PHYSIOLOGY
sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate ions plus
- Is the science that seeks to explain the
physical and chemical mechanisms that
are responsible for the origin,
development and progression of life.
Human physiology – attempts to explain the
specific characteristics and mechanisms of the
human body that make it a living being
CELLS ARE THE LIVING UNITS OF THE BODY
Cell – is the basic living unit of the body
RBC – 25 Trillion in each human being, transport
oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. Most
abundant of any single type of cell
The entire body contains 100 Trillion cells
Oxygen – reacts with carbohydrate, fat, and
protein to release the energy required for all
cells to function
Almost all cells also have the ability to
reproduce additional cells of their own kind
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID – THE “INTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT”
60% - of the adult human body is fluid
2/3 – Intracellular fluid. Fluid inside the cell
1/3 – Extracellular fluid. Fluid outside the cell
- Constant motion throughout the body
- Transported rapidly in the circulating
blood and then mixed between the
blood and the tissue fluids by Diffusion
through capillary walls.
In the extracellular fluid are the ions and
nutrients needed by the cells to maintain life.
All cells live in essentially the same environment
– the Extracellular fluid.
Internal Environment/ Milieu Interieur – a
term introduced more than 150 years ago by
French Physiologist Claude Bernard
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXTRACELLULAR AND
INTRACELLULAR FLUIDS
Extracellular Fluid – contains large amounts of
nutrients for the cells such as oxygen, glucose,
fatty acids, and amino acids. It also contains
Carbon dioxide that is being transported from
the cells to the lungs to be excreted plus other
cellular waste products that are being
transported to the kidneys for excretion
Intracellular fluid – contains large amounts of
potassium, magnesium, and phosphate ions
HOMEOSTASIS – MAINTENANCE OF A NEARLY
CONSTANT INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
Walter Cannon – coined the term homeostasis
Homeostasis – maintenance of nearly constant
conditions in the internal environment
Example:
- Lungs provide oxygen to the
extracellular fluid to replenish the
oxygen used by the cells
- The kidneys maintain the constant ion
concentrations
- Gastrointestinal provides the nutrients
Blood Sodium concentration – 135-145
millimoles per liter
Disease – is often considered to be a state of
disrupted homeostasis.
Pathophysiology – seeks to explain how the
various physiological processes are altered in
disease or injury
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID TRANSPORT AND
MIXING SYSTEM – THE BLOOD CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM
Extracellular Fluid is transported through the
body in two stages.
1st stage – is movement of the blood through
the body in the blood vessels
2nd – movement of fluid between the blood
capillaries and the Intercellular Spaces between
the tissue cells
As blood passes through the blood capillaries,
continual exchange of extracellular fluid also
occur between the plasma portion of the blood
and the interstitial fluid that fills the
intracellular fluid
Capillaries – permeable to most molecules
except plasma protein which are too large to
pass through the capillaries
Large amount of fluid and its dissolved
constituents Diffuse back and forth between
the blood and the tissue spaces
Diffusion – is caused by kinetic motion of the
molecules in both the plasma and the
interstitial fluid
Few cells are located more than 50
micrometers from a capillary, which ensures
diffusion of almost any substance from the
capillary to the cell within a few seconds.
ORIGIN OF NUTRIENTS IN THE EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Each time the blood passes through the body, it
also flows through the lungs
The blood picks up oxygen in the Alveoli
Alveolar membrane – the membrane between
the alveoli and the lumen of the pulmonary
capillaries
- 0.4 to 2.0 micrometers thick, and
oxygen rapidly diffuses by molecular
motion through this membrane into
cells
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
Different dissolved nutrients including,
carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids, are
absorbed from the ingested food into the
extracellular fluid of the blood.
LIVER AND OTHER ORGANS THAT PERFORM
PRIMARILY METABOLIC FUNCTIONS
LIVER
- Changes chemical compositions of
many of these substances to more
usable form
- Eliminates waste products and toxic
substances
Fat Cells, GI Mucosa, Kidneys and Endocrine
glands – help modify the absorbed substances
or store them until they are needed
MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
- For movement to obtain the foods
required for nutrition
- Provides motility for protection against
adverse surroundings.
