Volume One

Preview
ebook of Rubber Latex Technology Volume One is written with a
specific purpose. This book is based on updating this Technology with
the latest Developments.
This Volume deals with the key aspects such as , How the Natural
Rubber Latex is produced, The details on Rubber Plantation,
Cultivation , various Rubber Molecular Formulations, the Rubber Tree
details, Diseases , rubber wood preservation and applications, the yield
of rubber latex and measure on how to increase it, the latex
concentration and preserving methods, compounding of Natural Rubber
latex for variety of end Products, the compounding technology,
preparation of water base dispersions, how to control foaming while
compounding, the variety of additives for compounding ,and the hidden
costs involved in latex rubber product manufacturing.

Chapters and Content

1. Latex Introduction 004-150
2. Latex Production 151-297
3. Preservation 298-338
4. Compounding and
Compounding Ingredients 339-552
 Latex
Technology
Content
Chapter 1 Latex Introduction
1.1.0. Latex Introduction 004-019
1.1.1.More about Latex Rubber 020-031
1.2. Rubber Molecular Formula 032-042
1.3. Rubber Tree Bark 043-125
1.4. Disease on Rubber Tree 126-142
1.5. Rubber Wood Preservation 143-150

Page | 1
1.1.0. Latex Introduction
Latex is defined as a stable dispersion of a polymeric substance in an
essentially aqueous medium. Based on the origin, latices are classified
as natural, synthetic and artificial according as they occur naturally as
the products of metabolism of various plants and trees, as they are
produced directly from the corresponding monomers or as they are
produced by dispersion of the bulk polymer in an aqueous medium. Of
the different natural latices, the principal one natural rubber latex is
obtained from the bark of the tree Hevea brasiliensis, of the family
Euphorbiaceae. Natural rubber latex is a white opaque liquid with a
specific gravity which varies between 0.974 and 0.986. It is a weak
lyophilic colloidal system of spherical or pear-shaped rubber globules
suspended in an aqueous serum. The rubber globule is surrounded by a
protective layer of proteins and phospholipids which imparts the
propyl Li c colloidal nature to latex and the stability of latex is due to
the negative charge present on the protective layer. Also, it contains a
variety of non-rubber constituents both organic and inorganic, in
addition to rubber.

The proportion of these constituents may vary, with clones, nutrition,

climate etc.
general the composition of latex is as follows:
But in
Constituent Percent
Rubber 30-40
Protein 2-2.5
Resin 1-2
Sugar 1-1.5
Water 55-66
Ash 0.7-0.9

Characterization of rubber hydrocarbon by intrinsic viscosity,

osmotic pressure, light scattering sedimentation velocity analysis
methods has yielded considerable information on the size and
shape of rubber molecules in solution and has established that the
rubber hydrocarbon of Hevea brasiliensis comprises a series of
polymer homologs with average molecular weight in the region of
500, 000 to 1,000,000 and with a broad distribution of molecular
weight from well over 1,000,000 down to less than l 00, 000 •
Fresh latex, as it comes out from the tree, is slightly alkaline or
neutral. rapidly due to bacterial act ion. It becomes acidic

The formation of organic acids neutralises the negative charge on

rubber particles and the latex gradually gets coagulated on keeping.
Therefore, fresh latex cannot be kept for long without adding
preservative A preservative is a chemical or mixture of chemicals
which when added to latex can prevent bacterial action in it and at the
same time stabilize it. Ammonia is the most popular latex
preservative. Usually concentrated latex is preserved with 0.7%
ammonia. But a variety of other substances also can be used with
advantage along with a low level of ammonia (0.2%) for effective latex
preservation. Field latex with 30-40% rubber is concentrated and
preserved latex concentrates are generally marketed in two
concentrations.

1. Latex between 36 and 50% dry rubber content (drc)

2. Latex between 51 and 60% drc.

Several methods of concentrating the latex are in practice:

evaporation, creaming, centrifuging and electrodecantation.
Concentration is advantageous since transported and higher solid
content is manufacturing operations less water is required for most

Natural rubber is a high molecular weight polymeric substance with

viscoelastic properties. Structurally it is 1,4-polyisoprene. Because of
this, natural rubber shows all the reactions of an unsaturated compound.
It gives addition compounds with halogens, hydrogen chloride and
several other reactants that react with olefins. An interesting reaction
of natural rubber is its combination with sulphur. This is known as
vulcanization. This reaction converts the plastic properties of raw
rubber into elastic properties. Thus, vulcanized rubber will have very
high tensile strength and its hardness and a bras ion resistance also will
be high. Because of the unique combination of these properties, natural
rubber finds application in the manufacture of a variety of products.
Requirements of composition and physico-chemical properties of
preserved latex concentrate

The significance of these properties has been discussed by Blackley.

Specifications for centrifuged or creamed, ammonia-preserved NR
latices are set out in ISO 2004. Those for evaporated NR latices are the
subject of ISO 2027. ISO 2004 deals with three types of centrifuged
latex (HA, LA and MA) and two types of creamed latex (HA and LA).
ISO 2027 covers three types of evaporated latex.

When ammonia is added for preserving latex, the proteins and lipid
materials are hydrolysed slowly releasing fatty acids which form
soaps and the adsorption of these soaps is thought to account for the
spontaneous rise in mechanical stability when ammoniated latex
concentrate is stored.
Currently the dominant area of manufacture using NR latex is the
production of dipped goods. Dipped goods include a wide range of
products such as gloves, balloons, catheters, teats etc. In these types
of products, the latex used must produce continuous films on the former
and maintain film integrity during the drying/ vulcanizing stage.
Natural rubber latex is outstanding in this respect that it forms strong
films which can withstand rapid drying. Also, natural rubber latex
products are exceptional in terms of tensile strength and elongation
coupled with relatively low modulus values, which are ideal
characteristics for gloves, balloons and teats. The versatility of natural
rubber latex in terms of production processes is quite remarkable.
Recently there has been a sharp increase in the use of NR examination
gloves by medical personnel as a preventive measure against the spread
of blood-borne viral diseases such as AIDS, But the observed changes
in latex consumption have not been accompanied by corresponding
changes in production technique.
Improved formulations, test methods and process control are to be
introduced.
The advantages of the direct use of latex are well recognised because of
the simplicity and economy of the practical techniques as well as the
mechanical properties of the articles obtained. Because the rubber has
not been submitted to mastication, it retains its intrinsic qualities
unimpaired.
In the last few years, there has been widespread concern about the
presence of nitrosoamines, which are potential carcinogens, in baby
bottle teats and soothers made from latex. Some countries have
established standards for maximum nitrosamines and nitrosatable
amines in these products. It has been shown that NR latex is free from
nitrosamines and contains only relatively low concentrations of
nitrosatable amines, well below the maximum limits.

Latex Compounding and Vulcanization

A rubber polymer by itself has such poor properties that it has limited
commercial value. A variety of materials must be added to rubber to
improve its properties and to make it commercially useful. The science
of adding these ingredients to rubber in order to produce the best
possible product and to assure efficient, trouble• free manufacturing of
this product is known as compounding.
In all latex processes a stable colloidal system is maintained until, at the
desired time, it is made unstable and converted to a solid product.
Raw rubber flows on standing and does not retain its shape. Thus, for
rubber to become truly useful, its chains must be permanently linked
together to increase its strength. Accelerators were first discovered in
1906. More efficient accelerators such as dithiocarbamates,
thiuram, MBTS etc. were discovered around 1920. Thus,
vulcanization is the chemical reaction which brings about the formation
of crosslinks between the long polymer chains. The three-dimensional
structure so produced restricts the free mobility of the molecules and
gives a product having reduced tendency to crystallise, improved
elasticity and substantially constant modulus and hardness
characteristics Vulcanization of over a rubber wide changes
temperature range its physical properties.
It increases viscosity, hardness, modulus, tensile strength, abrasion
resistance and r€:'silence and decreases elongation at break,
compression set, hysteresis and solubility in solvents. All of these
changes are proportional to the degree of crosslinking except tensile
which reaches a maximum at about one crosslink per every 150
monomer units. The length of the sulphur crosslinks also affects the
physical properties, longer crosslinks - polysulfide crosslinks
improve tensile strength, tear strength and fatigue properties. On the
other hand, shorter crosslinks improve thermal and oxidative stability
and give lower compression set. Structural characterisation of sulphur
vulcanized rubber networks was done by B. Savilla et al. Studies of the
chemistry of vulcanization today occupy a central position in current
efforts to achieve better product performance from available
rubbers. The vulcanizate properties are not functions of crosslink
density only, but they are affected by the type of crosslink, nature of
polymer, type and amount of fillers etc.

Compounding Ingredients
The range of compounding ingredients used in latex technology is
extremely broad and wider than that for solid polymers. Compounding
ingredients for latex may be divided into the following categories [26).

1. Stabilisers including surfactants

2. Vulcanizing agents
3. Accelerators
4. Activators
5. Antioxidants and
6. Fillers.
The water-soluble materials are added as solutions, insoluble sol
ids as dispersions and immiscible liquids as emulsions. The particle
size of the ingredients should be reduced to that of the rubber particles
in latex for getting uniform distribution in the latex compound.
The most common technique used to produce dispersions for latex
compounding is ball milling. In the ball mill, the particle size of the
dispersion is reduced to the colloidal range. The method of operating
ball mills has been described in various publications. Liquid
compounding ingredients that are water-immiscible can be emulsified
in water with the aid of an emulsifying agent such as potassium oleate.
Compounding of latex should be performed in a vessel that is
chemically resistant to the latex and the compounding ingredients.
The compounding ingredient is best added to the continually stirred
latex in a slow steady stream, with a minimum of splashing. The
compounded latex should be stored in a covered, chemically resistant
vessel for maturation. Latex formulations are usually calculated on dry
rubber content.

Surface-Active Agents
Surface-active agents are substances which bring About marked
modifications in the surface properties of aqueous media, even though
they are present only in very small amounts (of the order of 1% or less).
These surface-active agents are of great importance in the technology of
polymer latices and it is in this respect that latex technology differs
most significantly from that of dry polymers and polymer solutions. The
surface-active agents can be classified as wetting agents, viscosity
modifiers, protective colloids, dispersing agents, dispersion
stabilisers, emulsifiers etc. according to their function. The second
classification is by chemical nature and di vi des these into anionic, cat
ionic, amphoteric and non-ionogenic types. Wetting agents are used to
reduce the interfacial tension between two surfaces. Proteins,
alginates, polyvinyl alcohols and cellulose derivatives are used as
protective agents and viscosity modifiers in the processing of latex
compound. The dispersing agents prevent the dispersed particles from
reaggregating and alkyl sulfonates are generally used for this.
Emulsifying agents are soaps, usually oleates.

Vulcanizing Agents
Sulphur is the most universal vulcanizing agent for natural rubber latex.
Sulphur should be of good quality and should be finely ground.
Tetramethyl thiuram disulphide may be used to cure many polymers
without the addition of sulphur. But the vulcanization of this system
proceeds at a useful rate only at relatively high temperatures
(140°C). But thiourea is able to activate vulcanization by tetramethyl
thiuram disulphide even at 100°c. The excellent heat and ageing
resistance of thiuram vulcanizates are retained when cure is activated by
the addition of thiourea. Dunn reported that butyl xanthogen disulphide
in conjunction with a zinc dithio carbamate may be used to vulcanize
latex film in the absence of sulphur. It has been claimed that organic
peroxides and hydroperoxides may be used to vulcanize natural rubber
latex deposits, giving products of a high order of translucency.

Accelerators
Accelerators play an important role in the vulcanization of rubber
and they affect the scorch safety, the rate of cure and the length and
number of the crosslinks formed. The structural modification of the
main chain which can occur during the accelerated vulcanization
process has already been studied in detail. The function of accelerator
combination is to increase the crosslinking efficiency and to
minimise wastefully combined sulphur by decreasing cyclic
monosulfide formation, vicinal crosslinks, and the length of sulphur
chain, ‘S x ‘in crosslinks.
The most important classes of accelerators are metal salts of dialkyl
dithiocarbamates. The thiazoles and to a lesser extent the thiurams are
of importance as secondary accelerators used in conjunction with
dithiocarbamates. limited application.

Dithiocarbamates
The metal xanthates also find the salts of the dialkyl dithiocarbamic
acids have the generic structure as
Although a considerable range of
accelerators are available under
this, zinc diethyl dithiocarbamate
(ZDC) is the most widely used.
This is very active in latex mixes
even in the absence of zno and
activates thiazole accelerators.

Thiozoles
The most common thiozole in latex compounding is the zinc salt of 2-
mercaptobenzthiozole (ZMBT). It is activated by thiurams and
dithiocarbamates. Thiozoles are insufficiently active to be used on their
own for latex work, but they function as secondary accelerators for the
dithiocarbamate giving vulcanizate of high modulus.

Thiurams
As a class, the thiurams are insufficiently active to accelerate sat isf act
or i 1 y the sulphur vulcanization of diene rubbers in latex form. They
may be used as secondary accelerators in conjunction with the
dithiocarbamates.

Activators
The accelerators require zinc oxide for activation in all types of rubber.
Zinc oxide increases the tensile strength and modulus of the
vulcanizates. Zinc oxide used for activation should be low in lead
content.
The thickening produced by ZnO in ammonia preserved latex and
the subsequent loss in stability of the latex are well known. Jordan
showed that the increase in viscosity in the presence of zno varied in
accordance with the KOH number of the latex.

Antioxidants
The common antioxidants used in latex are of two types:
(1) Amine derivatives which are powerful antioxidants but which tend
to cause discolouration of the rubber during ageing, and
(2) Phenolic derivatives, which are not such effective antioxidants, but
which have the advantage of not causing discolouration.

Fillers
Fillers are added to rubber latex to modify its properties and to reduce
cost. Non-black fillers have always been an important part of the
rubber industry. A broad spectrum of performance properties
from nonreinforcing, but economical, to highly reinforcing exists in
these non-black fillers. Today the principal non-black fillers are clays,
calcium carbonate and silicas.
Reinforcement by a filler is the enhancement of one or more properties
of an elastomer by the incorporation of that filler, thus making it more
suitable for a given application.
It is general 1 y agreed that strong 1 ink exist between rubber chains
and reinforcing filler particles. Nature of polymer filler attachments
in vulcani zates has been investigated in great er detai1 by Rehner.
Many concepts have been given for the filler reinforcement. The use of
china clay in latex compounding has been studied by van Rossem. But
it is well known that the reinforcing fillers normally employed in the
dry rubber technique behave, when they are introduced into the
latex,like inert fillers or they even appreciably lower the mechanical
properties of the vulcanizates The principal obstacle to the
development of the technology of production of rubber articles
from latex has been the absence of a rubber reinforcement
impossibility effect in of obtaining Latex strong and the rubbers
consequent by direct introduction of fillers into latex. For the
production of filled latex compounds of high strength it is necessary to
ensure (a} a high degree of dispersion of the fillers and other
ingredients added to the latex.
(b} Simultaneous precipitation of the particles from the latex mix.
(c} Conditions which result in direct contact between the rubber and
filler particles, without intermediate layers of protective substances
which lower the rubber• filler interaction energy.
In the case of dry rubber, fillers like calcium carbonate and clay are
found to reduce the tensile properties but silane coupling agent treated
clays are found to show improved tensile properties. Earlier workers
have studied the reinforcement of silica filler in NR, in the
presence of silane coupling agent. So, if one of the additives in latex
compounding can improve the rubber• filler interaction, the filled latex
vulcanizate can show improved mechanical properties. Reinforcing
resins were introduced when LeBras and Piccini prepared a resorcinol -
formaldehyde condensate - and added the aqueous solution to rubber
latex, which also contained dispersed curing agents. In 1947, a
byproduct from paper manufacture, was introduced as a reinforcing
filler and added to natural latex in the form of an aqueous solution to
observe the reinforcing effects of the final product. Starch
derivatives have been reported as having certain reinforcing
effects (Buchanan et al. 1968, Van Alphen (1954) and Houwink and
Van Alphen (1955) published reports on the use of aminoplasts
(aniline-formaldehyde), melamine• formaldehyde and urea-
formaldehyde condensation products formed in stabilized acidified
latex as reinforcing fillers. More recently Radhakrishnan Nair et al.
have studied the role of certain surface modifying agents like diethyl
ene glycol, t riethanol amine and bis (t ri ethoxysi l y l propyl)
tetrasulphide (Si-69) in improving the mechanical properties of the
rubber compound. It has been shown that peptising agents, plasticizing
agents etc. can be incorporated in NR latex for the purpose of
modifying its properties.
The use of poly glycol HS 35/40 in NR latex has also been studied.
Among the commonly used fillers and reinforcing agents, carbon
black offers the most potential reinforcement. Carbon black contributes
much to increase the desirable properties of vulcanized rubber and it is
almost a universal compounding ingredient for quality stocks. Addition
of black to elastomers increases the properties of the crosslinked
products. The modification of an elastomer by carbon black
reinforcement and vulcanization generates a unique three-dimensional
viscoelastic network that transforms the soft elastomer into a strong,
elastic product. Many studies have been published explaining the
reinforcing properties of carbon black in rubber. But incorporation of
carbon black with dry rubber presents problems like difficulty in
maintenance of cleanliness in the factory and huge power consumption.
So, attempts to mix black with NR in the latex stage were made. A
patent applied in 1922 by Peterson contains all the elements of the
processes for filler-latex master batching. A number of patents were
later applied for latex masterbatch preparation. Carbon black must be
adequately dispersed in order to obtain the maximum benefits of carbon
black reinforcement.
The most fundamental and reinforcement of rubber by important
fillers are feature of the size of the filler particles. It is well known that
rigid macroscopic particles of fillers weaken the polymer and as the
particle size decreases a reinforcement is observed. From the earlier
works, it is clear that latex masterbatch process can deliver a premix
which can cycle and still result in an be given a shorter mixing
extremely well dispersed compound. In spite of these advantages, this
process has not been successful so far, mainly due to (a) the difficulty in
reducing the viscosity of rubber in NR latex and (b) the low mechanical
stability of NR latex.
It is reported that direct addition of black to latex is not practicable
because it may result in poor dispersion of black in rubber. Certain
attempts made for the preparation of dispersant free masterbatch
wherein dry black was added directly to the latex without making it a
dispersion are also reported. According to H. A. Braendl e while
considering SBR-C black compounds, the col umbian carbon process
makes possible (a) lower mooney viscosity compounds, (b) much better
dispersion of black in the rubber and (c) better hysteresis properties of
the vulcanizates.
The reinforcement of elastomers by carbon black is governed by the
morphology of the black and its physical and chemical interactions with
the polymer. One of the methods for measuring black-polymer
interaction is bound rubber analysis. Attempts were made to correlate
bound rubber formation with mechanical properties for rubber-carbon
black compounds. Recently more elaborate techniques have been
described for estimating bound rubber. Bound rubber formation in
SBR-carbon black has been explained in detail by G.R. Cotton.
Knowledge of the flow behaviour of polymer compounds is of
great importance to optimize processing operations. Many excellent
works on the rheological behaviour and the extrusion characteristics of
polymer compounds have been reported.
A most convenient method to develop polymer compositions having
the required properties involves physical blending of two or more
polymers. All-important synthetic rubbers are frequently blended with
natural rubber. A wide range of properties can be achieved by blending
which includes mechanical, electrical and chemical properties along
with processability. Compounding with blends of two or more
elastomers is an attractive method for attaining properties not available
in a single elastomer. In general, the rubber used in practical application
is frequently a blend of elastomers. There are several methods of
forming elastomer blends, such as mixing of melts, mixing of
solutions, mixing of latices etc.In phase mixing,separate masterbatches
are employed.Extensive studies on blended masterbatches of NR, BR
and SBR were carried out by Hess and coworkers.The filler
distribution in elastomer blends has some inherent special
characteristics.When fillers are mixed intoblends such as NR/SBR,
the filler is unevenly distributed between the two polymers.The new
electron microscope technique permits study of the heterogeneity of
elastomer blends and filler distribution therein .The homogeneity of
these blends is shown to be influenced by mixing procedure and
polymer characteristics such as viscosity and various interaction effects
. A detailed study of elastomer blends was done by Corish and Powell.
The effect of heterogeneous carbon black distribution on the properties
of polymer blends was studied. The effects of curing temperature and
curing systems on the technical properties, polymer-filler interactions
and network structures of various blends including NR/SBR blend was
also studied. A study of morphology, curing characteristic and
physical properties of NR/SBR and NR/BR blends was done by F.
Gharavi and A.A. Katbab.
Blends of immiscible polymers may result in very interesting
properties. By blending a costlier polymer with a cheaper one, two
advantages can be obtained at the same time. They are:
(1) reduct ion in cost of the blend and
(2) keeping the level of the properties without any major decrease. PVC
has assumed a leading position among plastics because of its economic
and design advantages. It is a material of choice due to lower cost,
greater availability and improved performance. PVC exhibit good
mechanical toughness, resistance to weathering and electrical
insulating properties. Al though they have a high-melt viscosity and
require heat stabilizers, they are fairly easily processed by extrusion,
calendering, milling or injection-molding techniques. PVC materials
have excellent resistance to inorganic acids, alkalis water and very good
resistance to oxygen and ozone degradation. PVC resin is so amenable
to widespread property modification that it accounts for the number one
posit ion in overall product volume and number of applications.
Blends of several elastomers with PVC have been developed to achieve
a number of purposes. One of the commercially important and
miscible polymer blends is that of NBR and PVC. The primary purpose
of such blends is to provide elastomer having enhanced ozone
resistance. However, PVC also serves to reinforce the rubber. Modulus,
hardness and abrasion resistance increase with increasing PVC content.
Tensile strength also frequently increases with PVC content while
elongation decreases. A number of thermoplastic elastomers from
elastomers and PVC are reported such as polyesters with PVC,
ethylene copolymers with PVC etc. The modulus, flame resistance and
oil resistance of natural rubber can be significantly improved by
blending with poly (vinyl chloride). However, developing moderate
mechanical properties is a problem due to the immiscible nature of the
two polymers and the insufficient fusion characteristics of PVC
particles. However, certain additives are capable of improving the
miscibility of these polymers and the fusion characteristics of PVC
particles. Plasticizers are chemicals employed to enhance the flexibility
of compounds by lowering the Tg of the matrix polymer. Plasticizers, in
general, reduce the modulus of a PVC compound, decrease hardness,
decrease mechanical strength but increase elongation. The inferior
properties displayed by immiscible blends is due to the incompatibility
of the constituents on a molecular scale since the mechanical behaviour
of the blend is related to phase structure. found to promote. The
incorporation of compatibilisers is miscibility as they are able to make
specific interactions with each of the bl end components.
The compatibilis ing action of certain solid phase dispersants in
PVC/polyethylene and PVC/PS blends has been reported earlier.
The mechanical, rheological and morphological studies of PVC/
epoxidised NR (ENR) have shown that higher levels of epoxidation
make NR to be more compatible with PVC. It is apparent that the
mechanical properties of a blend will be a function of the processing
method used. Mixing of latices is a suitable method of obtaining
polymer blends, with more uniform distribution and this method of
preparation of polymer blends is economically attractive also.
The surface of NR latex vulcanizates usually exhibits a degree of self-
tack and this tackiness causes latex products to stick to each other when
handled in bulk. Surface treatments of latex products are done to reduce
the surface tack and friction of these products Surface modification
methods include chemical, photochemical methods and physical
techniques. Chemical methods include reactions such as
The effect of bromination on the surface rubber has been reported
already.
Halogenation. properties of Certain allergic reactions arising from
contact from natural rubber latex products have been attributed to latex
proteins leached from their surfaces. Recently, there have been reports
that natural latex gloves and other reactions surgical aids. There
is can cause hypersensitivity evidence suggesting that the
water-extractable proteins in latex is the cause of the immediate allergic
reactions. One of the very effective approach for reducing soluble
proteins is by chlorination. It is believed that chlorine renders
the proteins insoluble or it forms an impermeable barrier that prevents
proteins migrating to the glove surf ace. However, the simplest method
of protein reduct ion is to leach the gloves on the production line.
Leaching of latex products is necessary in order to remove residual
coacervant and other water-soluble residues.

