materials

Article
Experimental and Numerical Studies of Low-Profile,
Triangular Grid-Stiffened Plates Subjected to Shear
Load in the Post-Critical States of Deformation
Łukasz Świ˛ech
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics, Rzeszów University of Technology, al. Powst. Warszawy 8,
35-959 Rzeszow, Poland; lukasz.swiech@prz.edu.pl




Received: 6 October 2019; Accepted: 7 November 2019; Published: 9 November 2019


Abstract: Constant developments in manufacturing technology have made it possible to introduce

integrally stiffened elements into load-bearing, thin-walled structures. The application of thin-walled
elements with integral stiffeners potentially increases buckling and critical loads to maintain the
mass of the structure and lower production costs. This paper presents the results of experimental
investigations and numerical Finite Element Modelling (FEM) analyses of low-profile, isosceles
grid stiffened, aluminium alloy plates subjected to pure shear load. Conducted research included
analysing buckling and post-buckling states of deformation, taking into account both geometrical and
physical nonlinear effects. Use of the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) system during the experimental
tests created representative equilibrium pathways and recorded displacement field distributions over
the plate surface. The model was initially validated against the experimental results. The results
for the stiffened plate were compared to the reference structure in the form of a smooth plate with
equivalent mass. Comparative analyses included examining the displacement fields and stress efforts
over the plates. The stiffening configuration under examination increased the critical buckling load by
300% in comparison to the unstiffened structure with the same mass. Obtained results also indicate
potential problems with areas of concentrated stress in the case of an incorrect geometry design near
to the boundary conditions.

Keywords: thin-walled structures; integral structures; stiffened plate deformations; triangular

grid stiffened structure; post-critical deformations; isogrid structures; aerospace structures; aircraft
load-bearing structures; nonlinear numerical analyses; digital image correlation

1. Introduction
Thin-walled, stiffened panels are the most common load-bearing elements in the design of
light-weight structures in many areas of engineering. In classic solutions, stiffening elements
manufactured as separate details are combined with the relatively thin skin. Such constructions
arranged in the spatial structures, called semi-monocoque, are able to withstand design loads with a
high load-bearing capacity [1–3].
The main technique to join stiffening elements, such as stringers and ribs, to the skin is riveting,
but the constant pursuit to lower the mass of the structure forces the search for new solutions.
One possible alternative is to replace the traditional joining process by new technologies such as friction
stir welding [4–7]. On the other hand, the constant development of new production methods such as
numerically controlled machining tools allows also for the creation of so-called integral constructions,
in which both the skin and stiffeners are made of one piece of material. Such an approach makes it
possible to reduce the weight of the structure, by eliminating elements connecting individual parts, and
also has an influence on increasing the damage tolerance [8,9]. Application of integral load-bearing

Materials 2019, 12, 3699; doi:10.3390/ma12223699 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2019, 12, 3699 2 of 18

structures also makes it possible to introduce skins with so-called sub-stiffening. The idea is based on
the introduction of low-profile, integral stiffening elements to improve the buckling resistance without
changing the mass of the structure. The positive impacts of such a solution, in the case of prismatic
sub-stiffening on buckling and limit loads of thin-walled panels, have been under consideration by
means of experimental and numerical studies [10–12].
Among many types of possible integral stiffening methods, the use of the grid structures comprising
a lattice of rigid, interconnected ribs seems the most promising with use of modern Computerized
Numerical Control (CNC) machines and the potential application of 3D printing in production. Grid
structures with ribs running in three directions, forming equilateral triangles, are called isogrids. These
structures are characterized by a very high ratio of stiffness and strength to their weight [11,13,14].
Recurrence in stiffening geometry also has a great influence on the damage tolerance of the structure.
Metallic grid structures have mostly been used in the design of space rockets and still are under
consideration in many industrial initiatives (e.g., SpaceX and Boeing spaceships or Airbus A330neo
wing parts). It could be also assumed that the development of spatial printing technology will increase
the interest of such a structural solution to produce geometrically complicated structures [15].
The first extensive study on this type of structure was commissioned by NASA in 1973 [13],
where the smeared stiffened method was proposed for simplified analytical calculations. The theory of
this method is based on the assumption that the stiffened structure can be treated as an equivalent
orthotropic one by smearing the stiffness of the stiffeners into the plate [16,17].
Over the years, a number of publications have been denoted to smeared stiffened methods for
both metal and composite grid structures. This method is under constant development, and it is used
for predictions of global and local buckling loads and failure modes. Wang et al. [18] presented a
numerical-based method with the use of asymptotic homogenization for obtaining equivalent stiffness
coefficients for grid-stiffened composite shells. Jaunky et al. [19] formulated an improved smeared
stiffener theory with the introduction of skin-stiffener interaction effects for panels under compression.
A similar interaction was proposed by Xu et al. [20] with applications to different types of grids by
introducing a vector parameter related to the stiffener configuration. Wang and Abdalla [21] presented
a method to obtain panel properties corresponding to classical lamination theory by matching the
strain energy of stiffened and equivalent unstiffened panel cells for global buckling analyses. In the
above-mentioned papers, calculated buckling loads for several stiffener configurations were compared
with FEM results. Luan et al. [22] proposed improvements to the simplified smearing technique for
modelling vibrations of stiffened plates. Due to its simplifications, the smeared stiffened method has
the most significant role in the preliminary design. To obtain more accurate results, including the
local effects in the nodes of the grid and taking into account nonlinear effects, the application of more
sophisticated numerical methods is required. Huybrechts and Tsai [23] developed a computer code to
predict grid structure deformation behaviour and failure by determining, among others, grid structure
strengths and the effects of missing ribs. Kopecki et al. [24,25] investigated the effects of post-critical
deformations and cut-outs on the strength of thin-walled, semi-monocoque structures subjected to
shear. In the case of geometrically complex structures, it may also be advisable to adopt methods
developed for composite structures, such as optimization with use of reanalysis [26,27] or analysis of
variable stiffness plates based on a reduced order model [28].
This paper presents results of experimental and numerical investigations of post-buckling states
of deformation of a low-profile, isosceles grid stiffened plate. The plate was treated as the skin of
semi-monocoque structures and was subjected to pure shear loading conditions. In the proposed
approach, the panel under consideration was a sub-stiffened skin element, and it was allowable for it
to lose stability in the operational load range of the structure. Experimental studies and numerical
FEM analyses were carried out. The main scope of the research was to identify the potential benefits of
the integral stiffened element under consideration in comparison to a smooth plate with equivalent
mass. The secondary objective was to analyse the possibility of exact FEM modelling of such structures
Materials2019,
Materials 2019,12,
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x FOR PEER REVIEW 33of
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18

structures with comparisons to the experimental results obtained with the use of the Digital Image
with comparisons
Correlation (DIC) to the experimental results obtained with the use of the Digital Image Correlation
system.
(DIC) system.
2. Theoretical Basis
2. Theoretical Basis
The basic analytical method to calculate triangularly grid-stiffened structures is the smeared
The basic analytical method to calculate triangularly grid-stiffened structures is the smeared
stiffened method. The structure under consideration (Figure 1a) consisted of ribs and skin, and it may
stiffened method. The structure under consideration (Figure 1a) consisted of ribs and skin, and it
be treated as layered material with appropriate elastic constants for each element. It can be assumed
may be treated as layered material with appropriate elastic constants for each element. It can be
that ribs are in a state of uniaxial stress, and the relation of Hooke’s law can be adopted for elements
assumed that ribs are in a state of uniaxial stress, and the relation of Hooke’s law can be adopted for
in the gridwork. Internal strains are determined by the stress resultants and couples in the composite
elements in the gridwork. Internal strains are determined by the stress resultants and couples in the
construction. From strains, the stresses in the elements may be determined. Stresses in bars are
composite construction. From strains, the stresses in the elements may be determined. Stresses in bars
dependent upon its orientation, and for the skin (Figure 1b), they depend upon the orientation of the
are dependent upon its orientation, and for the skin (Figure 1b), they depend upon the orientation of
normal of the plane upon which the stresses are assumed to act.
the normal of the plane upon which the stresses are assumed to act.

