Introduction to Biotechnology

Lecture 01: Overview, History and

Developmental stages
 OBJECTIVE

To understand the potentials of microorganisms

and utilizations of beneficial microorganisms
 Overview
What is Biotechnology?
• Definition of Biotechnology
• Timeline of Biotechnology
• Techniques used in Biotechnology
• Who is Who in Biotechnology

How is Biotechnology being used?

• Applications of Biotechnology
• Agriculture - GM Foods and Animals
• DNA fingerprinting and forensic science
• Gene Therapy and Transgenic Animals
• Human Embryonic Stem Cells and Clonning
 Overview

What are some of the societal issues

Biotechnology raises?

• Bioethics / "Genethics"
• Public attitudes to biotechnology - safety,
awareness.
• Therapeutic uses of human genes and tissues.
 What is biotechnology??

LAY MAN POINT OF VIEW:

Biotechnology began when humans began to plant their own
crops, domesticate animals, ferment juice into wine, make
cheese, and bread etc.

CLASSIC:
The word "biotechnology" was first used in 1917 to describe
processes using living organisms to make a product or run a
process, such as industrial fermentations.
What is biotechnology??

• Using scientific methods with organisms to produce

new products or new forms of organisms.

• Any technique that uses living organisms or substances

to make or modify a product, to improve plants or
animals, or to develop microorganisms for specific
uses.
 What is biotechnology??

• Biotechnology is the process of harnessing 'nature's own'

biochemical tools to make possible new products and processes
and provide solutions to society’s problems.

• Biotechnology is the application of genetic engineering and

DNA technology to produce therapeutic and medical diagnostic
products and processes.

• Biotech companies have one thing in common - the use of

genetic engineering and manipulation of organisms at a
molecular level.
 Stages of biotechnology:
• Ancient Biotechnology
• Early history as related to food and shelter, including
domestication

• Classical Biotechnology
• Built on ancient biotechnology
• Fermentation promoted food production
• Beginning of Medicine

• Modern Biotechnology
• Manipulates genetic information in organism
• Genetic engineering
 Ancient biotechnology

• Followed by domestication of plants and animals →

lifestyles evolved (~10,000 yrs. ago)
• Cultivation of grains like wheat, barley etc. (seed
collections)
• Sheep and goats → milk, cheese, butter and meat
• Grinding stones for food preparation
 Ancient biotechnology

• Often discovered by accident!

• Improved flavor and texture

• Deliberate contamination with bacteria or fungi (molds)

• Examples:
• Bread
• Yogurt
• Sour cream
• Cheese
• Wine
• Beer
Domestic Adaptations
Domestic Adaptations for animals

Around15,000 years ago, large animals were

hard to capture.
People utilized meat of only dead animals.
Later, they came up with several ways of
capturing fish and small animals.
Cattle, goats and sheep were the first
domesticated food animals.
Learned about simple breeding.
Domestic Adaptations for plants

Involved the collection of seed from

useful plants and growing crude crops
from that seed.
Proper planting and earliest plants likely
grains and other seeds were started to use
for foods.
The beginning of farming.
Domestic Adaptations for microbes

Adaptation of organisms so
they can be cultured
Most likely began 11,000 –
12,000 years ago in the middle
east.
Domestic Adaptations for Food

 Domestication resulted in food supplies become greater.

 Foods stored in a cool cave did not spoil as quickly.
 Foods heated by fire also did not spoil as quickly.
 Immersing in sour liquids prevented food decay.
 Using processes that prevent or slow spoilage.
 Heating, cooling mechanisms are followed.
 Stored in bags of leather or jars of clay.
 Creates an acid condition that slows or prevents spoilage
Cheese
 One of the first food products made through
biotechnology.
 Began some 4,000 years ago.
 Nomadic tribes in Asia.
 Strains of bacteria were added to milk caused acid to
form.
 Resulting in sour milk.
 Enzyme called “rennet” was added.
 Rennet comes from the lining of the stomachs of calves.
Yeast
Long used in food preparation and
preservation.
Bread baking.
Yeast produces a gas in the dough causing the
dough to rise.
Also involved in other Fermented products.
Vinegar
Ancient product used to preserve food.
Vinegar was mainly used as a cooking ingredient, or
in pickling.
Vinegar prevents growth of some bacteria.
In making vinegar the first product of fermentation is
alcohol.
Alcohol is converted to acetic acid by additional
microbe activity.
Acid gives vinegar a sour taste.
Fermentation
In ancient times, fermentation likely
happened by accident.
Advancements occurred in the
1800’s and early 1900’s.
Louis Pasteur proposes that microbes
cause fermentation.
 Classical biotechnology
• Beginning of awareness, formation of products:
• Different types of beer
• Glycerol
• Acetone
• Butanol
• Lactic acid
• Citric acid
• Antibiotics – (Bioreactor developed for large scale
production, e.g. penicillin made by fermentation of
penicillium)
 Classical biotechnology