REMOVAL OF METABOLIC END PRODUCTS
Removal of Carbon Dioxide by the Lungs
At the same time the blood picks up the oxygen,
carbon dioxide is released from the blood into
the lung alveoli
Carbon dioxide is the most abundant of all the
metabolism products
Kidneys
- Removes waste products such as urea,
uric acid and excess ions and water
- 1st it filters large quantities of plasma
through the glomerular capillaries into
the tubules and then reabsorbing into
the blood the substances needed by the
body such as glucose, amino acids,
appropriate amount of water and ions
GI Tract – eliminates wastes through feces
Liver – detoxification or removal of many drugs
and chemicals that are ingested
- Secretes many of the wastes into the
bile to be eliminated in the feces

REGULATION OF BODY FUNCTIONS
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Is composed of 3 major parts
- Sensory input portion
- Central output portion/ integrative
- Motor output portion
Sensory receptor – detect the state of the body
or the state of the surroundings
CNS – composed of brain and spinal cord
- Can store information, generate
thoughts and determine reactions that
the body performs in response to the
sensation
- Appropriate signals are then
transmitted through the Motor output
portion of the nervous system to carry
out one’s desires
Autonomic system – operates the subconscious
level.
- Controls pumping activity by the heart
- Movements of the GI tract
- Secretion by many of the body’s gland
HORMONE SYSTEM
8 Major Endocrine Gland – secrete chemical
substance called hormones
Hormones – transported in the extracellular
fluid to the other parts of the body to help
regulate cellular function
- Provides a system for regulation that
complements the nervous system
- The nervous system regulates many
muscular and secretory activities
whereas hormonal system regulates
many metabolic functions
Thyroid hormone – increases the rates of most
chemical reactions in cells
Insulin – controls glucose metabolism
Adrenocortical hormone – control sodium and
potassium ions and protein metabolism
Parathyroid hormone – controls bone calcium
and phosphate
PROTECTION OF THE BODY
IMMUNE SYSTEM
- WBC
- Thymus (The thymus produces
progenitor cells, which mature into T-
cells (thymus-derived cells). The body
uses T-cells help destroy infected or
cancerous cells. T-cells created by the
thymus also help other organs in the
immune system grow properly)
- Lymph nodes (lymph nodes contain
lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell,
which includes B cells and T cells. These
circulate through the bloodstream and
enter and reside in lymph nodes. B cells
produce antibodies)
- Lymph vessels
Mechanism of Immune system
- 1st, distinguish own cells from foreign
cells and substances
- Destroy the invaders by Phagocytosis or
by producing Sensitized Lymphocytes or
specialized protein (Antibodies) that
either destroy or neutralize the invader
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
- Provides boundary between the
internal environment and the outside
world
- Temperature regulation and excretion
of waste
- Provides sensory interface between the
body and the external environment
- Comprises about 12 to 15 percent of
the body weight
REPRODUCTION
- Generating new beings to replace of
those that are dying
CONTROL SYSTEMS OF THE BODY increase blood flow through the vessel. Both of
these effects decreases the arterial pressure
- Many of the control system operate
within the Organs
EXAMPLES OF CONTROL SYSTEM NORMAL RANGES AND PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPORTANT
REGULATION OF OXYGEN AND CARBON EXTRACELLULAR FLUID CONSTITUENTS
DIOXIDE IN THE EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
Potassium – decreases to less than 1/3, can
OXYGEN-BUFFERING FUNCTION OF cause paralyze due to inability of the nerves to
HEMOGLOBIN carry signal
Hemoglobin – present in all RBC - 2 or more times the normal, the heart
- Combines with O2 as the blood passes muscle is likely be severely depressed
through the lungs Calcium – falls below about ½, causes tetanic
- As the blood passes through the contraction of muscles
capillaries, hemoglobin, because of its
strong affinity for oxygen, it does not Glucose – below ½, frequently exhibits extreme
release oxygen into the tissue fluid if mental irritability and convulsions
there’s already too much oxygen
- If the O2 concentration in the tissue Normal Range
fluid is too low, sufficient oxygen is value
released Oxygen 40 35-45
Carbon 45 35-45
Carbon Dioxide – is a major end product of the dioxide
oxidative reactions in cells Na 142 138-146
K 4.2 3.8-3.5
- Higher than normal CO2 concentration
in the blood excites the respiratory Ca 1.2 1.0-1.4