(a) (b)

Figure1.1. Forces
Figure Forces in
in grid
grid (a)
(a)and
andangle
angledefinitions
definitions(b).
(b).

Withthe
With theuse
useofofthe
thestrain
straintransformation
transformationEquation
Equation (1),
(1), the
the relation
relation between
between uniaxial
uniaxial barbar εi
strain
strain
𝜀𝑖 and
and x, yx,coordinate
y coordinate
gridgrid strains
strains cancan be obtained:
be obtained:

εii =
 εxx cos
cos2 θii + γxy sinθii cos
cosθii 
+εyysin
sin2 θii,, i =i 1,
 12,,23,3
2 2
xy sin (1)
(1)

takinginto
taking intoaccount
accountthat
thatuniaxial
uniaxialbar loadsP𝑃
barloads are as given Equation (2):
i 𝑖are as given Equation (2):
Pi  bE i (2)
Pi = bEεi (2)
Grid stress components in the x and y directions can be found by dividing the grid load by
Gridlengths
periodic stress components
of the grid in the x and
Equation y directions can be found by dividing the grid load by periodic
(3):
2P  P2  P3 cos1 P  P sin 1 ,   P2  P3 sin 1
lengths of the grid Equation (3):
x  1 , y  2 3 xy (3)
2P1 + (P2 + P32)hcos θ1 (P2 + Pa3 ) sin θ1 h P3 ) sin θ1
(P22−
σx = , σy = , τxy = (3)
By comparing Equations 2h(1) and (3) with the Hook’s a law relations for an 2h isosceles triangle grid,
the law for orthotropic
By comparing structure
Equations (1) in-plane stress
and (3) with thecan be expressed
Hook’s as Equation
law relations (4):
for an isosceles triangle grid,
the law for orthotropic structure in-plane stress
 
3
 
can be 2expressed as Equation (4):
 2 1  cos 1 2 sin 1 cos1 0  
   b  4h   x 
x
4h 3
  y    ! E 2 1 +cos  1 2 sin2 θsin 1θ1   y  εx

 σx 3 3
θ 2
 
cos 1 sin
1 1 cos 00 (4)
 =  b E2h 4h cos

 σ y a3 4ha 3     ε
 xy  2h  a  θ θ θ
2 sin 221 cos1   xy  y
   2

sin
1 0 1 sin 0  (4)

  a 0 1 
τxy 0 0 2 sin θ cos θ γxy
  
1 1
Taking into account compliance S and stiffness Q matrices for in-plane stress, the engineering
constants are denoted by Equation (5):
Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18

 1  12   E1  12 E1 
  0   0 
1    1   
Materials 2019, 12, 3699  E1 E1   12 21 12 21
 4 of 18
  1 ,   E E 
S    21 0  Q   21 2 2
0  (5)
E E 1    1   
Taking into account compliance S and stiffness Q matrices for in-plane stress,
 2 2  12 21 12 21  the engineering
 1   0 0 G12 
constants are denoted by Equation
 0 0(5):   
 G12   
1 ν 12
  E 1 ν E
12 1

 E1 − 0   1−ν ν 1−ν12 ν21 0 
A comparison of Equations  ν (4)1E1and (5) enables to νexpress
12 21
21 E2
engineering
E2
constants for isosceles
S =  − E212 E 0  , Q = 
1−ν ν 1−ν ν 0  (5)
triangle grid-stiffened structures as Equation
2
1 

(6):  
 12 21 12 21 
0 0 G12

0 0 G12
 b  4h sin 1  b  sin 1
3 3
 b  b ,  enables
E  to express   E  constants
A comparison E1 of Equations
E 2  E (4) andE2(5) 3 engineering
, for isosceles
triangle grid-stiffened structures
2h  h
as Equation (6): 
2h a 1  cos 1  a  1  cos 3 1
    2h  cos 1 sin  1 , sin3 θ  a  1 sin,3 θ
2

b 12  b b 21 1  b E (6)
E1 = 2h E 2=a hE,1E2cos = 3 2h E 4h a 1+cos3 θ1 2=
h  atan 1+
1
,
1 1 cos3 θ1
  cos2 θ sin θ  
ν12 = 2h b1 3 θ 1 , ν21
1+cosE
a
2 = 2h tan θ ,
1 (6)
aG 
12  1 2 sin 1 cos1 1
h 
G12 = hb E · 2 sin2 θ1 cos θ1
where 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 are the longitudinal and transverse Young’s modulus, 𝐺12 is the in-plane shear
where
modulus, E1 , Eand
2 are𝜈the longitudinal and transverse Young’s modulus, G12 is the in-plane shear modulus,
12 , 𝜈21 are the Poisson’s ratio.
and νIf 12 ,aνstructure
21 are the can
Poisson’s ratio. by a plate or shell, the loading on the surface is considered to be
be idealized
If a structure can be idealized
resistant to stress and stress couples by aobtained
plate or shell, the loading
by integrating theonstresses
the surfaceand is considered
moments to
in the
be resistant to
thickness direction. stress and stress couples obtained by integrating the stresses and moments in the
thickness direction.
3. The Object of the Study
3. The Object of the Study
Experimental studies were carried out on 306 × 306 mm square plates with a test field of 275 ×
Experimental studies were carried out on 306 × 306 mm square plates with a test field of
275 mm (Figure 2a), machined from 2 mm thick duralumin 2024 T3 plates with the use of a CNC
275 × 275 mm (Figure 2a), machined from 2 mm thick duralumin 2024 T3 plates with the use of a CNC
milling machine (Haas Automation Inc., Oxnard, CA, USA) and a specially prepared vacuum table.
milling machine (Haas Automation Inc., Oxnard, CA, USA) and a specially prepared vacuum table.
The use of a table was necessary to ensure a high geometrical tolerance of the manufacturing process.
The use of a table was necessary to ensure a high geometrical tolerance of the manufacturing process.
Such a test structure was prepared as an integrally stiffened plate with a periodic isosceles triangle
Such
grid aoftest
ribsstructure was prepared
of dimensions 45 mmas byan90integrally
mm (Figure stiffened platewere
2b). Ribs with2amm periodic
thickisosceles
and 1.5 triangle
mm high. gridIn
of ribs of dimensions 45 mm by 90 mm (Figure 2b). Ribs were 2 mm thick
every node in the grid, a hole with a diameter of 3 mm was drilled. The skin of structure, the areas and 1.5 mm high. In every
node
betweenin the grid,
ribs, hada hole with a diameter
a thickness of 0.5 mmof(Figure
3 mm was 2c). drilled. The skin of structure, the areas between
ribs, had a thickness of 0.5 mm (Figure 2c).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.2. The

Figure The geometry
geometry of
of the
the tested
tested plate:
plate: (a)
(a) overall
overall dimensions,
dimensions, (b)
(b) grid
grid geometry,
geometry, (c)
(c) detailed
detailed
dimensions of the grid components.
dimensions of the grid components.

As a reference structure with equivalent mass, a smooth plate with a thickness of 0.75 mm
As a reference structure with equivalent mass, a smooth plate with a thickness of 0.75 mm and
and identical overall dimensions was chosen. All subsequent considerations and their results were
identical overall dimensions was chosen. All subsequent considerations and their results were
conducted in relation to the reference structure. Figure 3 presents nominal relations between stress and
strain for duralumin 2024 T3 used in the manufacturing of tested samples.
Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 18

conducted
Materials 2019,in
12,relation
to the reference structure. Figure 3 presents nominal relations between stress
3699 5 of 18
and strain for duralumin
Figure2024 T3 used
3. Nominal in the manufacturing
stress–strain of aluminium
curves for 2024 tested samples.
alloy.

