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Ductile Fracture in 304 Stainless Steel from an automotive pollution control catalytic converter. 1000x
© 2007 Stork Metallurgical Consultants, Inc.
Transgranular Brittle Fracture Transgranular fractures can also result from environmental effects
The most easily recognizable transgranular fracture is such as stress-corrosion, hydrogen embrittlement, or liquid metal
cleavage cracking observed in certain steels and other alloys of embrittlement and from low amplitude fatigue cracking. Figure 2
similar structure which fracture at low temperatures. In cleavage shows transgranular stress-corrosion cracking in a pressure vessel
fractures, the crack separates the metal grains along a well defined constructed of 3l6 stainless steel which failed after extended
crystal plane, initiates at the grain edge, and requires little energy exposure to a chloride containing environment at elevated
for propagation other than that necessary for crack surface temperatures and pressures. Figure 3 shows a portion of the crack
generation. The cleavage facets are marked with river patterns pattern in a metallographically prepared polished and etched cross
which are edges of cracks propagating on different levels in each section. The cracks are highly branched, crossing the individual
grain. The local direction of propagation is "up stream" following grains in a variety of orientations rather than following the grain
the merging of the crack edges. boundaries.
Stress-corrosion Cracking Fracture in 316 Stainless Steel Polished and Etched Cross Section of Chloride Stress
Pressure Vessel. 1000x Corrosion Cracking in Austenitic Stainless Steel. 500X
© 2007 Stork Metallurgical Consultants, Inc.
Intergranular Corrosion Fracture in 304 Stainless Fatigue Fracture in 321 Stainless Steel Expansion Bellows.
Steel Heavy Wall Tube. 500x Arrow indicates direction of crack propagation. 500x
Intergranular Fracture granular cracking can often be associated with cyclic strain
Intergranular cracking or grain boundary fracture can fractures.
occur under a variety of loading and environmental conditions Figure 5 shows striations developed on a stainless steel
including overstress, stress-corrosion, hydrogen embrittlement, expansion bellows which cracked due to cyclic stressing. The
high-temperature creep-rupture, and fatigue. It can occur with little arrow indicates the direction of crack propagation. Each striation
associated deformation or with extensive plasticity as in elevated corresponds to the position of the crack front as it grew
temperature failures. Intergranular cracking is often associated incrementally with each load cycle. Correlation between striation
with variations in alloy composition or impurity concentrations at spacing and growth rate parameters can often indicate the
grain boundaries. magnitude of the applied stresses.(12)
Figure 4 shows an intergranular corrosion fracture near a Combinations of different fracture modes can be observed
circumferential weld in a thick wall tube made of 304 stainless on different areas of the same fracture, and a mixture of modes is
steel. The heat of welding causes chromium to be precipitated at often encountered within the same local region. Additionally,
the grain boundaries near the weld. The material adjacent to the microfractography can reveal features such as the surface markings
grain boundaries becomes depleted in chromium and, of non-metallic inclusions or porosity, stress wave-crack
consequently, the grain boundary path is subject to corrosive attack interactions, slip steps, and crack closure markings many of which
and cracking under the applied stress. can either aid the analyst or cause confusion. General reference
handbooks are available which contain fractographs from a wide
Fatigue Fracture variety of metal failures generated under known stress and
While the term fatigue fracture refers specifically to a environmental conditions.(13,14,15,16) These sources catalog the
fracture resulting from a cyclic strain application, the many different fracture features so that the analyst can associate a
microtopography of fatigue crack surfaces are suitably particular topography with a known set of failure conditions.
characteristic to be considered a distinct fracture mode. At suitable
strain amplitudes for relatively ductile material, the cyclic Summary
plasticity around a crack causes the crack to grow in a series of Identification of the fine scale topography on a fracture surface, by
well defined steps. These steps appear as striations on the fracture visual, optical microscopy, and high magnification electron
surface. It has been observed that each striation is associated with fractography is a critical step in the analysis of service failures. By
a single load cycle and that the striation spacing,. can be correlated combining this identification with a thorough understanding of the
with how fast the crack is growing. (11) Often well defined history of the part fabrication and in-service operational
striations are not observed over the entire fracture surface but are conditions, the knowledge of the specified metal alloy and its heat
localized in spots, or are fine enough to be below resolution limits treatment, the metallographic evidence obtained from Polished and
of the electron microscope. Since fatigue cracking can be affected etched sections through the fracture initiation area, chemical and
by the environment, as in corrosion fatigue, transgranular or inter- mechanical property analyses of the failed material, and expemplar
component tests, the causes of most service failures can be
determined.
© 2007 Stork Metallurgical Consultants, Inc.
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