Definition of Terms:

Statistics is a collection of theory and methods applied for the purpose of understanding data.

Data consist of information – for the most part, information in numerical form that represents a certain
characteristic.

A constant is a characteristic that assumes the same value for all members of a group under study. A
Variable is a characteristic that can take on different values for different members of a group being
studied

Independent variable are variables that the researcher controls or manipulates in accordance with the
purpose of the investigation.

A dependent variable is a measure of the effect of the independent variable.

Measurement is a process of assigning numbers to characteristics according to a defined rule.

Scales of Measurement:
1. A Nominal Scale classifies objects into categories based on some defined characteristic. Then
the number of objects in each category is counted. Nominal data have the following properties:
a. Data categories are mutually exclusive; that is, an object can belong to only one
category
b. Data categories have no logical order

2. Ordinal Scale not only classify objects or characteristics but also give logical order to the
classification. The properties of ordinal data are as follows:
a. Data categories are mutually exclusive.
b. Data categories have some logical order.
c. Data categories are scaled according to the amount of the particular characteristic they
possess.

3. Interval Scale have all the properties of those measured on ordinal scales, plus one additional
property. The differences between levels of categories on any part of the scale reflect equal
differences in the characteristic measured. That is, an equal unit is established in the scale.
For this reason, the interval scale is also called an equal unit scale. The properties of interval
data are as follows:
a. Data categories are mutually exclusive.
b. Data categories have a logical order
c. Data categories are scaled according to the amount of the characteristic they possess.
d. Equal differences in the characteristic are represented by equal differences in the
numbers assigned to the categories.

4. Ratio scale. The highest level in the hierarchy of measurement scales is the ratio scale.
Variables measured in the ratio scale exhibit the most precise type of measurement. This scale
has one property in addition to the properties of the interval scale: a known or true, zero point
that reflects an absence of the characteristic measured. The properties ratio data are as
follows:
a. Data categories are mutually exclusive.
b. Data categories have a logical order
c. Data categories are scaled according to the amount of the characteristic they possess.
d. Equal differences in the characteristic are represented by equal differences in the
numbers assigned to the categories.
e. The point 0 reflects an absence of the characteristic.

Qualitative variables consist of unordered or ordered (ranked) discrete categories, Quantitative

variables are assumed to have underlying continuity.
A population includes all members of a defined group; parameters are descriptive measures of a
population. A sample is a subset of a population; statistics are descriptive measures of a sample.

Descriptive statistics is a collection of methods for classifying and summarizing numerical data.
Inferential statistics is a collection of methods for making inferences about the characteristic of the
population from knowledge of the corresponding characteristics of the sample.
A Stem - and - Leaf Display is a quick

a. ACTIVITY 1.1 For each of the following, perform the basic arithmetic operations indicated
b.
1. 7+ 4+53=¿ ¿

2. 232−87=¿ ¿
3. ( 5+3 ) ( 7+2 ) = ______
4. 20+54 +8= _____
5. ( 9 ) ( 6 ) +32 = _____
6. 283+97−106=¿ ¿
156
7. =¿
12 ¿
8. 36−(−16 ) =¿ ¿
c. Solve the following using absolute values as indicated:
1. 36+ −14 = _____
| |
2.
|95|
=¿
5 ¿
3 ( 9 ) ( −3 ) +¿

C. Solve the following using the exponents indicated:

1. 73 = _____
2. 132 =¿ ¿
3. √ 64=¿ ¿
3
4.
81 2 =¿ ¿
5. 6+3 6= ______
2
6. ( 5+6 ) = ¿
¿
3
7. ( 2+3 ) = ¿
¿
D. Classify each of the following as descrete (Qualitative) or QUANTITATIVE ( CONTINUOUS) VARIABLE:
1. Intelligence _____
2. Rank in class _____
3. Ethnicity _________
4. MARITAL STATUS _____
5. Mathematical ability
6. Number of in family
E. Identify the measurement scale for each of the following:
1. Number ov children in families _________________
2. Order of finish in a Marathon ___________
3. Grading system_____________________
4. Level of Blood sugar ___________________
5. Time required to finish an examination _____________
6. Political party affiliation _________________
7. Amount of gasoline consumed
8. Major in college ________________
9. IQ Scores ____________________
10. Number of fatal accidents _______________
D. construct a frequency distribution for the monthly salaries of 180 randomly selected professors with the
exact limits of each interval.
E. using your calculators, Find the average monthly salary of 180 randomly selected professors

Monthly Salaries of 180 randomly selected professors (in thousand pesos)