4. Experimental Test Stand

During the experimental research, the plate was subjected to pure shear loading conditions. The
plate was mounted in a steel, hinged frame, which transferred the vertical force from the strength
machine into the pure shear on the edges of the plate (Figure 4). Experimental tests were conducted
with the use of a universal strength testing machine Zwick Z050 (ZwickRoell GmbH &Co.KG, Ulm,
Germany) with force level control. During research, the plate was subjected to loads up to 40 kN,
which resulted in both post-critical and plastic deformations.
A three-dimensional Digital Image Correlation (DIC) system, ARAMIS (GOM GmbH,
Braunschweig, Germany), was used during the experiment. ARAMIS is a non-contact and material-
independent measuring system that captures and analyses deformations of the measured object in
consequent load steps over time [29,30]. Measurements with the use of the ARAMIS system consisted
of taking a series of images of the specially prepared object. Preparation involved covering the
Figure 3. Nominal
Nominal stress–strain
stress–strain curves for 2024 aluminium alloy.
measurement surface with a stochastic pattern of black spots. Two stereo-metrically arranged digital
cameras
4. were used
Experimental
4. Experimental to Stand
Test
Test record
Stand the displacements of spots related to strain changes due to the increase
in loading. The quality of the pattern also had a significant influence on the accuracy of results.
During
During thethe experimental
the experimentalresearch,
research,thetheplate
plate was
was subjected
subjected to pure shear
to unstiffened
pure shear loading conditions.
loading
During test, displacement fields were recorded on the side of conditions.
the plate atThe
a
The
plateplate
was was mounted
mounted in ain a steel,
steel, hinged
hinged frame,
frame, which
which transferred
transferred the
the vertical
vertical force
force from the
from the strength
strength
frequency of 1 Hz. The analogue electrical connection between testing devices allowed to assign the
machine
machine into
into the
the pure
pure shear
shear on
on the
the edges ofof the
the plate
plate (Figure
(Figure 4).
4). Experimental
Experimental tests
tests were
were conducted
acting load information in every stepedges
of deformation. conducted
with the use of
withDeformations a universal
the use of a universal strength testing machine Zwick Z050 (ZwickRoell GmbH &Co.KG, Ulm,
of the strength
stiffenedtesting
plate machine
captured Zwick Z050DIC
by the (ZwickRoell
system GmbH &Co.KG,
is available as Ulm,
the
Germany)
Germany) with
with force
force level
level control.
control. During
During research,
research, the
the plate
plate was
was subjected
subjected to
to loads
loads up
up to
to 40
40 kN,
kN,
supplementary file [Video S1].
which resulted in both post-critical and plastic deformations.
which resulted in both post-critical and plastic deformations.
A three-dimensional Digital Image Correlation (DIC) system, ARAMIS (GOM GmbH,
Braunschweig, Germany), was used during the experiment. ARAMIS is a non-contact and material-
independent measuring system that captures and analyses deformations of the measured object in
consequent load steps over time [29,30]. Measurements with the use of the ARAMIS system consisted
of taking a series of images of the specially prepared object. Preparation involved covering the
measurement surface with a stochastic pattern of black spots. Two stereo-metrically arranged digital
cameras were used to record the displacements of spots related to strain changes due to the increase
in loading. The quality of the pattern also had a significant influence on the accuracy of results.
During the test, displacement fields were recorded on the unstiffened side of the plate at a
frequency of 1 Hz. The analogue electrical connection between testing devices allowed to assign the
acting load information in every step of deformation.
Deformations of the stiffened plate captured by the DIC system is available as the
supplementary file [Video S1].

(a) (b)

Figure 4. Experimental setup: (a) loading conditions, (b) plate mounted in the test area of the
strength machine.

A three-dimensional Digital Image Correlation (DIC) system, ARAMIS (GOM GmbH,

Braunschweig, Germany), was used during the experiment. ARAMIS is a non-contact and
material-independent measuring system that captures and analyses deformations of the measured
object in consequent load steps over time [29,30]. Measurements with the use of the ARAMIS system
consisted of taking a series of images of the specially prepared object. Preparation involved covering
the measurement surface with a stochastic pattern of black spots. Two stereo-metrically arranged
digital cameras were used to record the displacements of spots related to strain changes due to the
increase in loading. The quality of the pattern also had a significant influence on the accuracy of results.
During the test, displacement fields were recorded on the unstiffened side of the plate at a
frequency of 1 Hz. The
(a) analogue electrical connection between testing (b) devices allowed to assign the
acting load information in every step of deformation.
Materials 2019, 12, 3699 6 of 18
Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18

Figure 4. Experimental
Deformations setup: (a)plate
of the stiffened loading conditions,
captured (b) plate
by the DICmounted in available
system is the test area
asofthe
thesupplementary
strength
machine.
file [Video S1].
Experimental tests were performed on three geometrically identical specimens. Figure 5 presents
Experimental tests were performed on three geometrically identical specimens. Figure 5 presents
relations between shear load and displacement of the upper node of the loading frame for a series of
relations between shear load and displacement of the upper node of the loading frame for a series of
different load levels applied to the plates. Only one plate (plate 3) was loaded to failure in the static
different load levels applied to the plates. Only one plate (plate 3) was loaded to failure in the static
test, and this result was used to later validate the numerical model. Obtained results for all specimens
test, and this result was used to later validate the numerical model. Obtained results for all specimens
proved the repeatability of plate behaviours in the range of elastic strain.
proved the repeatability of plate behaviours in the range of elastic strain.
Results
Resultsofofthe
theexperimental
experimental investigations are presented
investigations are presentedininSection
Section6 6together
together with
with numerical
numerical
analysis results.
analysis results.

Figure
Figure 5. 5.Shear
Shearload
loadversus
versusdisplacement
displacement of
of the
the upper
uppernode
nodeofofthe
theloading frame
loading obtained
frame forfor
obtained stiffened
stiffened
plates. Results from the strength test machine.
plates. Results from the strength test machine.

5. 5.
Numerical
NumericalModelling
Modelling
A Afinite
finiteelement
element model
model ofof the
the considered structure was
considered structure was developed
developedwithwiththetheuseuseof of
ABAQUS/Standardcommercial
ABAQUS/Standard commercial software
software(6.13, DassaultSystèmes,
(6.13, DassaultSystèmes,Vélizy-Villacoublay, France).France).
Vélizy-Villacoublay, The
problem
The problem under
under consideration
considerationwaswasnonlinear,
nonlinear,both physically
both andand
physically geometrically,
geometrically,andand
it was
it was
purposefultotouse
purposeful useasassimple
simplean
anFEM
FEM model
model as
as possible.
possible. InInorder
ordertotosave
savecomputing
computing time, and
time, to to
and
maintain the ability to simulate the local behaviour of the structure, the shell element was
maintain the ability to simulate the local behaviour of the structure, the shell element was used. used.

5.1.5.1. MaterialModeling
Material Modeling
Becausedeformations
Because deformationsin inthe
the range
range of
of operational
operational loads
loadsare
arerelated
relatedtotoelastic strain,
elastic simplified
strain, simplified
material models were used in the paper. The material of the frame was assumed
material models were used in the paper. The material of the frame was assumed as perfect as perfect linear
linear
elastic steel, and for the plate, an aluminum alloy model for elastoplastic material was used
elastic steel, and for the plate, an aluminum alloy model for elastoplastic material was used (Table (Table 1). 1).