center, causing increase respiration Cl 106 103-112
HCO3 24 24-32
Regulation of Arterial Blood Pressure Glucose 90 75-95
Body Temp 98.4 (37.0) 98-98.8
Baroreceptors – found in the walls of the
bifurcation region of the carotid arteries in the Acid-Base 7.3 7.3-7.5
neck, and also in the arch of the aorta in the
thorax Negative Feedback Nature of Most Control
When the AP rises too high, the baroreceptors System
send barrages of nerve impulses to the medulla Negative Feedback – most control system of
of the brain the body
These impulses inhibit the Vasomotor Center, If some factor becomes EXCESSIVE or
which decreases the number of impulses DEFICIENT, a control system initiates Negative
transmitted from the vasomotor center through feedback, which consist of a series of changes
the SNS to the heart to the blood vessels that return the factor towards a certain mean
Lack of these impulses causes diminished value, thus maintaining homeostasis
pumping activity by the heart and vasodilation GAIN OF A CONTROL SYSTEM
of the peripheral blood vessels, allowing
Gain – the degree of effectiveness with which a Protoplasm is composed mainly of five basic
control system maintains constant conditions substances:
Gain = Correction/Error - Water
- Electrolytes
- Proteins
- Lipids
- Carbohydrates
POSITIVE FEEDBACK CAN SOMETIMES CAUSE
VICIOUS CYCLES AND DEATHS Water – principal fluid medium of cell

Positive feedbacks – leads to instability rather - Present in most cells except fat cells, in
than stability a concentration of 70 to 85 %

- Also known as “vicious cycle” Ions – provide inorganic chemicals for cellular
- Is a process in which the end products reactions and also are necessary for operation
of an action cause more of that action of some cellular control mechanism
to occur in a feedback loop Important ions in the cell:
Example: - Potassium
Contractions in child birth and the ripening of - Magnesium
fruit - Phosphate
- Sulfate
ADAPTIVE CONTROL - Bicarbonate
Adaptive control in physiology starts right from - Sodium chloride
homeostasis! Adaptive control refers to the - Calcium
control system in which initial conditions/
disturbances which need to be controlled keep Proteins – after water, the most abundant
on fluctuating. substances in most cells are proteins, which
Examples: normally constitute 10 to 20 percent of the cell
mass
- Heat stress
- Cold stress Two types of protein
- Exercise Structural proteins – are present in the cell
- Oxidative stress mainly in the form of long filaments that are
- Body response mechanism to hypoxia polymers of many individual protein molecule
ORGANIZATIONS OF THE CELL - Intracellular Filaments – form
Cell’s two major parts: Microtubules that provide the
cytoskeletons of such cellular organelles
Nucleus – is separated from the cytoplasm by a as cilia and nerve axons
nuclear membrane - Fibrillar proteins are found outside the
cell especially in the collagen and
Cytoplasm – is separated from the surrounding
elastin fibers of connective tissues and
fluids by a cell membrane, called the Plasma
in blood vessel walls, tendons,
membrane
ligaments, and so forth
The different substances that make up the cell
Functional Proteins – are an entirely different
are collectively called Protoplasm
types of protein and are usually composed of
combinations of a few molecules in tubular
globular form
- The enzymes of the cells
- Often mobile inside the cell fluid
Lipids – soluble in fat solvents
Important lipids:
- Phospholipids and Cholesterol, both
constitutes only about 2 percent of the
total cell mass
- These lipids are mainly insoluble in
water and are used to form the cell
membrane and intracellular membrane
barriers that separate the different
compartments
- Triglyceride – neutral fat
- In the fats cells, triglycerides often
account for as much as 95% of the cell
mass
Carbohydrates
- Have a little structural function in the
cell except as part of glycoprotein
molecule
- 3 % in muscle cells
- 6% in liver cells
Carbohydrates is always present in the
surrounding extracellular fluid so that it is
readily available to the cell
- A small amount of carbohydrate is
stored in the cells in the form of
glycogen
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE CELL
- Cells Contains highly organized physical
structure, called Intracellular organelles
- Without one of the organelles, the
mitochondria, more than 95% of the
cell’s energy release from nutrients
would cease immediately
MEMBRANOUS STRUCTURE OF THE CELL
- Most organelles are covered by
membranes composed primarily of
lipids and proteins
- The lipids in the membranes provide a
barrier that impedes movement of
water and water soluble substances
from one cell compartment to another
because water is not soluble in lipids.
