load is at L4, then, the unit load is
again outside the section, therefore, ML4 and and stress in M3U4 are again zero.
When the unit load is at L3, then, the external load on frame is load itself.
Therefore, ML4 = 1 × 8 = 8 units
⎛ 1 ⎞
M 3U4 = ⎜ × 8 ⎟ = 0.64.
⎝ 12.5 ⎠
The moment ML4 is an anti-clockwise direction. Therefore clockwise moment
about L4 due to stress in M3U4 is necessary. The moment about L4 due to stress in
M3M4 is clockwise, when the direction of force is from left to right upward. This
direction is marked at M3 on the member M3M4, since, the end M3 is within the
horse-shoe section and the portion under consideration. This shows that the nature
of stress in M3M4 is tensile (positive). The positive sign is marked in the influence
diagram under the unit load which one is at L3. The influence diagram is shown
in Fig.15.5 (g).
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 789
M 3U4 + M 3 L4 = FL cosec θ
3L4
M 3U4 + M 3 L4 = 1.28 FL
3L4
M 3U4 = 1.28 × FL – M 3 L4
3L4
Consider left hand portion of frame. When unit load is at L2, then the stress in
10
M3U4 is zero. The reaction at support RA is . The shear force in panel L3L4
12
FL ⎛ 10 ⎞ 1
= ⎜1 – ⎟ = unit
3L4 ⎝ 12 ⎠ 6
This shear force acts downward. The vertical component of stress in M3L4 acts
upward. The vertical component of stress in M3L4 acts upward when the direction
of force is from right to left upward. This shows that the nature of stress in M3L4
for unit load at L2 is compressive (negative)
⎛1 ⎞
M 3 L4 = ⎜ × 1.28⎟ = 0.213
⎝6 ⎠
When unit load is at L3, the stresss in M3U4 is + 0.64 (tensile). The vertical
9
component of M3U4 acts upward. The reaction at support A, RA is = 0.75.
12
M 3 L4 sin θ + M 3 L4 sin θ = FL
3L4
M 3 L4 sin θ + 0.50 = FL
3L4
The negative sign shows that the shear force acts upward. Therefore, the verical
component of stress in M3L4 acts downwards. The force in M3L4 acts left to right
downward The nature of stress in M3L4 is tensile (positive).
0.25
M 3 L4 = = 0.25 cosec θ = l.38 × 0.25 = + 0.32
sin θ
9
When the unit load is L4, the reaction RA is = 0.667. The stress in M3U4 is
12
zero.
∴ M 3 L4 = (1.28 × 0.667) = 0.854
The shear force in panel L3L4 acts upward. The verical component of stress in
M3L4 acts downward. Therefore the force in M3L4 acts from left to right downward.
Therefore, the stress in M3L4 is tensile. The influence line diagram for stres in
M3L4 is shown in Fig.15.5 (h).
⎛ 10 ⎞ 1
U4 L4 = ⎜1 – ⎟ = = 0.167
⎝ 12 ⎠ 6
This shear foces in panel L4L5 acts downward. The stress in U4L4 acts upward.
This shows that the stress in U4L4 is tensile (positive). The positive sign is marked
in the influence diagram under the load which one is at L3.
9
When the unit load is at L3, then the reaction at support A, RA is , and the
12
stress in M3U4 is 0.64 (tensile). The vertical component of stress acts downward.
Therefore,
⎛ 9 ⎞
U4 L4 = ⎜1– – 0.64 × 0.781 ⎟ = – 0.25
⎝ 12 ⎠
This shear force in panel L4L5 acts upward. The stress in L4L4 acts downward.
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 791
This direction is marked at L4 in the member U4L4. This shows that the stress in
U4L4 for unit load at L3 is compressive (negative). The negative sign is marked in
the influence line diagram.
8
When the unit lad is L4, then the reaction at support A, RA is and the stress
12
in M3U4 is zero. Therefore,
⎛ 8⎞
U4 L4 = ⎜1 – ⎟ = 0.33
⎝ 12 ⎠
This shear force acts downward. The stress in U4L4 acts upward. This direction
is marked at L4 in the member U4L4. This shows that the stress in U4L4 is tensile
(positive). The positive sign is mark in the influence line diagram.
7
When the unit load is L5, then, the reaction at support A,RA is and the stess
12
in M3U4 is zero. Therefore,
⎛7⎞
U4L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.583
⎝ 12 ⎠
This shear force acts upward. The stress inU4L4 acts downward. This direction
is marked at L4 in the member U4L4. This shows that, the stress in U4L4 is
negative. The negative sign marked in the influence line diagram.
The influence line diagram for stress in U4L4 is shown in Fig. 15.5 (j).
⎛ M L4 ⎞
U4U4 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 20 ⎠
1
I.L.D. for U2U4 = × I.L.D. for ML
20 4
792 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The influence line diagram for bending moment ML is a triangle. The maximum
4
⎛ 32 × 64 ⎞
ordinate of this triangle is at L4 and is equal to ⎜ = 21.33 units. This
⎝ 96 ⎟⎠
maximum ordinate of the influence line diagram is also at L4 and is equal to
⎛ 21.33 ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = 1.067. In order to mark the nature of stress in U2U4, consider unit load
20 ⎠
9
at any panel point, say L3. The reaction at support A, RA is .
12
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame
⎛ 9 ⎞
MU = ⎜ × 32 – 1 × 8⎟ = 16 units.
4 ⎝ 12 ⎠
This moment acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, an anti-
clockwise moment about L4 due to stress in U2U4 is necessary. The moment due
to stress in U2U4 about L4 is anticlockwise, when the direction of force in member
U2U4 is fro right to left. This direction is marked at U2 in the member U2U4. This
shows that the nature of stress in U2U4 is compressive (negative). The negative
sign is marked in the influence line diagram under the unit load, which one is at
L3. The influence line diagram for stress in member U2U4 is shown in Fig. I5.6
(b).
⎛ MU4 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 20 ⎠
10
When the unit load is at L2, then, the reaction at support A, RA is
12
⎛ 10 ⎞
MU = ⎜ × 16 ⎟ =13.33 units
4
⎝ 12 ⎠
This moment acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress in
L3L4 provides an anti- clockwise moment. The direction of force in L3L4 is from
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 793
left to right. This direction is marked at L3. This shows that the stress in L3L4 is
tensile. The stress in L3L4 is
⎛ 13.33 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜ = 0.667
⎝ 23 ⎟⎠
d c a
U2 U4 U6 U8 U 10
M1 M3 M5 M7 M9 M 11
20 m
B
L0 L1 L 2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L 1 0 L 11 L 1 2
d b b
c a 1 2 P an els @ 8 m = 9 6 m
(a ) B a ltim ore tru ss
(– ) 1.0 67
(b ) I.L.D fo r U 2 U 4
(c) I.L.D fo r L 2 L 3 a nd L 3 L 4
+0 .8 53
– 0.32
(d ) I.L.D fo r M 3 L 4
+ 1 .00
(e ) I.L.D fo r M 3 L 3
– 0 .6 4
(f) I.L.D for L 2 M 3
0 .85 3 (+)
0 .32
0 .21 3 (g ) I.L.D fo r U 2 M 3
+ 1 .0 0
0 .5 0 .5
(h ) I.L.D fo r U 2 L 2
Fig. 15.6
794 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
9
When the unit load is at L3, then, the reaction at support A RA is
12
⎛ 9 ⎞
MU = ⎜⎝ × 16 + 1 × 8⎟⎠ = 20
2 12
⎛ 20 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.00
⎝ 20 ⎠
It is to note that the value of force further increases from the ordinate at L2 to
that at L3.
This moment acts in clockwise direction. The stress in L3L4 provides an anti-
clockwise moment to balance this. The direction for force in L3L4 is from left to
right. This direction is marked at L3. This shows that the stress in L3L4 is
tensile.
When unit load is at L4, the load is on right side of the section aa. The reaction
8
is .
12
⎛ 8⎞
MU = ⎜ ⎟ × 16 = 10.67 unit
2 ⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 10.67 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜ = 0.533
⎝ 20 ⎟⎠
This moment also acts clockwise. In order to balance this, the stress in provides
an anti-clockwise moment about U2. The direction of force L3L4 is from left to
right. This direction is marked at L3. This shows that nature of stress in L3L4 is
tensile. The influence line diagram for stress in L2L3 (and L3L4) is shown in Fig.15.6
(c).
From the influence line diagram, for left side portion of L3
⎛ 9⎞
FL = ⎜1– ⎟ = 0.25
3L4 ⎝ 12 ⎠
M 3 L4 = (0.25 × 1.28) = 32
The shear force acts downward. In order to balance this, the vertical component
of stress in M 3 L4 acts upward. The direction of force is from right to left upward.
The stress M3L3 is compressive (negative).
When the unit load is L4,
8
RA =
12
8
FL =
3L4 12
⎛8 ⎞
M 3 L4 = ⎜ × 1.28 ⎟ = 0.853
⎝ 12 ⎠
This shear force acts upward. In order to balance this vertical component of
stress M3L4acts downward. The direction of force is from left to right downward.
The stress in M3L4 is tensile (positive). The influence line diagram for stress in
M3L4is shown in Fig.15.6 (d).
M3L4 in zero. When the unit load is at L3, then, the stress in M3L3 is 1.00, tensile.
When the unit load is at L4, then, the in M3L3 is again zero. The influence line
diagram for stress in M3L3 is shown in Fig.15.6 (e).
L2 M 3 = ML x L2 M3
4
⎛ M L4 ⎞
∴ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
L2 M 3 ⎝ 12.50 ⎠
Now, consider the equilibrium of portion of the frame within the horse-shoe
section. When the unit load is L2, the unit load is outside the section. There is no
external load acting on this portion of frame. Therefore, ML4 is zero and the stress
in L2M3 is also zero. Similarly, when the unit load is L4, it is again outside this
portion of frame. Therefore, ML is again zero. The stress in L2M3 is zero. When
4
the unit load is at L3, then
ML = 1 × 8 = 8 units
4
8
= = 0.64
L2 M 3 12.5
The moment ML4 acts anti-clockwise. In order to balance this the stress in L2M2
provides clockwise moment. The direction of force in L2M3 is from left to right
upward. This direction is marked at M3. This shows that the stress in L2M3 is
compressive. Tlie influence line diagram for stress in L2M3 is shown in Fig.15.6 (f).
⎛ 10 ⎞ 1
U2 M 3 sin θ = ⎜1 – ⎟ =
⎝ 12 ⎠ 6
⎛1 10 ⎞
∴ U2 M 3 = ⎜ × = 0.213
⎝ 6 0.781 ⎟⎠
The shear force in panel L2L3 acts downward. In order to balance this, the
vertical component of stress in U2M3 acts upward. The direction of force in U2M3
is from right to left upward. This direction is marked at U2. This shows that the
stress in U2M3 is compressive.
When the unit is at L3, then, the stress in L2M3 is 0.64 compressive. The unit
9
load is on the right side of the section cc. The reaction RA is equal to . Therefore
12
9
U2 M 3 sin θ + 0.64 × 0.781 =
12
⎛ 9 ⎞
U2 M 3 sin θ ⎜⎝ – 0.64 × 0.781⎟⎠ = 0.25
12
⎛ 0.25 ⎞
U2 M 3 = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 0.32.
0.781 ⎠
This shear force acts upward. The verical component of stress in U2M3 acts
downward. The direction of force is from left to right downward. This sign is
marked at U2. This shows that the stress in U2M3 is tensile.
8
When the unit load is at L4, the reaction RA is = 0.667. The load is on right
12
side of the section. The stress in L2M3 is zero. Therefore,
U2 M 3 sin θ = 0.667
⎛ 0.667 ⎞
U2 M 3 = ⎜ = 0.853
⎝ 0.781 ⎟⎠
This shear force acts upward. The vertical component of stress in U2M3 acts
downward. The direction of force is U2M3 is from left to right downward. This
direction is marked at U2. This shows that the stress in U2M3 is tensile. The
influence line diagram for stress in U2M3 is shown in Fig.15.6 (g).
⎛ MA ⎞ ⎛ MA ⎞
U2 L2 = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ xU2L2 ⎠ ⎝ 16 ⎠
Consider, the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame. When the unit load
is at A, the moment MA and stress in U2L2 are zero. When the unit load is L2, the
stress in U2L3 is zero.
Therefore,
⎛ 8⎞
U2 L3 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.5
⎝ 16 ⎠
The moment MA = 8 acts clockwise. In order to balance this, the stress in U2L2
provides anti-clockwise moment. The direction of force in U2L2 is upward. This
direction is marked at L2. This shows that the stress in U2L2 is tensile.
When unit load is at L2 the stress in L2M3 is zero.
⎛ 16 ⎞
U2 L2 = ⎜ ⎟ =1.00
⎝ 16 ⎠
This moment, MA = 16, acts clockwise. In order to balance this, the stress in
U2L2 provides anti-clockwise moment.
The direction of force inU2L2 isupward. This direction is marked at L2. This
shows that the force in U2L2 tensile.