Table
Table 1.1.The
Thebasic
basicnominal
nominalmechanical
mechanical properties
propertiesof
ofmaterials
materialsused
usedininthe
theFEM
FEMmodel.
model.
Parameter Young’s Modulus E, Poisson Ultimate Tensile Stress Rm, Yield Stress Rp0.2,
Parameter Young’s Modulus Poisson Ultimate Tensile Yield Stress Rp0.2 ,
Name GPa Ratio MPa MPa
Name E, GPa Ratio Stress Rm , MPa MPa
Al2024 70 0.33 488 345
SteelAl2024 21070 0.33
0.3 488 - 345 -
Steel 210 0.3 - -
5.2. Boundary Conditions
5.2. Boundary Conditions
The steel frame was modelled by beam B31 elements. Frame members were connected at the
corners by means of a HINGE connection type. Bolt connections between the plate and frame were
The steel frame was modelled by beam B31 elements. Frame members were connected at the
modelled with the use of MPC elements with the TIE constraint. To reproduce experimental
corners by means of a HINGE connection type. Bolt connections between the plate and frame
boundary conditions, sliding and fixed supports were applied at the upper and bottom nodes of the
were modelled with the use of MPC elements with the TIE constraint. To reproduce experimental
frame, respectively.
boundary conditions, sliding and fixed supports were applied at the upper and bottom nodes of the
frame, respectively.
 Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 18
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Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 18
5.3. Mesh and Elements
5.3.5.3.
Mesh andplate
Mesh
The Elements
and Elements
was modelled with the use of the four (S4R) and three (S3R) nodes, reduced integration
andThe large-strain
plate
The was
plate wasformulations
modelled
modelled with standard
withthethe
useuseoflibrary
the four
of the shell elements
(S4R)
four andand
(S4R) [31].
three To
(S3R)
three reproduce
(S3R)nodes, the geometry
reduced
nodes, reduced integrationof the
integration
and plate
and and triangularly
large-strain
large-strain formulations arranged
formulations standardribs,library
standard alllibrary
elements
shell were
elements
shell placed
elements [31]. in
Toone
[31]. plane, and
reproduce
To reproduce various
thethe
geometry thicknesses
geometry of the
of the
of
plate plate
and and rib
triangularly areas
arrangedwere modelled
ribs, all elementsby appropriate
were placed geometrical
in one plane,
plate and triangularly arranged ribs, all elements were placed in one plane, and various thicknesses properties
and various (Figure 6).
thicknesses Such
of
modelling
of plate
plateandandriballowed
rib areas
areas to were
were reconstruct
modelled
modelled fillets bybetween ribs
appropriate
by appropriate in geometrical
the nodes
geometrical of properties
the grid,
properties but
(Figure information
(Figure
6). Such6). about
Such
modelling
fillets inallowed
modelling
allowed the
to direction
reconstruct normal
to reconstruct tofillets
fillets betweenthe plate
ribs (i.e.,
between between
in theribs ofplate
in the
nodes nodes and
the grid, ofribs) was missed.
the grid,
but For a fillets
but information
information about comparison
about
in the
of
fillets results, a second
in the direction
direction model
normal tonormal
the plate consisting
to the
(i.e.,plate of
between a smooth
(i.e., between plate
plate andplate with
ribs)and equivalent
wasribs) mass
was missed.
missed. was developed.
For a comparison
For a comparison of results,
of results,
a secondA aconvergence
secondconsisting
model model study ofofacritical
consisting of abuckling
smooth smooth
plate with loads
plate andequivalent
with
equivalent post-buckling
mass was mass behaviours
was developed.
developed. of the structure
was performed
A convergence
A convergence tostudy
define
studyofthe appropriate
ofcritical
critical buckling
buckling mesh
loads
loadssize.
andFigure 7 presents
post-buckling
post-buckling the element
behaviours
behaviours mesh
ofofthe grids used
thestructure
structurewas
was in the
performedconvergence
performed to to
define study,
define thethe and Figure
appropriate
appropriate 8
meshpresents
mesh the
size.
size. numerical
Figure
Figure results
7 presents
7 presents obtained
thethe element
element for
mesh these
meshgrids three
grids
usedmodels.
used
in the
Theconvergence
in the selected study,
convergence mesh had
study,
andand an average
Figure
Figure 8element
presents
8 presents size
the the of 2.5 mm
numerical
numerical and
results
results consisted
obtained
obtained of for
for17,947
these
these elements.
three
three models.
models. The
The selected mesh had an average element size of 2.5 mm and
selected mesh had an average element size of 2.5 mm and consisted of 17,947 elements. consisted of 17,947 elements.

Figure 6. FEM model and boundary conditions.

Figure
Figure 6. FEM
6. FEM model
model andand boundary
boundary conditions.
conditions.

(a) (b) (c)

(a)
Figure7.7.Mesh
Meshsizes
sizeschosen
chosen
(b) (c)
Figure toto perform
perform thethe convergence
convergence study.
study. Characteristic
Characteristic element
element length:
length: (a) 5
(a) 5 mm,
mm,
Figure
(b) 7.(b)
2.5 2.5and
Mesh
mm mm (c)and
sizes (c) 1 mm.
chosen
1 mm. to perform the convergence study. Characteristic element length: (a) 5
mm, (b) 2.5 mm and (c) 1 mm.
Materials 2019, 12, 3699 8 of 18
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Figure 8. Comparison
Comparison of
of results
results of shear
shear load
load versus
versus shear
shear angle
angle obtained
obtained from
from FEM for the stiffened
study.
plate in the convergence study.

5.4. Validation
5.4. Validation
Nonlinear numerical
Nonlinear numericalanalyses
analyses were
were carried
carried out the
out with withusethe use of modified
of modified prognosticprognostic
Newton–
Newton–Raphson procedures with standard load corrections [32–35].
Raphson procedures with standard load corrections [32–35]. The first step of analysis for The first step of analysis
both
for both stiffened and smooth plates involved a simplified, linearized analysis of stability.
stiffened and smooth plates involved a simplified, linearized analysis of stability. Results of the linearResults of the
linear buckling
buckling analysesanalyses were aimed
were aimed at predicting
at predicting the critical
the critical load andload andof
shape shape of the deformation
the deformation field,
field, which
which was used next as the initial imperfection of the structure. Nonlinear analyses
was used next as the initial imperfection of the structure. Nonlinear analyses were performed for the were performed
for the models
models with geometrical
with geometrical imperfections
imperfections introduced
introduced as the
as the firstfirst buckling
buckling modeshape,
mode shape,with
with small
small
amplitudes of
amplitudes of 1%,
1%, 5%,
5%, and
and 10%
10% of
of the
the plate
plate thickness
thickness and and one
one model
model without
without initial
initial imperfections.
imperfections.
Results of FEM analyses in comparison to the experimental investigation results
Results of FEM analyses in comparison to the experimental investigation results are presented in are presented in the
the
subsequent section.
subsequent section.
6. Results
6. Results
The discussion of results has been divided into two main parts. The first one compares the
The discussion of results has been divided into two main parts. The first one compares the
experimental and numerical results for a low-profile, triangular grid stiffened plate and is aimed at
experimental and numerical results for a low-profile, triangular grid stiffened plate and is aimed at
validating the used FEM model. The second part compares results for numerical studies of the stiffened
validating the used FEM model. The second part compares results for numerical studies of the
plate and smooth one with equivalent mass to determine the impact of introduced integral ribs on the
stiffened plate and smooth one with equivalent mass to determine the impact of introduced integral
stress level and deformations of structures, including post-critical behaviours.
ribs on the stress level and deformations of structures, including post-critical behaviours.
6.1. Comparison of FE Results and the Experiment for the Stiffened Plate
6.1. Comparison of FE Results and the Experiment for the Stiffened Plate
In order to illustrate the behaviour of the structure in the post-critical states of deformation,
In order to illustrate the behaviour of the structure in the post-critical states of deformation, so-
so-called representative equilibrium pathways were created. Figure 9 presents a comparison of relations
called representative equilibrium pathways were created. Figure 9 presents a comparison of relations
between shear edge loading and the consequent shear angle for experimental and numerical results.
between shear edge loading and the consequent shear angle for experimental and numerical results.
The numerically predicted global, in-plane stiffness was in good agreement with the experiment to
The numerically predicted global, in-plane stiffness was in good agreement with the experiment to a
a load level of about 75 N/mm. Above that value of the acting load, the FEM model had a higher
load level of about 75 N/mm. Above that value of the acting load, the FEM model had a higher in-
in-plane stiffness, although it must be noted that at a load level of 36 N/mm, the numerical results
plane stiffness, although it must be noted that at a load level of 36 N/mm, the numerical results
revealed initial plastic deformation of the structure. Differences in deformations probably were due to
revealed initial plastic deformation of the structure. Differences in deformations probably were due
geometric simplifications and the used mechanical properties of the plate material. FEM results did
to geometric simplifications and the used mechanical properties of the plate material. FEM results
not indicate significant differences for models with and without geometrical imperfections.
did not indicate significant differences for models with and without geometrical imperfections.
Materials 2019, 12, 3699 9 of 18
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Figure
Figure9.
Figure 9.Shear
9. Shearload
Shear loadversus
load versusshear
versus shearangle
shear angleobtained
angle obtainedfor
obtained forstiffened
for stiffenedplates.
stiffened plates.
plates.