Objectives and Scope of The Present Study

Rubber products were being made from natural rubber latex long before
the advent of solid rubber processing. With the development of efficient
methods for concentration and preservation, large scale production of
latex products such as foam rubber, dipped goods etc. started. But the
use of fillers in latex products is limited since they affect the
mechanical properties adversely. However, it may be possible to
incorporate physical modifiers to improve the rubber-filler interaction
thereby opening the way for filled latex products.
Organic accelerators used in latex compounds are basically different
from those used in dry rubber compounds. in the manufacture of high-
quality products two or more accelerators are normally used. The
protection of a vulcanizate against ageing depends mainly on the nature
of accelerators employed and only less on the antioxidants. Hence novel
accelerator combinations in latex product may give better ageing
resistance in comparison to conventional accelerator systems.
Carbon black is a highly reinforcing filler and latex stage carbon black
masterbatching may overcome the disadvantages of dry rubber-carbon
black mixing. If the mechanical stability of latex can be improved by
adding surface active agents and the mooney viscosity of the latex-
black masterbatch can be reduced by mastication in presence of zno and
stearic acid, latex stage addition of carbon black may be a promising
technique. Polymer blends are widely used these days for optimising
properties of individual polymers and cost reduction. Latex stage
blending of PVC and NR may yield blends with interesting properties.
One of the most common surface treatments of elastomers is
halogenation. Natural reactive towards the halogens. By surface
tackiness can be reduced, rubber is very halogenat ion, the and both
ageing resistance and surface smoothness can be improved. Physical
agents such as glycerol, silicone oil etc. also reduce the surface
tackiness of latex sheets. Leaching can improve the feel of the product
as well as its resistance to water absorption and ageing. The efficiency
of leaching may be further improved by using different media,
temperatures etc.
The main objectives of the present investigations are:
1. To investigate methods of improving the polymer-filler interaction
by employing surface active agents so as to improve the mechanical
properties and reduce the cost of latex products and to evaluate the
processability of such filled compounds.
2. To study the effect of new accelerator combinations such as
CBS/TMTM and thiocarbanilide/TMTD in NR latex compound and to
compare the properties and ageing resistance of the vulcanizateswith
that containing the conventional ZDC/TMTD combination.
3. To develop a method for preparing natural rubber/carbon black and
natural rubber/silica masterbatch in the latex stage and to evaluate
their efficiency in comparison to conventional compounds in filler
dispersion, mechanical properties resistance and the processability.
respect of and ageing
4.To investigate the suitability of the latex stage black masterbatch of
NR for the preparation of NR/SBR blends and to compare the
Mechanical properties and processability of these conventional
NR/SBR blends. blends with those of
5. To improve PVC blends rubber) as the mechanical properties of the
NR latex by using ATNR (Amine terminated natural a compatibilizer
and to compare the mechanical properties and processing behaviour
of these latex stage NR/PVC blends with those of the
conventional melt mixed NR/PVC blends.
6. To investigate methods of reducing the tackiness of NR
latex products by modifying the surface through chemical and
physical means.
7. To investigate products with the efficiency of leaching of latex
medium of different pH values at different temperatures. This thesis
is divided into the following chapters:
1.1.1. More about Latex Rubber
Rubber is acquired from the milky
fluid, or latex, of various erect or
climbing woody plants of the tropics or
subtropics. Most of the rubber plants
belong to the Moraceae,
Euphorbiaceae, or Apocynaceae.
Although more than 50 species are
available as sources, only a few have
been important commercially, with
Hevea brasiliensis being the most
prominent. Originally only wild trees
were the source of rubber, but later
cultivated Hevea trees, the “plantation
rubber” furnished about 98 percent of
the supply (Hill 1952).

Rubber is the most recent of the major crops of the world. The industry
by 2003 was about 150 years old, but cultivation has been carried on
only about 100 years. The increase in the production of plantation
rubber was from 800 long tons in 1900 to 305,000 tons in 1920 and
1,395,000 tons in 1940. This development of the rubber-growing
industry has not been without drawbacks. Overproduction had
seriously affected the industry financially by 1950, and many attempts
have been made to regulate its supply. The British and Dutch tried to
restrict production and exert other methods of control in Malaya, Java,
Sumatra, and other plantation rubber centers within their spheres of
influence. The successful development of synthetic substitutes for
rubber, after many years of experimentation, further jeopardized the
natural rubber industry. Nevertheless, while these substitutes are
superior for some purposes, such as the conduction of oil, natural
rubber is still preferred for vehicle tires, which utilize about 3/4ths of
the rubber output.

Latex occurs in special cells or in a series of special vessels, which

permeate the bark, leaves, and other soft parts of the tree. Usually only
the latex from the lower part of the trunk is of importance
 commercially. Latex is a gummy
white liquid full of minute
globules. It consists of a mixture
of water, hydrocarbons, resins, oils,
proteins, acids, salts, sugar and
caoutchouc, the substance used as
the source of rubber. The
significance of latex to the plant is
obscure, but it is known to be of
some value in the healing of
wounds, and it may serve for protection, nutrition, and the transport of
materials or as a fluid reservoir.
The properties of rubber were known by primitive cultures in Central
America and Peru. Their word cauchuc has been changed to the present
caoutchouc (caucho in Spanish). Columbus was the first to report the
existence of rubber to Europeans, but it was not introduced into Europe
until 1735. Priestley first applied the name “rubber” in 1770, since
caoutchouc could be used for removing pencil marks. Mackintosh in
1823 developed a process for waterproofing cloth, but it was not until
1830 when Goodyear made the discovery of the vulcanizing process,
that rubber really became popular. From then on, the rubber industry
developed rapidly, and today rubber has a vast and constantly
increasing number of uses and industrial applications. The properties
that make it so valuable include its plasticity and elasticity, its
resistance to abrasion and to electrical currents, and the fact that it is
impermeable to liquids and gasses.

Hevea Rubber
The Hevea or Para rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) is the normal source
of 95-98% of the rubber produced throughout the world. The tree is
native to the hot damp forests of the southern affluents of the Amazon
River in South America. It was estimated in 1952 that that there are
over 300-million trees in the vast area traversed by the Amazon and the
Orinoco. Within this region the optimum conditions for its
development are found. This includes a uniform climate with a
temperature range from 75-90 deg. Fahrenheit and a rainfall of 80-120
inches. The trees may reach an age of at least 200 years and may attain
a height of 60-140 ft. The leaves are 3-lobed, and the flowers are small
and inconspicuous. The fruits have three seeds, which contain 23-32 %
of fatty oil. This oil is sometimes extracted and used as a drying oil.
The resulting oil cake is rich in proteins and is used as a stock feed.
Although rubber trees are natives of swampy floodlands, they grow best
on deep, fertile, well-drained upland soils at an elevation of 600-1500
ft. above sea level. The latex occurs in a series of vessels in the cortex.
Several other species of Hevea are tapped, including Hevea
benthamiana, which has high-quality latex, but their production is
insignificant compared with H. brasiliensis.

Rubber Plantation
Wild Rubber
In the beginning of the industry only wild rubber trees are available as a
source of rubber. The maximum production was reached in 1910 with
an output of 83,000 long tons. After that with the development of
plantation rubber, wild rubber production steadily declined to as low as
8,500 tons in 1932. Since that time, the output has fluctuated,
depending on price and demand. During World War II wild rubber was
again actively exploited.
The methods employed in obtaining and preparing the latex have
changed little over the years. The collection of the latex is in the hands
of residents, called “seringuieros” who are usually in the employ of
absentee owners (Hill 1952). Each seringuiero is responsible for a
single tapping circuit, which contains from 35-180 trees, about 2 or 3 to
the acre. When a new tree is located, it is tapped at a point about 3 ft.
above the ground by cutting several short downward 30-degree panelike
incisions in the bark with a special knife. The cuts are deep enough to
sever the latex vessels but do not extend far enough to injure the
cambium. Cups are placed below the incisions to receive the latex,
which flows for several hours. The seringuiero makes the round of his
trees each day. Successive tappings consist of entirely new incisions
made slightly below the previous ones. The latex is collected from the
cups and carried to the camp for coagulation. This is done by coating a
pole with latex and suspending it over a fire made of palm seeds or
special woods. These yield a dense smoke containing acetic acid,
creosote, and tars which coagulates the latex, forming a layer of crude
rubber. The process is repeated until balls weighing 125-200 lb. are
obtained. In some area’s paddles are dipped in the latex and held in the
smoke. The balls are shipped to mills for processing.
Plantation Rubber in the Eastern Hemisphere
Henry Wickham transported 70,000 Hevea seeds from the Amazon to
England in 1876. These were grown at Kew, and enough seedlings
were obtained to start a rubber industry in the eastern tropics, at first in
British Malaya and Ceylon and later in Java, Sumatra, and other areas
(Hill 1952). There had been earlier attempts at rubber cultivation, but
plantation rubber did not become permanently established until the
beginning of the 20th Century. In 1910, when Amazon rubber
production was at its peak, the East produced only 11,000 tons. Four
years later it had outstripped its rival, and by the outbreak of World War
II, it was responsible for 98% of the world’s output of 1,500,00 tons,
with nine million acres under cultivation.
The rapid development of plantation rubber in the East may be
attributed to a favorable climate, absence of diseases, low labor costs,
and the extensive research program launched by the British. Every step
in the production of the crop was rigidly supervised, and the best
methods of planting, cultivation, tapping, and coagulation were
discovered. A selection and breeding program facilitated an increase in
yield. The discovery of bud grafting allowed that buds of high-yielding
plants be grafted on ordinary seedlings. The resulting clones differed
greatly, and only those with the most desirable traits were retained.
Using such approved clones began in 1925. By 1945 10% of the
plantations had trees that were the result of grafting, and they obtained a
yield of 1500 lb per acre. The 90%, which still had a random mixture
of trees, had a yield of only 450-500 lb/acre. Where controlled crosses
of high-yield clones were made, yields as much as 2000 lb. per acre
were possible. Not all plantation rubber was produced on the large
estates. The acreage devoted to rubber grown by small growers was
produced in small family gardens and was more than that grown-on
estates.

Plantation Rubber in the Western Hemisphere

Following the imposition of export restrictions on eastern rubber in
1924, the United States favored the establishment of plantations in other
parts of the world. The Firestone Corporation selected Liberia, but
Ford Motor Co. and Goodyear turned to tropical America, the native
area of Hevea. The 2,500,00-acre Fordlandia was started in Brazil in
1928, while Goodyear chose Panama and Costa Rica. All the American
efforts failed after a promising beginning, due primarily to the ravages
of leaf blight, Dothidella ulei, to which plantation rubber in the Western
Hemisphere was very susceptible. It was obvious that rubber could not
succeed as a crop in the American tropics without adequate disease
control. A research program did produce satisfactory results, however.
An effective spray, of copper and sulfur fungicides with various
spreaders and stickers, was developed and could be used on seedlings.
Yield and resistance experiments were conducted on thousands of wild
trees, with the most desirable being selected for propagation.
Fortunately, there was a successful importation of approved eastern
clones from a Goodyear plantation in the Philippines. When these were
budded on resistant stock from the jungles, desirable combinations of
characters were obtained. Double budding also proved satisfactory.
This involves budding a high-yielding eastern clone onto a native root
as soon as the plant is large enough. This is grown in a nursery under
spray control until it is 6-10 ft. tall. Then the top is budded with a
disease-resistant strain. The resulting rubber tree has a native root
system, a high-yielding eastern clonal trunk, and a disease-resistant
crown. Long-term breeding programs were continued well into the mid
1900’s, as well as extensive explorations in the jungle, with the goal of
obtaining strains that combined disease resistance and high yield and
which would reduce the expensive spraying and double-budding
practices.

The cooperation of the United States with governments in Latin

America resulted in rubber being grown successfully in many areas.
Emphasis was placed on small family plantings rather than on large
plantations. The rubber trees were usually set out at intervals of 12-24
ft. in tows 20 ft. apart. Other crops were grown between the rows.
Thus, from 1/3rd to 1/2 of the acreage was resting; the balance was
tapped on some alternating program. At each successive tapping a thin
shaving of bark was sliced off the original panel until it almost reached
the ground. One-third, 1/2 and full spirals were used.
Following the collection of latex, a small amount of ammonia or some
other anticoagulant was often added to keep it liquid until it reached the
processing area, where it was concentrated and made into sheet rubber.
Cleaning the latex and pouring it into large pans accomplished this. A
coagulant, such as formic or acetic acid, was added, and in several
hours a mass of soft rubber resulted. Blocks of this were washed and
run between rollers to form thin sheets. These were smoked and baled
for shipment. Other types of crude rubber were also prepared. “Worm
rubber” consists of irregular wormlike pieces cut from sheets with a
pair of shears. “Crepe rubber” was made by passing washed and
bleached coagulated latex through a creeping machine, which turned
out long, thin, perforated strips of rubber. In the preparation of
“sprayed rubber” latex was dropped on whirling disks and little
particles of rubber were thrown off. Any moisture quickly evaporated.
This kind of rubber was exceedingly pure and clean. Also, steadily
increasing amount of liquid latex was evaporated. This required
immediate processing in the field and was feasible only for large
plantations

Castilla Rubber
Panama or Castilla rubber is from Castilla elastica, a tall tree native to
southern Mexico and Central America. There are many names for this
tree in the indigenous languages of the region. It was the chief source
of rubber from 1794-1850. Other species of Castilla may also be used,
among which are C. ulei of the Amazon, the source of caucho rubber.
Castilla elastica is found in deep loamy soil on high ground and may
reach a height of 150 ft. It requires temperatures above 60 deg. F. and
requires shade when young. Often the natives cut these trees down to
obtain the large possible yield of latex, which could ultimately lead to
this species extinction.
Trees are tapped when 8-10 years of age, with adult trees yielding a
maximum of 50 lb. of latex. This is coagulated with plant juices, alum
and by boiling or exposure to the air. The crude rubber is shipped in
flat cakes. Castilla rubber was once extensively cultivated in Central
America in plantations, but it could not compete successfully with
Hevea rubber. The plantations were abandoned. The surviving trees
were the source of some of the emergency supply of Castilla rubber
during World War II (Hill 1952).

Ceara Rubber
Ceara or Manicoba rubber is obtained from Manihot glaziovii, a small
tree native to drier regions in Brazil. It grows well in dry rocky ground
so that it may be utilized in areas unsuitable for other types of rubber.
The tree grows rapidly, reaching its maximum height of 30 ft. in a few
years. Ceara rubber is also grown in Ceylon, India, and other tropical
countries. The trees are tapped when 4-5 years of age and yield a good
grade of rubber. The latex is coagulated by exposure to air or smoke.
The crude rubber is exported as blocks or flat cakes.
Assam Rubber
Assam or India rubber as it is often called, is obtained from Ficus
elastica, a native tree of northern India and Malaya. The tree requires a
hot climate and a high rainfall. It often begins life as an epiphyte. It
grows to a great height, developing huge buttresses or prop roots. The
roots as well as the stem are tapped. The latex can drip onto bamboo
mats, where it coagulates. A large amount coagulates on the trunk as
well. This crude rubber is scraped off, cleaned and dried. The native
procedures for tapping the wild trees have been very wasteful, so the
tree is cultivated in some areas. The yield is low, and the trees do not
mature until about 50 years of age. Assam rubber is of low grade and
has been of little or no commercial importance.