When unit load is at L3, the stress in L2M3 is 0.64 compressive. The load is on
right side of the section. The resolved vertical component of stress in L2M3 at joint
L2 is 0.64 × 0.781 = 0.50. The resolved horizontal component of stress in L2M3
passes through point A . Therefore,
⎛ 16 ⎞
U2 L3 = ⎜⎝ 0.5 × ⎟ = 0.5
16 ⎠
This moment MA = 0.5 × 16 = 8 units, acts in clockwise direction. In order to
balance this, the stress in U2L2 providcs an anti-clockwise moment. The direction
of force in U2L2 acts upward. This direction is marked at L2. This shows that the
force in Ufais tensile. The influence line diagram lor stress in U2L2is shown in
Fig.15.6 (h).
(b ) I.L.D fo r U 4 U 6
+ 1.16 5
(c) I.L.D fo r L 4 L 5 a nd L 5 L 6
+0 .5 46
– 0.57 9
(d ) I.L.D fo r U 4 M 5
+1 .0 0
(e ) I.L.D fo r M 4 L 5
0 .67 9
(f) I.L.D fo r M 4 L 6
+ 0.46 8
– 0.57 9 – 0.05 5
(g ) I.L.D fo r M 5 L 6
+0 .3 14 6 0 .62 96 0 .32 41 (– )
– 0.02 77
Fig. 15.7
The prolonged directions of U6U4 and L6 A meet at point P1. The angle
θ1represents the inclination of U6U4with the horizontal,
⎛ 20 – 18 ⎞
tan θ1 = ⎜ = 0.125 ; θ1= 7° 7´
⎝ 16 ⎟⎠
sin θ1 = 0.124 ; cos θ1 0.992
800 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ U L ⎞ ⎛ 20 ⎞
∴ P1L6 = ⎜ 6 6 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 160 m
⎝ tan θ1 ⎠ ⎝ 1.125 ⎠
∴ AP1 = (160 – 48)= 112 m
xU4U6 = 160 sin θ1 =160 × 0.124 = 19.48 m
Therefore, U4U6 = ML6/19.84.
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from section aa when
the unit load is at L4,
8
RA =
12
⎛ 8 ⎞
ML6 = ⎜⎝ × 48 – 1 × 6⎟⎠ = 16 units
12
⎛ 16 ⎞
U4U6 = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 0.806
19.84 ⎠
The moment ML acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress
6
in U4U6 provides an anti-clockwise moment about L6. The direction of stress in
L4U6 is from right to left downward. The sign is marked at U4. This shows that
the stress in U4U6 is compressive (negative).
When unit load is at L5, the load is on right side of the section,
7
RA =
12
⎛7 ⎞
ML = ⎜ × 48⎟ = 28 units
6 ⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 28 ⎞
7"7$ = ⎜ = 14.11.
⎝ 19.84 ⎟⎠
The moment M4 acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress
in U4U6 provides an anti-clockwise moment about L6. The direction of stress in
U4U6 is from right to left downward. This sign is marked at U4. This shows that
the stress in U4U6 is compressive (negative). The influence line diagram for stress
in U4U6 is shown in Fig.15.7 (b).
⎛ M U4 ⎞
Therefore, L4 L5 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 18 ⎠
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from the section aa.
When unit load is at L4,
⎛8⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 8 ⎞
MU = ⎜ × 32 ⎟ = 21.33 units
4
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 21.33 ⎞
L4 L5 = ⎜ ⎟ = 11.85
⎝ 18 ⎠
The moment MU4 acts in clockwise direction. The stress in L4L5 provides an
anti-clockwise moment about U4 to balance MU4. The stress in member L4L5 acts
from left to right. The direction is marked at L4 in the member L4L5 . This shows
that the stress in L4L5 (and L5L6 ) is shown in Fig.15.7 (c).
⎛ MP ⎞
Therefore, U4 M 5 = ⎜ 1
⎟
⎜ xU M ⎟
⎝ 4 5 ⎠
18
sin θ = = 0.7478
182 + 162
∴ xU4 M5 = 160 × 0.7478 = 119.65 m
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from section aa.
8
When unit load is at L4, the reaction RA is .
12
P1L4 = (32 + 112) = 144 m
⎛ 8 ⎞
MP = ⎜1 × 144 – × 112 ⎟ = 62.334 units
1
⎝ 12 ⎠
802 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 69.33 ⎞
∴ U4 M 5 = ⎜ = 0.579
⎝ 119.65 ⎟⎠
This moment MP acts clockwise. In order to balance this, the stress in U4 M5
1
provides an anticlockwise moment about P1. The direction of stress in U4 M5 is
from right of left upward. This direction is marked at U4 in the member U4 M5 .
This shows that the stress in U4M5 for unit load at L4 is compressive (negative).
When the unit load is at L3, the load is on the right side of the section aa. The
7
reaction at support A, RA is .
12
⎛7 ⎞
MP = ⎜ × 112⎟ = 65.33 units
1 ⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
U4 M 2 = ⎜ = 65.33⎟ = 0.546.
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
This moment MP acts anticlockwise. In order to balance this, the stress in
1
provides clockwise moment. The direction of stress U4M5 is from left to right
downward. The direction is marked at U4 in the member U4M5 . This shows that
the stress in U4M5 is tensile when the unit load is at L5.
When the unit load is at A, RA = 1. The moment MP is zero. Therefore, stress
1
in U4M5 is also zero. When the unit load is at B, RA = 0, the moment at P1 is again
zero. The stress in U4M6 is again zero. The influence line diagram for stress is
U4M6 is shown in Fig.15.7 (d).
⎛ M L6 ⎞
Therefore, M 5U6 = ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ xM U
⎝ 6 6 ⎠
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 803
x M5U6 = 20 sin θ
⎛ 8 ⎞
Sin θ = ⎜ ⎟ 0.589 (M is at mid-point of U U )
⎜( 2 2 )1 / 2 ⎟ 5 4 4
⎝ 8 + 11 ⎠
⎛ 11 ⎞
cos θ = ⎜ = 0.811
⎝ (185)1 / 2 ⎟⎠
∴ xU5 M 6 = (20 × 0.589) = 11.78 m
⎛ M L6 ⎞
M 5U6= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 11.78 ⎠
Consider the equilibrium of that portion of the frame which is within the horse-
shoe section. When unit load is at L4, the load is outside the section. Therefore,
ML and stress in M5U6 are zero. Similarly when unit load is at L6, the load is also
6
outside the section. The moment ML and stress in M5L6 are zero. When the unit
6
load L6
ML = 1 × 8 = 8 units
6
⎛ 8 ⎞
M 5U6= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.679
⎝ 11.78 ⎠
This moment ML acts in anti-clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
5
stress in M5U6 provides clockwise moment about L6. The direction of stress in
M5U6 is from left to right upward. This direction is marked at M5 in the member
M5U6 . This shows that the stress in M5U6 is tensile. The influence line diagram
for stress in M5U6 is shown in Fig.15.7 (f).
⎛ M P1 ⎞
∴ M 2 L6
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from section cc. When
8
the unit load is at U5, RA – , and M5U6 = 0.
12
804 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
MP ⎡ 8 ⎤
1 = ⎢⎣1×(160 – 60) – 12 × 112⎥⎦ = 63.33 units
⎛ 69.33 ⎞
M 2 L6 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.579
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
The moment MP acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress
1
in M5L6 provides anti-clockwise moment about P1. The direction of stress in M5L6
is from right to left upward. This direction is marked at M5. This shows that the
stress in M5L6 is compressive.
7
When the unit load is at L5, the reaction at support A is RA= . The stress in
12
M5U6 is 0.679 tensile. The vertical component of stress in M5U6 (i.e. 0.679 cos φ)
acts upward and the horizontal component of stress in (i.e. 0.679 × sin φ) acts from
left to right. Therefore,
7
MP1 = 1 × (160 – 8) – × 112 – 0.679 × cos φ × 152 + 0.67 sin φ × 9
2
= 6.57 (sin θ = 0.689, cos θ = 0.811
⎛ 6.57 ⎞
∴ M 5U6 = ⎜ = 0.055 (compressive)
⎝ 119.65 ⎟⎠
When the unit load is at L6, the load is on the right side of the section. The
1
reaction at support A is RA = .
12
⎛1 ⎞
MP = ⎜ × 112 ⎟ = 56 units
1
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 56 ⎞
M 5U6 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.468
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
The moment MP acts in anti-clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
1
stress in M5L6 provides clockwise moment. The direction of stress in M5L6 is left to
right downward. This direction is marked at M5. This shows that the stress in M5L6
is tensile. The influence line diagram for stress in M5L6 is shown in Fig.15.7 (g).
θ2 = 14°2´
sin θ2 = 0.242, cos θ2 = 0.97
⎛ 18 ⎞ ⎛ 18 ⎞
P2L4 = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = 72 m
⎝ tan θ2 ⎠ ⎝ 0.25 ⎠
AP2 = 40 m
The stress in U4L4 is obtained by dividing the moment about P2 by the
perpendicular distance from P2 to member U4L4 . Therefore,
⎛ MP 2 ⎞
U4 L4 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 72 ⎠
10
When the unit load is at L2, stress in M3U4 is zero ; RA =
12
⎡ 10 ⎤
MP = ⎢1× (40 + 16) – × 40 ⎥ = 22.67 units
2 ⎣ 12 ⎦
⎛ 22.67 ⎞
U4 L4= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.314
⎝ 72 ⎠
This moment acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress in
U4L4 provides an anti-clockwise moment. The direction of stress in U4L4 is upward.
This direction is marked at L4. This shows that the stress in U4L4 is tensile.
9
When unit load is L2, the reaction at support A is RA= , the vertical component
12
of stress in M3U4 (i.e., M 3U4 cos φ), acts upward and horizontal M 3U4 component
sin θ acts left to right. The stress in M3U4 is obtained as 0.755 tensile, therefore,
⎛ 9 ⎞
MP = ⎜1 × 64 – 0.755 × 0.811 × 64 – × 40 + 0.755 × 0.589 × 7 ⎟ = – 2.00
1
⎝ 12 ⎠
2
∴ U4 L4 = = 0.0277
72
The negative sign of moment MP shows that this moment MP acts in anti-
2 4
clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress in U4L4 provides clockwise
moment. The direction of stress in U4L4 acts downward. This sign is marked at
L4. This shows that the stress in U4L4 is compressive.
When the unit load is at L4, the stress in M3U4 is zero. The reaction at support
8
A,RA is .
12
MP ⎡ 8 ⎤
2 = ⎢⎣1 × 72 – 72 × 40 ⎥⎦ = 45.33 units
806 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 44.33 ⎞
U4 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.6296
⎝ 72 ⎠
This moment MP acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
2
stress in U4L4 provides an anti-clockwise moment. The stress in U4L4 acts upward.
This sign is marked at L4. This shows that the stress inU3L4 is tensile.
When the unit load is at L5, the stress in M3U4 is zero. The load is on right side
7
of the section dd. The reaction at support A, RA is .
12
⎛7 ⎞
MP 2 = ⎜ × 40⎟ = 23.33 units
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 23.33 ⎞
U4 L4 = ⎜ = 0.324
⎝ 72 ⎟⎠
This moment MP acts in anti-clockwise direction. The stress in M4L4 provides
2
clockwise moment to balance this. This sign is marked at L4. This shows that the
stress in L4L4 is compressive. The influence line diagram for stress in U4L4 is
shown in Fig.15.7 (h).
⎛ M U4 ⎞
U5U6 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 18 ⎠
Consider the equilibrium of the left hand portion of the frame from section aa.
8
When the unit load is at L4, RA is .
12
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 807
MU ⎛ 8 ⎞
4 = ⎜ × 32 ⎟ = 21.33 units
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 21.33 ⎞
L5 L6 = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.185
⎝ 18 ⎠
This moment, MU acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
4
stress in L5L6 provides an anti-clockwise moment about U4 . The direction of
stress in L5L6 is from left to right. This sign is marked at L5. This shows that the
7
stress in L5L6 is tensile. When the unit load is at L5, RA is .
12
⎛7 ⎞
MU = ⎜ × 32 + 1 × 8 ⎟ = 26.66 units
4
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 26.66 ⎞
L5 L6 = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.481
⎝ 18 ⎠
This moment MU acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
4
stress in L5L6 provides an anti-clockwise moment about U4 . The direction of
stress in L5L6 is from left to right. This sign is marked at L5. This shows that the
stress in L5L6 is tensile.
When the unit load is at L6, the load is on the right side of the section aa. The
1
reaction at support A, RA is
12
⎛ 32 ⎞
MU ⎜ ⎟ = 16 units
4
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 16 ⎞
L5L6 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.889
⎝ 18 ⎠
The moment MU also acts clockwise. In order to balance this, the stress in
4
L5L6 provides an anti-clockwise moment. The direction of stress in L5L6 is from
left to right. This direction is marked at L5. This snows that the stress in L5L6 is
tensile. The influence line diagram for stress in L5L6 (and L4L5) is shown in Fig.
15.8 (b).