Because of the
Because the plate lost
lost stability during
during the experiment,
experiment, a second equilibrium
equilibrium path was was chosen
Because of of the plate
plate lost stability
stability during the the experiment, aa second
second equilibrium path path was chosen
chosen
(Figure 10). The
(Figure The relationshipbetween
between theacting acting loadand and deflectionof of the point
point in the
the geometrical
(Figure 10).
10). The relationship
relationship between the the acting load
load and deflection
deflection of the the point in in the geometrical
geometrical
centre of the
centre the plate proved
proved to be be more reliable
reliable in thethe case ofof deflection of of the structure.
structure. Differences
centre ofof the plate
plate proved to to be more
more reliable in in the case
case of deflection
deflection of the the structure. Differences
Differences
between
between numerical and experimental results were more significant in this case. In every step
step of
between numerical
numerical and and experimental
experimental resultsresults were
were more
more significant
significant in in this
this case.
case. In
In every
every step of of
deformation below, about
deformation about 85 N/mm,
N/mm, the FEM FEM model had had higher out-of-plane
out-of-plane displacements. Such Such a
deformation below,
below, about 85 85 N/mm, the the FEM model model had higher
higher out-of-plane displacements.
displacements. Such aa
situation canbe
situation be explainedby by simplifications in in thegeometry
geometry ofnumerical
numerical models(e.g., (e.g., lackofof fillets
situation can
can be explained
explained by simplifications
simplifications in the the geometry of of numerical models
models (e.g., lacklack of fillets
fillets
between skin and
between ribs), which leads to tolower out-of-plane stiffness of theofstructure and possible greater
between skinskin and
and ribs),
ribs), which
which leads
leads to lower
lower out-of-plane
out-of-plane stiffness
stiffness of thethe structure
structure andand possible
possible
stress concentrations
greater areas in the nodes of the triangular grid of ribs. of ribs.
greater stress
stress concentrations
concentrations areasareas inin the
the nodes
nodes of of the
the triangular
triangular grid
grid of ribs.
Initial
Initial geometrical imperfections introduced to the FEM model resulted in different behaviours of
Initial geometrical
geometrical imperfections
imperfections introduced
introduced to to the
the FEM
FEM model
model resulted
resulted in in different
different behaviours
behaviours
the stiffened
of plate for low levels of loading, but from the level oflevel
about 20 N/mm, all curves obtained
of the
the stiffened
stiffened plate
plate for
for low
low levels
levels ofof loading,
loading, but but from
from thethe level of of about
about 20 20 N/mm,
N/mm, all all curves
curves
from
obtainednumerical
from analyses
numerical were almost
analyses identical
were almost (Figure 11).
identical Conducted
(Figure 11). numerical
Conducted analyses
numerical have shown,
analyses
obtained from numerical analyses were almost identical (Figure 11). Conducted numerical analyses
as might be expected,
have that the increase in initial geometricalinitial
imperfections leads to milder equilibrium
have shown,
shown, asas might
might be be expected,
expected, that
that the
the increase
increase in in initial geometrical
geometrical imperfections
imperfections leadsleads to to
paths in
milder the range of
equilibrium loadsinconnected
paths the range with
of the connected
loads loss of stability.
with the loss of stability.
milder equilibrium paths in the range of loads connected with the loss of stability.
Figure 12 presents
Figure presents a qualitative comparisoncomparison of numerically
numerically and experimentally
experimentally obtained
Figure 12 12 presents aa qualitative
qualitative comparison of of numerically and and experimentally obtained obtained
deformation fields captured
deformation captured at the the level of of maximum load. load. Figure13 13 presentsthe the fieldsofof deflection
deformation fields
fields captured at at the level
level of maximum
maximum load. Figure Figure 13 presents
presents the fields
fields of deflection
deflection
of the structure
of structure obtained as as the results of numerical analysis and experimental investigation. investigation. It isis
of the
the structure obtained
obtained as the the results of numerical analysis and experimental investigation. It It is
worth
worth to note that, besides the above-mentioned differences in the value of deflections, the overall
worth to to note
note that,
that, besides
besides thethe above-mentioned
above-mentioned differences
differences in in the
the value
value of of deflections,
deflections, thethe overall
overall
deformation shape of
deformation of the finite
finite model converged
converged with experimental results.
deformation shape
shape of thethe finite model
model converged with with experimental results.

Figure
Figure10.
Figure 10.Comparison
10. Comparisonof
Comparison ofshear
of shearload
shear loadversus
load versuscentral
versus centralpoint
central pointdeflection
point deflectioncurves,
deflection curves,obtained
curves, obtainedfor
obtained forthe
for thestiffened
the stiffened
stiffened
plate
plate by
by numerical
numerical calculations
calculations and and experimental
experimental investigations
investigations (imp means(imp means
geometrical
plate by numerical calculations and experimental investigations (imp means geometrical geometrical
imperfection).
imperfection).
imperfection).
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18
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Figure 11. Load versus central point deflection obtained for the stiffened plate by numerical
Figure 11. Load versus central point deflection obtained for the stiffened plate by numerical
calculations and experimental investigations.
Figure 11. Load
Figure 11.
calculations Load versus
and versus central
central
experimental point
point deflection
deflection
investigations. obtained
obtained for the stiffened
for the stiffened plate bycalculations
plate by numerical numerical
calculations and experimental
and experimental investigations.
investigations.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(a) of the deflection field at the
Figure 12. Qualitative comparison (b)
maximum load. (a) The numerical
Figure 12. Qualitative
Qualitative comparison
comparison of the deflection field at the maximum load. (a) The numerical
Figure (b)
result, 12. the experimental result. of the deflection field at the maximum load. (a) The numerical
Figure(b)
result, 12. Qualitative comparison of the deflection field at the maximum load. (a) The numerical
result, (b) the
the experimental
experimental result.
result.
result, (b) the experimental result.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 13. Quantitative
Figure 13. (a)
Quantitative comparison
comparison of
of the
the deflection
deflection field at the
field at maximum(b)
the maximum load. (a)
load. The numerical
(a) The numerical
Figure 13. Quantitative comparison of the deflection field at the maximum load. (a) The numerical
result, (b) the
result, (b) the experimental
experimental DIC
DIC result.
result.
Figure
result, 13.the
(b) Quantitative comparison
experimental of the deflection field at the maximum load. (a) The numerical
DIC result.
result, (b) the experimental DIC result.
Use of the DIC scanner ARAMIS made it also possible to quantitatively compare any type of
Use of the DIC scanner ARAMIS made it also possible to quantitatively compare any type of
deformation.
deformation.
Use of theFigures
Figures 14
14 and
DIC scanner and 1515 present
present the
the deflections
deflections of
of a to
cross-section through the vertical and
deformation. Figures 14 and ARAMIS
15 presentmade it also possible
the deflections quantitatively
of a cross-section compare
through any type
the vertical of
and
horizontal diagonal
diagonal atatthe
themaximal
maximal load level
load achieved
level in the
achieved in experimental
the study.
experimental The vertical
study. The cross-
vertical
deformation. Figures 14 and 15 present the deflections of a cross-section through the
horizontal diagonal at the maximal load level achieved in the experimental study. The vertical cross- vertical and
section, except
cross-section,
horizontal for the
except
diagonal at overall
forthe deflection,
themaximal
overall also also
deflection,
load level shows local
shows
achieved deformations
inlocal
the between
deformations
experimental ribs
between
study. The in the
ribs range
in the of
range
section, except for the overall deflection, also shows local deformations between ribs invertical cross-
the range of
plastic deformations.
section, This
except for theThis phenomenon
overall isalso
deflection,is documented
shows local in Figure 14, where rib areas are represented
plastic deformations. phenomenon documented in deformations between
Figure 14, where ribsare
rib areas in the range of
represented
plastic deformations. This phenomenon is documented in Figure 14, where rib areas are represented
Materials 2019, 12, 3699 11 of 18

