SOIL MODIFICATION BY CEMENT KILN DUST

By Z. A. Baghdadi,l Member, ASCE, M. N. Fatani,2 and N. A. Sabban3

ABSTRACT: Cement kiln dust (CKD) is a waste by-product of portland cement manufacture. This material
poses a health hazard, storage problem, and a potential pollution source. Consuming such material in civil
engineering works to upgrade marginal materials would help solve some of these problems. Dune sand, an
abundant marginal soil, was treated by varying amounts of CKD. In addition, 100% CKD was tested. Com-
pacted specimens were tested for unconfined compression (UC) after seven-, 28, and 90-day curing periods
at different temperature levels. Further testing was conducted for specimens with CKD percentages that gave
satisfactory results for road subbases. These tests included durability, the California bearing ratio (CBR), and
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split tension. The test results indicated that on the basis of utiliza.tion, CKD betwee~ 12 and 50% ~ay be
satisfactory. Specimens of 75% and 100% CKD gave relatively hIgh strengths but failed the durabIlIty re-
quirements.

INTRODUCTION cement kiln dust (CKD), is collected and removed as an in-

The concept of soil modification through stabilization with
additives has been around for several thousand years (Mitch-
ell 1981). Even today, stabilization with manufactured ad-
ditives such as lime, lime fly ash, portland cement, bituminous
materials, fibers, and geogrids are gaining popularity in many
parts of the world (Fatani et al. 1991). Attention has been
focused on substitute materials such as stabilized soils and
marginal aggregates (Fatani and Alzahrani 1991). The pur-
pose of modifying such soils is to increase strength, re?~ce
deformability, provide volume stability, lower permeabilIty,
minimize erodability, enhance durability, and control varia-
bility.
There are many well-known methods (Hausmann 1990) to
improve or modify marginal soils. Altering gradation is the
simplest. By doing so, uniformly graded soil could display the
properties of a well-graded soil. Proper compaction, in gen-
eral, improves the desired engineering characteristics of so.ils.
An increase in the density and shear strength and reduction
in permeability and volume change potential are the char-
acteristics of a well-compacted soil.
Chemically modified soils often change surface molecu!ar
properties of the soil grains and, in certain cases, the grams
are cemented together, resulting in an increase in strength
and improvement of other desired engineering properties.
In the portland cement modification of soils, the cement
and water, when combined, form cementitious calcium sili-
cate hydrate and aluminate hydrates (CASH), which bind soil
particles together and make the matrix compact.
In the manufacture of portland cement, materials contain-
ing appropriate proportions of lime, silica, alumina, and iron
are mixed together. After blending, the prepared mix is fed
into the upper end of a kiln. It passes through the kiln a~ a
rate controlled by the slope of the kiln and the speed at which
the kiln rotates. Burning fuel is forced into the lower end of
the kiln where it produces temperatures of 1,400 to 1,650°C,
changing the raw mix to a cement clinker. The clinker is
cooled and then pulverized. During this operation a small
percentage of the material in the form of dust, known as
'Assoc. Prof., Civ. Engrg. Dept., King Abdulaziz Univ., P.O. Box
9027, Jeddah, 21413, Saudi Arabia.
'Assoc. Prof., Civ. Engrg. Dept., King Abdulaziz Univ., P.O. Box
9027, Jeddah, 21413, Saudi Arabia.
'Civ. Engr., Saudi Nat. Guards, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
Note. Discussion open until April 1, 1996. To extend the closing date
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of
Journals. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and
possible publication on October 19, 1994. This paper is part of the Journal
ojMaJerials in Civil Engineering. Vol. 7. No.4, November, 1995. ©ASCE.
ISSN 0899-1561/95/0004-0218-0222/$2.00 + $.25 per page. Paper No.
9453.
2181 JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING / NOVEMBER 1995
dustrial waste. The accumulated amount of this waste is a
source of concern for authorities since it is considered a health
hazard and creates storage and pollution problems. More than
4,000,000 t of CKD, unsuitable for recycling in the cement
manufacturing process, are disposed of annually in the United
States (Todres et al. 1992). These problems call for urgent
research in order to use local waste materials. Relatively little
information is available in the literature on the use of CKD
in civil engineering works.
Ramakrishnan (1986) used CKD in concrete. He found
that the addition of kiln dust slightly retarded the setting time
of cement but the fresh concrete properties of CKD-blended
cement concrete mixes were almost the same as the properties
of plain cement concrete mixes. Elwefati et al. (1990) inves-
tigated the replacement of ordinary portland cement by 20%
CKD, in one case, which resulted only in about 18% reduc-
tion in the compressive strength, but increased the shrinkage
by about 40%. The expansion resulting from the water-ab-
sorbent alkali constituents, on the other hand, was found to
be within acceptable limits. In addition, results showed that
the kiln dust, which normally contains higher amounts of
alkalis, is likely to increase the risk of the alkali-aggregate
reaction when used in concrete. In a pilot study, Baghdadi
and Rahman (1990) found that CKD can potentially stabilize
dune sand. Both of these materials are abundantly available
in most Middle Eastern countries. Cement Kiln Dust may be
utlized as a possible alternative to cement or lime in stabilizing
dune sand to reduce construction costs, particularly in the
desert and remote areas. CKD is inferior to portland cement
and requires larger amounts to produce a substantial im-
provement. In this paper dune sand is also used but in a wider
scope of work in terms of curing conditions, levels of treat-
ment, experimental tests, and interpretation of results. Bagh-
dadi (1990) found that the compressive strength of both ka-
olinite and bentonite clay was substantially improved by the
addition of CKD. The high plasticity of bentonite was re-
duced, the strength was increased, and the plasticity reduction
was found to be a function of the CKD percentage added to
the clay. Pure kiln dust gave a significantly higher compressive
strength than that of soil-kiln dust mixtures. Fatani and Khan
(1990) utilized the kiln dust in stablizing dune sand asphalt
mixes to pavement bases and reported promising results. The
mix stability increased from a value of 314 N fo! dune sand
asphalt mix to 3,236 N, with 11 % CKD by weight of total
mixture.
MATERIALS
Cement Kiln Dust (CKD)
The physical and chemical properties of CKD vary from
plant to plant, depending on the raw materials used and type