⎛ ML6 ⎞
Therefore, U4U6 = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ xU L ⎟
⎝ 4 6 ⎠
The prolonged directions U6U4 and L5L6 meet at point P1. The angle represents
the inclination of U4U6 with the horizontal.
c a U
d 6
U4 U8
U2
M5 U 10 20 m
M7
M3 M9 18 m
M1 M4
10 m
P 1 P2 40 A B
m L0 L1 L2 L3 L 4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L 1 0 L 11 L 1 2
c
11 2 m b a
d b
1 2 P an els @ 8 m = 9 6 m
(a ) P e ttit truss
+1 .1 85 1 .48 1 0 .88 9
(b ) I.L.D fo r L 4 L 5 A n d L 5 L 6
– 1.2 1
(C ) I.L .D . for U 4 U 6
+0 .4 68
– 0.5 79
0 .72 6
(d ) I.L.D fo r M 5 L 6
+1 .1 00
(e ) I.L.D fo r M 5 L 6
– 0.6 68
(f) I.L .D for L 4 M 5
+0 .4 68
– 0.0 57 9 – 0.0 55
(g ) I.L.D fo r U 4 M 5
+0 .6 29 6 +0 .1 76
– 0.2 78
(h ) I.L.D fo r U 2 L 2
Fig. 15.8
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 809
⎛ 20 – 18 ⎞
tan θ1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.125, θ1 = 7°7´
⎝ 16 ⎠
sin θ1 = 0.124,cos θ1 = 0.992
⎛ U L ⎞ ⎛ 20 ⎞
P1L6 = ⎜ 6 6 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 160 m
⎝ tan θ1 ⎠ ⎝ 0.124 ⎠
AP = (160 – 48) = 112 m
1
⎛ 24 ⎞
U4U6 = ⎜ = 1.21
⎝ 19.84 ⎟⎠
This moment, M6 acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress
in U4U6 provides an anti-clockwise moment about L6. The direction of stress in
U4U6 is from right to left. This sign is marked at U4. This shows that the stress
in U4U6 is compressive. The influence line diagram for stress in U4U6 is shown in
Fig.15.8 (c).
⎛ M P1 ⎞
= ⎜⎜
M 6 L6 ⎟⎟
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from section aa.
8
When the unit load is at L4, the reaction RA is .
12
810 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎡ 8 ⎤
MP = ⎢1 × (160 – 16) – × 112⎥ = + 69.33 units
1 ⎣ 12 ⎦
⎛ 69.33 ⎞
M5L6 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.579
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
This moment Mp acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress
1
in M5L6 provides an anti-clockwise moment. The direction of stress in M5L6 acts
from right to left upward. This direction is marked at M5. This shows that the
7
stress in M5L6 is compressive when unit load is at L5, the reaction RA is .
12
⎡ 7 ⎤
MP
1
= ⎢⎣1 × (160 – 8) – 12 × 112⎥⎦ = + 85.67 units
⎡ 86.67 ⎤
M 5 L6 = ⎢119.65 ⎥ = 0.7265
⎣ ⎦
This moment MP also acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
1
stress in M5L6 provides an anti-clockwise moment. This direction of stress is from
right to left upward. This direction is marked at M5. This shows that the nature
of stress inM5L6 is compressive.
When the unit load at L6, the load is on the right side of section aa, the reaction
1
RA is .
12
⎛1 ⎞
MP = ⎜ × 112 ⎟ = 56 units
1
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 56 ⎞
M 5 L6 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.468
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
This moment MP acts in anti-clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
1
stress in M5L6 provides a clockwise moment. The direction of stress in M5L4 in
from left to right downward. This direction is marked at M5. This shows that the
stress in M5L6 is tensile. The influence line diagram for stress in M5L6 is shown in
Fig. 15.8 (d).
⎛ M L4 ⎞
L4 M 5 = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ x L4 M5 ⎠
x L4 M5 = 16 × sin θ = (l6 × 0.7478) = 11.92 m
⎛ M L4 ⎞
L4 M 5 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 11.92 ⎠
Consider the equilibrium of that portion of the frame, which is within the horse-
shoe section bb. When the unit load is at L4, the load is outside the section. Therefore,
ML and stress in L4M5 are zero. When the unit load is at L4, then, also, the load
4
is outside the section, the moment, ML and stress in L4M5 are zero.
4
When unit load is at L5,
ML = (1 × 8) = 8 units
5
⎛ 8 ⎞
L4 M 5 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.668
⎝ 11.92 ⎠
This moment ML , acts in anti-clockwise direction. In order to balance this,
5
the areas in L4M5 provides clockwise moment. The direction of stress in L4M5 is
from left to right upward. This direction is marked at M5. This shows that stress
in L4M5 is compressive. The influence line diagram for stress in L4M5 is shown in
Fig.15.8 (f).
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from section cc. When
8
the unit load is at L4, the stress in L4M5 is zero, and the reaction RA is
12
xU4 M 4 = (160 sin θ = 160 × 0.7578) = 119.65 m
812 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 8 ⎞
MP = ⎜1 × 144 – × 112 ⎟ = 69.33 units
1
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 69.33 ⎞
U4 M5 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.579
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
This moment MP , acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
1
stress inU4M5 provides an anti-clockwise moment about P1. The direction of stress
is from right to left upward. This direction is marked at U4. This shows that the
stress in U4 M5 is compressive.
7
When the unit load is at L5, the reaction at support A, RA is . The stress in
12
L4M5 is 0.668. The vertical component of stress in L4M5 (i.e. 0.668 sin θ) acts
downward and the horizontal component of stress is U4M5 (i.e., 0.668 cos θ) acts
from right to left. The unit load is on right side of section cc.
⎡ 7 ⎤
∴ MP = ⎢0.668 × 0.7478 × 144 – × 112⎥ = 6.67 units
1 ⎣ 12 ⎦
⎛ 6.67 ⎞
L4M5 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.055
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
This moment MP acts in clockwise direction about P1 In order to balance this,
1
the stress U4M5 provides an anti-clockwise moment. The direction of stress in
U4M5 is from right to left upward. This shows that U4M5 is compressive.
When the unit load is at L6, the load is on the right side of section cc. The
1
reaction at support A, Ra is
12
112
MP = = 56 units
1 2
⎛ 56 ⎞
U4M5 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.468
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
This moment MP acts in anti-clockwise direction about P1. In order to balance
1
this, the stress in U4M5 provides a clockwise moment. The direction of stress in
U4M5 is from left to right downward. This shows that the direction of stress in
U4M5 is tensile. The influence line diagram for stress in U4M5 is shown in Fig.
15.8 (g).
⎛ M P2 ⎞
∴ U4 L4 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 72 ⎠
When the unit load is at L4 the stress in L4M5 is zero. The reaction at support
8
A, RA is
12
⎛ 8 ⎞
MP = ⎜1 × 72 – × 40⎟ = 45.33 units
2 ⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 45.33 ⎞
= ⎜ = 0.6296
U4 L4 ⎝ 72 ⎟⎠
This moment MP acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
1
stress in U4U4 provides an an ti-clockwise moment about P2. The direction of
stress in U4U4 acts upward. This direction is marked at L4. This shows that the
stress in U4U4 tensile.
When the unit load is at L5, the load is on the right side of the section dd. The
stress in L4L5 is 0.668 compressive. The vertical component of stress (0.668 sin θ)
7
acts downward. The reaction at support, A RA is
12
⎛ 7 ⎞
∴ MP = ⎜ 0.668 × 0.7478 × 72 – × 40 ⎟ = 12.67 units
2
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 12.67 ⎞
U4 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.176
⎝ 72 ⎠
This moment Mp acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress
2
in U4L4 provides an anti-clockwise moment. The direction of stress in U4L4 is
upward. The direction is marked at L4. This shows that the stress in U4 L4 is
tensile.
When the unit load is at L6, the unit load is on right side of the section. The
1
stress in L4M5 is zero. The reaction at support A, RA is
2
⎛ 40 ⎞
MP = ⎜ ⎟ = 20 units
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
814 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 20 ⎞
U4 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.278.
⎝ 72 ⎠
The moment MP acts in anti-clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
2
stress in U4L4 provides a clockwise moment. The direction of stress in U4L4 is
downward. Tis direction is marked at L4. This shows that the stress in U4L4 is
compressive. The influence line diagram for U4L4is shown in Fig.15.8 (h).
The influence line diagram for ML is a triangle. The maximum ordinate of this
2
⎛ 48 ⎞
triangle is ⎜16 × = 12.0. The ordinate of triangle representing influence line
⎝ 64 ⎟⎠
⎛ 12 ⎞
diagram of stress in U2U3 is ⎜ × 1.00 ⎟ . In order to mark the nature of stress in
⎝ 12 ⎠
U2U3, consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame, from section aa.
When the unit load is at L2,
⎛6⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75
⎝8⎠
ML2 = (0.75 × 16) = 12 units.
This moment ML acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
2
stress in U2U3 provides an anti-clockwise moment. Therefore, the direction of
stress in U2U3 is from right to left. This direction is marked at U2. This shows
that the stress in U2U3 is shown in Fig.15.9 (b).
⎛ M U2 ⎞
L2 L3 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠
1
I.L.D. for L2L3 = × (I.L.D for MU )
12 2
a b c d
U2 U3 U4 U5 U6
M1 M9
M3 M5 M7 12 m
6m
A
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 B
a b d c
8 P a ne ls @ 8 m = 64 m
(a ) K Truss
– 1.00
(b ) I.L.D fo r U 2 U 3
+ 1.00
(c) I.L .D fo r L 2 L 3
+ 0.20 8
– 0.52
(d ) I.L.D fo r M 2 U 3
+ 0.52
– 0.20 8
(e ) I.L.D fo r M 2 L 3
+ 0.31 3
– 0.12 5
(f) I.L.D fo r
0 .68 7
+0 .1 25
– 0.25
(g ) I.L.D fo r M 2 L 3
Fig. 15.9
816 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The influence line diagram for MU is a triangle. The maximum ordinate of this
2
⎛ 16 × 48 ⎞
triangle is ⎜ ⎟ = 12. The ordinate of triangle representing influence line for
⎝ 64 ⎠
stress in L2L3 is
⎛ 12 ⎞
⎜ 12 ⎟ = 1.00
⎝ ⎠
In order to mark the nature of stress in U2U3, consider the equilibrium of left
hand portion of the frame from section aa. When the unit load is at L2.
⎛6⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75
⎝8⎠
MU = (0.75 × 16) = 12 units.
2
This moment MU acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
2
stress in L2L3provides an anti-clockwise moment. Therefore, the direction of stress
in L2L3 is from left to right. This direction is marked at L2. This shows that the
stress in L2L3is tensile. The influence line diagram for stress in L2L3 is shown in
Fig.15 .9 (c).
⎛ 0.25 ⎞
M 2U3 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2sin θ ⎠
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 817
6
sin θ = = 0.6, cos θ = 0.8
6 + 82
2
⎛ 0.25 ⎞
∴ M 2U3 = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 0.208
2 × 0.6 ⎠
This shear force FL L acts downward. In order to balance this, the vertical
2 3
components of M2U3 and M2L3 act upward. The vertical components act upward
when the direction of stresses in M2U3 and M2L3 are left to right upward and right
to left upward respectively. These directions are marked at M2. This shows that
the stress in M2U3 is tensile and that in M2L3 is compressive.
When the unit load is at L3, the load is on right side of the section bb. The
⎛5⎞
reaction at support A, RA is ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝8⎠
⎛5⎞
FL = ⎜ ⎟
2L3
⎝8⎠
Therefore,
⎛5⎞
2M 2U3 sin θ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝8⎠
⎛5 1 ⎞
M 3U3 = ⎜ × = 0.52
⎝ 8 2 × 0.6 ⎠⎟
This shear force FL2L3 acts upward. In order to balance this, the vertical
components of M2U3 and M2L3 act downward. The vertical components act
downward, when the direction of the stress in M2U3 and M2L3 are right to left
downward and left to right downward respectively. These directions are marked
at M2. This shows that the stress in M2U3 is compressive and that in M2L3 is
tensile. The influence lines for stresses in M2U3 and M2L3 are shown in Fig.15.9
(d) and Fig.15.9 (e), respectively.
FL = (l – 0.75) = 0.25
2L3
Therefore, U3 M 3 = 0.25 – 0.125 = 0.125
This shear force acts downward. In order to balance this, the stress in U3M3
acts upward. The direction is marked at U3. This shows that the stress in U3M3 is
compressive.
When the unit lead is at L3, the load is on the right side of the section.
M 2 L3 sin θ = (0 – 52 × 0.6) = 0.312
5
RA =
8
This vertical component acts downward
⎛5 ⎞
U3 M 3 = FL – M 2 L3 sin θ = ⎜ – 0.312 ⎟ = 0.313
2L3
⎝8 ⎠
The shear force acts upward. In order to balance this, the stress in U3M3 acts
downward. This direction is marked at U3. This shows that the stress in U3M3 is
tensile. The influence line diagram for stress in U2M3 is shown in Fig.1.59 (f).
⎛ 5⎞ 3
FL = ⎜1 – ⎟ =
3L4 8⎠ 8
⎝
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 819
⎡3 ⎤
M 3 L4 = ⎢ 8 – ( –0.312 )⎥
⎣ ⎦
This shear force also acts downward. In order to balance this, the stress in
M3L3 acts upward. This direction is marked at L3. This shows that the stress in
M3L3 is tensile.
When the unit load is at L4, the load is on the right side of the section.