Materials
Materials
of plastic2019,
2019, 12, xx FOR
12, FOR PEER
deformations. PEER REVIEW
REVIEW
This phenomenon is documented in Figure 14, where rib areas are represented 11 of
11 of 18
18

by peaks and between them it is possible to observe different deformations in the form of buckling
by peaks
by peaks andand between
between them
them itit is
is possible
possible to
to observe different
different deformations
deformations in
in the form
form ofof buckling
buckling
of the skin. Figure 16 presents strain fields inobserve
the area of the upper node of the the
test frame, recorded
of the
of the skin.
skin. Figure
Figure 16 16 presents
presents strain
strain fields
fields in
in the
the area
area of
of the
the upper
upper node
node of
of the
the test
test frame, recorded
recorded
by the DIC system and obtained by FEM analyses, caused by the maximum level offrame,
the acting load.
by the DIC
bycomparison system
the DIC system and
and obtained
obtained by FEM analyses,
by FEMproved
analyses, caused
caused by the
by the maximum
maximum level of the
level of the acting load.
actingwith
load.
A of the above similarities that the FEM model used provided results a
A
A comparison
comparison of
of the
the above
above similarities
similarities proved
proved that
that the
the FEM
FEM model
model used
used provided
provided results
results with
with aa
sufficient level of convergence.
sufficient level
sufficient level ofof convergence.
convergence.

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Deflection
Deflection of
of aa cross-section
cross-section through
through the
the vertical
vertical diagonal
diagonal at
at the
the level
level of
of maximum
maximum load.
load.

Figure 15.
Figure 15. Deflection of
of a cross-section through
through the horizontal
horizontal diagonal at
at the level
level of maximum
maximum load.
Figure 15. Deflection
Deflection of aa cross-section
cross-section through the
the horizontal diagonal
diagonal at the
the level of
of maximum load.
load.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
 Figure
Materials 2019,15.
12,Deflection
3699 of a cross-section through the horizontal diagonal at the level of maximum load.
12 of 18

Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18

(a) (b)
Figure 16. Comparison of the minimum principle strain distribution at the maximum load. (a)
Figure 16. Comparison
Experimental of numerical
DIC result, (b) the minimum
result.principle strain distribution at the maximum load.
(a) Experimental DIC result, (b) numerical result.
6.2. Comparison of FE Results for Stiffened and Smooth Plates
6.2. Comparison of FE Results for Stiffened and Smooth Plates
Numerical analyses carried out made it possible to compare deformations and stress states of
Numerical analyses carried out made it possible to compare deformations and stress states of the
the stiffened plate and the smooth plate with a thickness 0.75 mm and equivalent mass.
stiffened plate and the smooth plate with a thickness 0.75 mm and equivalent mass.
The numerically predicted critical load for the stiffened plate was higher by 300% in comparison
The numerically predicted critical load for the stiffened plate was higher by 300% in comparison
to the smooth plate. The obtained value was equivalent to the plate with a thickness of 2 mm, but the
to the smooth plate. The obtained value was equivalent to the plate with a thickness of 2 mm, but the
mass of such an element would be higher by 166%. The shapes of first buckling mode obtained by
mass of such an element would be higher by 166%. The shapes of first buckling mode obtained by the
the linearized solution, in a qualitative manner, were the same for both plates (Figure 17).
linearized solution, in a qualitative manner, were the same for both plates (Figure 17).

(a) (b)

Figure 17. Results

Figure17. Results ofof linearized
linearized buckling
buckling FEM
FEM analyses.
analyses. Normalized
Normalized deflection
deflection fields
fields for
for the
the first
first
buckling modes for (a) the stiffened plate and (b) the smooth plate. The values given in parentheses
buckling modes for (a) the stiffened plate and (b) the smooth plate. The values given in parentheses
mean
meanthe
thecritical
criticalshear
shearedge
edgeload
loadcorresponding
correspondingtotothe
thefirst
firstbuckling
bucklingmode.
mode.The
Theshape
shapeofofdeformation
deformation
used as geometrical imperfections in the first step of nonlinear FEM analyses.
used as geometrical imperfections in the first step of nonlinear FEM analyses.

Similar to the case of the stiffened plate, for the smooth plate the initial imperfection was introduced
Similar to the case of the stiffened plate, for the smooth plate the initial imperfection was
to the input file of the FEM model. The shape of imperfection was chosen as the first buckling mode
introduced to the input file of the FEM model. The shape of imperfection was chosen as the first
(Figure 17) with a maximal value of initial deflection equal 0.05 mm, which was 6.67% of the smooth
buckling mode (Figure 17) with a maximal value of initial deflection equal 0.05 mm, which was 6.67%
plate’s thickness. Because all finite elements and their centroids were in one plane for the smooth plate,
of the smooth plate’s thickness. Because all finite elements and their centroids were in one plane for
the smooth plate, the existence geometric disorder was necessary to allow the loss of stability in the
case of nonlinear analyses. This was in opposition to the stiffened plate, where the presence of initial
geometrical imperfections in numerical analyses had a significant influence on deformations, but it
was not a necessary condition causing the loss of stability of the structure.
Figure 18 presents a comparison of the shear angle change due to load increases for stiffened
Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

Materials 2019, 12, 3699 13 of 18

the existence geometric disorder was necessary to allow the loss of stability in the case of nonlinear
analyses. This was in opposition to the stiffened plate, where the presence of initial geometrical
imperfections in numerical analyses had a significant influence on deformations, but it was not a
necessary condition causing the loss of stability of the structure.
Figure 18 presents a comparison of the shear angle change due to load increases for stiffened
and smooth plates. Up to a load level of about 70 N/mm, the equilibrium paths were very similar,
both qualitatively and quantitatively; therefore, the in-plane stiffness plate with gridded ribs did not
manifest
Materials a significant
2019, advantage
12, x FOR PEER REVIEW over the smooth plate with equivalent mass. 13 of 18

Figure 18. Comparison of shear load versus shear angle obtained from FEM for stiffened and smooth
plates.