68 52 69 51 43 36 44 35 54 57 55 56

55 54 54 53 33 48 32 47 47 57 48 56

65 57 64 49 51 56 50 48 53 56 52 55

42 49 41 48 50 24 49 25 53 55 52 56

64 63 63 64 54 45 53 46 50 40 49 41

45 54 44 55 63 55 62 56 50 46 49 47

56 38 55 37 68 46 67 45 65 48 64 49

59 46 58 47 57 58 56 59 60 62 59 63

56 49 55 50 43 45 42 46 53 40 52 41

42 33 41 34 56 32 55 33 40 45 39 46

38 43 37 44 54 56 53 57 57 46 56 45

50 40 49 39 47 55 46 54 39 56 38 55

37 29 36 30 37 49 36 50 36 44 35 45

42 43 41 42 52 47 51 46 63 48 62 49

53 60 52 61 49 55 48 56 38 48 37 47

Organizing Data:

1. Coding – involves assigning numerical values to non numerical categories

2. Stem–and–leaf displays – is a data plot that uses part of the data value as the stem and part of the
data value as the leaf to form groups or classes.

Example:

Chamber of Commerce Study of High Temperatures on 52 Saturdays:

 January February March April May June

22 34 49 43 54 71

34 28 36 47 57 67

28 36 51 52 68 74

18 42 53 55 62 80

31 71

July August September October November December

82 88 81 72 45 29

87 84 79 68 41 38

79 93 72 59 38 24

91 87 84 40 42 24

84 53 16

82 88 81 72 45 29

87 84 79 68 41 38

79 93 72 59 38 24

91 87 84 49 42 16

84 53

3. Frequency Distribution – a tabulation that indicates the number of times a given score or s of
scores occurs

Exact Limits for class intervals are based on the assumption that the variable under study is
continuous, even though the measurement may be in whole numbers. Usually the exact limits of a
score extend from, one half unit before to one half unit above. Suppose we measure and record the
salaries of 180 professors is 35 – 39, then the exact limit is 34.5 – 39.50. If the recorded salaries of
180 professors is 30 – 34, then the exact limit is 29.5 – 34.5. So subtract 0.5 from the lower limit and
add 0.5 to the upper limit of each interval. If the class interval is 0.8 – 1.0, then the exact limit for this
interval is 0.75 – 1.05. if the interval is 1.1 – 1.3, then the exact limit is 1.05 – 1.35
Graphs of a Frequency Distribution

1. The Histogram is a graph that displays the data by using connecting vertical bars of various
heights to represent the frequencies of the classes.

2. The Frequency Polygon is a graph that displays the data by using lines that connect points
plotted for the frequencies at the midpoints of the classes. The frequencies are represented by
the heights of the points.

3. The Ogive is a graph that represents the cumulative frequencies for the classes in a frequency
distribution.

Other types of graphs

1. Bar graph is used to represent a frequency distribution for a categorical variable, and the
frequencies are displayed by the heights of the vertical or horizontal bars

Example: The frequency distribution shows the number of kilograms of each snack food eaten
when watching movies all over the country during the year 2015. Construct a pie chart

Snack Kg

Potato chips 11.2 million

Tortilla chips 8.2 million

Pretzels 4.3 million

Popcorn 3.8 million

Snack nuts 2.5 million

Total 30.0 million

2. Pareto chart is used to represent a frequency distribution for a categorical variable, and the
frequencies are displayed by the heights of the vertical bars, which are arranged in order from
highest to lowest.

Example: The table shown displays the number of crimes investigated by law enforcement
officers during 2015. Construct a pareto chart

Type Number

Homicide 13

Rape 34
 Robbery 29

Assault 84

3. Time series graph represents data that occur over a specific period of time

Example: In 1968, there were more than 4000 outdoor drive–in theaters. The number of these
thaters has changed over the years. Draw a time series graph for the data and summarize the
findings.

Year 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014

Number 1497 910 870 810 750 700 650 400

4. A pie graph is a circle that is divided into sections or wedges according to the percentage of
frequencies in each category of the distribution.

Example: The frequency distribution shows the number of kilograms of each snack food eaten
when watching movies all over the country during the year 2015. Construct a pie chart

Snack Kg

Potato chips 11.2 million

Tortilla chips 8.2 million

Pretzels 4.3 million

Popcorn 3.8 million

Snack nuts 2.5 million

Total 30.0 million

 Exact Class

Limit Interval Midpoint f cf % C%

64.5–69.5 65–69 67 6 180 100.0

59.5–64.5 60–64 62 15 174 96.7

54.5–59.5 55–59 57 37 159 88.4

49.5–54.5 50–54 52 30 122 67.8

44.5–49.5 45–49 47 42 92 51.1

39.5–44.5 40–44 42 22 50 27.8

34.5–39.5 35–39 37 18 28 15.6

29.5–34.5 30–34 32 7 10 5.6

24.5–29.5 25–29 27 2 3 1.7

19.5–24.5 20–24 22 1 1 0.
Computing percentiles:

For example, we want to find the 75 th percentile. First, find the class interval in which the percentile
point is located. Recalling the definition of a percentile, we want the point at or below which 75
percent of the professors,75% of 180 is 135. Scanning through the cumulative frequency135 lie on the
interval 55 – 59, in which the exact lower limit is 54.5 with frequency 37 there is a difference of 13 in the
cumulative frequency 135-122. But the difference 13 is still part of the frequency 37 WE assume that
the cases (or frequencies are uniformly distributed over the interval and there are 37 cases over the
17
interval the ratio is the distance through the width of the interval should equal the point at or below
37
which 135 of the scores are located. Since the width of the interval is 5, th 75 th percentile for this
distribution Is

P75=54.5+ ( 3713 ) (5 )=54.5+1.76=56.26

Therefore, 75 Percent of the professors (135) receive a monthly salary of 56.26 thousand pesos(56,
260.00) or 135 professors receive a monthly salary of P56, 260 .

x percentile= p np−cf
To compute percentiles we use the formula:
(
x= ¿+
fr )
(w )

Where

ll = exact lower limit of the interval containing the percentile point

n = total number of scores

p = proportion corresponding to the disredxf percentile

cf = cumulative frequency of scores below the interval ontaining the percentile rpoint.

f i=¿frequency of scores in the interval containing the percentile point

W = width of the interval

Percentile rank the percentile rank of the wore is the percentage of scores less than or equal to
that score. For example, the percentile of 63 is the percentage of scores in the distribution that
falls at or below a score of 63

Solving for p from the percentile formula, we get the percentile rank of a score:

X −¿
pR x =[ cf
w
n
×f i
]
( 100 )

What is the percentile rank of a professor who receives a salary of P61,0000?

Since 61 is within the interval 60 – 64, the cumulative frequency in that interval is 159with exact
lower limit of 54.5, substituting in the formula: verify

(
pR61=
159+ ( 61−54
5
.5
) ×15 × 100=90.83
)
180

WE can also conclude that 90.83 percent of the professors receive s monthly salary of P61.000
and below
ACTIVITY 3.1

a. find following percentiles and percentile ranks

1. P45

2. p25

3. P35

4. P75

5. P60

6. P70

7. P75

P 75−p 25
8. (IQR)= interquartile Range
2

9. PR 48,585

10. pR65,000

11. P95

12. P10

ACTIVITY 3.2 a COLLEGE DEAN EXAMINES THE CUMULATIVE averages of 120 sophomore
students. The following frequency distribution is derived. Using class intervals of width 0.3

Class interval f cf

3.8 – 4.0 4

1.5 – 3.7 8

3.2 – 3.4 15

2.9 – 3.1 18

2.6 – 2.8 20

2.0 – 2.2 17

1.7 – 1.9 12
 1.4 – 1.6 10

1.1 – 1.3 4

0.8 – 1.0 0

1. Find P10 , P45 , P 6 60 , P95 , P75 ,, P P75 −P25 write your conclusions
25 ,
2

2. Find the percentile ranks of the cumulative averages of 2.4, 2.75, 1.25. and 3.60 write your
conclusions.
3. The magazine Forbes publishes annually a list of the world’s wealthiest individuals.
For 2007, the net worth of the 20 richest individuals, in billions of dollars, in no par
ticular order, is as follows:
4
33, 26, 24, 21, 19, 20, 18, 18, 52, 56, 27, 22, 18, 49, 22, 20, 23, 32, 20, 18
Find the 50th and 80th percentiles of this set of the world’s top 20 net worths.

The Pth percentile of a group of numbers is that value below which lie P%
(P percent) of the numbers in the group. The position of the Pth percentile
is given by (n + 1)P/100, where n is the number of data points
First, let’s order the data from smallest to largest:
18, 18, 18, 18, 19, 20, 20, 20, 21, 22, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 32, 33, 49, 52, 56
To fifind the 50th percentile, we need to determine the data point in position
(n 1)P100 (20 + 1)(50100) (21)(0.5) =10.5.
Thus, we need the data point in
position 10.5. Counting the observations from smallest to largest, we find that the
10th observation is 22, and the 11th is 22. Therefore, the observation that would lie in
position 10.5 (halfway between the 10th and 11th observations) is 22. Thus, the 50th
percentile is 22.
Activity3.2
1. Find the 80th percentile
2. Find the interquartile range
3. *Find P75
4. Find P25
5. Find the mean
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
1. Mean – Average denoted by X
2. X =
∑ X = X 1 + X 2 + X 3 + …+ x n
n n
3. The median is the point below which 50 %of the scores fall
4. The median is alsothe 50 th Percentile
n ( 0.5 )−cf
5. P50=¿+
fi (
(w)
)
Where

ll = exact lower limit of the interval containing the percentile point

n = total number of scores

p = proportion corresponding to the desired percentile

cf = cumulative frequency of scores below the interval containing the percentile point.

f i=¿frequency of scores in the interval containing the percentile point

W = width of the interval

ACTIVITY 3.3

1. Find the mean salary of the 180 professors

2. Find the mean net worth of the 20 richest individuals