M2U3 = 0.416
⎛ 26.25 – 24 ⎞
tan θ1 = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 0.1125. ∴ θ1 = 6° 25´
⎝ 20
sin θ1 = 0.1118, cos θ1 = 0.9938
⎛ U L ⎞ ⎛ 24 ⎞
P1L4 = ⎜ 4 5 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 213.33 m
⎝ tan θ1 ⎠ ⎝ 0.1125 ⎠
AP1 = (213.33 –40) = 173.33 m
xU4U5 = (213.33 × 0.1118) = 23.85 m
820 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ M L4 ⎞
Therefore, U 4U 5 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 23.85 ⎠
⎛ M4 ⎞
I.L.D. for U 4U 5 = I.L.D. for ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 23.85 ⎠
a b ed
c U6 U7 U8 U9 U 1 0 U 11
U5
U2 U3 U4 U 12 U
13 U 14
M4 M5 M6 M7 M 9 M 1 0 M 11 M 1 2
θ1 M1 M2 M3 M 13 M M
14 15
P1 A L0 L L2 L 3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L 1 0 L 11 L 1 2 L 1 3 L 1 4 L 1 5 L 16
1
ce
f
a b d
1 6 P an els @ 10 m = 16 0 m
(a ) K -Truss with incline d ch o rd
– 1.2 58
(b ) I.L.D fo r U 2 U 5
+1 .2 5
(c) I.L .D fo r L 4 L 5
– 1.37 7
(d ) I.L.D fo r U 5 U 6
+ 1.36 8
(e ) I.L.D fo r L 5 L 6
+0 .2 48
– 0.35 7
(f) I.L.D fo r M 4 U 5
+ 0.30 5
– 0.2 93
(g ) I.L.D fo r M 5 L 6
+ 0.25 4
– 0.1 78
(h ) I.L.D fo r U 5 M 6
0 .72 1
+0 .1 96
– 0.2 54
Fig. 15.10
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 821
The influence line diagram for moment ML is a triangle. The maximum ordinate
4
⎛ 40 × 120 ⎞
of this triangle is ⎜ ⎟ = 30. The maximum ordinate of the triangle
⎝ 160 ⎠
⎛ 30 ⎞
representing influence line diagram for stress U4U5 is ⎜ ⎟ = 1.258. When
⎝ 23.85 ⎠
the unit load is at L4,
⎛ 12 ⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75
⎝ 16 ⎠
ML4 = (0.75 × 40) = 30 units.
This moment ML acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
4
stress in U4U5 provides an anti-clockwise moment about L4. The direction of stress
in U4U5 is from right to left at U4. This shows that the stress in U4U5 is
compressive. The influence line diagram for stress in U4U5 is shown in Fig.15.10
(b)
⎛ MU 4 ⎞
I.L.D. for L4 L5
= ⎜⎜ I.L.D for ⎟
⎝ 24 ⎟⎠
The influence line diagram for MU is a triangle. The maximum ordinate of this
4
⎛ 40 × 120 ⎞
triangle is ⎜ ⎟ = 30 units. The maximum ordinate of triangle representing
⎝ 160 ⎠
⎛ 30 ⎞
influence line diagram for stress in L4 L5 is ⎜ ⎟ = 1.25. Consider the equilibrium
⎝ 24 ⎠
of left hand portion of the frame. When the unit load is at L4,
⎛ 12 ⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75
⎝ 16 ⎠
ML = (0.75 × 40) = 30 units.
4
This moment ML acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress
4
in L4L5 provides an anti-clockwise moment about U4. The direction of stress in
L4L5 is from left to right. This direction is marked atL4. This shows that the
stress in L4L5 is tensile. The influence line diagram for stress in L4L5 is shown in
Fig. 15.10 (c).
822 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ M L5 ⎞
Therefore, U5U6 = ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ xU U
⎝ 5 6 ⎠
x U U = P1L5 sin θ1 = (213.33 + 10) × 0.1118 = 24.96 m
5 6
⎛ M L5 ⎞
U5U6 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 24.96 ⎠
⎛ M L5 ⎞
I.L.D. for U5U6 = I.L.D. for ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 24.96 ⎠
The influence line diagram for ML is a triangle. The maximum ordinate of the
5
triangle is
⎛ 50 × 110 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 34.375 units.
⎝ 160 ⎠
The maximum ordinate of triangle representing the influence line diagram for
⎛ 33.375 ⎞
stress in U5U6 is ⎜ ⎟ = 1.377. Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion
⎝ 24.96 ⎠
11
of the frame. When the unit load is at L5, RA = .
16
⎛ 11 ⎞
ML = ⎜ × 50 ⎟ = 34.375 units.
5
⎝ 16 ⎠
The moment ML acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this stress in
5
U5U6 provides anti-clockwise moment about L5. The direction of stress in U5U6 in
from right to left. This direction is marked at U5. This shows that the stress in
U5U6 is compressive. The influence line diagram for stress in U5U6 is shown in
Fig.15.10(d).
⎛ MU5 ⎞
L5 L6 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 25.125 ⎠
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 823
⎛ MU5 ⎞
I.L.D. for L5 L6 = I.L.D. for ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 25.125 ⎠
The influence line diagram for MU5 is a triangle. The maximum ordinate of this
⎛ 50 × 110 ⎞
triangle is ⎜ ⎟ = 34.375 units. The maximum ordinate of the triangle
⎝ 160 ⎠
⎛ 34.375 ⎞
representing the influence line diagram for stress in L5L6 is ⎜ ⎟ = 1.368.
⎝ 24.124 ⎠
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from section bb. When
⎛ 11 ⎞
MU = ⎜ ⎟ × 50 = 34.375 units.
5
⎝ 16 ⎠
This moment MU acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
5
stress in L5L6 provides an anti-clockwise moment about U5. The direction of stress
in L5L6 at L5 point is form left to right. This shows that stress in L5L6 is tensile.
The influence line diagram for stress in L5L6, is shown in Fig.15.10(e).
⎛ 0.3896 ⎞
M 4U5 = ⎜ ⎟ × sin φ1
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 26.125 ⎞
tan φ1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.256,φ1 = 51° 28´, sin φ1 = 0.782
⎝ 2 × 10 ⎠
⎛ 0.3896 ⎞
M 4U5 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.248
⎝ 2 × 0.782 ⎠
The shear force acts downward. In order to balance this, the vertical component
of stress in M4U5 acts upward. The direction of stress in M4U5 is from left to right
upward at M4. This shows that the stress in M4U5 is tensile.
When the unit load is at L5 the load is on the right side of the section cc, RA is
11
= 0.687 (Upward)
16
⎛ 110 ⎞
U 4U 5 = ⎜1.258 – ⎟ = 1.125 (Compressive)
⎝ 120 ⎠
⎛ 0.563 ⎞
M 4U5 = ⎜ = 0.357
⎝ 2 × 0.782 ⎟⎠
This shear acts upward. In order to balance this, the vertical component of
M4U5 acts downward. The direction of stress in M4U5 is from right to left downward
at M4. This shows that the stress in M4U5 is compressive. The influence line
diagram for stress in M4U5 is shown in Fig.15.10 (f).
⎛ 1 26.25 ⎞
tan φ2 = ⎜ × = 1.3125,φ2 = 52° 42´, sin φ2 = 0.7955
⎝2 10 ⎠⎟
⎛ 0.466 ⎞
M 5 L6 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.293
⎝ 2 × 0.7955 ⎠
This shear acts downward. In order to balance this, the vertical component of
stress in M5L6 , acts upward. The direction of stress in M5L6 is from right to left
upward. This shows that the stress in M5L6 is compressive.
When the unit load is at L6, the load is on the right side of the section dd.
⎛ 10 ⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.625
⎝ 16 ⎠
⎛ 100 ⎞
U5U6 = ⎜1.368 × = 1.242(Compressive)
⎝ 110 ⎟⎠
⎛ 0.4862 ⎞
M4U5 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.305
⎝ 2 × 0.7955 ⎠
This shear acts upward. In order to balance this, the vertical component of
M5L6 acts downward. The direction of stress in M5L6 is from left to right downward
at M5. This shows that the stress in M5L6 is tensile. The influence line diagram
for stress in M5L8 is shown in Fig.15.10 (g).
M 4 L5 = 0.248 (Compressive)
⎛ 110 ⎞
U4U5 = ⎜1.258 × = 1.152 (Compressive)
⎝ 120 ⎟⎠
⎛ 110 ⎞
U4U5 – ⎜1.258 × = l.047 (Compressive)
⎝ 120 ⎟⎠
⎛ 100 ⎞
M4 L5 = ⎜ 0.357 × = 0.324 (Compressive)
⎝ 110 ⎠⎟
This shear acts in upward direction. In order to balance this, the stress in M5L5
acts downward at L5. This shows that stress in M5L5 is compressive. The influence
line diagram for stress in M5L5is shown in Fig.15.10 (j).
⎛ x⎞
RA = ⎜1 – ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 40 ⎠
⎛ x ⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ 40 ⎠
These expressions (iii) and (iv) hold good for the load positions from A to C
when x =0 RA = 1(↑) RB = 0
when x = 40 m RA = 0 RB = 1(↑)
when x = 70 m RA = 0.75(↓) RB = 1.75(↑).
Consider that unit load moves from C to D. Let the unit load be at a distance x
at any instant from C. The load transmitted at C,
⎛ 60 – x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
PC = ⎜ ⎟↑= ⎜1 – 60 ⎟ ↓
⎝ 60 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Taking moment about A,
⎛ x ⎞
RB × 40 – ⎜1 ⎟ × 70 = 0
⎝ 60 ⎠
70 ⎛ x ⎞
RB =
40 ⎜1 – 60 ⎟ ↑
⎝ ⎠
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 829
U2 U3 U4 B U6 U7 C D E F
L3
L3
L4 L6 L7
4 @ 10 = 40 m 4@ 6 @ 10 = 60 m 3@ 4 @ 10 = 40 m
1 0= 30 m 1 0= 30 m
b a (a )
P1 A U2 U3 U4 B U6 U7 C D
θ θ
X L3U4 L2
L7
L3 L4 L5 L6
b a
4 P a ne ls 3 P a ne ls 6 P a ne ls
@ 10 = 40 m @ 10 = 30 m @ 10 = 60 m
1 .00
0 .75
1 .75
1 .00
(d ) I.L.D . for R B
+ 1.12 5
– 0.75
(e ) I.L.D for U 3 U 4
+ 0.31 6 0 .47 4
– 1.42 1
+ 0.37 5
+ 0.75
–
0 .12 5 (g ) I.L.D for L 3 U 4
+ 0 .12 5
– 0.75
– 0.37 5
(h ) I.L.D for U 3 L 3
Fig. 15.11
830 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎡⎛ x ⎞ ⎤
RA = ⎢⎜1 – 60 ⎟ – RB ⎥
⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦
⎡ x 70 ⎛ x ⎞⎤
= ⎢1 – 60 – 40 ⎜1 – 60 ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
⎛ x ⎞
= ⎜ 0.75 – 0.75 ⎟ ...(vi)
⎝ 60 ⎠
when x =0 RA = 0.75(↓) RB = 1.75(↑)
when x = 60 RA = 0 RB = 0.
⎛ M L3 ⎞
U3U4 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 13.33 ⎠
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame. When the unit load
1
is atU3, RA is
2
⎛ 20 ⎞
ML = ⎜ ⎟ = 10 units
3
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 10 ⎞
U3U4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75
⎝ 13.33 ⎠
The moment ML acts in clockwise direction about L3. In order to balance this,
3
the stress in U3U4 provides an anti-clockwise moment about L2. The direction of
stress inU3U4 is from right to left at U3. This shows that the stress in U3U4 is
compressive.
When the unit load is at B, RA is zero
ML = 0, U3U4 = 0
3
When the unit load is at C,
RA = 0.75 (↓)
ML = 0.75 × 20 = 15 units
3
⎛ 15 ⎞
U3U4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.125
⎝ 13.133 ⎠
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 831
⎛ MU 4 ⎞
∴ L3 L4 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 15.81 ⎠
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from section aa.
When the unit load is at U3, RA is 0.5 (Upward).
MU = (0.5 × 30 – 1 × 10) = 5 units
4
⎛ 5 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.316
⎝ 15.81 ⎠
This moment acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress in
L3L4 provides an anti-clockwise moment about U4. The direction of stress in L3L4
is from left to right downward at L3. This shows that the stress in L3L4 is tensile.
When the unit load is at U4.
RA = 0.25 (Upward)
MU = 0.25 × 30 = 7.5 units
4
⎛ 7.5 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.474
⎝ 15.81 ⎠
This moment MU also acts clockwise. In order to balance this, the stress in
4
L3L4 provides an anti-clockwise moment about U4. The direction of stress in L3L4
is from left to right downward at L3. This shows that the stress in L3L4 is tensile.
When the unit load is at support B, the reaction at support A is zero. The stress
L3L4 is also zero. When the unit load is at C,
RA = 0.75 (Downward)
832 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ 13.33 ⎞
tan φ = ⎜ = 1.333. φ = 53° 8´, sin φ = 0.8
⎝ 10 ⎟⎠
x L3U4 = 50 × 0.8 = 40 m
When the unit load is at U3, the reaction RA is 0.5
MP = (l × 40 – 0.5 × 20) = 30 units
1
⎛ 30 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75
⎝ 40 ⎠
This moment MP acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
1
stress in L3U4 provides an anti-clockwise moment about P1. The direction of
stress in L3U4 is from left to right upward at L3. This shows that the stress in
L2U4 is tensile.
RA = 0.25 (Upward)
MP = 0.25 × 20 = 5 units
⎛ 5 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.125.