J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 1995.7:218-222.

 of collection process in the plant. However, the dust collected
by a given collection system from the same kiln and same
cement type produced will be quite consistent. Dust shows a
wide range of particle sizes ranging from less than 6 to 100
/-lm in diameter.
The CKD used in this investigation was provided by the
Arabian Cement Company in the town of Rabigh, Saudi Ara-
bia. The chemical composition of the CKD is given in Ta-
ble 1.
The physical properties of the dust were determined ac-
cording to ASTM standard procedures. The grain size dis-
tribution curve is shown in Fig. 1. The specific gravity of the
dust was found to be 2.84. The maximum dry density and
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optimum water content were found to be 1,520 kg/m 3 and

22.5%, respectively, according to the standard (Proctor) com-
paction method.

Dune Sand
The dune sand used in this investigation was classified as
A-3 and SP according to the American Association of State (Q) ( b)
Highway Officials (AASHTO) and the Unified Soil Classi- FIG. 2. Flowcharts of Experimentation and Selection Criteria of
fication Systems. Its specific gravity was 2.79. The uniformity CKD-Improved Dune-Sand Mixes
coefficient, the effective diameter D IO , and the median D so
of the sand were 1.62, 0.126 mm, and 0.191 mm, respectively.
The grain-size distribution curve is also shown in Fig. 1. of sand (Fig. 2). The higher percentages (greater than 50%)
Moisture-density tests revealed a maximum dry density and are considered to be a replacement of sand. In addition, spec-
optimum moisture content of 1,660 kg/m 3 and 13.7% by the imens of 100% CKD were included in the testing program.
standard (Proctor) compaction method. Potable (drinking) The cylinder specimens (50 mm in diameter x 100 mm in
water was used to mix the sand throughout this study. height) were prepared at their respective maximum dry den-
sities and optimum water contents, obtained earlier by the
METHODOLOGY standard (Proctor) compaction test. The statically compacted
specimens were then wrapped in plastic sheets and coated
The work plan consisted of adding different percentages with molten wax to prevent moisture loss or gain. Sets of
of CKD to dune sand, that is, 10, 20, 50, and 75% by weight specimens (three specimens per set) were then cured for seven,
28, and 90 days at the controlled temperatures of 10,25, and
TABLE 1. Chemical Composition of CKD and Cement Type I (from
Arabian Cement Company at Rabigh)
40°C, representing local temperature conditions. At the end
of each curing period, unconfined compression tests (ASTM
Composition D 1632) were conducted. Mixtures that gave satisfactory re-
(%) sults were further tested as follows:
Chemical compound CKD Cement type I
(1 ) (2) (3) • Wet-dry and freeze-thaw durability tests (ASTM D 559
Calcium oxide (CaO) 40.31 63.18 and D 560)
Silica (SiO c) 13.46 20.20 • California bearing ratio test (CBR), (AASHTO T 193-
Aluminum oxide (AlcO,) 3.86 6.29 81)
Iron oxide (FecO,) 2.09 3.40 • Split tension-this test was performed on cylindrical
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 1.76 2.49 specimens (50 x 100 mm) cured for seven days at 25°C
Sulphur oxide (SO,) 5.48 2.55
Sodium oxide (NacO) 4.01 0.72
Potassium oxide (KcO) 2.15 0.26 Additional details of the experimental work are found in Sab-
Chloride (Cl ) 3.63 ban (1992).
Loss on ignition (LOI) 33.04 0.78
TEST RESULTS AND COMMENT
100
.)"':; 7"
Compaction
o DUNE SAND
D CEMENT KILN OUST
80 I The maximum dry densities and corresponding water con-
/ / tents of different CKD contents are shown in Fig. 3. The
pattern indicated by the curve on the figure shows an in-
u 60 I II creased dry density with higher CKD content (due to void-
~
...
~
/ filling) up to a point around 50% CKD content, after which
40 / / the density continues to recede to the 100% CKD content.
~
v I The CKD particles are much smaller than the dune sand
::; II I grains, resulting in the density of CKD being lower than the
.. 20
i densities of either dune sand or dune-sand-CKD mixtures.
/ The optimum moisture contents follow a similar pattern but
o in a reversed manner, where the optimum moisture content
0.01 0.1
PARnCLI SIZE (nun)
of CKD is higher than those of dune sand and dune-sand-
CKD mixtures. Initially, the curve dips and then rises with
FIG. 1. Grain-Size Distribution Curves for CKD and Dune Sand a higher CKD. The higher the CKD content, the higher the
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING / NOVEMBER 1995/219

J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 1995.7:218-222.

 2000,-- -""T
24 curing-temperature level accelerates this chemical reaction .
• MAXIMUM DRY DENSITY
The process slows down at longer curing periods. Such be-
• OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT havior was also noticed for soil-cement mixtures and in con-
1900 22
crete cured at high temperatures. The explanation given for
7 such behavior was that the early chemical reaction products
E ....
20 Z encapsulated unreacting cement particles, thus preventing or
~ 1800 ...
lIJ

Z
slowing down the further development of strength (Baghdadi
> 0 1982). Such reasoning may also be applicable to dune-sand-
=
I/>
Z
18
u
lIJ
a:
CKD mixtures.
lIJ
0
1700 ...::> To assess the success or failure of the product, its com-
I/>
pressive strength should be compared to a criterion. Such a
>
a: 16 ;;
0 :I: criterion may be based on the type of utilization (e.g., roads
embankment, backfill, etc.), soil type, and the type of sta-
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:I: 1600 :I:

::> ::>
! 14 !
bilized soil layer. As no such criterion has been found in the
«'"
...
Q. literature for soil CKD, the discussion here will be based on
:I: 0
the criteria shown by Table 2, which was originally meant for
1500
12 soil cement (Ingles and Metcalf 1973).