Lagos Silk Rubber

Lagos silk rubber is from Futumia elastica, a large tree of tropical West
Africa. Discovered in 1894, it was immediately exploited to the point
of near extermination. In 1898 over 6 million pounds were exported.
The tree has been cultivated and an attempt made to reestablish the
industry. However, plantations of Hevea rubber are the chief source of
rubber in West Africa.

Landolphia Rubber
Other former sources of African rubber were several woody climbers in
the genus Landolphia. The most important were L. kirkii on the east
coast and L. heudelotis and L. owariensis on the west coast. The huge
vines, sometimes 6 in. in diameter. Were pulled down and cut into
small pieces. The latex that exuded was coagulated with plant juices or
the heat of the sun, sometimes even on the bodies of the native
collectors (Hill 1952). The most wasteful methods were employed, for
a large immediate yield was desired. There was very barbaric treatment
of the natives involved in this harvest. Operations in the Belgian Congo
during the reign of Leopold II remain some of the most awful pages in
history. Although there is still a considerable amount of wild
landolphia rubber, there is apparently no future commercial value for it.
Cultivation of this plant is not practical.

Guayule Rubber
The guayule, Parthenium argentatum, a native of America, has been
utilized since 1910 as a minor source of rubber. This low semi-shrubby
plant grows in the arid regions of Mexico and the southern United
States. The early Amerindians who obtained the caoutchouc by
chewing the plants knew it. Unlike the other sources of rubber, there is
no latex present in the guayule plant. There are small granules of
caoutchouc scattered all through the tissues. These are extracted
mechanically or by means of solvents. The entire plant is pulled up and
chopped up or ground with water. The particles of caoutehouc float to
the surface and are removed. They are then dried and pressed into
slabs. If solvents remove the resinous materials the product is as good
as the best Hevea rubber. Guayule rubber is especially good for mixing
with synthetic rubber substitutes. Guayule has been adapted to
plantation culture and it was extensively investigated as part of the
Emergency Rubber Program during World War II. The yield has been
increased; the life cycle shortened, and improved cultural, harvesting,
and processing machinery developed. Production costs are still high so
that it does not compete with Hevea rubber except in emergencies. The
importance of guayule for the future lies in the fact that it constitutes a
living stockpile of rubber on land which otherwise would be idle (Hill
1952).

Dandelion Rubber
The dandelion of Russia, Taraxacum kok-saghys, is a close relative of
the common dandelion. In 1931 Russian botanists discovered it while
searching for new economic plants. Rubber is present in considerable
quantities in latex tubes in the long taproots. The yield has been
increased by selection and breeding, and the plant was grown on some 2
million acres during the time of the Soviet Union. Seeds were brought
to the United States in 1942 and planted experimentally in 42 states.
Vigorous plants with greater root weight and rubber content were
segregated. Hill (1952) believed that a yield of 400-500 lb. per acre
could be achieved through continued research. The plant is adapted to
the northern United States and Canada, where it can be harvested the
year it is planted. Under the most favorable conditions it might be
profitable to grow this species as a minor source of rubber, and indeed
was cultivated for this purpose in Argentina.
Minor Sources of Rubber
Other species of plants have been considered as a possible source of
rubber. Among these are intisy (Euphorbia intisy). This leafless shrub
of arid regions of Madagascar contains latex that has had considerable
use locally. The rubber coagulates on the surface of the plant in long
elastic strands and is of high grade. Attempts have been made to
cultivate intisy in the United States because of its adaptation to desert
conditions.
Cryptostegia grandiflora and C. madagascariensis are ornamental
woody climbers from Madagascar. They are now found in the tropics
and subtropics of both hemispheres and were seriously considered
during World War II as a new source of rubber. Both species have been
grown for many years in India as a source of high-grade palay rubber.
They are abundant in Mexico, occuring there in a wide variety of soils
and climates. They seem the hardiest and fastest growing of all rubber
plants, attaining harvest age within six months. They seem to offer
considerable future promise but attempts in Haiti to grow them on a
large scale failed due to difficulties of extracting the rubber.
Other rubber-bearing plants of local importance include the mangabeira
(Hancornia speciosa), a shrub or small tree of Bolivia, Brazil and
Paraguay; a species of Micrandra, which yields the caura rubber of
Venezuela; and various species of Sapium in northern South America.
Also a few native North American plants have rubber-contining latex.
Among those, which have been given some attention, are the desert
milkweed (Asclepias subulata); the Indian hemp (Apocynum
scannabinum); several goldenrods, in particular Solidago leavenworthii,
which was investigated by Thomas A. Edison; species of the rabbit
brush (Chrysothamnus), the source of chrysil rubber; and species of
Cnidoscolus from which chilte rubber is obtained.

Other Latex Products

Gutta-Percha
Gutta-percha is a nonelestic rubber obtained from the grayish-white
latex of several members of the Sapolaceae. It has been known since
1842. The chief source is Palaguium gutta, a tree of Malayan origin,
which has been grown in Borneo, Sumatra, the Philippines, and other
tropical countries. The latex is produced in sacks, which occur in the
cortex, phloem, pith, and leaves. It is obtained by making incisions
from which the milky juice runs out very slowly, or by felling the trees.
The latter is the usual method. The bark is removed in strips one inch
in with and one foot apart, and the latex is collected in coconut shells or
in palm of plantain leaves. The latex soon coagulates into grayish-
yellow masses of a hard substance, which is odorless and heavier than
water. This crude product contains several resins and other impurities
and is purified by washing in hot water. The whole mass is boiled and
then kneaded into blocks, or it is chopped or sliced up and the pieces
are washed, strained, and kneaded, and then rolled into thin sheets (Hill
1952). The value of gutta-percha depends on the amount of a
hydrocarbon, gutta that is present.

Gutta-percha is hard at ordinary temperatures. It deteriorates very

rapidly when exposed to air through oxidation and should be kept under
water. It softens at 77 degrees Fahrenheit, can be kneaded at 122 deg.
F., and melts at 248 deg. F. Because it is an exceedingly poor
conductor of electricity it has been used for insulation. For many years
no other material could replace gutta-percha and the similar balata in
the construction of submarine cables, which require a substance that is
resistant to saltwater, pliable and with just the right amount of rigidity.
Other uses included splints, supports, pipes, golf balls, speaking tubes,
telephone receivers, waterproofing and adhesives. It has also been
utilized for protecting wounds and in dentistry.

Balata
Balata is a nonelastic rubber that is obtained from the latex of
Manilkara bidentata, formerly known as Mimusops balata, and other
species of the genus. It is a native of Trinidad and South America.
This magnificent tree grows to a height of over 100 ft. When mature its
purplish wood is extremely hard and durable and is much used for ties
and building purposes under the name of bully wood or bulletwood.
The fruit is also edible. The latex is obtained by tapping the trees three
times each year. It flows freely and readily coagulates in the air. A tree
3 ft. in circumference will yield 50-100 lbs. of dry balata. After
coagulation it is cleaned and molded into cakes. Balata contains about
50% gum. It serves the same purpose in industry as gutta-percha. It is
particularly adapted for machine beltings as it grips tightly and never
stretches. It is also used as a substitute for chicle. Balata has been
known since 1859, but unlike gutta-percha, it has never been cultivated.
Several inferior types of balata are found in the Amazon region, chief of
which is abiurana or coquilana obtained from Ecclinusa balata.
Jelutong
Jelutong is obtained mainly from Dyera costulata and related species
from Malaya. These trees have a copious flow of latex, greater than all
the other latex species combined. From 1910-1015 this was exploited
as a source of rubber. However, the latex is combined with many gums,
resins, and other impurities, and it yielded a poor quality of rubber.
Jelutong has been used mainly as a substitute for chicle.

Chicle
Sapodilla or naseberry (Achras zapota) is a tall evergreen tree native to
the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. It is cultivated in tropical America
and Florida for its edible fruit. The bark contains latex, 20-25% of
which consists of a gum, or chicle, like that of gutta-percha. It is the
basis of the chewing-gum industry but is also used in making surgical
tape and dental supplies.
The primitive method of obtaining chicle involves tapping the trunk and
then scraping the thickened exudates from the bark. The crude or leaf
chicle consists of pink or reddish-brown pieces mixed with 25-40%
impurities. In southeastern Mexico and British Honduras where the
industry occurs most abundantly, the native collectors or chicleros are
more careful. Zigzag gashes are cut in the trunk with a machete, up to a
height of 30 ft. The latex runs to the base of the tree where it is
collected in rubberized bags, leaves, or even hollows in the earth. This
accounts for the grains of sand that are oftentimes found in chewing
gum. The flow of latex lasts for several hours and the yield may be as
much as 55 liters. To conserve the supply, plantations were established.
However, these were not practicable because the trees can be tapped
only every 2-3 years.
The hardened chicle is boiled; a process that requires considerable skill,
for the chicle must be poured off when the moisture content reaches
33%. It is then molded into blocks for shipment. Raw chicle contains
resin, gutta, arabin, calcium, sugar, and various soluble salts.
Purification involves breaking the blocks into small pieces, washing in
a strong alkali, neutralizing with sodium acid phosphate, washing again
and finally drying and powdering. The final product is an amorphous
pale-pink powder, which is insoluble in water and forms a very sticky
mass when heated. Ageing partially oxidizes the mixture that then turns
brown and becomes very brittle. The final steps in the manufacture of
chewing gum involves cleaning, filtering, sterilizing, and compounding
with various flavoring materials. Thirteen pounds of the final product
yields about 5000 pieces of chewing gum. A piece of gum usually
contains about 15% chicle, the remainder being chicle substitutes, sugar
and flavoring substances. Attempts to find substitutes have not been
successful, but inferior latex from other sapodillas, balata and jelutong
are all utilized to some extent. Sorva or leche caspi, obtained from
Couma macrocarpa, a large tree of the upper Amazon, was exploited
during World War II. The tree, which has very abundant latex, is felled,
ringed and the latex is collected in cups made from palm leaflets. The
latex is then coagulated by boiling and is shipped in the form of large
blocks. The white wood of this species is also used for furniture, and
the fruits have a mucilaginous but edible pulp.
1.2. Rubber Molecular Formula
Natural Rubber (NR):
Natural rubber is the prototype of all elastomers. It is extracted in the
form of latex from the bark of the Hevea tree. The rubber is collected
from the latex in a series of steps involving preservation, concentration,
coagulation, dewatering, drying, cleaning, and blending. Because of its
natural derivation, it is sold in a variety of grades based on purity (color
and presence of extraneous matter), viscosity, viscosity stability,
oxidation resistance, and rate of cure. Modified natural rubbers are also
available, with treatment usually performed at the latex stage. These
include:
1. epoxidized natural rubber (ENR).

2. deproteinized natural rubber (DNR).

3. process oils have been incorporated.
4. Hevelius MG rubber− natural rubber
with grafted poly (methyl methacrylate)
side chains.
5. thermoplastic natural rubber (TNR) –
blends of natural rubber and polypropylene.

The natural rubber polymer is nearly 100% cis-1,4 polyisoprene with M

ranging from 1 to 2.5 x 106. Due to its high structural regularity, natural
rubber tends to crystallize spontaneously at low temperatures or when it
is stretched. Low temperature crystallization causes stiffening, but is
easily reversed by warming. Crystallization gives natural rubber high
tensile strength and resistance to cutting, tearing, and abrasion.

Like other high polymers, natural rubber can be pictured as a tangle of

randomly oriented sinuous polymer chains. The “length” of these chains
is a function of their thermodynamic behavior and is determined as the
statistically most probable distance between each end. This chain length
reflects the preferred configuration of the individual polymer molecule.
The application of force to a rubber sample effectively changes the
chain length. When the force is removed, the chain tries to regain its
preferred configuration. In simple terms, this can be compared to the
compression or extension of a spring. This effect is the basis of rubber’s
elasticity.
Elasticity is one of the fundamentally important properties of natural
rubber. Rubber is unique in the extent to which it can be distorted, and
the rapidity and degree to which it recovers to its original shape and
dimensions. It is, however, not perfectly elastic. The rapid recovery is
not complete. Part of the distortion is recovered more slowly and part is
retained. The extent of this permanent distortion, called permanent set,
depends upon the rate and duration of the applied force. The slower the
force, and the longer it is maintained, the greater is the permanent set.
Because of rubber’s elasticity, however, the permanent set may not be
complete even after long periods of applied force. This quality is of
obvious value in gaskets and seals.
The rubber’s polymer network allows elasticity and flexibility to be
combined with crystallization-induced strength and toughness when
stretched. The elastic nature of this network also accounts for the
exceptional resilience of cured rubber products. This resilience means
less kinetic energy is lost as heat during repeated stress deformation.
Products made from natural rubber are less likely than most other
elastomers to fail from excessive heat build-up or fatigue when exposed
to severe dynamic conditions. This has secured the place of natural
rubber as the preferred sidewall elastomer in radial tires.
As already noted, the rubber polymer network was originally an
impediment to rubber processing. Mixing additives with a tough, elastic
piece of raw rubber was a substantial challenge. The solution came with
the discovery of its thermoplastic behavior. High shear and heat turn the
rubber soft and plastic through a combination of extension,
disentanglement, and oxidative cleavage of polymer chains. In this state
it is considerably more receptive to the incorporation of additives so
that the rubber's natural attributes can be modified and optimized as
desired. The commercial utility of natural rubber has in fact grown from
the ease with which its useful properties can be changed or improved by
compounding techniques.

Another important and almost unique quality of uncured natural rubber

compounds is building tack. When two fresh surfaces of milled rubber
are pressed together, they bond into a single piece. This facilitates the
building of composite articles from separate components. In tire
manufacture, for example, the separate pieces of uncured tire are held
together solely by building tack. During cure they fuse into a single
unit.
Natural rubber is used in the carcass of passenger car cross-ply tires for
its building tack, ply adhesion, and good tear resistance. It is also used
in the sidewalls of radial ply tires for its fatigue resistance and low heat
build-up. In tires for commercial and industrial vehicles, natural rubber
content increases with tire size. Almost 100% natural rubber is used in
the large truck and earthmover tires which require low heat build-up
and maximum cut resistance. Natural rubber is also used in industrial
goods, such as hoses, conveyor belts, and rubberized fabrics;
engineering products, for resilient load bearing and shock or vibration
absorption components; and latex products such as gloves, and
adhesives.

Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR):

SBR polymers are widely produced by both emulsion and solution
polymerization. Emulsion polymerization is carried out either hot, at
about 50oC, or cold, at about 5oC, depending upon the initiating
system. SBR made in emulsion usually contains about 23% styrene
randomly dispersed with butadiene in the polymer chains. SBR made in
solution contains about the same amount of styrene, but both random
and block copolymers can be made. Block styrene is thermoplastic and
at processing temperatures helps to soften and smooth out the
elastomer. Both cold emulsion SBR and solution SBR are offered in oil-
extended versions. These have up to 50% petroleum base oil on
polymer weight incorporated within the polymer network. Oil extension
of SBR improves processing characteristics, primarily allowing easier
mixing, without sacrificing physical properties.
SBR was originally produced by the hot emulsion method, and was
characterized as more difficult
to mill, mix, or calendar than
natural rubber, as well as
being deficient in building
tack, and having relatively
poor inherent physical properties. Processability and physical properties
were found to be greatly improved by the addition of process oil and
reinforcing agents. “Cold” SBR generally has a higher average
molecular weight and narrower molecular weight distribution. It
P3 thereby offers better abrasion and wear resistance plus greater tensile
and modulus than “hot” SBR. Since higher molecular weight can make
cold SBR more difficult to process, it is commonly offered in oil-
extended form. Solution SBRs can be tailored in polymer structure and
properties to a much greater degree than their emulsion counterparts.
The random copolymers offer narrower molecular weight distribution,
low chain branching, and lighter color than emulsion SBR. They are
comparable in tensile, modulus, and elongation, but offer lower heat
build-up, better flex, and higher resilience. Certain grades of solution
SBR even address the polymer's characteristic lack of building tack,
although it is still inferior to that of natural rubber.
The processing of SBR compounds in general is similar to that of
natural rubber in the procedures and additives used. SBR is typically
compounded with better abrasion, crack initiation, and heat resistance
than natural rubber. SBR extrusions are smoother and maintain their
shape better than those of natural rubber.
SBR was originally developed as a general-purpose elastomer and it
still retains this distinction. It is the largest volume and most widely
used elastomer worldwide. Its single largest application is in passenger
car tires, particularly in tread compounds for superior traction and
treadwear. Substantial quantities are also used in footwear, foamed
products, wire and cable jacketing, belting, hoses, and mechanical
goods.

Polybutadiene Rubber (BR):

This elastomer was originally made by emulsion polymerization,
generally with poor results. It was difficult to process and did not
extrude well. Polybutadiene became commercially successful only after
it was made by solution polymerization using stereospecific Ziegler-
Natta catalysts. This provided a polymer with greater than 90% cis-1,4-
polybutadiene configuration. This structure hardens at much lower
temperatures (with Tg of -100oC) than natural rubber and most other
commercial elastomers. This gives better low temperature flexibility
and higher resilience at ambient temperatures than most elastomers.
Greater resilience means less heat build-up as well under continuous
dynamic deformation. This high-cis BR was also found to possess
superior abrasion resistance and a great tolerance for high levels of
extender oil and carbon black. High-cis BR was originally blended with
natural rubber simply to improve the latter’s processing properties, but
it was found that the BR conferred many of its desirable properties to
the blend. The same was found to be true in blends with SBR.
By selection of catalyst and control of processing conditions,
polybutadienes are now sold with various distributions of each isomer
within the polymer chain, and with varying levels of chain linearity,
molecular weight and molecular weight distribution. Each combination
of chemical properties is designed to enhance one or more of BR’s
primary attributes.
The largest volume use of polybutadiene is in passenger car tires,
primarily in blends with SBR
or natural rubber to improve
hysteresis (resistance to heat
build-up), abrasion resistance,
and cut growth resistance of
tire treads. The type of BR
used depends on which
properties are most important
to the particular compound. Polybutadiene is also used for improved
durability and abrasion and crack resistance in tire sidewalls and
carcasses, as well as in elastomer blends for belting. High. BRs are also
used in the manufacture of high impact polystyrene.

Butyl Rubber (IIR):

Butyl rubber is the common name for the copolymer of isobutylene and
1 to 3% isoprene produced by cold (-100oC) cationic solution
polymerization. Isoprene provides the unsaturation required for
vulcanization. Most of butyl rubber’s distinguishing characteristics are
a result of its low level of chemical unsaturation. The essentially
saturated hydrocarbon backbone of the IIR polymer will effectively
repel water and polar liquids but show an affinity for aliphatic and some
cyclic hydrocarbons. Products of butyl rubber will therefore be swollen
 by hydrocarbon solvents and
oils, but show resistance to
moisture, mineral acids, polar
oxygenated solvents, synthetic
hydraulic fluids, vegetable oils,
and ester-type plasticizers. It is
likewise highly resistant to the
diffusion or solution of gas molecules. Air permeability is the primary
property of commercial utility. The low level of chemical unsaturation
also imparts high resistance to ozone. Sulfur-cured butyl rubber has
relatively poor thermal stability, softening with prolonged exposure at
temperatures above 150oC because the low unsaturation P5 prevents
oxidative crosslinking. Curing with phenol-formaldehyde resins instead
of sulfur, however, provides products with very high heat resistance, the
property responsible for a large market in tire-curing bladders.
The molecular structure of the polyisobutylene chain provides less
flexibility and greater delayed elastic response to deformation than most
elastomers. This imparts vibration damping and shock-absorption
properties to butyl rubber products.
The unique properties of butyl rubber are used to advantage in tire inner
tubes and air cushions (air permeability), sheet roofing and cable
insulation (ozone and weather resistance), tire-curing bladders, hoses
for high temperature service, and conveyor belts for hot materials
(thermal stability with resin cure).