Analysis of the charts presented in Figure 19 makes it possible to compare the out-of-plane
stiffness of plates under consideration. In the range of loading up to 55 N/mm, the stiffened plate
deflection was much lower than in comparison to the smooth plate with equivalent mass. Nonlinear
FEM analyses, just like linearized buckling, showed a significant impact of triangular stiffening on
the critical load of the plate. An enlarged area in Figure 19 presents the transitions from pre- to post-
buckling states of deformation. Smooth transitions, instead of sudden changes in equilibrium paths,
were caused by the introduced initial geometrical imperfection. Despite this fact, critical loads were
obtained at a level close to the simplified buckling analyses.
FEM analyses allowed also to determine the load limit, which caused plastic strain in the studied
structures.
Figure
Figure18.
First, permanent
18.Comparison
Comparison
deformation
of shear loadload
of shear
occurred
versus for angle
shearshear
versus angle almost
obtained identical
from FEM
obtained
deformation
fromforFEM
stiffened values
and in
smooth
for stiffened and
terms
of the deflection
plates.
smooth plates. for both structures, which were about 2.58 mm for the stiffened plate and 2.61 mm
for the smooth plate. However, load levels related to the exhibition of plastic strain were about 37
N/mm Comparing
and 28 of
Analysis N/mmequilibrium
the charts pathsand
for stiffened
presented expressed
smooth
in Figureby themakes
plates,
19 relationit between
respectively.
possible the
These deflection
pointed
to compare outofdifferences
the points in the
out-of-plane in
geometrical
the values of centre
limit of
loads the plates
proves and
that acting
the loading
introduction gives
of a more
integral complete
stiffening
stiffness of plates under consideration. In the range of loading up to 55 N/mm, the stiffened plate to understanding
the plate increased of the
deformation
load
deflection bybehaviour
level was amuch of the
little lower
over 31% analysed
than without structures to(Figure
an increase
in comparison 19).
theinsmooth
the Similarly
mass thetostructure.
of with
plate the predictions
equivalent The ofNonlinear
linearized
dotted
mass. line in
buckling,
Figure
FEM 19 the
analyses, geometrically
represents
just like the linear range
numerically
linearized of deformation
obtained
buckling, beginning
showed for the stiffened
of the
a significant rangeplate
impact ofoftheended at astrains
plastic
triangular much higher
stiffening in the
on
load level
structures. than in
Analyses theofcase of the
deformations smooth
and plate.
stress The
states absence
in this of
rangesteep
maychanges
be
the critical load of the plate. An enlarged area in Figure 19 presents the transitions from pre- to post- in
affectedthebyequilibrium
the errors
paths between
resulting
buckling from of
states pre- and post-buckling
thedeformation.
simplified Smoothdeformations
material and geometrical
transitions, weremodels
instead caused ofbythe
of sudden the introduction
stiffened
changes in plate ofused
geometrical
equilibrium inpaths,
FEM
imperfections
caused bytothe
calculations.
were theintroduced
numerical plateinitialmodels.
geometrical imperfection. Despite this fact, critical loads were
obtained at a level close to the simplified buckling analyses.
FEM analyses allowed also to determine the load limit, which caused plastic strain in the studied
structures. First, permanent deformation occurred for almost identical deformation values in terms
of the deflection for both structures, which were about 2.58 mm for the stiffened plate and 2.61 mm
for the smooth plate. However, load levels related to the exhibition of plastic strain were about 37
N/mm and 28 N/mm for stiffened and smooth plates, respectively. These pointed out differences in
the values of limit loads proves that the introduction of integral stiffening to the plate increased the
load level by a little over 31% without an increase in the mass of the structure. The dotted line in
Figure 19 represents the numerically obtained beginning of the range of the plastic strains in the
structures. Analyses of deformations and stress states in this range may be affected by the errors
resulting from the simplified material and geometrical models of the stiffened plate used in FEM
calculations.

Figure 19.
19. Comparison of shear
Comparison loadload
of shear versus deflection
versus obtained
deflection from FEM
obtained fromfor
FEMstiffened and smooth
for stiffened and
plates.
smooth plates.

Analysis of the charts presented in Figure 19 makes it possible to compare the out-of-plane stiffness
of plates under consideration. In the range of loading up to 55 N/mm, the stiffened plate deflection was
Materials 2019, 12, 3699 14 of 18

much lower than in comparison to the smooth plate with equivalent mass. Nonlinear FEM analyses,
just like linearized buckling, showed a significant impact of triangular stiffening on the critical load of
the plate. An enlarged area in Figure 19 presents the transitions from pre- to post-buckling states of
deformation. Smooth transitions, instead of sudden changes in equilibrium paths, were caused by the
introduced initial geometrical imperfection. Despite this fact, critical loads were obtained at a level
close to the simplified buckling analyses.
FEM analyses allowed also to determine the load limit, which caused plastic strain in the studied
structures. First, permanent deformation occurred for almost identical deformation values in terms of
the deflection for both structures, which were about 2.58 mm for the stiffened plate and 2.61 mm for the
smooth plate. However, load levels related to the exhibition of plastic strain were about 37 N/mm and
28 N/mm for12,stiffened
Materials
and smooth plates, respectively. These pointed out differences in the values of
Materials 2019,
2019, 12, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 14
14 of
of 18
18
limit loads proves that the introduction of integral stiffening to the plate increased the load level by a
littleFigures
over 31% 20without an increase
and 21 present in the mass of
the comparison ofthe structure.
deflection The
lines ofdotted line in Figure
cross-sections passing 19 through
represents a
the numerically obtained beginning of the range of the plastic strains in the
horizontal diagonal for both plates for load levels equal to 37 N/mm and 103 N/mm. At the first value structures. Analyses of
deformations
of loading, the and stress states
stiffened plateinexhibited
this range the
mayfirst
be affected
plastic by the errors
strain, resulting
and the secondfromonethewas
simplified
at the
material and
maximum geometrical
load models offields
level. Deflection the stiffened plate used in FEM calculations.
and Huber-Mises-Hencky (HMH) stress efforts for both
Figures
mentioned 20 and
load 21 present
conditions and the comparison
considered of are
plates deflection
presentedlinesinof cross-sections
Figures 22–25. Itpassing through
can be noted thata
horizontal diagonal for both plates for load levels equal to 37 N/mm and 103 N/mm.
the introduction of grid stiffening reduced deflection by 20%, with a corresponding decrease in stress At the first value
of loading,
by 9.6%, forthe
thestiffened
load level plate exhibited thetofirst
corresponding plastic
initial strain, and
permanent the second one
deformations was
of the at the maximum
structures.
loadAs level.
predicted by linear buckling analysis, both plates lost stability in the form ofmentioned
Deflection fields and Huber-Mises-Hencky (HMH) stress efforts for both one dominantload
conditions in
half-wave andthe considered
centre and plates are symmetric,
two presented insmaller
Figures 22–25.
waves Itnearcan be
thenoted
edgethat the introduction
(Figure 17). Such
of grid stiffening reduced deflection by 20%, with a corresponding
deformations increased in magnitude with increasing load levels, but the overall shape diddecrease in stress by 9.6%, fornot
the
load level corresponding
change till the end of the analysis.to initial permanent deformations of the structures.

Figure
Figure 20.
20. Comparison
Comparisonof ofhorizontal
horizontalcross-section
cross-sectiondeflections
deflectionsat
atthe
the load
load level
level causing
causing the
the start
start of
of
plastic
plastic deformation (q ==37
deformation (q 37N/mm).
N/mm).