⎝ 40 ⎠
This moment MP acts in anti-clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
1
stress in L3U4 provides a clockwise moment and P . The direction of stress in
1
L3L4is from right to left downward at L3. This shows that stress in L3L4 is
compressive.
When the unit load is at B, the RA is zero. The stress in L3L4 is zero when the
unit load is at C,
RA = 0.75 (Downward)
MP1 = (075 × 20) = 15 units
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 833
⎛ 15 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.375.
⎝ 40 ⎠
This moment MP1 acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
stress in L3U4 provides an anti-clockwise moment at P1. The stress in L3U4 acts
from left to right upward. This shows that the stress in L3U4 is tensile. When the
unit load is at D, the reaction RA is zero. The stress in L3U4 is zero. The influence
line diagram for L3U4 is shown in Fig. 15.11 (g).
Problems
15.1 For a bridge truss as shown in Fig. P 15.1 draw the influence line
diagrams for forces in members PB, PQ, PC, and QC for load travelling
on the bottom boom. Also draw the influence line for the reaction at F.
R
O S
14 m
P T
12 m
8m
A G
B C D E F
5 P a ne ls @ 1 0 = 5 0 m 0m
Fig. P. 15.1
15.2 Draw the influence lines for the members U4M5, L3L4 and U2U4 of a
Baltimore truss sketched below consisting of 12 bays of 7.5 m each.
U2 U4 U6 U8 U 10
M1 M3 M5 M7 M9 M 11 15 m
7 .5 m
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L 1 0 L 11 L12
90 m
Fig. P. 15.2
15.3 Draw the influence lines for three members X, Y and Z in the bridge
shown in Fig.P. 15.3
X
U4 U6
U8
U2 30 m U 10
28 m M M
M3 M9 M 11
M1 20 m Z
L0 L 12
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 L 11
1 2 b ays o f 1 0 m = 1 20 m
Fig. P. 15.3
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 835
15.4 The height of the K-girder shown in Fig. P. 15.4 is 6 m and the span is 30
m. If the loads are carried by cross-girders at the lower points, draw the
influence lines for the forces in the members GD, DE and EF. If the dead
load is 15 kN/m and the live load is 45 kN/m, find the maximum and
minimum forces of the members FE.
F
3m
G J
3m
A B
C D E H K
30 m
Fig. P. 15.4
15.5 For the AK-truss shown in Fig. P.15.5 draw influence line diagrams for
forces in members U2U3, L2L3, M2L3 and M1L1. Also determine the
maximum compressive and tensile forces in these members due to a
uniformly distributed dead load of 20 kN/m and a uniformly distributed
live load of 40 kN/m may length.
U2 U3 U4 U5 U6
M1 M2 M3 M5 M6 M7
6m
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8
8 ba ys @ 3 m = 2 4 m
Fig. P. 15.5
15.6 A Baltimore truss with sub-ties is shown in Fig. P.15.6. Draw influence
line diagrams for the forces in the members U4M5, L4L5 and M5L5.
U2 U4 U6 U8 U 10
M1 M3 M 11 20 m
M5 M7 M9
10 m
O
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L 10 L 11 L12
1 2 b ays @ 8 m = 96 m
L0
Fig. P. 15.6
836 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
15 .7 Draw influence line diagrams for the axial forces in the members and
U4L4 of the truss shown in Fig. P. 15.7.
U6
U4
U2
16 m
15 m M1 M3 M5 M7 M9 M 11
12 m
L0 L1 L2 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L 12
L3 L9 L10 L 11
12 @ 8 m = 96 m
Fig. P. 15.7
CHAPTER
16
Analysis of Space Frames
16.1 INTRODUCTION
The plane frames or frame structures or trusses are the structures in two
dimensions. The space frames are structures in three dimensions. The stresses
in various members of the plane frame are found by various methods. The three
methods, which are commonly used are method of joints, method of’ section and
graphical method. In the method of joints, the stresses in various members of
plane frames are found by resolving the forces horizontally and vertically and
by applying the laws of statical equilibrium. The method of tension coefficient
is the most efficient method for analysis of space frames. This method is also
applicable for the analysis of plane frames. This method was propounded by
Professor R.V. Southwell, The method of joints for analysis of space frames has
been neatly and systematically presented in this method. The various other
methods, which are available for the analysis of space frames are tedious and
combersome as compared to this method. The method of tension coefficients
has been discussed in this chapter. The analysis of plane frames by this method
has also been discussed.
A member PQ of a perfect pin jointed frame is shown in Fig. 16.1. The perfect
frame is in equilibrium under a given system of forces. The two co-ordinate axes
are represented by OX and OY. The co-ordinates of end P of the member are (xP,
yP) and those of end Q are (xQ . yQ). The length of member PQ is determined by
LPQ = [(x – xP)2 + (yQ – yP)2]1/2 ...(16.2)
If FPQ is the tensile force in member PQ, then, its component parallel to OX-
axis or x-axis is
⎛ PR ⎞
=FPQ . cos θ = FPQ . ⎜
( xQ – x P )
⎟ = FPQ . L
⎝ PQ ⎠ PQ
⎛ FPQ ⎞
where, t PQ = ⎜ ⎟⎟ = Tension coefficient for stress in the member PQ.
⎜ LPQ
⎝ ⎠
Y Q (x Q – y Q )
PQ
L
(y Q – y Q )
θ
P (x , y )
P P yP
O x
xP (x Q – y P )
xQ
Fig. 16.1
⎛ FPQ ⎞
= ⎜ (y – y ) = t PQ.(yQ – yP) ...(ii)
⎜ L ⎟⎟ Q P
⎝ PQ ⎠
Thus it is seen that the components of stresses in the various members along
x-axis and y-axis are expressed in terms of the tension coefficients and the co-
ordinates of the ends of members with reference to reference axes.
S
(x S , y S ) (x R , y R ) R
X
O
Fig. 16.2
Consider joint P in order to determine the stresses in the member PQ, PR and
PS, meeting at the joint P. The joint P is in equilibrium. The algebraic sum of
resolved components of stresses in these members and external force in any
direction is zero. Therefore, the algebraic sum of components of the stresses in
the members and external forces along x- axis and y-axis are given by the
following expressions and equated to zero:
t PQ (XQ – XP) + tPR (xR –xP) + tPS (xS – xP) + ........ + XP = 0 ...(16.3)
t PQ (yQ – yP) + t PR (yR – yP) + tPS (y S – yP) + ....... + YP = 0 ...(16.4)
Equations 16.3 and 16.4 can also be expressed as
∑ t (xF – xN) + XP = 0 ...(16.5)
∑ t (xF – yN) + YP = 0 ...(16.6)
where ∑ t (xF – xN) is the sum of components of stresses of all the members
meeting at the joint P along x-axis, (xY, yF) represent the co-ordinates of far
ends of the members meeting at the joint P. All the ends of the members farther
from the ends or joint under consideration are called as far ends, (xN, yN) represent
the co-ordinates of near ends of the members. The end of member or joint under
consideration is called near end.
In the above equations, the tension coefficients are only unknown. There are
two equations, at one joint of the frame. If n are the number of joints in a frame,
then there are in equations. The tension co-efficients t PQ, tPR, tPS...etc. are found
by solving these equations. The stresses in a various members of the frame are
determined by the product of corresponding tension co-efficients and lengths of
the members.
It is to note that there are m – (2n – 3) members in a perfect frame of n joints.
There are 2n equations for determining the stresses in the various members.
Thus, there are three surplus equations in this method of tension coefficients.
840 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
These surplus equations may be utilized for applying the check or for determining
the reactions at the supports.
The forces in various members are assumed to be acting away from the joint,
i.e., tensile forces at the joints under considerations are written positive if they
are acting parallel to the positive directions of axes. Any joint of the frame may
also be assumed as the origin and the reference axes be marked. The origin of
axes should be assumed at such a point, or any other point, from which the
coordinates of various joints, may be written easily.
3m
x
O
4m
1 00 kN
Fig. 16.3
1 50 kN 8 0 kN
Q R
2 .5 3 m
P X
S
5 .0 m
R1 R2
Fig. 16.4
Step 3 : The stress in various members of pin jointed frame PQRS are
determined as follows.
Joints Equations Member t L F =L×t
x tPQ (0 – 0.5 + t QR QR – 10 3 5m –50 3 kN
(7.5 – 2.5) = 0
Q
y t PQ (0 – 2.5 3 )
– 157 = 0 PQ – 20 3 5m –100 3 kN
x tQR (2.5 – 7.5) + tPR
× (0 – 7.5) + tRS
× (10 – 7.5) = 0 3
PR 10 5 3 30 k N
5
Contd.
ANALYSIS OF SPACE FRAMES 843
Contd.
Joints Equations Member t L F =L×t
R
y tPR (0 – 2.5 3 )
+ tRS (0 – 2.5 3 )
– 90 = 0 RS – 14 3 5m – 70 3 kN
x t PS (0 –10) + tRS
× (7.5 –10) = 0
S PS + 35 10 m 35 3 kN
y tRS(2.5 3 –0) + R3 = 0 × 3 × 3
1 kN
C
1 kN 1 kN
B D 0 .5 kN
0 .5 kN 9 0°
3 0°
A X
5m
G F
2 kN 2 kN
Fig. 16.5
Solution
Step 1: It is to note that the roof truss is symmetrical about the centre line.
The stresses in members on one side have been found.
844 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
The joint A is assumed to be the origin. The positive directions of the axes
have been marked in Fig.16.5.
The height of truss,
1
CX = (AX tan 30° + 7.5 × ) = 2.5 3
3
The length of rafter,
AC = [7.52 + (2.5 3 )3]1/2= 5 3 m
The length of member,
AB = BC = AC = 2.5 3 m
2
The length of member, CG
= [(2.5 3 )3 + (2.5)2]1/2 = 5 m
The length of member, BG
1
AG × sin 30° = 5 × = 2.5 m
2
Step 2: The co-ordinates of various joints are as follows :
Joint Co-ordinates
x y
A 0 0
G 5m 0
B 3.75 m 1.25 3m
C 7.5 m 2.5 3 m
The reactions at supports RA = RB = 2 kN. The stresses in the various members
are found by the method of tension coefficient given on Page 816.
Step 3: The stresses in the members are as follows :
AB = DE = – 3 kN BC = CD = – 2.5 kN
GF = + 3 kN AG = FE = 1.5 3 kN
BG = LF = – 0.5 3 kN CG = CF = 0.5 3 kN
coefficient is applied for the analysis of space frame in the same manner as it is
applied for the plane frame.
Let PQ be a member of perfect space frame in equilibrium under a given
system of forces. Let Fp be the tensile force in the member PQ. (Let xP, yP, zP)
Q
and zQ, yQ, zQ be the co-ordinates of P and Q with reference to suitably assumed
axes of reference. The length of member PQ is determined as follows :
LPQ = [(xQ –yP)2 + (xQ –yP)2 + (zQ – zP )2]1/2 ...(16.7)
Z
Q
θ3
θ1 R
P
θ2 X
S
Y
Fig. 16.6
The member PQ is inclined θ1, θ2 and θ3 with the x-axis, y-axis and z-axis as
shown in Fig.16.6, respectively.
The components of tensile force FPQ along the positive direction of x–axis is
⎛ PR ⎞ FPQ ( xQ − x P )
= FPQ cos θ1 = FPQ . ⎜ =
⎝ PQ ⎟⎠ LPQ
= t PQ .(xQ – xP) ...(i)
The components of tensile force FPQ along the positive direction of y-axis is
⎛ PS ⎞ FPQ ( yQ − yP )
= FPQ cos θ2 = FPQ . ⎜
⎝ PQ ⎟⎠ LPQ
= tPQ .(yQ – yP)
0m
e=1
Rop
G uy 5m
1 20 kN
5m
Q
O
O X
P1 P2
7m R
QR = 2 m
Fig. 16.7
848 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
assumed as the origin. The positive directions three reference axes are shown
in Fig.16.7. The point P1 is at the centre of R. Join P and P1. In the plane PQR,
PP1 is perpendicular to the line QR.
Therefore, from triangle PP1Q right angled at P1
PP1 = (PQ2 – P1Q2)1/2 = (52 – 12)1/2 = 4.899 m
In the triangle OPP1let ∠POP1 = θ. Then
⎛ OP 2 + OP12 – PP12 ⎞
cos θ = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 × OP × OP1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 102 + 72 – 24 ⎞
cos θ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.8928
⎝ 2 × 10 × 7 ⎠
θ = 26°37´, sin θ = 0.441
OP2 = OP cos θ = 10 × 0.8928 = 8.928 m
PP2 = OP sin θ = 10 × 0.448 = 448 m
P1P2 = (8.928 –7)= 1.928 m.
Step 2: The co-ordinate of the various points are as follows
Joint Co-ordinates
x y z
O 0 0 0
P 8.928 m 0 4.48 m
Q 7.00 m –1 m 0
R 7.00 m +1m 0
Step 3: The thrust in the legs and pull in the guy rope are found as below:
Joints Equations Members t L F =L×t
x t OP (0 – 8.928) PQ – 17.05 5m – 85.25 kN
+ t OP (7 – 8.928)
+ tOP (7 – 8.928) = 0
P y tOP (0 – 0) + tOP (–1 – 0) PR – 17.05 5m – 85.25 kN
+ tPR (1 – 0) = 0
z + tOP (0 – 4.48) OP + 07.30 10 m + 73.0 kN
+ tPQ (0 – 4.48)
+ t PR (0 – 4.48) – 120 = 0
Y
b 'd' c'
P
5m
a' 4 5°
x
e'
5m 2 .88 m
E levatio n b
Z
2m
e c
x
o
2m
P lan d
Fig. 16.8
Co-ordinates
a, (0, 0,0); b, (5, 5, 2); c, (7.88, 5, 0); d. (5,5,– 2); e, (5, 0,0).