Neoprene (CR):
Neoprene is the common name for the polymers of chloroprene (2-
chloro-1,3-butadiene). These are produced by emulsion polymerization.
The chloroprene monomer can polymerize in four isomeric forms.
Neoprene is typically 88-92%
trans, with degree of polymer
crystallinity proportional to trans
content. Cis addition accounts for
7- 12% of the structure and 3,4
addition makes up about 1%. The
approximately 1.5% of 1,2
addition is believed to provide the principal sites of vulcanization.
The high structural regularity (high trans content) of neoprene allows
the strain-induced crystallization that results, as for natural rubber, in
high tensile strength. The 2-chloro substituent, instead of natural
rubber’s 2- methyl, results in a higher freezing point (poorer low
temperature resistance) and alters vulcanization requirements.
Neoprene are generally cured with zinc oxide and magnesium oxide,
or lead oxide for enhanced water resistance. The presence of chlorine
in the polymer structure improves resistance to oil, weathering, ozone
and heat. The improved oxidation resistance is due to the reduced
activity of the double bonds caused by the chlorine. Except for low
temperature resistance and price, neoprene would be considered nearly
as versatile as natural rubber.
There are three types of general-purpose neoprene – G, W, and T types
– with selected features modified to offer a range of processing, curing
and performance properties. Products are made from neoprene because
it offers good building tack, good oil, abrasion, chemical, heat, weather,
and flex resistance, and physical toughness. Neoprene is widely used in
hoses of all types (water, oil, air, automotive, industrial), wire and cable
jacketing, power transmission and conveyor belting, bridge and
building bearings, pipe gaskets, footwear, roof coatings, and coated
fabrics.

Nitrile Rubber (NBR):

Nitrile rubber is the generic name given to emulsion polymerized
copolymers of acrylonitrile and butadiene. Its single most important
property is exceptional resistance to attack by most oils and solvents. It
also offers better gas permeability, abrasion resistance, and thermal
stability than the general-purpose elastomers like natural rubber and
SBR. These attributes arise from the highly polar character of
acrylonitrile, the content of
which determines the
polymer’s particular balance
of properties. Commercial
nitrile rubbers are available
with acrylonitrile/butadiene
ratios ranging from 18:82
to 45:55. As acrylonitrile content increases, oil resistance, solvent
resistance, tensile strength, hardness, abrasion resistance, heat
resistance, and gas permeability improve, but compression set
resistance, resilience and low temperature flex deteriorate. Selection of
the particular grade of NBR needed is generally based on oil resistance
vs. low temperature performance. Blends of different grades are
common to achieve the desired balance of properties.
Nitrile elastomers do not crystallize when stretched and so require
reinforcing fillers to develop optimum tensile strength, abrasion
resistance, and tear resistance. They also possess poor building tack.
Although nitrile rubbers are broadly oil- and solvent-resistant, they are
susceptible to attack by certain strongly polar liquids, to which the
nonpolar rubbers, such as SBR or natural rubber, are resistant. Nitrile
rubber is poorly compatible with natural rubber, but can be blended in
all proportions with SBR. This decreases overall oil resistance, but
increases resistance to polar liquids in proportion to the SBR content.
Nitrile polymers are increasingly used as additives to plastics to provide
elastomeric properties. Blends with polyvinyl chloride are popular for
conferring improved abrasion, tensile, tear, and flex properties. Nitrile
rubber is used primarily in hoses, tubing, linings, and seals used for the
conveyance or retention of oils and solvents.

Polyisoprene (IR):
Polyisoprene is made by solution polymerization of isoprene (2 methyl-
1,3- butadiene). The isoprene monomer, the structural unit of the
natural rubber polymer, can polymerize in four isomeric forms: trans
1,4 addition, cis 1,4 addition, 1,2 addition, leaving a pendant vinyl
group, and 3,4 addition. The production of a synthetic analogue to
natural rubber was stymied for over 100 years because polymerization
of isoprene resulted in mixtures of isomeric forms. In the 1950s, rubber-
like elastomers with >90% cis 1,4 isoprene configuration were finally
produced using stereospecific catalyst.
Polyisoprene compounds, like those of natural rubber, exhibit good
building tack, high tensile strength, good hysteresis, and good hot
tensile and hot tear strength. The characteristics which differentiate
polyisoprene from natural rubber arise from the former’s closely
controlled synthesis. Polyisoprene is chemically purer − it does not
contain the proteins and fatty acids of its natural counterpart. Molecular
weight is lower than natural rubbers. Polyisoprene is therefore easier to
process, gives a less variable (although generally slower) cure, is more
compatible in blends with EPDM and solution SBR, and provides less
green strength (pre- cure) than natural rubber. Polyisoprene is added to
SBR compounds to improve tear strength, tensile strength, and
resilience while decreasing heat build-up. Blends of polyisoprene and
fast curing EPDM combine high ozone resistance with the good
tack and cured adhesion uncharacteristic of EPDM alone.
Polyisoprene is typically used in favour of natural rubber in
applications requiring consistent cure rates, tight process control, or
improved extrusion, molding, and calendering. The synthetic elastomer
can be produced with the very low level of branching, high molecular
weight, and relatively narrower molecular weight distribution that
contributes to lower heat build-up
compared to natural rubber. For this
reason, certain grades of polyisoprene
are used as an alternative to natural
rubber in the tread of high service tires
(truck, aircraft, off-road) without
sacrificing abrasion resistance, groove
cracking, rib tearing, cold flex
properties, or weathering resistance.
Footwear and mechanical goods are
also major uses. Because of polyisoprene’s high purity and the high
tensile strength of its compounds, it is widely used in medical goods
and food-contact items. These include baby bottle nipples, milk tubing,
and hospital sheeting.

Silicone Rubber:
Because of its unique properties and somewhat higher price compared
to the other common elastomers, silicone rubber is usually classed as a
specialty elastomer, although it is increasingly used as a cost- effective
alternative in a variety of applications. Two types of silicone elastomers
are available, each providing the same fundamental properties. These
are the thermosetting rubbers that are vulcanized with heat, and RTV
(room temperature vulcanizing) rubbers.
The basic silicone polymer is dimethylpolysiloxane with a backbone of
silicon-oxygen linkages and two methyl groups on each silicon. The
silicon oxygen backbone provides a high degree of inertness to ozone,
oxygen, heat (up to 315oC), UV light, moisture, and general weathering
effects, while the methyl substituents confer a high degree of flexibility.
The basic polymer properties are modified by replacing minor amounts
of the methyl substituents with phenyls and/or vinyls. Phenyl groups
improve low temperature flexibility (to as low as -100oC) without
sacrificing high temperature properties. Vinyl groups improve
compression set resistance and facilitate vulcanization. Of the available
silicone elastomers – methyl silicone (MQ), methyl-vinyl silicone
(VMQ), methyl-phenyl silicone (PMQ), methyl-phenyl-vinyl silicone
(PVMQ), and fluoro-vinyl-methyl silicone (FVMQ) – the methyl-vinyl
types are most widely used.
Thermal vulcanization typically uses peroxides to crosslink at the vinyl
groups of the high molecular weight solid silicone rubbers.
Compounded products offer the attributes noted above plus superior
resistance to compression set, excellent bio compatibility, vibration
damping over a wide temperature range, and thermal ablative
properties. The latter enables the silicone rubber to form a thermally
insulating surface char on exposure to temperatures up to 5,000oC. The
rubber remains elastomeric beneath the char. Silicone elastomers
generally offer poorer tensile, tear, and abrasion properties than the
more common organic rubbers, but this is routinely improved by
reinforcement with fumed silica, which also improves electrical
insulation properties.
Room temperature vulcanizing (RTV) silicones are low molecular
weight dimethylpolysiloxane liquids with reactive end groups. As with
the heat cured polymers, there can be minor substitution of methyl
groups with phenyls − for improved low temperature flexibility − or
with fluoroalkyl groups − for improved oi l and solvent resistance and
even broader temperature service. Vulcanization of the RTV silicones
is obtained from either a condensation or an addition reaction.
Condensation cures can be either moisture independent or moisture
dependent.
Solid (thermally cured) rubbers are used in automotive under hood
applications, primarily for their heat resistance. Products include
ignition cables, coolant and heater hoses, O-rings, and seals. Similar
applications are found in aircraft seals, connectors, cushions, and hoses,
seals, and gaskets. Long service life plus circuit integrity (from ablative
Charing) with no toxic gas generation have secured the place of silicone
rubber in wire and cable insulation for electric power generation and
transmission, for naval shipboard cable of all types, and for appliance
wiring. The inherent inertness and biocompatibility of silicone rubbers
have enabled their use in food contact and medical products. These
include baby bottle nipples, belts and hoses for conveying foods and
food ingredients, surgical tubing, subdermal implants, and prosthetic
devices.
RTV silicones are used by the automotive, appliance, and aerospace
industries for electronic potting compounds and formed-in-place
gaskets, to form molds for the manufacture of plastic parts, and widely
in construction adhesives, sealants, roof coatings, and glazing.
1.3. Rubber Tree Bark
Introduction
Rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) is grown to produce natural latex.
Commercial plantations are displayed over several continents of the
world: Asia, Africa, and South America, but the main region of growing
is south-east Asia.
Hevea brasiliensis is a brevi-deciduous tree, native from the tropical
rainforest of the Amazon Basin. Its habitat is characterized by small
variation in air temperature and precipitation throughout the year.
Annual rainfall range between 1800 and 2500 mm (Pakianathan et al.,
1989) and rainy days range between 100 and 150 (Watson,
1989) are considered as optimum for rubber tree growing. However, the
rubber tree is now more and more cultivated in marginally suitable
environmental zones or “non- traditional” areas, which are too cold or
too dry. For instance, Thailand, the first world producer, had policies
which have supported the extension of rubber tree plantation to the
North and Northeast regions. In several areas of the Northeast, rubber
tree plantations inevitably face atmospheric and soil droughts.
The south of northeastern Thailand is a new and large rubber growing
area despite relatively low annual rainfall amount (1,200 mm) and five
months of dry season. Hence, soil and atmospheric droughts occur
mainly during the long seasonal dry period, from November to April,
while defoliation occurs between January and February. However short
intermittent droughts frequently occur during the rainy season,
between June and July, when rains stop for several weeks. Such
droughts should have dramatic consequence because the trees are in full
canopy with newly mature leaves.
The importance of the water relations for growth and latex production is
acknowledged (Pakianathan et al., 1989) and several authors have
studied the impact of water constraints on tree water status, girth
increment, canopy architecture and latex production (Chandrashekar et
al., 1990; Chandrashekar, 1997; Chandrashekar et al., 1998; Devakumar
et al., 1999; Gururaja Rao et al., 1990; Silpi et al., 2006). Detailed study
on rubber tree water relations are few and focused on young trees
(Ranasinghe and Milburn, 1995; Sangsing, 2004; Sangsing et al.,
2004b). Little is known of the relationships between whole-tree
transpiration and soil and atmospheric droughts, particularly for mature
rubber trees in natural conditions.
Hydraulic models of the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum based on
electric analogy and the cohesion-tension theory provide a simple
integrated approach of the regulation of tree transpiration (Cochard et
al., 1996; Sperry et al., 1998; Sperry et al.,
2002; Tyree and Zimmermann, 2002). Evaporative demand is the
driver of leaf transpiration. These models assume that the transpiration
or xylem sap flow depend directly of the water potential gradient
between the leaf-atmosphere interface and the soil-root interface and of
the whole-tree hydraulic conductance, when the water storage is
neglected.
Basically, atmospheric drought or high evaporative demand increases
transpiration rates and lowers midday or minimum leaf water potential.
On the other hand, soil drought decreases soil water potential and the
conductivity at the soil-root interface and by consequence the whole-
tree hydraulic conductance. To satisfy the same evaporative demand,
the decline of the whole-tree hydraulic conductance induces a
further decrease of the minimum leaf water potential. Then, when the
decreasing xylem water potential reaches cavitation thresholds,
embolism of xylem vessels provokes a further decrease of the whole-
tree hydraulic conductance and a lethal cycle of runaway embolism can
be engage (Cruiziat et al., 2002). A this point, several authors support
the “hydraulic limitation hypothesis” which states that for a majority of
species (i.e. isohydric species) regulation of transpiration through
stomatal closure maintains xylem water potential above a certain
threshold of cavitation to prevent this runaway embolism of xylem
vessels (Cochard et al., 1996a; Jones, 1998; Sperry et al., 1998;
Cruiziat et al., 2002).
Previous studies on young rubber trees found that rubber tree is
relatively vulnerable to cavitation (Ranasinghe and Milburn, 1995;
Sangsing et al., 2004b) and that stomatal control operates at the onset of
xylem embolism in the petiole (Sangsing et al., 2004b). These results
suggest that the hydraulic limitation hypothesis may well apply to
rubber tree. Stomatal closure is the major short-term response that
regulates transpiration under both atmospheric and soil drought.
However, reduction of transpiring leaf area and root growth in wetter
soil layers are long term processes that may change dramatically the
hydraulic conductance at the canopy-atmosphere and soil-root interface,
respectively (Breda et al., 2006). These long-term processes of leaf
and root phenologies concern particularly the regulation of transpiration
for deciduous trees facing seasonal drought such as rubber trees.
The general objective of this study was to test the framework of the
“hydraulic limitation” hypothesis to describe the change of whole-tree
transpiration of mature Hevea brasiliensis under both soil and
atmospheric droughts. Continuous and accurate estimate of whole tree
transpiration over a long period of time was a key measurement of this
study. To achieve an accurate measurement of xylem sap flow rates, we
applied a transient thermal dissipation method (TTD) developed by Do
and Rocheteau (2002b) which has several advantages, but which was
never tested in rubber wood
Therefore, this work had four related objectives:
1. The first step was to test and validate for rubber tree wood, the
measurement of xylem sap flow density by a simple transient thermal
dissipation method.
2. The second objective was to assess thresholds of transpiration
decline versus atmospheric drought, soil drought and tree water status
in full canopy conditions.
3. The third objective was to test the ability a simple “hydraulic
limitation” model, based on whole-tree hydraulic conductance and a
critical minimum leaf water potential, to describe the main changes of
transpiration under drought in full canopy conditions
4. The fourth objective was to study the change of transpiration
in the seasonal dry period where long term responses to drought (leaf
senescence and shedding, leaf flushing, root growth in the subsoil) are
susceptible to interact and change the relationships.
These objectives were addressed in this thesis under the form of
three scientific publications. Before the papers, a first part reviews the
literature about general features of Rubber tree, drought definition and
measurements, whole-tree transpiration and hydraulic parameters,
hydraulic limitation hypothesis and modeling.
A final part provides a general conclusion.
Literature Review and Experiments
1. Botany, plantations, tree characteristics and yield
1.1 Botany
The genus Hevea is a member of the Euphorbiaceae family which
comprises 10 species, of which the Para rubber tree, Hevea brasiliensis
Muell Arg., is the only one commercially planted (Webster and
Paardekooper, 1989). The rubber tree originates from the Amazon
forest. This species is virtually the only source of natural rubber (Cilas
et al., 2004).
1.2 Rubber plantations
Rubber plantation in the world concerns more than 10 million hectares
nowadays, 92.3% in Asia and 7.7% in Africa and others. Thailand is the
first world producer. Rubber plantation covered 2.4 million hectares (or
15 million rais) which produced 3 million tons in 2007 (RRIT, 2009).
The tree is normally suited to the wet tropical climate. The optimal
temperature and annual rainfall are 28oC and 1,800-2,500 mm,
respectively. It is why in Thailand the traditional area of rubber growing
is the southern part of the country.
According to the ever-increasing demand for natural rubber and to the
lack of available lands, rubber tree growing is extended in non-
traditional area such as in northeastern Thailand. In this region, the
large rubber growing areas can be separated between favourable
locations in the north-east part along the Mekong River and water
limited locations in the south-east part.
In the south-east part, average annual rainfall ranges between 1,000 mm
and 1,200 mm. The rainy season generally lasts from April to October
and the seasonal dry period comprises approximately 5 months.
Therefore, the rubber trees planted in this area currently experience 4
months of both soil and atmospheric droughts. Moreover, intermittent
drought or “mid-drought” of several weeks occurs regularly in the
middle of the wet season, between June and July. Moreover, this area is
assumed to have a low availability of water in the subsoil.
1.3 Tree characteristics, leaf phenology, growth, and yield
The rubber tree is a quick-growing, erect tree with a straight trunk and a
bark which is usually grey and smooth. In the natural wild, it may grow
up to over 40 m and live for over 100 years, but in plantations they
rarely exceed 25 m height, and they are replanted after 25-35 years
when yield falls (Webster and Paardekooper,
1989). The leaves are trifoliate, and the laminae hang downwards with a
bronze color when emerge. The leaf expansion follows a sigmoid curve.
During the first 5 days after leaf unfolding, the expansion increases
slowly and then rapidly from 5-12 days; the leaf becomes fully
expanded thirteen days after unfolding (Sangsing et al., 2004a). The
mature laminae are shiny dark green on their upper surface and light
green below. Samsuddin et al. (1978) reported that the period from
emerged to mature of leaves lasts 35 days. The leaves exhibit a full rate
of photosynthesis 50 to 60 days after emergence (Samsuddin and
Impens, 1979).
Rubber trees older than 3 or 4 years are subject to ‘wintering’, which is
the term used to describe the annual shedding of senescent leaves. The
leaf shedding is partial or complete for a short period of few weeks
(Webster and Paardekooper,
1989). Latex yields usually decreased slightly at the onset of leaf fall
and are more markedly reduced during re-foliation (Webster and
Paardekooper, 1989; Sanjeeva Rao et al., 1998). Leaf fall is normally
followed within 2 weeks by the terminal bud bursting and by the
expansion of new leaves within further weeks (Webster and
Paardekooper, 1989). In the south part of northeastern of Thailand,
usually leaf yellowing starts at the end of December, massive leaf
shedding occurs between the end of January and the onset of February,
and bud emergence is noticed at the end of February. The phenological
stage of fully mature leaves eventually last from May to November-
December.
Rubber tree starts to be tapped according to the average trunk girth in
each plot. In Thailand, the tree is considered mature when the girth
attains 50 cm at 1.5 meters height above ground. This maturity is
usually achieved around 5-6 years after planting in traditional
conditions and around 8-10 years in sub-optimal conditions
(Chardrashekar et al., 1998). More generally, growth of rubber tree
varies with clones (Chandrashekar, 1997; Chandrashekar et al., 1998;
Pathiratna et al., 2006), planting
density (Pathiratna et al., 2006), climatic season (Silpi et al., 2006), air
temperature (Jiang 1988), drought occurrence (Devakumar et al., 1999),
irrigation (Vijayakumar et al., 1998), tapping systems (Gunasekara et
al., 2007; Silpi et al., 2006) and others. Typical radial growth pattern in
water-limited areas of Thailand, starts at the onset of rainy season and
lasts until the onset of dry season, girth growth completely ceases in the
driest period (Silpi et al., 2006).
Latex is issued from a secondary metabolic pathway and exuded from
the trunk after a deep tapping of the bark. The latex contains on average
60 to 70 % of water, so the tree water status and the availability of
water in the soil are important limiting factors of rubber production
(Pakianathan et al., 1989). Accordingly, several authors report that
rubber yield decreases in the dry season (Chandrashekar et al.,
1990; Gururaja Rao et al., 1990). Consistently, the highest flow
rates of latex generally occur during wet months when growth rate are
maximal (Pakianathan et al.,
1989). Several meteorological parameters have been related to yield:
temperature, sunshine duration, pan evaporation and vapor pressure
deficit are negatively correlated, whereas only rainfall is positively
correlated (Sanjeeva Rao et al., 1998).
2. Drought
2.1 Definition and primary effects
Drought is difficult to define precisely. It is a period where water
limited conditions induces prolonged plant water deficits and reduces
growth. Larcher (2001) quoted that drought causes stress in plants if not
enough water is available at a suitable thermodynamic status. This
situation can occur for a variety of reasons, such as soil dryness, high
evaporation, osmotic binding of water in saline soils or in frozen soil.
Breda et al. (2006) pointed out that drought stress occurs whenever soil
water availability drops below a threshold inducing restriction to
transpiration and growth. Frequently, but not invariably, soil dryness is
coupled with strong evaporation caused by dryness of the air (Larcher,
2001). Reversely an atmospheric drought may occur despite available
water in the soil.
The primary effects of the water deficit in the plant are to decrease cell
water content, turgor, and the free energy status or potential of the
remaining water (Kozlowski et al., 1991). Finally, ecophysiologists can
evaluate plant water stress in several terms: turgor loss, growth
reduction, stomatal closure, transpiration decrease and inhibition of
processes such as photosynthesis and disturbance of the normal course
of other processes such as nitrogen and carbohydrate metabolism.
2.2 Evaporative demand
2.2.1 Definition
The evaporative demand corresponds basically to the existence at the
leaf level of a vapour pressure gradient between the leaf and the
surrounding air (“leaf to air” VPD; Larcher, 2001). This is the driving
force of the leaf transpiration which pulls water fluxes along the
soil-tree-atmosphere continuum. Hence, whole-tree transpiration or
sap flow rate are highly related to the evaporative demand when other
factors are non-limiting (Granier et al., 1996; Meinzer et al., 1997;
Irvine et al., 1998; Meinzer et al., 1999; Meinzer, 2003; David et al.,
2004; Bush et al., 2008; Huang et al., 2009).
.2.2.2 Reference evapotranspiration measurement
Several climatic parameters or formula are used to represent the
evaporative demand according to the background, scale and focus of
studies. Air VPD is more often used by ecophysiologists who studied
individual plant responses (David et al.,
1997; Meinzer et al., 1997; David et al., 2004; Bush et al., 2008; Huang
et al., 2009; Woodruff et al., 2010).
Studies considering water balance per unit of soil and larger scale use
more complete formula based on the energy balance such as
previously the potential evapotranspiration (PET) according to Penman
equation or now the reference evapotranspiration (ET0) according to
Penman-Monteith equation and FAO recommended coefficients.
In this thesis, ET0 was used to represent the evaporative demand
according to the details given by Allen et al. (1998):
2.3 Soil water availability
2.3.1 Definition
Water infiltrates the soil following precipitation and gradually
percolates to the ground water table. The maximum soil water content
of natural soils that remains after gravitational percolation is called field
capacity. The plant can withdraw water from the soil only if the water
potential (ψ) of its fine root is more negative than that of the soil
solution in its immediate surrounding (Larcher, 2001). When the soil
dries out sufficiently, the soil water potential (ψsoil) fall below root
water potential (ψroot) and plant cannot withdraw water what is called
the wilting point. Therefore, the available water in the soil is usually
ranged between field capacity (ψsoil between -0.01 and -0.03 MPa) and
permanent wilting point (ψsoil = -1.50 MPa). Hence, the state of water
in the soils can be described in terms of quantity or water content, and
in terms of energy status or water potential which is the most important
for the availability to the plant (Rundel and Jarrell, 1989). There is a
unique relationship between soil water content and soil water potential
which changes according to soil texture (Figure 1).
The soil water availability is often expressed from actual water content
as a relative value compared to values at field capacity and permanent
wilting point. In the thesis, we have used the “relative extractable
water” (REW) as defined by Granier et al. (1999) and Breda et al.
(2006). REW may be computed at any given time, from soil water
content in the root zone as follows:

2.3.2 Soil moisture measurement

There are several techniques of soil moisture measurement such as the
gravimetric method, the neutron probe count, the time-domain
reflectrometry and more recently the capacitive probe. In this thesis
work, we used both the neutron
probe and the capacitive probe.
The measurement principle of the neutron probe is based on the
emission of fast neutrons which are slowed down when they strike a
body of similar mass, such as a hydrogen nucleus. The number of
slowed neutrons detected is proportional to the number of collisions
between neutron and hydrogen nuclei, which in turn reflects mainly the
soil water content. Each individual probe should be calibrated for each
general soil type and soil layer when the percentage of clay markedly
changes. Usually, the soil surface layer requires a specific calibration.
The calibration is generally done versus gravimetric method. This
measurement is well proved, and it usually gives the best accuracy, but
it is difficult to use in automatic monitoring (Rundel and Jarrell, 1989).
Moreover, its general use is more and more reduced due to the safety
needed for the management of a radioactive source.
The capacitive probe is a new technique safe and well adapted to
continuous monitoring. It measures the relative electric permittivity
of soils which mainly depends of water content except in electrically
conducting soils (Robinson et al., 1998). Usually the probe is vertical
and includes several sensors corresponding to each depth of
measurement. For absolute measurement, each sensor needs to be
calibrated for each soil and textural layer. The sensor produces
magnetic frequencies which have to be scaled between maximum
value in the water and minimum value in the air. Then the scaled
frequencies are converted in volumetric water content through
calibration curves. The scaled frequencies can be calibrated versus
gravimetric method or cross-calibrated versus another reliable
measurement which may give a large range of soil water content values
(e.g. neutron probe measurements (Girona et al., 2002).
3. Tree transpiration and hydraulic parameters
3.1 Whole tree transpiration
3.1.1 Estimate and sap flow measurement
Whole tree estimates of water use are increasingly important in forest
science and crop science (Wullschleger et al., 1998). Several techniques
have been used such as weighing lysimeters, large-tree porometer,
ventilated chambers, radio-isotopes, stable isotopes and xylem sap flow
measurements (Rundel and Jarrell, 1989). Since twenty years,
automatic measurements of xylem sap flow rate have become from far
the most applied techniques to estimate whole-tree transpiration in the
field (Wullschleger et al., 1998). They are now routinely used with
concurring stand-level (energy balance, eddy correlations) or leaf-level
measurements (porometry) to better understand the relationships
between components and scales of the system. These techniques use the
heat as a tracer with mainly three principles of measurement depending
the methods: heat pulse, heat balance and heat dissipation.
The continuous thermal dissipation (CTD) method of Granier (1985,
1987) is largely applied due to its simplicity and low cost. This method
uses two sensors, each containing a thermocouple inserted
perpendicularly into the sapwood (Figure 2A and 2B). The downstream
sensor is heated and the measured difference in temperature between
the sensors narrows as sap flux density increases. Granier (1985)
established the relationship between the temperature difference and sap
flux density empirically by testing the system on cut stems in
laboratory. To avoid the influence of natural thermal gradients between
the two probes and to obtain more stable zero-flux references. Do and
Rocheteau (2002a, 2002b) developed on the same probe basis a
transient thermal dissipation method (TTD) based on cycles of heating
and cooling.
Due to its analogy with the original CTD method, the response of the
thermal index was assumed to be independent of the woody species and
the first calibrations were performed on a synthetic porous media
(sawdust). The TTD method has been used on several tree species
including Acacia tortilis (Do and Rocheteau, 2002b; Do et al., 2008),
Adansonia sp. (Chapotin et al., 2006a, 2006b), Hevea brasiliensis
(Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya et al., 2007, 2008), and Olea europea (Abid-
Karray et al.,2007).
However, to our knowledge no calibration-validation studies on these
species have been performed. Therefore, the first objective of the thesis
was to test the validity of the calibration for rubber tree wood before to
use it.
3.1.2 Atmospheric drought effect on transpiration
The constraining effects of evaporative demand on transpiration are less
documented than soil water shortage consequences. However, the
midday stomatal regulation in well-watered soil conditions is a well-
known phenomenon. Figure 3 from Meinzer et al. (1997) illustrated a
classical comparison of transpiration pattern between cloudy and
sunny days.

Figure 2 A) Granier-type
probes of 2-mm diameter and 20-mm long sensors (UPgmBh,
Cottbus, Germany). The yellow probe and blue probes are heating and
reference probes, respectively.
B) Probes setting on the tree trunk, the heating probe is on the top and
the reference probe is on the bottom. For the cloudy day, i.e. with low
evaporative demand, the transpiration of Populus trichocarpa x P.
deltoides hybrid increased according to the VPD and radiation. For
the clear day, i.e. with high evaporative demand, transpiration steeply
increased in the morning and abruptly reached a plateau from 10 hr to
17 hr despite steadily changing radiation and VPD. Accordingly, the
maximum value of canopy conductance was reached at 10:00 h and
decreased steadily for the remaining hours of the day.

Similarly, the response of stomatal conductance versus VPD has a well-

known pattern (Fernandez et al., 1997; Comstock and Mencuccini,
1998; Cochard et al., 2002; Meinzer, 2003; Woodruff et al., 2010). At
low evaporative demand, stomatal conductance increases with
increasing light and evaporative demand, it reaches its maximum value
at intermediate evaporative demand, it steadily declines as
evaporative demand continues to increase. The combination between
increasing VPD and decreasing stomatal conductance induces a plateau
of leaf transpiration. Similar conclusions were recently drawn for
whole-tree transpiration of several species estimated with sap flow
measurement.
In evergreen oak tree (Quercus rotundifolia), midday transpiration rates
remained approximately constant for VPD higher than 1.5 kPa (David
et al., 2004). The mean daily sap flux of Populus grandidentata, Betula
papyrifera, Acer rubrum and Quercus rubra exhibits saturated values
when VPD increased also above 1.5 kPa in either wet or dry soil
(Bovard et al., 2005). Similarly, Bush et al. (2008) found that sap flux
density (Js) of Gleditsia triacanthos, Quercus rubra, and Quercus
gambelii increased with increasing of VPD, and reached maximum Js
around 2 kPa of VPD. However, in Platanus acerrifolia which is a
diffuse-porus wood species, transpiration increased almost linearly with
VPD up to 5 kPa (Bush et al., 2008).
There are no available results on rubber trees in the literature despite the
importance of this response for the extension in drier areas. More
knowledge should allow to improve the choice of planting climatic
areas, the clone selection and discussion of the interest of irrigation.
Therefore, one objective of the thesis was to study, for the main clone
planted in Thailand and south-east Asia, the relationship between
transpiration and evaporative demand and to check the existence of
a particular threshold of regulation despite availability of water in the
soil.
3.1.3 Soil drought effect on transpiration
The negative effects of soil drying on transpiration at different
scales of measurement have been extensively studied. Recent works
applying sap flow measurements have confirmed in the field the
dramatic decline of whole-tree transpiration versus soil drought in
Citrus limon (L.) Brurm. fil (Ortuno et al., 2004.
Ortuno et al., 2006), Cyclobalanopsis glauca (Huang et al., 2009),
Eucalyotus globulus (David et al., 1997), Olea europaea L. (Tognetti
et al., 2004), Prunus armeniaca (Alarcon et al., 2000; Ruiz-Sanchez,
2007), Prunus persica (Conejero et al., 2007), and Quercus petraea
(Breda et al., 1993).
The plot of relative transpiration (ETree/PET or ETree/ET0) or relative
canopy conductance versus relative extractable soil water (REW), or
any ratio of soil water availability, generally provides the same
characteristic pattern.
The values are stable and maximum at high REW and they start to
decreases below a threshold between 0.5 and 0.3 REW below 0.2
corresponds to severe soil droughts where relative transpiration could
be reduced by 80 % (Granier et al., 1999; Sinclair et al., 2005; Breda et
al., 2006). These results concerned mainly the temperate zone.
The change of transpiration has been studied under seasonal
drought for mature rubber trees and compared between clones
(Gururaja Rao et al., 1990). However, the authors analyzed change with
time but did not provide relationship versus soil water availability and
response thresholds. Hence, a third objective of the thesis was to study
the relationship between relative transpiration and soil drought.
3.2 Water potential
3.2.1 Definition and measurement
The concept of water potential (ψ) is the key physiological parameter of
plant water relations. It defines the thermodynamic or energy status of
water within the plant (tissues and cells) and along the soil-plant-
atmosphere continuum (Taiz and Zeiger, 1991; Kozlowski and Pallardy,
1997). The value of ψ is always negative or nil; however, in the cell the
component of pressure potential (ψp) can be positive with turgor. The
gradient of potential is the driving force of water flow and the water
flows towards the more negative values across cell membranes, tissues
and in the whole soil-plant-atmosphere continuum.
For instance, the atmosphere surrounding the leaf corresponds to water
potential c.a. one hundred times lower than water potential in the leaf.
Hence when stomata open, the huge gradient of water potential
dramatically draw the water from the leaf and the leaf water potential
decreases.
The pressure chamber is the reference measurement of water potential
or sap tension for plant samples (Scholander et al., 1965; Boyer, 1967).
The sample of leaf, shoot or root is introduced within the chamber with
a cut end protruding outside and exposed to the atmospheric pressure.
The pressure is increased until xylem sap starts to appear. At this point,
the positive pressure applied is assumed to equilibrate the sap tension
existing in the intact stem.
3.2.2 Predawn and midday values
According to the Ohm’s law analogy (Van den Honert, 1948) and the
Cohesion-Tension theory (Tyree and Zimmermann, 2002), the water
flow from soil to leaves can be efficiently described as simple hydraulic
model where the flow is proportional to water potential gradients, the
coefficient of proportionality being analog to a hydraulic resistance or
its reverse a hydraulic conductance:

where ψSoil and ψLeaf are soil water potential (MPa) and leaf water
potential (MPa), respectively. F is the sap flux density (normalized by
sap wood area; L dm-2 h-1), Rplant is the plant hydraulic resistance
(MPa L-1 dm2 h) and gL is whole tree hydraulic conductance
(L dm-2 h-1 MPa-1) on the whole soil-to-leaf pathway.
Then a simple expression of ψLeaf may be deduced from equation (4):

It shows that the fluctuations in ψLeaf are determined by the variation

in sap flux density, i.e. mainly by the transpiration, and by the hydraulic
conductance if the soil water potential surrounding the roots remain
constant.
Thus, within the diurnal operational range two extreme values are
characteristics: The maximum value measured at predawn (ψpredawn)
before the increase of transpiration which is assumed close to the soil
water potential surrounding roots. And the minimum value measured at
midday (ψminimum or ψmidday) which corresponds to the maximum
of transpiration. The operational range of ψLeaf is species-specific
(Tyree and Sperry, 1988; Cochard et al., 1996; Lu et al., 1996).
Logically drought generally induced a decrease of leaf water potential as
observed for Carica papaya (Mahouachi et al., 2006), Citrus sp. (Ruiz-
Sanchez et al., 1997; Ortuno et al., 2004; Ortuno et al., 2006; Garcia-
Orellana et al., 2007), Eucalyptus spp. (Eamus et al., 2000; O’Grady et
al., 2008), Prunus salicina Lindl. (Intrigliolo and Castel, 2006), Prunus
armeniaca L. (Ruiz-Sanchez et al., 2007) and Quercus petraea (Breda et
al., 1993). Additionally, equation 5 shows why predawn is often used
as a reliable indicator of the average soil water potential surrounding the
roots (Richter, 1997; Donovan et al., 2001). Hence, a threshold value of
ψpredawn is often used as a surrogate of soil water availability to define
the onset of water stress and transpiration regulation. However, the
relative influence of soil or atmospheric droughts on ψminimum varies
depending on species.
Some plants exhibited reduction of Eucalyptus gomphocephala (Franks
et al.2007), Juniperrus osteosperma (Linton et al. 1998), Zea mays L.
(Tardieu and Simonneau 1998). Hence, plants have been separated
schematically between 2 groups: the isohydric and anisohydric species
(Tardieu and Simonneau, 1998; Franks et al., 2007; Maseda and
Fernandez, 2006; West et al., 2007). In isohydric plants, a tight control
of transpiration through stomatal closure allows to stabilize ψminimum
above a discernable threshold. By contrast, anisohydric species have a
less strict control by stomata, and express no discernible threshold of
ψminimum (West et al., 2007). These differences of stomatal regulation
will have important consequences on carbon assimilation and growth
under drought and on the speed of water depletion. Therefore, the
pattern of ψminimum under drought is an important indicator of the
type of hydraulic regulation of the transpiration.
3.2.3 Drought effect on leaf water potential in rubber tree
The results from literature on mature rubber are not clear about the
pattern of minimum under drought. Comparing seasons, Chandrashekar
et al. (1990) suggested an anisohydric behaviour under drought when
ψminimum decreased from -1.3 MPa in wet season to -1.8 MPa in dry
season. But we are not sure that this comparison refers to similar
sunny days, the difference could be related to difference of
evaporative demand and magnitude of transpiration.
Additionally, lower values of predawn have been noticed in seasonal
drought but no threshold for water stress or transpiration decline was
clearly assessed (Chandrashekar et al., 1990; Chandrashekar, 1997;
Gururaja Rao et al., 1990). Hence, another objective of the thesis was
to study the operational range of leaf water potential under drought
conditions and particularly to assess the pattern of ψmidday under
drought.
3.3 Whole tree hydraulic conductance
3.3.1 Definition and measurement
As expressed in equation 4, the whole-tree hydraulic conductance
(Kplant) is the coefficient of proportionality between the sap flow rate
and the gradient of water potential. Hence, this relationship implies that
Kplant (or its reverse the resistance) is the constant slope of a linear
relationship between change of Leaf and sap flow rate. This assumes
that the sap flux is conservative from soil to leaves, i.e. that the effect of
water storage in the plant (capacitance) is quantitatively negligible
which may be not true in diurnal kinetic depending species (O’Grady et
al., 2008). The whole-tree hydraulic conductance can be also expressed
per unit of leaf area instead of sapwood area which can be useful for
comparison with stomatal conductance (Meinzer, 2003).
Basically, Kplant can be estimated from equation 4 by the linear
regression method (“multipoint”), plotting diurnal change of sap flux
density versus leaf water potential (Cochard et al., 1996, Lu et
al.,1996). Equation 4 can be also simplified to estimate Kplant (also
called gL) from the two characteristic values of leaf water potential
(“single point” method, Cochard et al., 1996):
where gL is whole tree hydraulic conductance; Js_midday is the daily
maximum flux density; and predawn and midday are predawn and
midday leaf water potential, respectively.
Figure 4 from Lu et al. (1996) illustrates a successful comparison
between the multipoint and the single point method to estimate gL.
Figure 4 Whole tree specific hydraulic conductances (gL) of Picea
abies (L) Karst, gL was calculated either as the slope of linear
regression between the daily variations in leaf water potential (ψleaf)
and sap flux density (dF; Y-axis) or as the ratio between the daily
maximum flow density (dFmidday) and difference between the
predawn and minimum leaf water potentials (predawn - midday). The
two techniques yielded similar results (n = 24, r2 = 0.91, slope not
different from one at P = 0.05).(Source: Lu et al., 1996)
The components of gL have been investigated to understand its
processes of regulation. As simplified electric analog circuit, gL, can be
parted in four components (Sack and Holbrook, 2006): soil conductance
(Ksoil), root conductance (Kroot), stem (Kstem), leaf conductance
(Kleaf). gL was found mainly dependent of Kroot and Kleaf,
which account together for more than 70% of the plant hydraulic
resistance (Cruiziat et al., 2002; Sack et
al., 2003; Sack and Holbrook, 2006;
Domec et al., 2009; Passos et al., 2009).
3.3.2 Drought effect on whole tree
hydraulic conductance
Drought-induced changes in gL have
been demonstrated in many species. For
instance in Bursera simaruba,
Calycophyllum candidissimum, Enterolobrium cyclocarpum, Gliricidia
sepium and Rhedera trinervis (Brodribb et al., 2002), Juglans regia x
nigra (Cochard et al., 2002), Picea abies (L) Karst (Lu et al., 1996),
Pinus sylvestris L. (Irvine et al., 1998), Prunus armeniaca cv. Bulida
(Alarcon et al., 2000), Pinus palustris Mill. (Addington et al., 2004),
Pinus taeda L. (Domec et al., 2009) and Quescus petraea (Cochard et
al., 1996a; Breda et al., 1993). It was related to the decrease of soil
water availability. In this case, the decrease of gL is mainly explained
by the decrease of the hydraulic conductance at the soil-root interface.
Moreover, a further decrease of gL may be explained by xylem
embolism due to the decrease of xylem water potential (Cruiziat et al.,
2002).
Additionally, Domec et al. (2009) studied the relationship between
whole tree hydraulic conductance (Ktree) and the conductance in roots
and in leaves under both soil and atmospheric drought. They found that
the change of Ktree and corresponding response of stomatal
conductance (gs) to VPD were mainly driven by Kleaf under high soil
water availability and by Kroot under low REW.
Moreover, recent studies have drawn attention on modifications of
hydraulic conductance in leaves and roots by the effect of active
processes. Diurnal changes in root hydraulic conductance have been
ascribe to changes in plasmalemma or tonoplast aquaporins that act as
water channels controlling water fluxes between cells (Martre et al.,
2002). For instance, within the leaves, it has been shown that the main
resistance in the liquid phase is extravascular (Tyree and Zimmermann,
2002). Hence, active processes may play a key role in the control under
drought of the hydraulic conductances in the bottlenecks of leaves and
roots.
For the rubber tree, the results of Sangsing (2004) in young potted trees
support the good applicability of the whole-tree hydraulic conductance
approach. A quick increase of Rtree was noticed under soil drought.
Hence, one objective of the thesis was to analyze for mature rubber
trees under field drought how the decrease of transpiration is related to
change of whole-tree conductance and thresholds of environmental
conditions.
3.4 Stomatal regulation
3.4.1 Interaction with whole tree hydraulic conductance
Stomatal conductance (gs) is not a direct component of the
whole-tree hydraulic conductance which concerns only the liquid
phase. However, stomatal regulation plays the key role of coupling and
short-term adjustment between the gaseous phase and liquid phase
water transfers in the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum while
maximizing carbon assimilation (Whitehead, 1998; Franks, 2004).
To better understand the main interactions, Whitehead (1998)
provided a simplified conservative equation neglecting water storage:

where E is the canopy transpiration, gs is stomatal conductance, D is

leaf-to-air vapour pressure deficit, Al is the leaf area, Asw is the
sapwood cross sectional area, others parameters are the same than in
equation 4. From this equation, it is understandable that an isohydric
species growing in varying conditions of evaporative demand and
soil water potential will have to dramatically adjust gs, Al, Kplant
and Asw to insure water potential homeostasis.
3.4.2 Drought effect on stomata
The decrease of stomatal or canopy conductance at high evaporative
demand despite soil water availability is well known for temperate and
tropical rain forest species (Meinzer et al., 1999; Granier et al., 2000a;
Granier et al., 2000b; Meinzer, 2003). Such process may explain the
observation of saturated whole-tree transpiration above a certain
threshold of VPD or ET0 (Breda et al., 1993; David et al., 2004;
Bovard et al., 2005; Bush et al., 2008). However, the exact mechanism
is not known and it is still a critical area of research.
Previous studies assumed a direct response of stomata to vapour
pressure deficit is the feed forward response (Farqhuar, 1978).
However, more recent studies suggest that this is a feedback response to
leaf transpiration and whole plant water status (Franks et al., 1997;
Meinzer et al., 1997; Monteith, 1995; Mott and Buckley,
1998; Domec et al., 2009)
The effect of soil drought is better understood. Basically, the induced
decrease of ψLeaf may have a direct effect on gs through its impact on
leaf turgor (Cochard et al., 2002) or through interaction with stomata
sensibility to ABA (Tardieu and Simonneau, 1998).
For young potted rubber trees, Sangsing (2004) found that a
strong relationship between stomatal conductance and leaf water
potential. For two clones (RRIM600 and RRIT251), the stomatal
closure was maximum when leaf water potential reached to –2.2
MPa.
3.5 Influence of leaf phenology on drought responses
3.5.1 General features
As described in equation 7, to prevent excessive dehydration plant can
express short term reversible responses like stomatal closure and long
term responses like reducing transpiring leaf area, increasing root
development in wetter soil layers, decrease of the active sapwood area
(Breda et al., 2006). Reducing leaf area is a major phenological
adaptation of deciduous trees to seasonal drought in the dry tropics
(Eamus and Prior, 2001). Moreover, the different stages of leaf
phenology may correspond to changes of root phenology: root decay or
root growth in different soil layers according to soil water availability.
These processes should influence tree water relations and gL,
particularly the leaf and root parts which contribute to more than 70 %
of the total hydraulic resistance (Becker et al., 1999; Nardini and Tyree,
2000; Brodribb et al., 2002; Domec et al., 2009).
Leaf senescence and shedding should decrease the total leaf hydraulic
conductance. Following soil drying, root decay may decrease
furthermore the soil to root conductance. Reversely, root growth in the
wetter subsoil could increase soil to root conductance and Kroot. At
last, leaf flushing should increase the hydraulic conductance of
leaves.
3.5.2 Phenology of rubber in seasonal dry period
In the water limited area of northeast Thailand, the period of leaf
yellowing- leaf shedding-bud bursting-leaf flushing normally takes
around five months, from December to April. Hence, such period of
relatively low green leaf area should markedly reduce whole-tree
transpiration. The dry season generally lasts from November to April.
In the same area, Gonkhamdee et al. (2009) had followed growth
dynamics of fine roots of rubber trees down to 450 cm. They found that
the onset of the dry season (November) corresponded to a period of
active growth in the subsoil from 100 to 400 cm depth. After a rest
period, root growth appeared again in the very deep soil between 300
and 400 cm around the time of massive leaf flushing in March. The
onset of the rainy season (May) corresponded to an active growth in the
top soil above 100 cm. The higher root length density was found above
50 cm. Root decay was observed above 100 cm at the end of the rainy
season in September-October.
Guardiola-Claramonte et al. (2008) stress up for rubber tree the
importance of including leaf phenology in soil water balance model to
correctly predict the trend of water uptake in dry season. Moreover the
same authors found a shift of root water uptake from topsoil in the onset
of dry season to subsoil at the end of the dry season when leaf flushing
occurs.
Hence, one particular objective of thesis was to compare the change of
water regulation under drought between period with full canopy where
dominate short term response like stomatal regulation and period of leaf
shedding like in seasonal dry period where the leaf area dramatically
changes.
3.6 Hydraulic limitation hypothesis
3.6.1 Embolism
Previous paragraphs explained that water in the xylem is under tension,
and that this tension increases as transpiration rate increases or soil
water potential decreases. If the tension in the water column becomes
too great, embolism (gas bubbles) occurs within the xylem vessel, and
cavitation (breaking of water column) occurs. Then the xylem conduit
becomes permanently or temporarily dysfunctional and there is a loss of
hydraulic conductivity of the xylem (Tyree and Sperry, 1989).
The vulnerability to cavitation is measured by the xylem pressure
potential (ψxp) that induces cavitation; a more vulnerable vessel or
tracheid will cavitate at a less negative ψxp (Tyree et al., 1993).
Additionally, Zimmermann (1983) introduced the hypothesis of
“plant segmentation” which states that during periods of severe drought,
embolism will first occur in the terminal part of trees (ie, leaves
and small branches) where water potential are the lowest. This has
been demonstrated in several temperate species (Tyree et al., 1993).
3.6.2 Critical minimum leaf water potential
Stomatal control of leaf transpiration and loss of hydraulic conductivity
in twigs have been monitored in parallel in a range of species during
drought (Cruiziat et al., 2002). A tight coordination was evidenced
between stomatal closure and induction of embolism: usually,
embolism begins only when stomatal conductance drops below 10% of
initial values. This supports the “hydraulic limitation” hypothesis that a
tight control of water loss protects the xylem against drought-induced
embolism (Jones and Sutherland, 1991; Tyree and Sperry, 1988). The
range of water potential between full stomatal closure and onset of
cavitation corresponds to a safety margin (Sperry and Pockman, 1993).
In most species, this margin is narrow, meaning that tree transpiration
operates close to the cavitation induction point.
The consequence of this tight regulation is the observation a critical
minimum water potential (ψcrit) above which the operational water
potential is maintained. This value varies largely depending on species.
For example, ψcrit in shoot water potential of Thuja occidentallis, Acer
scacharum, Cassipourea elliptica and Rhizophora mangle were -1.8, -
2.0, -1.6 and -4.0 MPa, respectively (Tyree and Sperry, 1988). In
Quercus petraea (Cochard et al., 1996a) and Picea abis (Lu et al., 1996),
the crit were -2.8 and -2.5 MPa, respectively.
The combination of equation 6 and hydraulic limitation hypothesis is
the basis of RER model (Cochard et al., 1996a, Lu et al., 1996) which is
like the ones developed by Tyree and Sperry (1988) and Sperry et al.
(1989):
where Js_crit is the estimated critical maximum sap flux density and
ψcrit is the critical leaf water potential at the completely stomata
closure period. This equation allows to estimate the critical value of
minimum leaf water potential from recordings of leaf water potential
and xylem sap flow rates.

3.6.3 Simple transpiration model in water-limited conditions

The ‘hydraulic limitation’ hypothesis provided a very simple but
process- based model to analyze tree transpiration under water stress.
According to equation 8 it is possible to compute a critical transpiration
(Ecrit) corresponding to ψcrit:
where Ecrit (mm day-1) is critical maximum tree transpiration, gL (L
dm-2 h-1 MPa) is whole tree hydraulic conductance per sapwood area
and a is coefficient to transform maximum sap flux density to total flow
of tree transpiration per day and
unit of soil area. ψsoil and ψcrit
(MPa) are represented by
predawn leaf water potential
and critical minimum leaf water
potential that estimated from
equation 8, respectively.
According to the hydraulic
limitation hypothesis, Ecrit set a
functional limitation to ETree
that can be reached under drought conditions (low ψsoil and low gL
values) but also when the evaporative demand is extremely high (ψcrit
and gL max). The climatic conditions (e.g. ET0) also set a maximum
transpiration which cannot be exceeded by Ecrit.
By combining both limiting effects of ET0 and Ecrit on tree

transpiration (Cruiziat et al. 2002,

Figure 5), it is possible to construct a simple model for ETree: In this
model, it is assumed that soil drought affects Ecrit by its effect on the
gL and ψpredawn or ψsoil.
Figure 5 Factor controlling maximum water loss. Flux/Potential
relationships help in understanding daily maximum transpiration rates
in Quercus. For well-watered trees (line 1), Fmax is probably limited by
climatic conditions such as light level, air vapor pressure deficit or CO2
concentration. However, for water-stressed trees (lines 2), whole
hydraulic resistances increased (steeper slopes) causing xylem water
potential (Ψxylem) to reach values close to water potential at cavitation
point (Ψcav). (Source: Cruiziat et al., 2002)
3.6.4 Embolism on rubber tree
There are no published results on native embolism and vulnerability to
cavitation on mature rubber trees. However, there are several insights
that suggest an isohydric behaviour for mature rubber trees with
relatively strict stomatal control of transpiration.
Studying young potted trees, Ranasinghe and Milburn (1995) and
Sangsing et al. (2004b) both found high values of xylem tension
corresponding to 50% of embolism in the petioles (between -1.5 and -
2.0 MPa) which suggests that rubber tree is relatively vulnerable to
cavitation. Moreover, Sangsing et al. (2004b) assessed that stomatal
control operates at the onset of xylem embolism in the petiole. Finally,
the minimum values of leaf water potential found under drought are
within the same range (-1.8 to -2.2 MPa) for the rare results available
on mature rubber trees (Chandrashekar et al., 1990; Gururaja Rao et al.,
1990, Chandrashekar, 1997). Therefore, the general objective of this
thesis was to test the framework of the “hydraulic limitation”
hypothesis to describe the change of whole-tree transpiration for mature
Hevea brasiliensis under soil and atmospheric droughts.
4. Experiments
4.1 General approach
To address the objectives detailed previously, we selected a mature (7
years old after planting and started tapping) and representative rubber
tree stand in the drought prone area of Northeast Thailand. The key
measurement was the continuous and long-term monitoring of whole
tree transpiration by applying xylem sap flow measurement. It was
performed over a complete annual cycle including rainy season with
intermittent short droughts and seasonal dry period with leaf shedding
stage. Seasonal and diurnal variations of leaf water potential and whole-
tree hydraulic conductance were measured with concurrent observation
of canopy phenology and recordings of atmospheric and soil water
conditions.
 4.2 Materials
4.2.1
Location and

characteristics of the field experiment

The plantation is located at Baan Sila site (N15o 16′ 23″ E103o 04′
51.3″), Khu-Muang, Burirum province in northeast Thailand (Figure 6).
The experiments were conducted in a monoclonal plot, clone
RRIM600, planted at 2.5m x 7.0m spacing (the density 571 trees/ha)
and tapped for 4 years or age 11 years old from planting (Figure 7A).
The soil was a deep loamy sand. Mean contents of clay, loam, and
organic matter varied from 9.9, 24.2 and 0.78% in the topsoil (0-20) to
20.2, 23.6 and 0.34% at a depth of 1.5 m, respectively. In this non-
traditional rubber tree plantation area, the environmental conditions are
water limited for H. brasiliensis. The dry season lasts six months, from
November to April, and average annual rainfall is 1,176 mm. In 2007,
even drier climatic conditions occurred with an annual rainfall was less
than 1,000 mm.
Figure 6 The maximum temperature (A) and annual rainfall (B) of
Thailand and for Burirum province, which is in the southern part of
northeast of Thailand, shown in the circles.
4.2.2 Detail in experimental trees
Figure 8 illustrates the layout of 11 experimental mature rubber trees
which separated in 6 healthy trees (green with black cover) and 5
 necrotic trees (red with black
cover). The comparison
between soil water depletion
and tree transpiration in the
multi-species xylem sap
flow calibration part was
done with all 11
experimental trees, while the
investigation of effect of
intermittent and seasonal
droughts on tree
transpiration was done on
only 6 healthy trees.
Figure 7 A) The plantation
of rubber tree in this work
that is located at Baan Sila
(N15o 16′ 23″ E103o 04′
51.3″), Khu-Muang, Burirum, northeast Thailand. The spacing is 7 x
2.5 m. and tapped for 4 years.
B) The instruments were installed in the experimental plantation such as
neutron probe tubes, capacitive probe (red circle), and leaves collecting
boxes.
Figure 8 Schematic diagram showing the layout of 11 experimental
mature rubber trees which separated in 6 healthy trees (green with black
cover) and 5 necrotic trees (red with black cover). The sky-blue circles
indicate the position of installation of 12 neutron probe tubes.
4.3 Methods
4.3.1 Sap flow calibration on cut stem in the laboratory
The cut stems used for calibration experiments comprised three species
of interest for our laboratory: Hevea brasiliensis (Rubber tree),
Mangifera indica (Mango), Citrus maxima (Pummelo). The water flow
 rate (Js) through the cut stem
was controlled by a high-
pressure flow meter (HPFM,
Dynamax Co., Houston,
USA). The reference
measurement of Js was
obtained by weighing water
flowing out of cut segments
(0.01 g accuracy balance,
AdventurerTM, Ohaus, Pine
Brook, USA).
Flow density ranged from 0.3
to 5.0 L dm-2 h-1. Depending
on the length of the cut
segments and on the
experiment, one or two sets of
probes were inserted into the sapwood. The distance between needles of
the same probe was 10 cm and the heated needle of probe 1 was
separated from the reference needle of probe 2 by 10 cm too. Probe 1
was in upstream position. (Figure 9A) The same set of two probes was
used for all tests and the probes were located at the same position. The
probes were connected to a data logger (21X, Campbell Scientific,
Leicester, U.K.). (Figure 9B)
4.3.2 Xylem sap flux measurements in the field
The measurements of xylem sap flow density were made using the
transient thermal dissipation method (TTD) developed by Do and
Rocheteau (2002) which is a modification of the continuous thermal
dissipation method of Granier (1985). Probes were inserted into the
trunks at a height of 1.8 m above the soil. After removal of the bark, the
probes, 2-cm long probes were inserted into a hole of 2.5 cm deep
within the sapwood, in such a way that the whole probe was inside the
conductive sapwood. Three probes were inserted into each trunk to take
circumferential variability into account. After the probe was inserted,
the exposed parts of the needles were
coated with silicone. The trunk area
containing the probes was protected from
direct solar radiation and rainfall by a
deflector. Probes were connected to a data
logger (CR10X, Campbell Scientific,
Leicester, U.K.). (Figure 10)
Figure 9 A) Installation of cut stem with a
high-pressure flow meter (HPFM) and
weighing water flowing out of cut
segments by 0.01 g accuracy balance. Also, the two sets of Granier’s
type probe were inserted to the cut stem, which the distance between
two set of probes was 10 cm.
B) A data logger 21X, Campbell Scientific with
the relay electric boxes controlled turn on and
turn off heating in transient thermal