Figure
Figure 21.
21.Comparison
Comparisonofofhorizontal
horizontalcross-section deflections
cross-section at the
deflections maximum
at the loadload
maximum levellevel
equal to 103
equal to
N/mm.
103 N/mm.
 Figure 21. Comparison of horizontal cross-section deflections at the maximum load level equal to 103
N/mm.
Materials 2019, 12, 3699 15 of 18

Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 18

Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 18
Figure 22. Deflection fields [mm] obtained from FEM analyses at the load level causing the start of
Figure deformation
plastic 22. Deflection
(qfields [mm] obtained
= 37 N/mm): fromplate,
(a) stiffened FEM(b)analyses
smoothatplate.
the load level causing the start of
plastic deformation (q = 37 N/mm): (a) stiffened plate, (b) smooth plate.
Similar to the graphs in Figure 19, deflections for the triangular, grid-stiffened plate were lower
than Similar
for the to the graphs
smooth in Figure
one only in the19, deflections
range fordeformations.
of elastic the triangular,The
grid-stiffened platephenomena
reason for such were lower
than be
may forthe
thehigh
smooth one only in
concentration of the range
stress nearofthe
elastic deformations.
corners The plate
of the stiffened reason for such
(Figures 23 phenomena
and 25). An
may be the
increase in high concentration
the stress gradientofinstress
thesenear the was
areas corners of the stiffened
probably connected plate
with(Figures 23 andof
the method 25).
FEMAn
increase in the stress gradient in these areas was probably connected with the method
discretization of the structure as well as incorrect geometry of the structure, which can be treated as of FEM
(a) (b)
adiscretization
design error.of the structure as well as incorrect geometry of the structure, which can be treated as
a design error.
Figure 22. Deflection fields [mm] obtained from FEM analyses at the load level causing the start of
plastic deformation (q = 37 N/mm): (a) stiffened plate, (b) smooth plate.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 23. HMH stress distribution (MPa) obtained from FEM analyses at the load level causing the
Figure
start
Figureof 23. HMH
plastic
23. HMH stress
stress distribution
deformation (MPa)
(MPa) obtained
(q = 37 N/mm):
distribution from
(a) stiffened
obtained FEM
plate,
from FEM(b)analyses
smoothat
analyses the
the load
atplate.load level
level causing
causing the
the
start
start of
of plastic
plastic deformation
deformation (q(q == 37
37 N/mm):
N/mm): (a)
(a) stiffened
stiffened plate,
plate, (b)
(b) smooth
smooth plate.
plate.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 24.
24. Deflection fields (mm)
Deflection fields (mm) obtained
obtainedfrom
fromFEM
FEManalyses
analysesatatthe
thelevel
levelofofa amaximum
maximum load
load equal
equal to
Figure
to
103103 24. Deflection
N/mm:
N/mm: (a)(a) fields
stiffened
stiffened (mm)
plate,
plate, obtained
(b)(b) smooth
smooth from FEM analyses at the level of a maximum load equal
plate.
plate.
to 103 N/mm: (a) stiffened plate, (b) smooth plate.
Materials 2019, 12, 3699 16 of 18
Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 18

(a) (b)
Figure 25.
Figure 25. HMH
HMH stress
stressdistribution
distribution(MPa)
(MPa)obtained
obtainedfrom
from FEM
FEM analyses
analyses at the
at the level
level of load
of load equal
equal to
to 103
103 N/mm:
N/mm: (a) stiffened
(a) stiffened plate,
plate, (b) smooth
(b) smooth plate.
plate.

As predicted by linear buckling analysis, both plates lost stability in the form of one dominant
7. Conclusions
half-wave in the centre and two symmetric, smaller waves near the edge (Figure 17). Such deformations
The paper presents the results of experimental and numerical investigations of thin-walled
increased in magnitude with increasing load levels, but the overall shape did not change till the end of
plates stiffened by an isosceles grid pattern of low-profile ribs. The behaviour of the structure under
the analysis.
pure shear loading conditions was considered in the range of nonlinear deformations, including post-
Similar to the graphs in Figure 19, deflections for the triangular, grid-stiffened plate were lower
buckling and plasticity effects. The main conclusions drawn are as follows:
than for the smooth one only in the range of elastic deformations. The reason for such phenomena
(1) Introduction
may of triangularlyofarranged
be the high concentration stress nearribsthe
increased
cornersthe critical
of the load by
stiffened 300%
plate in comparison
(Figures 23 and 25). to
the smooth
An increase in the plate with
stress equivalent
gradient mass.
in these Thiswas
areas phenomenon can be usedwith
probably connected in situations
the method where it is
of FEM
intentional
discretization to maintain
of the structure the shape
as well of the structure
as incorrect geometry (e.g., impact
of the on aerodynamics),
structure, which can be treated or directly
as a
designwhen the local loss of stability is not permissible and critical load is equal to limit load.
error.
(2) Comparisons of post-critical behaviours of the investigated structures proved that in the range
7. Conclusions
of elastic deformation, the stiffened plate may have significantly better properties in the case of
deflection
The and stress
paper presents thelevel, without
results an increaseand
of experimental in the mass ofinvestigations
numerical the structure.of thin-walled plates
stiffened by an isosceles grid pattern of low-profile ribs. The behaviour ofelements
(3) Use of integral triangular stiffening in the design of thin-walled made
the structure it also
under possible
pure shear
to reduce
loading conditionsthe mass of the load-bearing
was considered in the rangestructures maintaining
of nonlinear the critical
deformations, and limit
including load. This
post-buckling
issue willeffects.
and plasticity be the subject
The main of further work.
conclusions drawn are as follows:
(4) Despite the use of certain simplifications covering both the geometry of the structure and the
(1) material
Introductionmodel of in
triangularly arrangedit ribs
the FEM analyses, increased
should be noted thethat
critical load
results by 300%
with in comparison
a satisfactory degree to of
the smooth plate with
convergence were obtained. equivalent mass. This phenomenon can be used in situations where it is
intentional
(5) Reduced to maintain
properties the shape
of the of the
stiffened structure
plate (e.g., impact
in the range of the on aerodynamics),
plastic deformations or directly
are relatedwhen to
the local loss of stability is not permissible and critical load is equal to
the stress concentrations. Such effects are probably caused by the incorrect geometry of the riblimit load.
(2) pattern
Comparisons
aroundofthe post-critical
corners of behaviours of the investigated
the plate, resulting in changes to structures
the rigidity proved
of thethat in the range
structure in the
areas under consideration. More research should be carried out to obtain the methodology of
of elastic deformation, the stiffened plate may have significantly better properties in the case of
deflection
the correctand stress level,
selection without near
of geometry an increase in the mass
the attachment of theThis
areas. structure.
fact should be taken into
(3) consideration
Use of integralwhen triangular stiffening
designing in the design solutions.
real construction of thin-walled elements made it also possible to
reduce the mass of the load-bearing structures
(6) Considering the occurrence of significant stress concentrations, maintaining the critical
it isand limit load.
necessary to This
carryissue
out
will be the
fatigue testssubject
that willof further
prove the work.
impact of introducing the isosceles grid pattern of low-profile,
(4) integral
Despite ribsthe use
on theof certain
service simplifications covering both the geometry of the structure and the
life of the structure.
material model in the FEM analyses, it should be noted that results with a satisfactory degree of
To summarize, the presented results make it possible to formulate the statement that integral,
convergence were obtained.
triangular sub-stiffening indicate a positive effect on the deformations and the stress state of thin-
(5) Reduced properties of the stiffened plate in the range of the plastic deformations are related to
walled structures.
the stress concentrations. Such effects are probably caused by the incorrect geometry of the rib
pattern
Supplementary around the corners
Materials: of the plate,
The following are resulting
available inonline
changes at to the rigidity of the structure
www.mdpi.com/xxx/s1, Video S1:in
the areas
Deformations ofunder consideration.
the stiffened More
plate captured byresearch should be carried out to obtain the methodology
the DIC system.

Funding: This research received no external funding

Materials 2019, 12, 3699 17 of 18

of the correct selection of geometry near the attachment areas. This fact should be taken into
consideration when designing real construction solutions.
(6) Considering the occurrence of significant stress concentrations, it is necessary to carry out fatigue
tests that will prove the impact of introducing the isosceles grid pattern of low-profile, integral ribs
on the service life of the structure.

To summarize, the presented results make it possible to formulate the statement that integral,
triangular sub-stiffening indicate a positive effect on the deformations and the stress state of
thin-walled structures.

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/12/22/3699/s1,

Video S1: Deformations of the stiffened plate captured by the DIC system.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflicts of interest.

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