Amino acids to improve food taste, quality or

preservation

Enzymes (cellulase, collagenase, diastase, glucose

isomerase, invertase, lipase, pectinase, protease)

Vitamins

Pigments
Fermenters
Fermenters are used for advance fermentation
process. These are specially designed
chambers that promotes fermentation.
Allowed better control.
New products such as glycerol, acetone, and
citric acid can be obtained easily.
Alexander Fleming
Discovered penicillin by chance in 1928.
First antibiotic drug used in treating human
disease.
Observed growth of molds (Penicillium
genus) in a dish inhibiting the growth of
bacteria.
Penicillin first used in 1941. Penicillin
credited with saving many lives during WWII
when wounded soldiers developed infections.
Antibiotics
Use of fermentation hastened the development
of antibiotics.
A drug used to combat bacterial infections.
Penicillin developed in the late1920’s
First drug produced by microbes.
Limitations in their use keep disease
producing organisms from developing
immunity to antibiotics
 Modern biotechnology
Cell biology
• Structure, organization and reproduction
Biochemistry
• Synthesis of organic compounds
• Cell extracts for fermentation (enzymes versus whole cells)
Genetics
• Mendel’s findings → 1866 → 1900s
• Theory of Inheritance (ratios dependent on traits of parents)
• Theory of Transmission factors
Molecular Biology
• Genes determining the structure of proteins and DNA
 Modern biotechnology

• Deals with manipulating genetic info.

• Microscopy and advanced computer technology came in use.
• Based on genetics-research from the mid 1800’s. Most work has
focused on animal and plant genetics. G. Mendel formulated
basic laws of heredity during mid 1800’s.
• rDNA technology- Emerged in mid 1900’s
 Modern biotechnology

• Watson, Crick, Franklin and Wilkins (1953)

• Structural model of DNA developed……………….
Scientific foundation of modern biotechnology

Based on knowledge of
DNA,
its replication,
repair
and
use of enzymes to carry out in vitro splicing DNA fragments
 Scientific foundation of modern biotechnology

The “RNA Club” organized by George Gamow (1954) assembled

to determine the role of RNA in protein synthesis

Link made between amino acids and DNA

DNA → RNA → Protein

Transcription Translation
rDNA
Recombinant DNA Process
Genetic material is moved from
one organism to another
Materials involved are quite
small
 What are the areas of biotechnology?

Organismic biotechnology

It uses intact organisms and does not alter genetic material

Molecular Biotechnology

It alters genetic makeup to achieve specific goals

Transgenic organism
An organism with artificially altered genetic material
What are the benefits of biotechnology?

• Medicine
• human
• veterinary
• biopharming

• Environment
• Agriculture
• Food products
• Industry and manufacturing
What are the applications of biotechnology?

• Production of new and improved crops/foods, industrial chemicals,

pharmaceuticals and livestock
• Diagnostics for detecting genetic diseases
• Gene therapy
• Vaccine development (recombinant vaccines)
• Environmental restoration
• Protection of endangered species
• Conservation biology
• Bioremediation
• Forensic applications
• Food processing (cheese, beer)
 Transfer of new Anti-cancer
genes into Culture of
plants from drugs
animal
organisms single cells Diagnostics

Crime
solving
Biotechnology

DNA Genetic
technology Engineering

Cloning
Complete Banks of Synthesis
map of the DNA, RNA of new Mass prodn. of
human and proteins human proteins
genome proteins New types of
plants and
animals

New types New

of food antibiotics Gene therapy
Term Biotechnology
• The word “biotechnology” is used in print for
the first time in 1919.
First Enzyme
• An enzyme is synthesized in vitro for the first
time in 1969.
• Restriction enzymes that cut and splice genetic
material are discovered in 1970, opening the
way for gene cloning.
 First Transgenic animal

• The term transgenic organism

refers to an organism in which
there has been a
deliberate/artificial modification
of the genome.
• The first transgenic animal is
produced by transferring genes
from other animals into mice in
1981.
Polymerase chain reaction
• The polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) technique,
which makes unlimited
copies of genes and gene
fragments, is conceived by
Kary Mullis in 1983.
 First recombinant vaccine
• A recombinant vaccine is a vaccine produced
through recombinant DNA technology.
• This involves inserting the DNA encoding an
antigen that stimulates an immune response into
bacterial or mammalian cells, expressing the
antigen in these cells and then purifying it from
them.
• First recombinant vaccine is approved for
human use in 1981: hepatitis B.
First Cloned Animal: Birth of Dolly
• Cloned organisms are any organism whose
genetic information is identical to that of a
parent organism from which it was created.
Scientists report the birth of Dolly as the first
animal cloned from an adult cell.