- Protein molecules in the membrane
often penetrate all the way through the
membrane, thus providing specialized
pathways, often organized into actual
Pores, for passage of specific
substances through membrane
Cell Membrane (plasma membrane)
envelops the cell and is thin, pliable, elastic
structure only 7.5 to 10 nanometers thick.
- Composed almost of entirely of
proteins and lipids
- Protein 55%
- Phospholipids 25%
- Cholesterol 13%
- Other lipids 4%
- Carbohydrates 3%
The Cell Membrane Lipid Barrier Impedes
Penetration by Water – Soluble Substances
- Lipid Bilayer: basic structure of cell
membrane. Thin, double-layered film of
lipids
3 basic Lipid Bilayer
Phospholipids – are the most abundant of the
cell membrane lipids.
- One end is soluble in water: Hydrophilic
- The other end is only soluble in fats:
Hydrophobic
Hydrophilic phosphate portions then constitute
the two surfaces of the complete cell
membrane, in contact with the Intracellular
water on the inside of the membrane and
Extracellular water on the outside surface
The lipid layer in the middle of the membrane is - Other Integral Proteins acts as Carries
impermeable to the usual water-soluble Proteins for transporting substances
substances such as: that otherwise could not penetrate lipid
bilayer
- Ions - Sometimes this Carrier Protein even
- Glucose transport substances in the direction
- Urea opposite to their electrochemical
Fat soluble substances can penetrate the gradient called “Active Transport”
middle portion of the membrane with ease such Peripheral Proteins – are attached only to one
as: surface of the membrane and do not penetrate
- Oxygen all the way through
- Carbon dioxide
- Alcohol
Sphingolipids – derived from the amino alcohol
Sphingosine, also have hydrophobic and
hydrophilic groups in small amounts in nerve
cells
Complex Sphingolipids functions
- Protection from harmful environmental
factors
- Signal transmission
- Adhesion sites for extracellular protein
Cholesterol – are also lipids because their
steroid nuclei are highly fat soluble.
- Dissolves in the bilayer of the
membrane
- Determine degree of permeability
- Controls much of the fluidity of the
membrane
Integral and Peripheral Cell Membrane Proteins
Glycoprotein – globular mass floating in the
lipid layer
2 types of Cell Membrane Proteins
Integral Proteins – protrude all the way through
the membrane
- Provide structural channels (pores)
through which water molecules and
water soluble substances, especially
ions, can diffuse between intracellular
and extracellular fluids
 Stratum Basale
- Single layer
- Mitotic cells

Dermis
- Vascularized
- Fibrous connective tissues
- Contains the:
Accessory Glands:
 Meissner’s corpuscles
 Sudoriferous (sweat) glands
 Sebaceous (oil) gland
The Integumentary  Hair follicles
- largest organ in the body Hypodermis
- forms a barrier between the external
and internal environment of the body - Subcutaneous tissues
- skin - Made mostly of fat
- hair - Anchors skin to deeper structures
- nails Functions
- accessory glands
- nerves Protection

Layers of the skin - Environmental conditions

- Pathogens
Epidermis – outermost layer - Melanocytes – UV light
- keratinized, stratified squamous Vitamin D Synthesis
epithelial cells
- avascular - Epidermis
- protection and control water loss - Sunlight/UV radiation
- Essential for normal absorption of
Layers of Epidermis calcium and phosphorous
Stratum Corneum - General immunity against infection
- Insufficiency causes Rickets and
- 20-30 layers of flattened, keratinized, Osteomalacia and is linked to cancer
anucleated cells
Sensory Functions
Stratum Lucidum – thick skin
Merkel’s Disks – light touch
Stratum Granulosum
Meissner’s Corpuscles – fine touch and
- 4-6 layers thick, beginning of pressure; vibration
keratinzation
Pacnician Corpuscles – deep, transient pressure
Stratum Spinosum
Ruffini Endings – detect skin stretch, position
- Several layers thick and movement, warmth
- Melanosomes that produce melanin
Thermoregulation
- Vasodilation or vasoconstriction