Soaked Compressive Strength

1 400+-----,--...,..---.,--...,..----,,---+ 10
o 40 80 120
KILN OUST ('/,)
FIG. 3. Relationship of Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Mois-
ture Content with CKD
corresponding optimum moisture content due to the hydraulic
(water-loving) nature of the calcium oxide in the CKD.
Unconfined Compression Tests
The compacted and cured specimens treated by the addi-
tion of different CKD contents were tested for their com-
pressive strengths. The results are presented in Fig. 4, which
shows the variations of compressive strengths versus the CKD
content expressed as a percentage of the sand. The results
show a continuous increase in compressive strength values as
the CKD content and curing period increase. Further, the
compressive strengths of specimens cured at 40°C increase at
a higher rate than other temperature levels during the early
days of curing, but slow down with time. The compressive
strength becomes lower than 10°C after 90 days of curing.
The increase of the compressive strength of dune-sand-
CKD mixtures is obvious even with the lower amounts of
added CKD. It is evident that the improved strength of dune
sand due to CKD addition is the result of a chemical reaction
between water and CKD. This is also supported by the high
strength of compacted 100% CKD specimens. The higher
It is important to assess the strength decrease upon soaking
with water because the treated dune-sand-CKD mixtures will
be subjected to water flooding and saturation. Previous lab-
oratory experience on stabilized soils has shown that the com-
pressive strengths of unsoaked specimens are higher than those
of similar soaked specimens.
To investigate strength reduction due to soaking, triplicate
specimens composed of 50 and 100% CKD were tested after
curing for seven days at temperatures of 10, 25, and 40°C.
The specimens were soaked in water for 48 hours after curing.
The test results showed that the ratios between average
soaked and unsoaked strengths for the 50% CKD specimens
are 0.81, 0.86, and 0.93 for curing temperatures of 10, 25,
and 40°C, respectively. Similarly, for the 100% CKD speci-
mens, the ratios are 0.71, 0.83, and 0.93. Thus, it is obvious
that the specimens cured at 10°C suffered the most strength
loss while those cured at 40°C suffered the least. This is prob-
ably due to the slower gain in strength when the specimen is
cured at 10°C, and the higher rate of strength gain at early
ages when the specimen is cured at 40°C.
Selection of CKD Percentage
On the basis of strength, the amount of CKD to be chosen
should be on an acceptable criterion set by the client. How-
ever, in this work the criterion shown in Table 2 is used. It
mainly employs the seven-day strength of room temperature

"'e 1 2 0 0 0 , - - - - - - - - - - - 1 r - - - - - - - - - - - - , r-----------~
A TEMP.: 10·C
...:z: o TEMP.:2S.C.
:1: 10000 a TEMP.: 40·
:;
:z:
::! 8000
....
I/>

~
iii
II>
oJ
a:
a.
:l
o
oJ
o
lIJ

...z~ 2
o
u
:z:
::>
20 40 60 80 1000 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100

CEMENT KILN DUST ,'/.

FIG. 4. Effect of CKD on Unconfined Compressive Strength of Dune Sand, Unsoaked and Cured for Seven, 28, and 90 Days at Different
Curing Temperatures

220 I JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING I NOVEMBER 1995

J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 1995.7:218-222.

 TABLE 2 Criteria of SoU-cement Mixture [Ingles and Metcalf (1973)] better choice. For base courses (heavy traffic), 50% CKD is
Loss in satisfactory. The 20% loss in compressive strength due to
UCS· CBRb Swell wet-dry" soaking, as pointed out in Table 2, is also satisfied.
Purpose (kPa) (%) (%) (%)
The use of high amounts of CKD, in excess of 30%, re-
(1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) quires judgment based on hauling costs as well as on engi-
neering behavior. However, CKD could be obtained at a
Road subbase, formation - - - - minimum charge or perhaps for free.