Dolly (1996-2003) as an adult Dolly and her surrogate

mother
 First cloned pet: CopyCat
• The first cloned pet — a kitten — is delivered to
its owner in 2004.
• She is called CopyCat (or Cc for short).
• Ironically, she is not an exact copy of her mother,
Rainbow.
• Her coat is different, because the pattern of
colours is determined by events in the womb
rather than by genes - a reminder that clones may
be genetic copies of their parent but are never
quite identical.
 Biotechnology Timeline

Year Technology
1500 Curds was used as an antibiotic to treat boils
1590 Janssen invents the microscope
1675 Leeuwenhoek discovers cells (bacteria, red blood
cells)
1750 The Sumerians brew beer
1830 Proteins are discovered
1833 The first enzyme is discovered: diastase
1855 The E. coli bacterium is discovered
 Biotechnology Timeline

Year Technology
1859 Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species
1864 Louis Pasteur shows all living things are produced by
other living things: biogenesis
1865 The age of genetics begins
1902 Walter Sutton coins the term ‘gene’ – and proposed
that chromosomes carry genes
1910 Chromosomal theory of inheritance proved
1928 Alexander Fleming discovers antibiotic properties of
certain molds
1941 George Beadle and Edward Tatum propose that
one gene makes one protein
 Biotechnology Timeline
Year Technology
1949 Sickle cell anaemia demonstrated to be an inherited
disease: a condition in which there aren't enough
healthy red blood cells to carry adequate oxygen
throughout your body.
1973 Recombinant DNA technology begins
1975 First international conference on recombinant DNA
technology was held
1975 DNA sequencing discovered
1975 Monoclonal antibody technology introduced-
Monoclonal antibodies are antibodies that are
made by identical immune cells
1978 Genentech Inc. established
1978 Genentech used genetic engineering to produce
human insulin in E.coli
 Biotechnology Timeline

Year Technology
1983 Kary Mullis discovers PCR
1989 The Human Genome Project begins
1990 First use of gene therapy
1990 First product of recombinant DNA technology
introduced into US food chain
1993 FDA announces that transgenic food is safe
1994 The FLAVR SAVR tomato - first genetically
engineered whole food
1996 First mammal cloned from adult cells
 Biotechnology Timeline

Year Technology
1996 Development of Affymetrix GeneChip
1997 First artificial chromosome was formed
1998 Human embryonic stem cells grown
2000 90% of Human Genome sequence published on
web
2001 Human genome project completed
2003 NIH complete sequencing of the human genome.
2004 The FDA approves the first monoclonal antibody that
is an antiangiogenic, inhibiting the growth of blood
vessels—or angiogenesis—for cancer therapy
 Biotechnology Timeline

Year Technology
2006 The FDA approves a recombinant vaccine against
human papillomavirus, which causes genital warts
and can cause cervical cancer
2008 Chemists in Japan created the first DNA molecule
made almost entirely of artificial parts
2010 FDA approves a personalized prostate cancer
medicine that boosts a patient's immune cells to
recognize and attack the cancer cells
2013 Doctors announced that a baby born with HIV had
been cured of the disease.
2014 Doctors discovered a vaccine that totally blocks
infection in the monkey, a breakthrough that is now
being studied to see if it works in humans
 Biotechnology Timeline
Year Technology
2015 Researchers in Sweden developed a blood test that
can detect cancer at an early stage from a single
drop of blood. Further studies are ongoing.
2015 Scientists discovered a new antibiotic, that may
pave the way for a new generation of antibiotics
and fight growing drug-resistance. The antibiotic,
teixobactin, can treat many common bacterial
infections
2016 A little-known virus first identified in Uganda in 1947—
Zika—exploded onto the international stage when
the mosquito-borne illness began spreading rapidly
throughout Latin America. Researchers successfully
isolated a human antibody that “markedly reduces”
infection from the Zika virus.
 Biotechnology Timeline
Year Technology
2017 Scientists at the Salk Institute in CA, said they’re one
step closer to being able to grow human organs
inside pigs. In their latest research they were able to
grow human cells inside pig embryos, a small but
promising step toward organ growth.
2018-2020 On going…. ??????????????????????????????
Discussion

• What is the societal impression of biotechnology?

• What are the negative impacts that biotechnology may
have?
• What are the potential ethical issues associated with
biotechnology?
• How can the image of biotechnology to the public be
improved? Should it be improved?
• What are the potential dangers of biotechnology?
THANK YOU