Solution
Step1: The lengths of members areas follows:
AE = 5 m, BD = 4 m
AB = AD = [(5 – 0)2 + (5 – 0)2 + (2 – 0)2]1/2= 7.348 m
BE = DE = [(5 – 5)2 + (5 – 0)2 + (2 – 0)2]1/2= 5.385 m
CE = [(7.88 – 5)2 +(5 – 0)2]1/2 = 5.771 m
Step 2: The stresses in various member of the space frame are found by
applying the method of tension coefficient.
The moment due to load P is resisted by equal and opposite reactions at A
and E. Taking moment about A.
Therefore 5 × R = P × 7.88
∴ R = 1.576 P acts upward at E
Joints Equations Member t L F
P
x tBC (5 – 7.88) BC 3.464 0.346 P
10
+ tCD (5 – 7.88)
+ tCE (5 – 7.88) = 0
P
C y tBC (5 – 5) + tCD(5 – 5) CD 3.464 3.464 P
10
t CE(0 – 5) – P = 0
Contd.
850 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Contd.
Joints Equations Member t L F
P
z + t BC (2 – 0) CE – 5.771 –1.154 P
5
+ tCD(– 2 – 0) = 0
x tAB (0 – 5) AB 0.058 P 7.348 0.426 P
+ tBC (7.88 – 5)
+ tBD (5 – 5)
+ tBE (5 – 5)= 0
B y tAB (0 – 5) + tBC (5 – 5) BE – 0.058 P 5.385 –0.313 P
+ tBD (5 – 5)
+ tBE (0 – 5) = 0
z tAB (0 – 2) + tBC (0 – 2) BD – 0.05P 4 – 0.20 P
tBD (– 2 – 2)
tBE (0 – 2)= 0
x tAD (0 – 5) AD + 0.058P 7.348 0.426 P
tCD (7.88 + 5)
tBD (5 – 5)
tDE (5 – 5)= 0
D y tAB (0 – 5) + tCD(5 – 5) DE – 0.058P 5.385 – 0.313 P
+ tBD (5 – 5)
+ tDE (0 – 5)= 0
z tAD [0 –(–2)]
+ t CD[0 –(–2)]
+ t BD[0 –(–2)]
+ tDE[0 –(–2)] = 0
x tAE (0 – 5) + tBE (5 – 5)
tDE (5 – 5)
tDE (7.88 – 5) = 0
y tAE (0 – 0) + tBE (5 – 0) AE – 0.115 P 5 – 0.575 P
+ tDE (5 – 0)
+ tCE (5 – 0)
+ 15.6 P = 0
z tAE (0 – 0) + tBE (2 – 0)
tDE (– 2 – 0)
tCE (0 – 0)= 0
Example 16.6. A space frame is shown in Fig. 16.9. The space frame is
supported by ball joints at A, B, C and D in one horizontal plane. The horizontal
member EF is 2 m above the base. The horizontal loads of 20 kN and 40 kN act
at joints
A D
2m
E F
2 0 kN
4 0 kN
2m
X
C
1m 1m 1m
Fig. 16.9
E and F respectively. Find the force in all the members of the space frame by the
method of tension coefficient.
Solution
Step 1: Let B be the origin, and the directions of axes as shown in Fig. 16.9.
The direction of z-axis is vertically upward positive. The co-ordinates of various
joints are as follows :
Joint Co-ordinates
X Y Z
B 0 0 0
C 3 0 0
D 3 4 4
A 0 4 0
E 1 2 2
F 2 2 2
852 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
20 40
x tEF (1 – 2) + tBF (0 – 2) BE 2 3 kN
3 3
+ tEF (3 – 2)
+ tDF (3 – 2)= 0
F y tEF (2 – 2) + tEF (0 – 2) DF –10 3 – 30 kN
+ t EF (0 – 2)
+ tDF (4 – 2) + 40 = 0
10
z + tEF ( 0 – 0)+ tBF (0 – 2) CF 3 10 kN
3
+ tBF (0 – 2)
+ t DF (0 – 2) = 0
⎛ 40 ⎞
BE = ⎜ ⎟ kN DF = – 30 kN
⎝ 3⎠
CF =10 kN
ANALYSIS OF SPACE FRAMES 853
Problems
16.1 Determine the stresses in the members of the plane frame as shown in
Fig. P. 16.1 by the method of tension co-efficient.
3m
A B
3m
6 0 kN
Fig. P. 16.1
16.2 Determine the stress in the members of the plane frame as shown in
Fig. P. 16.2 by applying the method of tension co-efficient.
5 0 kN 5 0 kN
6 0° 6 0° 6 0° 6 0°
3m 3m
Fig. P. 16.2
16.3 The length of each leg of a pair of shear leg is 4 m. The distance between
their feet is 1.80 m. The distance from the foot of the guy rope is 6 m.
The length of guy rope is 8.40 in. A load of 80 kN is suspended from the
head. Determine the pull in the guy rope and the thrust in each leg by
applying ihe method of tension co-efficient.
854 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
16.4 A space frame is shown in Fig. P. 16.4. The shape frame is supported
by the ball joints A, B,C, and D in one horizontal plane. The horizontal
member EF is 3 m above the base. The horizontal loads 10 kN and 20
kN act at E and 30 kN at F as shown in Fig. 16.12. Find the forces in
the various members of the space frame by the method of tension co-
efficient.
D
A
3m
1 0 kN E F
2 0 kN 3 0 kN 3m
B
C
2m 3m 2m
Fig. P. 16.4
16.5 A tripod is shown in Fig. P.16.5. The feet to legs, P, Q and R are in one
horizontal plane. The apex S is 3 m above the base. Find the stresses
in ail the members due to horizontal loads 30 kN and 20 kN at S.
2m
S R
3 0 kN
2m 2 0 kN
Q
3 .6 m 3 .6 m
Fig. P. 16.5
855 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
16.6 A space frame is loaded as shown in Fig. P. 16.6. The feet of legs A, B
and C are in one horizontal plane. The vertex D is 4.5 m above the
base. Analyse the space frame using the tension co-efficient method.
Supports A, B and C are all ball joint supports.
3m
C
3 0 kN
3m 3 0 kN
B
5 .4 m 5 .4 m
Fig. P. 16.6
16.7 A space frame is loaded as shown in Fig. P.16.7. The space frame is
supported by the universal ball joints at A, B, C and D in one horizonlal
plane. The horizontal member EF is 6 m above the base. Analyse the
space frame using the tension co-efficient method.
A D
6m
20 kN E F
40 6m
60 kN
B
4m 6m 4m C
Fig. P. 16.7
CHAPTER
17
17.1 INTRODUCTION
In the analysis and design of roof trusses and design of truss girder bridges, the
axial or direct stresses (forces) in the various members are determined by
assuming that (a) all the members are straight and free to rotate at the panel
points (joints), (b) all the panel points (joints) of the truss lie at the intersection
of the gravity axes of the members, and (c) all loads including the self-weight of
the members themselves are applied at the joints. These axial or direct stresses
are defined as primary stresses. In practice, the above assumptions are not
realized and, consequently the members are subjected not only to axial stresses,
but also to bending and shear stresses. These stresses are known as secondary
stresses. The secondary stresses are defined as the stresses due to rigidity
(stiffness) of the joints, eccentricity of connections, members not being straight,
the self-weight of the members etc. The secondary stresses are classified into
two groups, namely,
(a) stresses which are the result of the elastic deformation of the structure
combined with rigidity of the joints ; and
(b) stresses which are the result of eccentricity of connections generally
and off panel point loading (e.g., loads rolling direct on the chord, self
weight of the members, and the wind load of the members. It is noted
that the secondary stresses due to unknown eccentricities arising out of
fabrication are already allowed for in the factor of safety.
The term secondary stresses in its narrow sense is usually referred to the
flexural (bending) stresses produced in the plane of the truss by the resistance
of the joints to free rotation. When determining the secondary stresses, it would
be seen that the flexural stresses are the most important secondary stresses to
be considered. The shear stresses are important in some cases only. The
secondary axial stresses may also exist, which modifies the primary stresses
slightly. These are very small in magnitude. These are not usually considered.
ANALYSIS OF SECONDARY STRESSES 857
The values of these secondary stresses very largely. The secondary stresses
generally range from 5 to 25 percent of the primary stresses in case of common
type of stresses with members having high slenderness ratio, the secondary
stresses are 40 to 100 percent of the primary stresses in case of sub-divided trusses
and Warren trusses with verticals. The secondary stresses in Warren trusses and
very small. The significance of the secondary stresses even their magnitude is
high, is not essentially comparable to that of primary stresses because of the
following reasons. Firstly, the values of secondary stresses would be large only in
few members. Secondly, the high values of secondary stress would exit only in
the extreme fibres at the end of the members. In case, the values of localized
stress becomes equal to yield stress, even then, these would not result in the
failure of the structure. The basic allowable stresses are very low. Therefore, the
high localized stresses do not create a problem so long as these are not repeated
for number of terms in which case, they would result in the fatigue failure.
The structure should be designed, fabricated and erected in such a manner
as to minimize, as far as possible, the secondary stresses. The secondary stresses
included in group (b) are computed and added to the co-existent stresses in
arriving at the maximum combined stresses in its members, but stresses due to
self-weight of the members and the wind load on it may be neglected.
The secondary stresses due to the rigidity of the joints have been only discussed
in this chapter.
W W
(a) Deflected shape of pin-jointed truss
W W
loads are applied at the lower panel points of the truss. The joints of truss are
free to rotate.
When the truss is loaded, then all the members are deformed. The deflected
shape of the pin jointed truss is shown by dotted lines in Fig.17.1 (a). The
longitudinal deformations of the members due to axial stresses (forces) in the
members produce slight changes in the angles between all the members at joints.
The changes in the angles have been found in Sec.17.3.
Now consider that the members are rigidly joined at all the connections. When
the truss is loaded, then, all the members have longitudinal deformations. But
the members are prevented from free rotations at the joints. The angles between
the members cannot change. The deflections of all the joints compel all the
members to bend as shown in Fig.17.1 (b) by the dotted lines. It produces bending
moments in the members. The bending moments are maximum at the joints.
These moments are known as secondary moments. The secondary bending
stresses are produced in the members due to these secondary moments.
A A'
θa b θa c
A
LAB LC A
θb a θc a
C
B
B LB C C B' θc b C'
θb c
(i)
(ii)
Fig. 17.2
⎛ F ⋅L ⎞
ΔAB = ⎜ AB AB ⎟ ...(17.1)
⎝ E ⎠
⎛ F ⋅L ⎞
ΔBC = ⎜ BC BC ⎟ ...(17.2)
⎝ E ⎠
ANALYSIS OF SECONDARY STRESSES 859
⎛ FCA ⋅ LBA ⎞
ΔCA = ⎜ ⎟ ...(17.3)
⎝ E ⎠
where, E = Young’s modulus of elasticity.
In case the joints of triangle do not offer any resistance for free rotations,
then, the angles of the triangle would change. Let the angle of the triangle be A,
B and C, and change in angles be δA, δB and δC. From trigonometrical relation
⎡ ( L )2 + ( L )2 – ( L )2 ⎤
cos A = ⎢ CA AB BC
⎥ ...(17.4)
⎣⎢ 2LCA ⋅ LAB ⎦⎥
The change in angle A (i.e., θA) depends upon the change in length of the
sides of the triangle. Therefore, the lengths of sides of the triangle are treated
as the functions of angle A.
Differentiating Eq, 17.4 w.r.t A
LBC Δ BC ⎡ Δ AB ΔCA ⎤
–2 + (LBC)2 ⎢ + 2⎥ ...(i)
⎢⎣ LCA ⋅ ( LAB ) LAB ( LCA ) ⎥⎦
2
LCA LAB
⎡ ( L )2 + ( L )2 – ( L )2 ⎤
∴ δA=
1 ⎢ BC CA AB
⎥ . ΔCA
2sin A ⎢⎣ L CA ⋅ L AB ⎦⎥ LCA
+
(LBC )2 + (LAB )2 – (LCA )2 . Δ AB – 2 LBC .
Δ BC
...(ii)
LCA L AB LAB LCA LAB
LBC LCA L
∴ = = AB
sin A sin B sin C
and
LBC = LCA .cos C + LAB cos B
⎡ ΔCA Δ AB ⎤
⎢ – L ⋅ cot C – L – cot B ⎥
∴ δA = ⎢ CA AB ⎥ ...(iii)
⎢ ⎛ LBA cot C + LAB cot B ⎞ ⎥
⎢ Δ AB ⎜ ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ LCA LAB sin A ⎦⎥
⎡Δ Δ ⎤ ⎡Δ Δ ⎤
= ⎢ BA – AB ⎥ cot B + ⎢ BC – CA ⎥ cot C ...(iv)
L
⎣ BC L AB ⎦ ⎣ BC LCA ⎦
L
860 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
be δA1, δA2, and δA3, and so on. One deflection angle θab, is selected as a reference
angle. The values of the various deflection angles may be found as follows :
D
C
θc d
A 2 + δA 2
θa c
A2
A3 A 1 + δA 1
θa e
A1
E
A B
θa b
Fig. 17.3
x = c, d, e, ...