Backfill for trenches, etc. 343-1,030 20-80 2 7
Road subbase, base for light
trafficd 687-1,373 50-150 2 10 Durability Tests
Base for heavy trafficd - - - -
Building block - - - - Dune sand treated with CKD was subjected to 12 cycles
Embankment protection 1,373-5,492 200-600 2 14 of wetting-drying, and freezing-thawing durability tests. The
Floodways (too strong for results of durability tests are expressed in terms of weight
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general use under thin sur- loss at the end of the cycles. Stabilized soil mixtures that
facings) >5,492 600 2 14
satisfy strength requirements are required to pass these tests
"Unconfined compressive strength cured seven days at constant mois- to prove their ability to withstand environmental conditions.
ture content. The loss of strength on soaking should not exceed 20%. In hot arid climates, it may be enough to conduct a wet-dry
"CBR soaked for four days.
'Durability test appropriate only where moisture penetration is likely durability test.
to occur. Higher cement contents may be required to meet this criterion. As in the case of compressive strength, durability test re-
dLower strengths may be adequate for well-drained areas in the trop- sults are compared with a criterion to judge the suitability of
ics. the proposed mix(es). Such a criterion is shown in Tables 2
and 3. In this work, specimens composed of 30, 50, and 100%
CKD were tested for both wet-dry and freeze-thaw tests, after
TABLE 3 Strength and Durability of CKD·Tested Dune Sand seven days curing at room temperature (25°C).
Curing Temper- W-O" F-P The results of durability tests are shown in Table 3. The
CKO time ature UCS CSR weight loss weight loss 50% CKD specimens had the lowest weight loss in both the
(%) (day) (0C) (kPa) (%) (%) (%) wet-dry and freeze-thaw tests, while the 100% CKD speci-
(1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) mens suffered the most weight loss. However, the 30% and
30 7 25 1,650 206 7 28 100% CKD specimens pass the requirements for wet-dry weight
50 7 25 2,280 317 4 12 loss and may be considered satisfactory.
100 7 25 6,320 288 9 30
"Portland Cement Association (PCA) maximum allowable weight loss California Bearing Ratio
for wet-dry (W-D) A-3 soils is 14%.
"PCA maximum allowable weight loss for freeze-thaw (F-T) A-3 soils This is commonly used test for pavement design, which
is 14%. indirectly measures the shear strength of subgrade and base
courses. In this work CBR values, after soaking for 96 hours,
were determined. The CBR values of specimens composed
COMPRESSION TENSION of 30,50, and 100% CKD are presented in Table 3. The CBR
a 100 '/, CKO 6 100 '/, CKO of dune sand rose from 29% to 206 and 317%, resulting from
• 50'/, CKO • 50 '/, CKO the addition of 30 and 50% CKD. The CBR of 100% CKD
7000 is 288%. These values of CBR satisfy the criterion laid down
o-_ _---~-o.-- "'o in Table 2.
6000
N
e Tensile Strength
...Z 5000 Tensile strength is useful for predicting the cracking be-
~ 4000 havior of earth dams, pavements, and earth structures using
o stabilized soils. The split tensile-strength test was used in this
u
~ 3000
'"..
work where triplicate sets of specimens made of 50 and 100%
CKD, cured for seven days at 10, 25, and 40°C temperature
2000 levels, were tested. The results are shown in Fig. 5, for com-
parison. The corresponding compression data are also shown
1000 in the figure.
The limited test data shown also revealed that the ratio of
o-!--r---*==;;;;;~~::::=::;::::::;::=:-~ split tensile strength to unconfined compressive strength var-
o 10 20 30 40 ied from 0.035 for specimens cured at 10°C to 0.13 for spec-
T E M P. 0C imens cured at 40°C. This is in line with the findings of
FIG. 5. Results of Tensile and Compressive Strengths of 50 and
Thompson (1966), where the ratio was approximately 0.13
100% CKD Mixtures at Various Curing Temperatures for lime-stabilized soils.