In Eq. 17.9, the value of deflection angle has been expressed in terms of one
of the deflection angle (which is known as the reference deflection angle) and
sum of changes of the angles between the reference angle and the calculated or
desired deflection angle. The values of changes of angles may be found from
Eqs. 17.5, 17.6 and 17.7. From the deflection angles, the values of secondary
moment may be found as discussed in Sec. 17.5.
The deflection angle of the first member met in passing around the joint in
a clockwise direction is adopted as the reference deflection angle, beginning
from outside of the truss.
the elastic curve (curved centre line of the member) with the straight line joining
the ends of the memebrs, then, the bending moments at the ends of the members
are as follows :
2EI AB
MAB = (2θab + θba) ...(17.10)
L AB
2EI AB
MBA = (2 θba + θab) ...(17.11)
L AB
The values of secondary moments depend upon deflection angles. The values
of deflection angles may be substituted from Eq. 17.9.
⎡ 2EI AB 2EI AC ⎤
⎢ L (2θab + θba ) + (2θac + θba ) ⎥
LAC
∴ ⎢ AB ⎥=0
⎢ 2EI AD 2EI AE ⎥
⎢+ (2θad + θda ) + (2θac + θca ) ⎥
⎣ LAD LAE ⎦
⎛I⎞
∴ ⎜ ⎟ = K, and 2E is common (throughout)
⎝L⎠
∴ [KAB (2θab) + KAC (2θac+ θca) + KAD (2θad+ θca) + KAB (2θac+ θca)] = 0
...(17.13)
Equation17.13 is a fundamental equation for the equilibrium of any joint
(e.g., joint A). Equation 17.13 may be written for each joint of the truss. The
number of equations would be equal to the number of the joints.
For one member, there are two unknown deflection angles. If n is the number
of joints, then the number of member, m, in a perfect frame is equal to (2n – 3)
ANALYSIS OF SECONDARY STRESSES 863
and the number of unknown deflection angles would be (4n – 6). There are only
n number of equations. Therefore, the values of deflection angles cannot be
found from Eq. 17.13.
The values of deflection angles at any point may be expressed in terms of
only one reference angle and the changes in the angles at a joint as per Eq.17.9.
It would reduce the number of unknown deflection angles at joint in terms of a
single angle.
Finally, the number of unknown deflection angles would be equal to the
number of joints or number of equations available. The values of deflection angles
could be then obtained.
Thus, the moments at the ends of various members may be found from
Eqs. 17.l0 and 17.11.
f = M .y
I
where, M = Secondary moment at the end of the member
I = Moment of inertia of the member
y = Distance of extreme fibre from the neutral axis.
For the facility of the work, the calculations of the secondary stresses are
arranged below:
Step 1. The primary or axial stresses in the various members of the truss
subjected to the system of loads are found.
Step 2. The changes in the various angles of the individual triangles of the
frame are found, and then, the check is also applied.
Step 3. The linear equations are written for each joint of the frame from the
conditions of the equilibrium of the joints.
Step 4. The values of deflection angles are then, found by solving in the
linear equations.
Step 5. The values of secondary moments at the ends of the members due to
bending of members are found from the deflection angles.
Step 6. The values of secondary bending stresses at the ends of the various
members due to those of moments are found.
Example 17.1. Determine the change in angles of the various triangles of a
frame as shown in Fig. 17.4. Assume that the joints are free to turn.
864 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
Solution
The primary or axial stresses in various members are found as follows:
B1 B2
3m
Q1 = A D1 D2 θ2 = C
A C
D
2 4 kN
5m 3m
Fig. 17.4
⎛ 5⎞
RB = ⎜ 24 × ⎟ = 15 kN
⎝ 8⎠
2
sin θ1 = = 0.514, cos θ1 = 0.856
(52
+ 32 )
1/2
1 ⎛ 24.90 ⎞
= [24.00 – (–17.50)] × 0.60 = + ⎜ ⎟
E ⎝ E ⎠
1
(ii) δB1= [(FAD – FED) cot D1 + (FAD – FAB ) . cot A]
E
1 ⎛ 54.40 ⎞
= [15.00 – (–17.50)] × 1.67 = ⎜ ⎟
E ⎝ E ⎠
1
(iii) δ D1= [(FAB – FAD) cot D1 + (FAB – FBD ) . cot B1]
E
1
= [–17.50 –15.00)] × 1.67 + (1 – 17.5) – 24.00) × 0.60]
E
⎛ 79.30 ⎞
=– ⎜ ⎟
⎝ E ⎠
Check
⎛ 24.90 54.40 79.30 ⎞
(δA1 + δB1 = δD1) = ⎜ E + E + E ⎟= 0
⎝ ⎠
(2) ΔBCD
1
(i) δB2 = [ (FCD – FED) cot C + (FCD – FBD) .cot D2]
E
1 ⎛ 35.21 ⎞
= [15.00 – (–21.21)] × 1.00 = + ⎜ ⎟
E ⎝ E ⎠
1
(ii) δ C = [(FBD – FED) cot D2 + (FBD – FCD ) . cot D2]
E
1 ⎛ 45.21 ⎞
= [24.00 – (–21.21)] × 1.00 = + ⎜ ⎟
E ⎝ E ⎠
866 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
1
(iii) δD2= [(FBD – FCD) cot C + (FBC – FBD ) . cot B2]
E
1
= [(–21.21 –15.00) × 1.00 + (–21.21 – 24.00) × 1.00]
E
⎛ 81.42 ⎞
=– ⎜ ⎟
⎝ E ⎠
Check
⎛ 24.90 ⎞ ⎛ 36.21 ⎞
δA=+ ⎜ ⎟, δB2 = + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ E ⎠
⎛ 54.40 ⎞ ⎛ 45.21 ⎞
δB1 = + ⎜ ⎟, δC = + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ E ⎠
⎛ 79.30 ⎞ ⎛ 81.42 ⎞
δD1 = + ⎜ ⎟, δD2 = + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ E ⎠
Example 17.2 Write the equilibrium conditions in terms of reference angles
for the various joints of the frame shown in Fig. 17.1, Adopt E = 2.1 × 105
N/mm3.
Solution
Step 1 : Equilibrium conditions of the joints
(1) Joint A. (MAB + MAD ) = 0
2EI AB 2EI AD
+ (2θab+ θba) + + (2θad+ θda) = 0
L AB L AD
∴ IAB = 2I, IAD = I
534
∴ (2θab+ θba) + (2θad+ θda) = 0
2 × 500
or (2θab+ θba) + 0.584 (2θad+ θda) = 0 ...(1)
(2) Joint C. (MCB + MCD) = 0
2EI BC 2 EI CD
+ (2θcb+ θbc) + + (2θcd+ θdc) = 0
LBC LCD
3 IBC = 2I, ICD = I
ANALYSIS OF SECONDARY STRESSES 867
⎛ 24.90 ⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
δA = ⎜ ⎟ = + ⎜ 24.90 × 10 ⎟ = + 1.183 × 10–3
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ 2.1 × 10 5 ⎠
54.40⎞
δB1 = ⎛⎜
⎛ 3⎞
⎟ = + ⎜ 54.40 × 10 ⎟ = + 2.600 × 10–3
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ 2.1 × 10 5 ⎠
⎛ 79.30 ⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
δD1 = ⎜ = + ⎜ 79.30 × 10 ⎟ = – 3.79 × 10–3
⎝ E ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2.1 × 10 ⎠
5
⎛ 36.21 ⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
δB2 = ⎜ = + ⎜ 36.21 × 10 ⎟ = + 1.742 × 10–3
⎝ E ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2.1 × 10 ⎠
5
868 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
45.21⎞
δC = ⎛⎜
⎛ 3⎞
⎟ = + ⎜ 45.21 × 10 ⎟ = + 2.16 × 10–3
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ 2.1 × 10 ⎠
5
81.42⎞
δD2 = ⎛⎜
⎛ 3⎞
⎟ = + ⎜ 81.42 × 10 ⎟ = – 3.88 × 10–3
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ 2.1 × 10 5 ⎠
(i) For joint A, assume θab= Reference angle
θad = θab + δA = (θab + 1.188 × 10–3) ...(5)
(ii) For joint C, assume θcd = Reference angle
θcb = θbd + δC = (θdd + 2.16 × 10–3) ...(6)
(iii) For joint B, assume
θbc = Reference angle
θba = θbc + δB2 = (θbc + 1.742 × 10–3) ...(7)
θba = θbc + δB2+ δB1 = (θbc + 4.342 × 10–3) ...(8)
(iv) For joint D, assume θda = Reference angle
θdb = θda + δD1 = (θda + 3.78 × 10–3) ...(9)
θdc = θda – 7.67 × 10–3) ...(10)
The angles θab, θcd, δbc and δda are the reference deflection angles.
The equilibrium equations of the joints Eqs. 1, 2, 3 and 4 may be written in
terms of reference angles only by substituting the values of other deflection
angles from Eqs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10.
Equation 1
2θab + δbc + 0.584 (2θad + θda) = 0
2θab + (θba + 4.342 × 10–3) + 0.584 × 2 × (θab + 1.188 × 10–3) + 0.584 θda = 0
3.168 θba + θbc + 0.584 θda = 5.727 × 10–3 ...(11)
Equation 2
(2θcb+ θbc ) + 0.5 (2θcd + θdc) = 0
θbc + 2θdc + θbc + 0.5θdc = 0
θbc + 2(θcd + 2.16 × 10–3) + θcd + 0.5 (θda – 7.67 × 10–3) = 0
θba + 3θcd + 0.5θda = – 0.49 × 10–3 ...(12)
Equation 3
2θba+ θab + 1.95 × 2θbd + 1.95 θdb+ 2 × 1.374 θbc + 1.374 θcb = 0
2θab + 2(θbc+ 4.342 × 10–3) + 3.90 (θbc + 1.742 × 10–3)
+ 1.95 (θda – 3.79 ×10–3) + 2.748 θbc + 1.374 (θcd + 2.16 × 10–3) = 0
θab + 8.648θbc + 1.95θda+ 1.374θcd = 11.084 × 10–3 ...(13)
Equation 4
2θda+ θad + 2 × 3.33θdb + 3.33 θdb+ 2 × 1.67θdc + 1.67cd = 0
2θda + (θab+ 1.88 × 10–3) + 6.66 (θda – 3.79 ×10–3) + 3.33 (θbc+ 1.742 × 10–3)
+ 3.34 (θda – 7.67 ×10–3) + 1.67θcd = 0
θda (2 + 6.66 + 3.44) + θab + 5.33θbc + 1.67 θcd = + 43.869 θab
+ 3.33θbc + 1.67θcd + 12θad = + 43.869 ...(14)
869 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
1 .5 m
A B
D
3m 3m
Fig. P. 17.2
17.3 Determine the secondary stresses due to rigidity of the joints in Problem
P. 17.2.
CHAPTER
18
Special Structures
18.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the structures with new developments in structural design have
been discussed, in general terms with respect to the type of structures. These
structures have been referred as special structures or modern structures because
of new development in the structural design.
The concept of a large plate girder with complete width of roadway as the
compression flange has been included in the design of bridges since 1946. These
types of bridges are known as orthotropic bridges. The orthotropic steel plate
panels are used for the decks, and therefore, these bridges are referred as all-
steel bridges. The orthotropic steel plate panels have been discussed in Secs.
18.2 to 18.4. For detailed information, the reference may be made in ‘Design of
Steel Structures’ by Boris Bresler, T.Y. Lin, and John B. Scalzi, published by
Wiley Eastern Private Limited, New Delhi.
The tension-load structures are due to developments of the last decades. The
tents were the first surface structures under tensile loads. The flexible skin of
tents can take up large stresses. The ship-sails were separately developed from
the tents. The ship-sails are included in the pneumatic structure. A strong
impetus was received in the beginning of 1930 to the developments of tension
loaded surface structures by attempts to roof large spans. The general
development in the field of tension-loaded structures have been noticed since
1960. The tension-loaded structures have been discussed in Secs. 18.5 to 18.15.
For detailed information, the reference may be made in ‘Tensile Structures’
volume one (Pneumatic Structures) and volume two (Cable Structures) by Frei
Otta, published by the M.I.T. Press, Massachusetts, Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England.
SPECIAL STRUCTURES 871
Fig. 18.1
is much greater than the other direction. The orthotropic steel plate panels are
basically of two different types : (i) torsionally soft panels and (ii) torsionally
stiff panels. The torsionally soft panels consist of plates with open rib stiffeners,
such as bars, angles, structural tee-sections, and I-sections. The torsionally soft
panels are shown in Fig. 18.1 (a), The torsionally stiff panels consist of plates
with closed stiffeners, such as U-trapezoidal or Y-section stiffeners. The
torsionally su’ff panels are shown in Fig. 18.1 (b). The open rib stiffeners have
less fabrication cost. But in case, the design is governed by concentrated loadings,
872 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
the torsional rigidity provided by the closed stiffeners gives the significant
material saving.
In the orthotropic steel plate bridges, the orthotropic steel plate panels are
used. These panels act monolithically with supporting grillage of beams and
girders as shown in Fig. 18.2. Design manual for orthotropic steel plate deck
bridges, 1963 edition published by the American Institute of Steel Construction
includes very useful design aids for conducting the analysis and an extensive
list of references to the theoretical and experimental work on orthotropic panels
and bridges. The orthotropic steel plate bridges with straight rib stiffeners and
structural tee-stiffeners are shown in Fig. 18.3 (a) and (b).
C ro ss g ird er
Fig. 18.2
The orthotropic steel plate bridges with U-stiffeners and Y-stiffeners are
shown in Fig. 18.4 (a) and (b). When the orthotropic panels arc subjected to
concentrated loads, then, the closed stiffeners are used. The superior torsional
stiffness of closed stiffeners helps to distribute the load over more stiffeners. It
(a )
O rth otrop ic p la te
Y-stiffen ers
(b )
Fig. 18.4
results in the saving of the material. The orthotropic steel plate bridges are
economical for long span bridges. There is significant saving in material
requirements for the entire bridge due to low dead weight of the all steel spans
in the long span bridges.
874 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ ∂ 4w ∂ 4w ∂ 4w ⎞
⎜⎜ Dx + 2H + D y + q ⎟⎟ = 0 ...(18.1)
⎝ dx 4 ∂x 2∂q2 ∂q4 ⎠
where, Dx = Flexural rigidity of the panel in x-direclion
Dy = Flexural rigidity of the panel in y-direction
H = Torsional rigidity of the panel
Equation. 18.1 is derived by (i) expressing the in-plane strains, and then the
stresses and subsequently bending and twisting moments in terms of w, and (ii)
substituting these expressions for moments into the equation for static
equilibrium that relates vertical loading, the vertical shears, and bending and
the twisting moments. The direction y is in the direction of stiffeners. The flexural
rigidity Dy is the product of modulus of elasticity E and average moment of
inertia Iy per unit width of the stiffened plate. The direction x is in the direction
perpendicular to the direction of the stiffeners. The flexural rigidity Dx is only
the plate rigidity
E ⋅ t3
Dx = ...(i)
12 (1 – μ2 )
where, t = Thickness of the plate
μ = Poisson’s ratio
The flexural rigidity Dx of the orthotropic plate is very small in comparison lo
the flexural rigidity Dy and the first term in Eq. 18.1 is neglected in the analysis.
Therefore Fig. 18.1 becomes
⎛ ∂ 4w ∂ 4w ⎞
⎜⎜ 2H 2 2 + Dy 4 + q ⎟⎟ = 0 ...(18.2)
⎝ ∂x ∂q ∂y ⎠
The value of torsional rigidity H calculated to reflect the effect of elastic
flexibility of the deck plate between closed stiffeners in reducing the resistance
of the panel to twisting has been started in the AISC Design Manual for
orthotropic steel plate deck bridges. When the orthotropic panels have open-rib
stiffeners, then, the value of H may be generally regarded zero, except as noted
in the following.
x
c b
A ssum e
h in ge
b
L oa d
1 .sin n πx
b θd c sin n πx
b
c d
L L
2 2
L
(a )
c d
M om e nt
E q ua l an d
sin n πx
b o n e ach sid e
o f h in ge
W cd . sin n πx
b
θd d sin n πx
2
c d
(b )
Fig. 18.5
876 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
⎛ nπx ⎞
θdc . sin ⎜ ⎟ for any given value of n. In case the line load is removed and
⎝ b ⎠
⎛ nπx ⎞
horizontal jacks are installed at the hinge dd to give a moment of 1. sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ b ⎠
in the panel on each side of the hinge, then the net angle change at hinge dd is
⎛ nπx ⎞
given by θdd . sin ⎜ ⎟ , and the net deflection at section cc is given by W cd .
⎝ b ⎠
⎛ nπx ⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ b ⎠
In the actual penel, there cannot be an angle change at hinge dd. Therefore,
the actual moment at dd due to line load at cc is given by
⎛θ ⎞ ⎛ nπx ⎞
My = ⎜ dc ⎟ . sin ⎜ ⎟ ...(18.4)
⎝ θdd ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
The hypothetical horizontal jacks exactly act against the angle change at
hinge dd that would be caused by the vertical line load at cc on the hypothetically
hinged panel. From the theorem of reciprocal deflections
⎛ nπx ⎞ ⎛ nπx ⎞
∴ θdc . sin ⎜ ⎟ = W cd . sin ⎜ b ⎟ ...(18.5)
⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
∴ θdc = W cd
⎛W ⎞ ⎛ nπx ⎞
My = ⎜ cd ⎟ . sin ⎜ ⎟ ...(18.6)
⎝ θdd ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
Equation 18.6 gives the ordinates along cc to the influence surface for moment
at dd for the practical value of n under consideration.
The deflection W cd and rotation θdd may be found by solving the hypothetical
problem IO the sinuosoidal distortion due to sinusoidal moments at the hinge.
The cross-beams are loaded with the reactions from the orthotropic plate
panels and restrictions against deflections are removed. The deflection of entire
bridge take place. All structural components (both the girder grillage and the
orthoiropic plate panels) contribute to the support of the vertical loading on the
cross-beam. The AISC design has the equations and charts to determine the
stresses due to this step.
The final stresses are found by adding the stresses of both the above steps.
18.6 CABLES
A cable is a flexible element, which may be loaded in tension only. The wires,
chains, bands, and filaments are considered as cables. A cable gives a linear
supporting system. This supporting system is one dimensional, i.e., the
supporting system is large in one dimension and small in other two dimensions.
The shape of a cable depends on the load. When the cable is used to transmit
tensile forces, then, the cable assume a straight line as shown in Fig.18.6 (a).
When the cable is suspended between two fixed points and it is loaded by
uniformly distributed load along the cable length, then, the cable resumes the
878 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
catenary shape as shown in Fig.18.6 (b). When the cable is subjected to uniformly
distributed load at right angles to the curve, then, it resumes the shape of an
(a )
(c)
(b ) (d )
Fig. 18.6
arc of a circle as shown in Fig.18.6 (c). When the cable is subjected to uniformly
distributed loads along the horizontal span, then, the cable resumes the parabolic
shape as shown in Fig.18.6 (d). A cable may be subjected to different forces as
shown in Fig. 18.7, which form either coplanar system or spatial system. In the
coplanar system of forces, the cable lies in one plane. In the spatial system of
forces, the cable resumes a three dimensional curve.
Fig. 18.7
E T2
S2 L2
T2 C
Fig. 18.8
The cable lengths in the outer circular rings are more than those of the inner
rings. The radial cable nets may also have many possible shapes. The total
included angle of circular cables may reach 360°. This is not possible in shallow
nets. The axisymmetrical cable nets are used for the walls of circular rings.
In addition to the above the cable nets may have various shapes. The cable
nets have tetragonal meshes of regular or irregular shapes. The regular shapes
of meshes may be square as shown in Fig. 18.9 (a), parallelogram or rhombi as
shown in Fig. 18.9 (b), and rectangles also. The cable nets with hexagonal or
tetragonal meshes as shown in Fig. 18.9 (f) may be used to form any surface. In
the specially curved cable net surfaces, the angles at the cable intersections
vary.
When the cable net structures with tetragonal or hexagonal meshes are
sagging freely, then, they are not rigid in shear. The tetragonal cable nets with
tetragonal meshes may extend diagonally under monoaxial stress. The cable
(a ) (b ) (c)
(d ) (e ) (f)
Fig. 18.9
cable nets with uniform triangular meshes may be simply curved only. The
cable net surfaces, which are spatially curved, and have triangle meshes, then,
the cable lengths are different at least in one direction. In case, the cable triangles
as shown in Fig. 18.9 (c) or the rigid frames or panels as shown in Fig. 18.9 (d)
are inserted in the cable nets, the rigidity can also be obtained. As a combination
of octagonal, hexagonal and tetragonal meshes, many other regular net shapes
are also possible.
The uniformity in the cable net meshes facilitates their manufacture. But
the uniformity is not absolute requirement for the cable nets. The cable nets
may also be prefabricated economically with non-uniform meshes.
(a )
(d ) (e )
Fig. 18.10
882 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
by the two cables to two fixed points. These three cables form a vertical plane. It
gives a two dimensional supporting system. A vertical plane suspended net is
obtained by suspending several vertical cables from a supporting cable and by
interconnecting them either by girders or by cables as shown in Fig. 18.10 (b).
The cable surfaces of a suspension bridge may also be considered as a vertical
net in which a supporting cable passes over two pylons as shown in Fig. 18.10
(c) or over single polygon as shown in Fig. 18.10 (d) or (e). The roadway supports
may be suspended from special cables or directly if the point of suspension is
directly connected with the point of application of force. It is given a system of
triangles.
(R igid)
S u sp e nd ed S u pp ortin g lin e s
cab le s h orizo ntal
A' B' C' D' B' D' A' C'
E levatio n D D
P lan
(b ) S ide vie w
D D
S u sp e nd ed C C B' A'
A' B'
cab le s C' C'
B' B B D'
C' D'
A A
D'
B B
C C
D D
E levatio n
P lan S ide vie w
(c)
Fig. 18.11
SPECIAL STRUCTURES 883
then, it represents a catenary. When the section is taken normal to the cables,
then, it forms a horizontal line.
A spatial curved surface is obtained by suspending cables of equal lengths at
equal distances between two imaginary parallel vertical planes along curves,
which are convex downward, as shown in Fig. 18.11 (b). When a section is taken
along the cables (i.e., a longitudinal section) then, the section represents a
catenary. The transverse section of the curved surfaces represents the generatrix.
This type of surface is synelastically curved surface (i.e., it has dome-shaped
curvature). It forms an inverted dome.
In case the supporting lines for suspended cables is convex upward, then, the
curved surface obtained is saddle shaped or antielastic surface as shown in Fig.
18.11 (c).
In case, the cables are of unequal lengths and these are suspended from two
horizontal parallel lines at equal distances, and the sag of the control cable is
maximum, then also, synelastically curved surface is formed. In case, the sag of
control cable is minimum, then, the antielastic curved surface is formed.
Depending on the lengths of cables and varying the sag, and manner of
suspension, the number of surfaces may bo formed. The cables may be arranged
radially to form many number of surfaces.
(a ) (b )
(c) (d )
(e ) (f)
Fig. 18.12 The cable structures are advantages over single cable
18.12 MEMBRANES
The membranes and cable nets with triangular meshes are closely related. The
membranes can take up surface stresses in every direction. The shapes of
membranes vary widely.
applied loads. Therefore, the analysis of these structures may be done by the
known formulae of the membrane theory. The every element in cable nets with
trianguiar mesh is rigid in shear as long as no cables are slack. Therefore, the
membrane theory gives the satisfactory results in the analysis of these nets.
Each of three families of cables shares the sectional loads in accordance with
the equilibrium and deformation conditions.
tensile stress. The foam has been adopted as a building material in addition to
its use as insulation. The foam is made from rubber, plastics, cement, minerals,
metals or glass. When the pores of the foam are closed, then, the foam has a
pneumatic load carrying capacity. The tensile pneumatic structures are built
from light collapsible, very strong membranes. The main advantage of
pneumatically stretched membrane is its small weight. The weight of these
structures does not exceed 30 kN/m3 even with spans more than 100 m. The
container-shaped membrane is the distinct feature of the structures. The
elasticity of the materials governs the deformations of the structures under the
load to a large extent. For example, the change in shape of rubber balloon is
more than that of a glass fabric balloon.
In the pneumatic structures, the internal pressures is developed either by
inflating compressed air or by other means. The compressed air is supplied by
using large blowers. These maintain a uniform internal pressure at any height.
The temperature differences between the inside and outside of these structures
cause the air pressure to vary with the height. In the pneumatic structures, the
permanent openings may be left in case the compressed air supply is sufficient.
The movement of people inside the structure will not be interfered, even the
structure may collapse particularly if the poles or exhibition object retain the
envelope. The emergency compressors are also provided in the large pneumatic
structures if the internal pressure supply may fail. The pneumatic structures
are safer than any other structure. The larger envelopes take long time to collapse
in case of failure of compressed air supply. The compressed air leaks out very
slowly. Even large holes and tears are not dangerous. The drop in pressure is
quite rapid. The force due to weight of membrane is very small. Therefore, the
enclosed air takes number of days to escape from the large envelopes even if the
openings are large. The process of deflection is delayed or completely stopped
by wind or temperature differences. In contrary to this, this process is accelerated
by the snow loads.
The study of soap bubbles greatly helps the understanding of pneumatic
structures. A pneumatic structure may be made of any shape which may be
assumed by a soap bubble. Any envelope, forming to a scale of a soap bubble
shape may be made of slightly deformable skins, such as glass fabric or paper. A
free soap bubble assumes exactly a spherical shape in a weightless state. The
two soap bubbles of equal diameters form a twin bubble with a plane diaphragm.
The soap bubbles of unequal diameters form a twin bubble with a curved
diaphragm. Not more than four soap bubbles can be combined in direct contact
with one another. Many combinations of soap bubbles are possible. The soap
bubbles may have any infinite shape. The soap bubbles may be stretched over
the circular and non circular frames. In case the membrane weight is neglected,
then the envelope is uniformly stressed at every point and in every direction
when inflated, provided of course, that original shape is preserved by means of
correct preparation.
The pneumatic structures are also reinforced with cables. The cable reinforced
pneumatic structures are also made of various shapes.
Index