curing (i.e., 25°C), and hence this strength will be used in
further discussion.
According to Table 2 the 20% CKD strength (585 kPa)
satisfies the lower limit of 343 kPa. However, a lower amount
(about 12%) can be suitable for backfill material. Although
such a mix will continue to gain additional strength, it should
be easily excavatable with conventional equipment. For road
subbases and other applications where future excavation con-
cerns are not important, a higher amount (e.g., 30%) is a
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVil ENGINEERING / NOVEMBER 1995/221
CONCLUSIONS
The laboratory testing of CKD-treated dune-sand speci-
mens produced the following results:
The compressive strengths results showed continued in-
crease with the amount of CKD and curing duration.
The curing temperature level affected the compressive
strength of sand CKD mixtures, such that at high temperature
levels the gain in strength was higher at early ages.
For light applications, it was expected that 12-30% CKD

J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 1995.7:218-222.

 should be sufficient to upgrade dune sand; however, for
heavily loaded applications, it was expected to raise the CKD
content to about 50%.
Specimens of CKD revealed high compressive strength but
failed the freeze-thaw durability requirement.
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153-163.
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Baghdadi, Z. A. (1990b). "Engineering study of kiln dust-kaolinite mix-
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Baghdadi, Z. A., and Rahman, A. (1990). "The potential of cement
kiln dust -for the stabilization of dune sand in highway construction."
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Elwefati, A. M., Albaden, A. S., and Abushwereb, M. A. (1990). "Ce-
ment kiln dust as a partial replacement for portland cement in con-
crete." Proc., 15th Conf. on Our World in Concrete and Struct., 119-
125.
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Fatani, M. N., Bauer, G. E., and Aljoulani, N. A. (1991). "Reinforcing
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Sabban, N. A. (1992). "Kiln dust-dune sand stabilization," MSc thesis,
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Thompson, M. R. (1966). "The split-tensile strength of lime-stabilized
soiL" Rec. No. 92, Hwy. Res. Board, Washington, D.C.
Todres, H. A., Mishulovich, A., and Ahmad, J. (1992). "Cement kiln
dust management permeability." Res. and Devel., Bull. RD 103 T,
Portland Cement Assoc., Skokie, III.