dissipationmethod according Do and

Rocheteau (2002b)
Figure 10 Installation of xylem sap
flow probe in the experimental tree at a height of 1.8 m above the soil
and the data logger (CR10X,
Campbell Scientific, Leicester, U.K.)
with multiplexer setting.
4.3.3 Leaf water potential
measurements
Leaf water potential (ψLeaf) was
measured on the six healthy experimental trees with a Scholander type
pressure chamber (PMS 1000, PMS Instrument Company, Corwallis,
Oregon, USA; Figure 11). Two trifoliate leaves with petiole were
randomly selected from sunny locations on each experimental
tree. ψLeaf measurements were performed in situ rapidly after cutting.
Regular measurements of ψLeaf were carried out once or twice times
per month, ψpredawn, between 05:30
and 06:15 hours, and midday leaf
water potential (ψmidday), between
12:30 and 13:30
hours. Additionally, diurnal kinetics
of ψLeaf measurements, i.e., every 1-2
hour from predawn to sunset, were
performed on sunny days.
Figure 11 A Scholander type pressure chamber (PMS 1000, PMS
Instrument Company, Corwallis, Oregon, USA).
4.3.4 Leaf area index
Leaf area index was calculated from total
leave area, which collected by the leaves
collecting boxes (Figure 7B), divide by
spacing size of leaves collecting boxes (1
m2). The leaves collection was done in leaves
shedding period during November 2007 to
February 2008. Leaf area was measured by
leaf area meter (LI-3100C Area
Meter, LI-COR Biosciences, Lincoln, Nebraska USA).
4.3.5 Climatic measurements
Local microclimate was automatically monitored in an open field, 50 m
from any trees (Figure 12). A datalogger (Minimet automatic weather
station, Skye Instruments Ltd, U.K.) recorded half hourly values of air
temperature, relative humidity, incoming short-wave radiation, and
rainfall. A reference potential evapotranspiration (ET0) was calculated
according to Allen et al. (1998).
Figure 12 Local microclimate (Minimet automatic weather station,
Skye Instruments Ltd, U.K.) was automatically monitored in an open
field, 50 m from any
trees.
4.3.6 Soil water content
measurements with a
neutron probe
Volumetric soil water
content (θ) was measured with a neutron probe (3322, Troxler,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA; Figure 13A) calibrated
for the experimental soil with separated calibrations between upper (0-
0.2 m) and lower (below 0.2 m) layers (Figure 13B). The highly linear
relation in both upper- and lower-layer express following these
equations:
Twelve tubes of 2.0 m in length were set up, six along the rows and six
between the rows (Figure 8; sky blue circles). Measurements every 0.2
m, from 0.1m until 1.7 m depth, were performed every month or two
weeks. According to soil water fluctuations, the soil profile was
separated between two layers, a topsoil (0-0.4 m) and a subsoil (0.4-1.8
m).
Figure 13 A) A neutron probe (3322, Troxler, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina, USA).
 B) Relationship between volumetric soil
water content (θ) and neutron probe value
separated calibrations between upper (0-0.2
m; closed circles) and lower (below 0.2 m;
opened circles) layers. The dotted line and
continuous line indicate the tendency in
upper layer and lower layer, respectively.
4.3.7 Continuous soil water content
measurements
Continuous θ was measured with a
capacitive probe (EnvironSCAN System,
Sentek Sensor Technologies, South
Australia, Australia; Figure 14) within a
single tube close to a tube dedicated to neutron probe measurement
(tube No. t4; Figure 7B and 8). Capacitive sensors were located at the
same levels than neutron probe measurements. For each capacitive
sensor, θ was estimated from a cross-calibration with the neutron probe
measurements over the whole season range. To estimate continuous
change of the average soil water profile, linear regressions were
performed between θ of the average soil water profile (12 neutron probe
access tubes) and θ of the profile continuously measured with the
capacitive probe according Girona et al. (2002).
Figure 14 A capacitive probe (EnvironSCAN System, Sentek Sensor
Technologies, South Australia, Australia).
Transient thermal
dissipation method of
xylem sap flow
measurement: multi-
species calibration
and field evaluation
Water loss regulation
in mature Hevea
brasiliensis: effects of intermittent drought in rainy season and
hydraulic limitation
Water loss regulation in mature Hevea brasiliensis: effects of
intermittent drought in rainy season and hydraulic limitation
Effects of soil and atmospheric droughts on whole-tree transpiration,
leaf water potential and whole-tree hydraulic conductance were
investigated for mature rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis, clone RRIM
600) during the full canopy of the rainy season in a drought-prone area
of North-East Thailand.
Despite well-watered soil conditions, transpiration did not follow
completely evaporative demand, transpirations saturated above
reference evapotranspiration (ET0) c.a. 2.2 mm day 1. Intermittent soil
drought provoked a dramatic decrease of transpiration below a
threshold of 50% of relative extractable water (REW) in the topsoil
which corresponded to a predawn leaf water potential (ψpredawn) c.a. -
0.45 MPa. Transpiration was reduced by 40% at 0.3 REW and 80% at
0.1 REW. The minimum leaf water potential for sunny day did not
change according to soil drought and was stable around -1.95 MPa
which supported an anisohydric behaviour. The decrease of
transpiration was mainly due to the change of whole-tree hydraulic
conductance. The results of simulation proved the ability of a simple
“hydraulic limitation” model, based on evaporative demand, whole-tree
hydraulic conductance, and critical minimum leaf water potential, to
simulate the pattern of transpiration changes.
Finally, combination between the cohesion-tension theory, electric
analogy and hydraulic limitations hypothesis provides a promising
framework to analyze transpiration responses to soil and atmospheric
droughts and to develop simple process-based models to compare
genotypes in contrasted environments
Keywords: Hevea brasiliensis, water regulation, intermittent drought,
tree transpiration, leaf water potential, whole tree hydraulic
conductance
1. Introduction
In trees, leaf carbon gain is tightly coupled to water loss. Therefore, to
maximize their growth and productivity trees also need to
maximize their transpiration. Plants respond to drought by reducing
transpiration through stomatal closure which prevents the development
of excessive water deficits in their tissues. Such a dilemma represents
for plants facing drought the complicate trade-off between carbon gain
and water losses. This probably explains why considerable attention has
been given to the measurement and modeling of transpiration response
to drought. Many empirical models have been proposed to predict
transpiration. However, to predict tree response to environmental
conditions or to evaluate the performance of new tree genotypes, it is
now crucial to develop more process-based models. It is then critical to
identify the key processes that govern tree transpiration to properly
model their function under drought and contrasted environmental
conditions.
Tree transpiration (ETree) is a physical process determined by the
evaporation of water molecules at the leaf surface. Hence, ETree is first
governed by an evaporative demand closely linked to climatic variables
like global radiation or vapor pressure deficit (VPD). This climatic
demand sets an upper physical limit to ETree. When reference
evapotranspiration (ET0) is low, during rainy days for instance, ETree
is also low. But there are several situations where ET0 largely
overestimates ETree. In other words, under these circumstances’ trees
operate a biological control limiting their water losses. This is usually
achieved by a stomatal closure (Comstock and Mencuccini 1998;
Cochard et al. 2002; Buckley 2005). For instance, under high climatic
demand (high VPD), several studies reported results in well-watered
soil conditions where ETree does not follow evaporative demand, a
saturated ETree at maximum value occurs (David et al. 2004; Bovard
et al. 2005; Oguntunde et al. 2007; Bush et al. 2008). Similarly, decline
of soil water content induces limitations and reductions of ETree
through stomatal closure (Breda et al. 1993; Cochard et al. 1996; David
et al. 1997; Irvine et al. 1998; Meinzer et al. 1999).
Water transport in trees behaves like the transport of water in a
plumbing system and can be efficiently modeled by simple hydraulic
analogy where flows are proportional to pressure gradients, the
coefficient of proportionality being analog to a hydraulic resistance
(Van den Honert 1948; Tyree and Zimmermann 2002):

where ψSoil is the soil water potential, ψLeaf the leaf water potential,
RTree and KTree are the hydraulic resistance and conductance of the
whole sap pathway, respectively.
The ψLeaf is a key physiological parameter that has strong direct or
indirect impact on ETree. Direct effects of ψLeaf on ETree can be
caused by its impact on leaf turgor (Cochard et al. 2002) or on the
interaction with stomata sensibility to ABA (Tardieu and Simonneau
1998). More indirect effects explained by the correlation between ψLeaf
and the xylem water potential (ψXylem) and by the effect of ψXylem
on cavitation (Sperry et al. 1998; Cochard et al. 2002). Whatever the
mechanisms, experimental data suggest that many tree species tend to
adjust their transpiration with the effect of maintaining ψLeaf above
a critical value (ψcrit) which results in an isohydric behavior
(Tardieu and Simonneau 1998; Franks et al. 2007; Maseda and
Fernandez 2006; West et al. 2007). Conversely, the anisohydric plants
are less strict control by stomata, thus no discernible threshold (West et
al. 2007).
On the other hand, maximum leaf water potential or predawn
(ψpredawn) is typically used as a reliable indicator of soil water
potential, which fluctuates following soil water status (Richter 1997,
Donovan et al. 2001). The relative extractable water (REW) is also
used to directly characterize soil water status in transpiration modeling
(Granier et al. 1999, 2000; Breda et al. 2006). Additionally, the
decrease of KTree under soil drought has been demonstrated in several
temperate trees (Breda et al. 1993; Cochard et al. 1996; Lu et al. 1996;
Alarcon et al. 2000; Cochard et al. 2002; Brodribb et al. 2002).
A number of mechanistic models have been proposed to predict ETree
under these limiting conditions which are based on hormonal (Tardieu
and Simonneau, 1998) or air humidity signals (Granier et al 1996, 2000;
Ewers et al. 2001; Oguntunde et al. 2007). The ‘hydraulic limitation’
hypothesis (Jones 1998; Sperry et al. 1998) is an alternative and very
promising way to model tree transpiration under water stress.
According to Eq. 1 it is possible to compute a critical transpiration
(Ecrit) corresponding to ψcrit:

According to this hydraulic limitation hypothesis, Ecrit set a functional

limitation to ETree that can be reached under drought conditions (low
ψsoil and low KTree values) but also when the evaporative
demand is very high (Jones and Sutherland 1991; Sperry et al. 2002).
By combining the limiting effects of ET0 and Ecrit on tree
transpiration, it is possible to construct a simple model for ETree:

This approach has proven to be valid and robust for temperate

angiosperms (Sperry et al. 1998; Cochard et al. 2002). As far as we
know, there is little evidence so far that this approach remains valid
species from other biomes, such a tropical species for instance. In wet
tropical conditions, tropical species are more rarely exposed to severe
water stresses than species from other biomes. Therefore, they may
have developed very different mechanisms to control their water losses.
The general objective of this study was to test this approach in Hevea
brasiliensis (rubber tree), a species native from wet tropical forests in
Amazonia. To benefit from the ever-increasing demand for natural
rubber, the cultivation of Hevea brasiliensis is extended in drought
prone areas such as in the southern part of northeast Thailand. In this
area, rubber tree must face soil drought and atmospheric drought in both
wet and dry seasons. Several authors have studied the influence of soil
and atmospheric droughts on the water relations of mature rubber trees
(Chandrashekar et al. 1990; Chandrashekar 1997; Gururaja Rao et al.
1990), however they focused on the absolute comparison of variables
between seasonal dry season and wet season and on the relationships
with latex yield. Two studies of hydraulic on young potted trees provide
interesting insights before testing hydraulic limitation hypothesis
(Ranasinghe and Milburn 1995; Sangsing et al. 2004). First, both
authors found high values of xylem tension corresponding to 50% of
embolism in the petioles (between -1.5 and -2.0 MPa) which suggests
that rubber tree is relatively vulnerable to cavitation. Secondly,
Sangsing et al (2004) found that stomatal control operates at the onset
of xylem embolism in the petiole which suggests an isohydric behavior.
Our study had four detailed objectives. The first objective was to assess
the response of whole-tree transpiration to intermittent drought in rainy
season: we hypothesized responses to both atmospheric drought and
soil drought with thresholds. The second objective was to study the
operational range of ψLeaf water potential under soil and atmospheric
drought conditions: we hypothesized sensitivity of predawn value to
soil drought but a relative stability of midday value for sunny days. The
third objective was to study the concurrent change of whole-tree
hydraulic conductance: we expected that these changes mainly explain
the reduction of transpiration. The last objective was to test the ability
of a simple “hydraulic limitation” model, based on i) whole-tree
hydraulic conductance (sensitive to soil drought) and on ii) a critical
minimum leaf water potential, to simulate the main changes of
transpiration.
To address these issues, we selected a mature and representative rubber
tree stand of the main planted clone in South East Asia. It was in the
southern part of northeast Thailand where trees are regularly exposed to
soil and atmospheric droughts during the full canopy in rainy season.
Seasonal and diurnal variations of ETree, ψLeaf and KTree were
measured with concurrent recordings of atmospheric and soil water
conditions.
2. Materials and methods
2.1 Field site and plant material
The experiment was conducted in a plot of RRIM600, planted at 2.5m x
7.0m spacing and tapped for 4 years. The plantation is located at Baan
Sila (N15o 16′ 23″ E103o 04′ 51.3″), Khu-Muang, Bureerum, northeast
Thailand. The rainy season lasts approximately from April to October
and the annual amount of rainfall averages 1176 mm. Six representative
trees were selected. Their trunk girths, measured at 1.50 m above soil,
varied from 43.3 to 58.3 cm (average: 52.5 cm). The maximum leaf
area index measured by litterfall collection at defoliation time
(December-January- February) was estimated c.a. 3.89 in 2007.
2.2 Climatic measurements
Local microclimate was automatically monitored in an open field, 50 m
from any trees. A datalogger (Minimet automatic weather station, Skye
Instruments Ltd, U.K.) recorded half hourly values of air temperature,
relative humidity, incoming short-wave radiation, and rainfall. The
reference evapotranspiration (ET0) was calculated according to Allen et
al. (1998).
2.3 Soil water content measurements
Volumetric soil water content (θ) was measured with a neutron probe
(3322, Troxler, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA)
calibrated for the experimental soil with separated calibrations
between upper (0-0.2 m) and lower (below 0.2 m) layers. Twelve tubes
of 2.0 m in length were set up, six along the rows and six between the
rows. Measurements every 0.2 m, from 0.1m until 1.7 m depth, were
performed every two weeks from May 2007 to October 2007.
According to soil water fluctuation, the soil profile was separated
between two layers, a topsoil (0-0.4 m) and subsoil (0.4-1.8 m).
Average field capacity and permanent wilting points were equal to 19.8
and 7 cm3/100 cm3 of soil for the topsoil, and to 25.1 and 10 cm3/100
cm3 of soil for the subsoil, respectively (Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya et
al., Paper 1).
Additionally, θ was measured continuously with a capacitive
probe (EnvironSCAN System, Sentek Sensor Technologies, South
Australia, Australia) within a single tube close to a tube dedicated to
neutron probe measurement.
Capacitive sensors were located at the same levels than neutron probe
measurements. For each capacitive sensor, θ was estimated from a
cross-calibration with the neutron probe measurements over the whole
season range. To estimate continuous change of the average soil water
profile, linear regressions were performed between θ of the average soil
water profile (12 neutron probe access tubes) and θ of the profile
continuously measured with the capacitive probe. For the previously
defined topsoil and sub soil layers, R2 of linear regressions were 0.89
and 0.76, respectively. Relative extractable soil water (REW) was
calculated according to Granier et al. (1999) and Breda et al. (2006).
2.4 Leaf water potential
Leaf water potential (ψLeaf) was measured on the six instrumented
trees with a Scholander type pressure chamber (PMS 1000, PMS
Instrument Company, Corwallis, Oregon, USA). Two trifoliate leaves
with petiole were randomly selected from sunny locations on each
experimental tree. ψLeaf measurements were performed in situ
rapidly after cutting. Regular measurements of ψLeaf were carried out
once or twice times per month, ψpredawn, between 05:30 and 06:15
hours, and midday leaf water potential (ψmidday), between 12:30 and
13:30 hours. Additionally, four diurnal kinetics of ψLeaf measurements,
i.e., every 1-2 hour from predawn to sunset, were performed in
contrasting periods of soil water content.
2.5 Xylem sap flow measurements and tree transpiration calculation
The measurements of xylem sap flow density were made using the
transient thermal dissipation method (TTD) developed by Do and
Rocheteau (2002) which is a modification of the continuous thermal
dissipation method of Granier (1985). The modification avoids the
influence of passive temperature gradients. The TTD method is based
on the same Granier’s probe design and heating power but uses a cyclic
schedule of heating and cooling to assess a transient thermal index over
10 min change. The hourly sap flux density (Js; L dm-2 h-1) was
calculated according to the empirical and non-species-specific
calibration assessed by Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya et al. (Paper 1):

where ∆Ton is the temperature difference reached at the end of the 10

min heating period and ∆Toff is the temperature difference reached
after 10 min of cooling, To measure Js every half hour with a heating
period of 10 min, a cycle of 10 min heating and 20 min cooling was
applied and the temperature signals were recorded every 10 min.
Experience showed that averaging ∆Toff values (before 10 min of
heating and after 10 min of cooling) improves measurement accuracy.
This interpolation of ∆Toff at the time of ∆Ton measurement likely
reduces sensitivity to quick changes of reference temperature or natural
thermal gradients. The transient thermal index was calculated as:

where ∆T0a is the maximum alternate temperature difference obtained

under zero flow conditions and ∆Tua is the measured alternate signal at
a given Js.
The zero-flux signal was determined every night assuming that sap flow
was negligible at the end of the night. Probes were inserted into the
trunks at a height of 1.8 m above the soil. At this height, average
sapwood area was estimated at 1.97 dm2.
After removal of the bark, the probes, 2-cm long probes were inserted
into a hole of 2.5 cm deep within the sapwood, in such a way that the
whole probe was inside the conductive sapwood. Three probes were
inserted into each trunk to take circumferential variability into account.
After the probe was inserted, the exposed parts of the needles were
coated with silicone. The trunk area containing the probes was protected
from direct solar radiation and rainfall by a deflector. Probes were
connected to a data logger (CR10X, Campbell Scientific, Leicester,
U.K.).
Hourly sap flow density (Js) was cumulated over 24 h to calculate daily
Js (Js_daily). For taking care of the variation of sap flux density in the
depth of wood, a reduction coefficient of 0.874 was applied to the Js
measured in the outmost ring of conducting xylem (Isarangkool Na
Ayutthaya et al, Paper 1). Finally, neglecting tree water storage, ETree
(mm day 1) was estimated according to the equation:

2.6 Whole tree hydraulic conductance

The whole-tree hydraulic conductance (gL) was calculated from
concurring measurements of sap flow rate and leaf water potential
following Eq. 1. The multi- points method plotted the diurnal changes
of ψLeaf versus sap flux density, the slope of the assumed linear
relationships representing the hydraulic resistance, the reverse of the
hydraulic conductance. The single point method applied the simplified
following formula (Cochard et al. 1996).
where Js_midday is the maximum sap flux density, ψpredawn and
ψmidday are predawn and midday leaf water potentials, respectively.
2.7 Hydraulic limitation model of water loss
The basis of the “hydraulic limitation” model is a critical minimum leaf
water potential at the level of which, tree regulates its transpiration
whatever it is induced by atmospheric drought or soil drought. The
basic model used was like the ones developed by Tyree and Sperry
(1988) and Sperry et al. (1998). Called “RER”, it was developed in
Microsoft Office Excel according to Cochard et al. (1996, 2002)
following the simple equation:

where Js_crit is the critical maximum sap flux density and ψcrit is the
critical leaf water potential which stomata are assumed completely
closed at this point (Cochard et al. 1996). Following Eq. 9, ψcrit
corresponds to the value of ψmidday when Js_crit equals actual midday
sap flux density, Js_midday (slope close to one).
Then, the midday or maximum sap flux density was estimated daily
according to the following equation:

where Js_est is estimated maximum sap flux density, gL and ψpredawn

are both estimated daily from relationships with REW (input data).
ψcrit was assumed stable to the same value for the whole rainy season.
The critical tree transpiration (Ecrit; mm day 1), was deduced from
Js_est according to Eq. 11. A simplified linear relationship was applied
(R2 = 0.93, n = 434; Figure 1):
 Ecrit defines a maximal value of
daily transpiration due to the
hydraulic limitations, however it may
not be reached due to low
evaporative demand. Hence, the final
step of modeling selects the
minimum value between Ecrit and
ET0 (input data) according to Eq. 3.
2.8 Statistical analyses
Mean comparison, regression analysis and other statistics were
performed using SPSS11.5 and Sigmaplot10.0. Linear slopes were
compared using their confidence intervals at 95%. For the models,
measured ETree and estimated ETree were compared using the root
mean square error (RMSE) according to the formula:

where x1, i and x2, i are measured ETree and estimated ETree,
respectively, and n is the number of estimated ETree.
Figure 1 Daily tree transpiration (ETree) versus maximum sap flux
density (Js) in mature rubber tree (n = 434). The continuous line
indicates the tendency of relationship, slope equals 0.7194 (r2 = 0.93).
3. Results
3.1 Environmental conditions and seasonal changes
In 2007, rubber trees of the plantation displayed as usual a full canopy
from May to November. Rainfall occurred from mid-April to October.
The cumulated amount of 960 mm was 20% below the long-term
average in the area. After the onset of the rainy season, several drought
spells, i.e., periods without significant rains from 10 to 20 days,
occurred in May, June, July, September (Figure 2A). In the rainy
season, the ET0 varied largely from 0.43 to 4.17 mm day 1. The
values were particularly high (above 2 mm day 1) in the first part of the
rainy season from May to July and at the end of the rainy season in
October (Figure 2A).
3.2 Transpiration
Despite full canopy, daily transpiration (ETree) showed remarkable
changes along the rainy season (Figure 2A). First, there were recurring
stable values around 2 mm day-1 (maximum = 2.38 mm day-1), where
the transpirations did not follow the
ET0 increases. Secondly, there were dramatic decreases down to 0.32
mm day-1 (more than 80%) in June and July. This period which
combined low rainfall and high ET0, is known as the “mid-drought”
period of the wet season in this area. However, some peaks of
transpiration decrease could also correspond to low ET0 and rain
occurrence (Figure 2A).
3.3 Soil drought
The volumetric soil water content (θ) showed marked changes in the
topsoil (0 - 0.4 m depth) with a continuous decrease from May to July
(Figure 2B). Values ranged from 26 to 8 cm3/100 cm3 of soil, the
minimum being reached at the same time than the minimum
transpiration (Figure 2A). By contrast, θ in the subsoil (0.4 – 1.8 m
depth) stayed at low values around 11 cm3/100 cm3 of soil, except a
slight increase in October after high rains.
REW estimated from continuous soil water data (capacitive probe)
confirmed the very low water availability in the sub soil (below 0.2
REW) except in October (Figure 2C). Above all, it showed the
importance and severity of the soil drought in the topsoil from June to
the end of July, approximately 60 days below 0.5 REW. According to
REW in the top soil, three periods of time were approximately
distinguished: well-watered period (May and August to October), REW
being above 0.5; mild-drought period (June to early July), REW
fluctuating around 0.3; severe- drought (mid-end July), REW
fluctuating around 0.15.
3.4 Leaf water potential and whole-tree hydraulic conductance
Leaf water potential before dawn (ψpredawn) ranged between -0.32 and
-0.44 MPa in the well-watered period (average = -0.38 MPa, Figure
2D). It slightly decreased, between -0.47 and -0.54 MPa in the mild
drought period (P<0.05) and reached -0.83 MPa at the peak of drought
(P<0.01). By contrast, ψmidday did not appear related to soil drought. It
ranged from -1.21 to -1.84 MPa when ET0 was less than 2.2 mm day-1
(averaged -1.60 MPa) and ranged from -1.57 to -2.27 MPa when ET0
was more than 2.2 mm day-1 (averaged -1.93 MPa). ψmidday in sunny
days did not significantly differ between the three periods of contrasting
REW.
3.5.2 Soil drought
According to previous results of transpiration response to atmospheric
drought, the values of ETree were separated depending on ET0
threshold and transpiration was expressed relative to ET0 (Figure 4A
and 4B). Above 0.5 REW, ETree and ETree/ET0 showed scattered
points without significant slope. For non-saturating conditions of ET0
(ET0 < 2.2 mm day 1), the relative transpiration ranged between 0.69
and 1.36 and the average was closed to 1 (0.98). The scatter of relative
transpiration points corresponding to ET0 > 2.2 mm day-1 was logically
lower than 0.5 REW. Below 0.5 REW, there was a significant linear
decrease of the relative transpiration versus REW (R2 = 0.65,
P<0.0001, Figure 4B). Saturating condition of ET0 did not affect the
transpiration response at low REW, REW being the limiting factor.
Considering the crossing between the decreasing line and the plateau
above 0.5 REW, a REW threshold around 0.5 was estimated. This
estimate was approximate due to the lack of soil data between 0.4 and
0.5 REW. Finally, relative transpiration had decreased by 40% at REW
around 0.3 (mild- drought) and by 80% at REW around 0.1, the peak of
drought.
In addition, the relationship between ψpredawn and REW confirmed a
highly significant effect of soil drought upon ψpredawn (Figure 4C, R2
= 0.93, P < 0.0001). The previous threshold of 0.5 REW for the onset of
transpiration decrease corresponds to a ψpredawn of -0.45 MPa. The
tree transpiration was also strongly related to ψpredawn decrease
(Figure 5: ETree and ETree/ET0), however intermediate data were
missing to get an accurate relationship. The REW data appeared more
appropriated to analyze transpiration response threshold than ψpredawn
because their recording was continuous.
3.6 Diurnal kinetics
Bi-hourly kinetics of ETree and ψLeaf were compared for 4 sunny
days of contrasted soil drought conditions (Figure 5): onset (May 23,
REW = 0.90), mild- drought (July 11, REW = 0.24), peak of drought
(July 25, REW = 0.08) and recovery period (August 22, REW = 0.82).
Daily ET0 significantly varied between 2.23- and 3.71-mm day 1.
In well-watered conditions, ETree exhibited a classical pattern
following ET0 increase and reaching maximum rate around midday.
According to the effect of transpiration on leaf dehydration, ψLeaf
showed the highest value at predawn, declined to the lowest value
around midday, and increased again up to the end of daytime (Figure 6).
It was noticeable that the maximum of transpiration decreased
according to soil drought intensity, from 0.23 to 0.08 mm h-1 and reach
again 0.22 mm h-1 at the recovery period. The curves of diurnal ETree
and ψLeaf were particularly flattened during the drought period
(Figure 6B and 6C).
midday did not change significantly, values ranging between -1.73 to -
1.88 MPa. By contrast, ψpredawn decreased as previously shown from -
0.34 to -0.83 MPa. Moreover, soil drought decreased the ψLeaf at
sunset (ψsunset) not allowing the same hydration recovery at the end of
daytime than in well-watered conditions (Figure 6).
3.7 gL multipoints
Diurnal ψLeaf plotted versus hourly Js, showed significant linear
relationships (P<0.001, Figure 7) in which the slopes represent the
reverse of gL. The linear form supported the hypothesis that the effect
of water storage (capacitance) was negligible. It confirmed the validity
of the single-point method which uses only the single gradient between
ψpredawn and ψmidday versus Js_midday to calculate seasonal gL
(Figure 2D). The 3 periods of soil drought intensity were distinguished
in Figure 7. It was noticeable that both Y intercepts and slopes tend to
decrease according to the drought intensity. Compared with well-
watered conditions, the slope differed significantly at drought peak
(P<0.05) but not in mild drought conditions. Conversely, minimum leaf
water potential (ψLeaf_min) did not change according to soil drought
intensity.
3.8 gL single point versus ETree, REW and ψpredawn
As suggested in Figure 2D, plotting of ETree versus gL confirmed that
the decrease of daily ETree was mainly explained by the change of gL
following a linear response (R2 = 0.91, P< 0.001, Figure 8A). The
decrease of gL under the effect of soil drought was confirmed by the
highly significant relationships with decreasing REW (R² = 0.91, P <
0.0001, Figure 8B) and ψpredawn (R² = 0.88, P < 0.001, Figure 8C).
However, intermediate values of gL, between 1 and 1.4, were missing
to provide accurate relationships.
3.9 “Hydraulic limitation” model
ψcrit was estimated according to RER model and Eq. 9. -1.95 MPa
provided the best adjustment between Js_crit and Js_midday with a
slope not different from 1 (Table
1). This simple model properly simulated both the tendencies of
saturating transpiration when high ET0 occurred in well-watered
conditions and the dramatic effects of soil drought in June and July
(Figure 9). In the details, the simulated saturating transpirations
averaged 1.85 mm day-1 and were slightly lower that measured values
at high ET0 in May. However evidently the model did not simulate the
decrease of transpiration related to low ET0 in well-watered conditions
(Figure 9 and 10A).
Logically, the combination between the maximum transpiration
permitted by ET0 and Ecrit improved the simulation of transpiration
(RER_ET0) model, Figure 9 and 10B, n = 160, R²= 0.78, RMSE=
0.23). The group of points corresponding to contrasted conditions of
soil and atmospheric drought are quite properly displayed along the 1:1
reference line.
Table 1 The slope with set origin at 0, statistics related to each
regression (R2 and P) and 95% confidential interval for slope (CI_95)
both lower bond and upper bond of theoretical threshold sap flux
density (Js_crit) inducing completely stomata closure versus

measured midday sap flux density (Js_midday) in several given critical

minimum leaf water potential (ψcrit_giv).
4. Discussion
4.1 Responses of transpiration to soil and atmospheric droughts
Our results demonstrate a response of transpiration to both atmospheric
drought and soil drought with critical thresholds. Firstly, a critical ET0
inducing saturating transpiration despite well-watered soil conditions
was noticed between 2.0- and 2.2-mm day 1. These values
corresponded to maximum and average VPD of 1.6 kPa and 1.8 kPa,
respectively. The maximum ETree measured was around 2.4 mm day-1
and corresponded to Js per sapwood area close to 3 L dm-2 h-1. To
our knowledge, this is the first time that a saturating transpiration over a
certain threshold of ET0 is assessed for rubber tree. Continuous
recording of rubber ETree with sap flow measurement are very rare.
These results concern RRIM600, the most planted clone in South-East
Asia. The data of Gururaja Rao et al. (1990) for mature rubber trees in
India did not support saturating transpiration under high evaporative
demand. They found very high transpirations in dry season, between 3.5
and 4.5 mm depending the clone, the relative transpiration ETree/ET0
being close to 1. Transpirations were estimated by porometer which
could have induced large over-estimation. Moreover, they also recorded
xylem sap speed with Heat Pulse method at the same date but the
corresponding sap flux densities, approximately ranged between 1.6 and
1.0 L dm-2 h-1, appear exceptionally low for such high whole-tree
transpiration. However, the studied clones, RRII 105 and RRII 118,
were also different from RRIM 600 and comparative studies showed
large clonal variability of water response to soil and atmospheric
droughts (Chandrashekar 1997). Several recent studies quote the
saturation of transpiration at high evaporative demand for other species
(David et al. 2004; Bovard et al. 2005; Oguntunde et al. 2007; Bush et
al. 2008; Huang et al. 2009). The thresholds of critical evaporative
demand are within similar range: at 1.5 kPa of VPD for Quercus
rotundifolia (David et al., 2004), around 1 kPa of VPD for Acer rubrum,
Betula papyrifera, Populus grandidentata, Quercus rubra (Bovard et
al., 2005) and around 1.5-2 kPa of VPD for Gleditsia triacanthos,
Quercus gambelii, Quercus rubra (Bush et al., 2008). However, some
species in ring-porous taxa do not exhibit saturating transpiration,
ETree increasing almost linearly with VPD until 5 kPa (Bush et al.,
2008).
Secondly, soil drought in rainy season induced a dramatic decrease of
ETree. The relative transpiration started to decrease linearly below c.a.
0.5 REW in the topsoil (0-40 cm) and was reduced by 40% at 0.3 REW
and 80% at 0.1 REW. The threshold of 0.5 REW for the onset of
transpiration decrease was close to the range (0.4-0.5) quoted by
Granier et al. (1999, 2000), Breda et al. (2006), Domec et al. (2009), for
mainly temperate trees. In our conditions the particularly low water
availability in the sub soil (40-180 cm), below 0.2 REW at the period of
the topsoil drought, could have amplify the reduction of transpiration
versus water availability in the topsoil.
4.2 Operational range of leaf water potential
Results confirmed a significant decrease of ψpredawn under soil
drought and demonstrate a relative stability of minimum leaf water
potential (ψminimum) for sunny days. Well-watered soil conditions
corresponded to predawn values between -0.3 and -0.4 MPa. The
threshold of 0.5 REW for the start of transpiration decrease
corresponded to a ψpredawn value of -0.45 MPa. The extreme soil
drought (0.1 REW) with 80% of transpiration reduction corresponded to
-0.78 MPa.
minimum values ranged between -1.8 and -2.2 MPa for sunny days and
did not decrease when soil drought occurred. The average value was -
1.93 MPa. Such pattern expresses an isohydric behaviour which
maintains leaf hydration above a critical ψminimum through stomatal
closure (West et al. 2007). Such behaviour appears also consistent with
the observation of saturating transpirations at high evaporative demand.
For mature trees of the same clone RRIM 600, Chandrashekar (1997)
found values of ψminimum, between -1.8 and -1.9 MPa, within the low
range of our results. Comparing 8 clones, this author found values
between -1.75 and -2.13 MPa, within a similar range to our results. For
other clones in traditional area of India, Gururaja Rao et al. (1990)
found minimum values of ψminimum within similar range, between -
1.8 and -2.4 MPa. Comparing seasons, Chandrashekar et al. (1990)
suggested an anisohydric behaviour under drought of rubber trees when
ψminimum decreased from -1.3 MPa in wet season to -1.8 MPa in dry
season. But we are not sure that this comparison refers to similar sunny
days, the difference could be related to difference of evaporative
demand and magnitude of transpiration.
However, for young potted rubber trees of the same clone (RRIM600),
the results of Sangsing et al. (2004) clearly did not support an
anisohydric behaviour. In the latter experiment, the drought treatments
provoked in four weeks a marked decrease of minimum xylem pressure
from -0.8 to -1.7 MPa. Hence, the separation between isohydric and
anisohydric behaviour for the same clone could be relative to the
experimental conditions of study.
The decrease of ψpredawn under soil drought was not a surprise. It is a
well-known result which explains that ψpredawn is often used as a
surrogate of soil water potential or soil water availability in the zone of
root uptake (Richter 1997; Donovan et al. 2001). In the literature, the
range of ψpredawn values quoted for mature rubber trees in well-
watered conditions is exceptionally large. Chandrashekar et al (1990)
and Chandrashekar (1997) found values between -0.57 and -0.68 MPa
for the same clone (RRIM 600) in the wet season of a water-limited
area of India. Gururaja Rao et al. (1990) found values between -0.1 and
-0.3 MPa in a water-optimal area of India. Previous values between 0.6
and 0.7 appear definitively too low to represent well- watered
conditions. This artifact may come from limiting conditions of soil
water availability or root uptake despite wet season. Another reason can
be methodological because the measurements were performed with
psychrometer which could be much more difficult to apply than
pressure chamber, particularly at high pressure. The range found by
Gururaja Rao et al. (1990) appears more representative of well-watered
conditions.
The range of our values may appear slightly too low. With the pressure
chamber, if the increment of pressure is too quick the measurement of
pressure in equilibrium with sap exudation can be over-estimate. It is
possible because measurements done in the following year (2008) with
a very low-pressure increment provided predawn values between -0.2
and -0.3 MPa (unpublished data). However, this year there was more
water availability in the subsoil in wet season. Finally, predawn value
below -0.4 MPa appears as a clear indicator of water stress and
constraint over water use for mature rubber trees.
.4.3 Whole tree hydraulic conductance and transpiration
Results demonstrate that the decrease of ETree was mainly due to the
change of the gL. And the decrease of gL was strongly correlated to the
decline of REW and ψpredawn. Our maximum values of gL (between
2.0 and 1.5 L dm-2 h-1 MPa-1) are within the range found by previous
authors on temperate trees (Cochard et al. 1996, Lu et al.
1996) and tropical trees (Do et al. 2008, O’Grady et al. 2009). The
decrease of ETree mainly related to the decline of gL has been reported
for several tree species (Cochard et al. 1996; Lu et al. 1996; Irvine et al.
1998; Addington et al. 2004; Domec et al. 2009). The quick recovery of
gL after substantial rainfall in August suggests that the main control
came from the change of soil-root conductance. Several studies showed
that, compared to trunk and branches, roots and leaves had the highest
loss of conductivity and contributed for more than 70% of the total
hydraulic resistance (Cruiziat et al. 2002; Sack and Holbrook 2006;
Domec et al. 2009). As rubber tree exhibited a strong control of water
losses through the relative stability of ψminimum, we assume that
during soil drought the percentage of embolism was relatively low.
However, it could have increased and contributed to the decrease of gL.
The hydraulic limitation hypothesis assumes that the plant maintains
ψminimum above a critical value through stomatal closure to prevent
the vessels from xylem tension inducing runaway embolism (Jones and
Sutherland 1991; Cochard et al. 1996; Sperry et al. 2002). It was found
in several species that ψcrit corresponded to ca. 10% of percentage loss
of hydraulic conductivity (PLC) and 90% of stomatal closure (Cochard
et al 1996; Cruiziat et al. 2002). However, no study of vulnerability to
cavitation has been published on mature rubber tree. Nevertheless, in
young potted trees, Ranasinghe and Milburn (1995) and Sangsing et al.
(2004) both found values of xylem tension corresponding to 50% of
embolism in the petioles between -1.5 and -2.0 MPa. Which suggests
that ψminimum values measured in our studies (from -1.8 to -2.2 MPa)
could correspond to substantial embolism of petioles and xylem vessels.
However, the operational range of ψminimum values noticed by
Sangsing et al. (2004) in its study on young rubber trees was higher
than the one in our studies. And results of several authors support the
idea that operational range of leaf water potential and vulnerability to
cavitation decrease with age (Becker et al. 2000; McDowell et al. 2002;
Phillips et al. 2002; Ryan and Yoder 1997). Measurements of native
embolism and vulnerability to cavitation in xylem of mature rubber tree
deserve further researches.
4.4 Performance of the “hydraulic limitation” model
The results proved the ability of a simple model, based on gL and ψcrit,
to simulate the pattern of transpiration changes. It was remarkable to
see that this model could simulate the main effects of both soil drought
and atmospheric drought, i.e. the saturating transpiration at ET0 higher
than 2.2 mm day 1. The change of gL was only related to soil water
availability (REW) which influenced also ψpredawn. Hence the
saturating transpiration in well-watered conditions was only simulated
by the maximum value of gL and by ψcrit which are hydraulic traits of
the tree. Moreover, there is no reason to consider that these parameters
were completely stable over 6 months. They could fluctuate according
to root growth, stem growth and leaf aging. These evidences could
explain inaccuracies in the simulation of maximum transpiration.
The good performance of the simple model is likely related to several
features. One feature is the isohydric behaviour of the clone in the
experimental conditions. A comparison between 8 clones in a water
limited areas of India ranked RRIM 600 with the best performance in
term of control of water status and girth growth (Chandrashekar 1997).
The extreme condition of soil drought could be another feature because
it exacerbates the responses with little possibility of root water uptake
in the subsoil. The full canopy ensures a relative stability of the leaf
area index which is a key factor of whole-tree transpiration. Hence it
will be interesting to apply the same model and parameters in the more
complicated conditions of the seasonal drought in dry season where soil
water availability is different in the subsoil and leaf yellowing and
shedding occur.
.5. Conclusion
We investigated for the main clone planted in Southeast Asia
(RRIM600) the transpiration response of mature trees to atmospheric
and soil droughts during the full canopy in the rainy season of a
drought-prone area of northeast Thailand. Despite well-watered soil
conditions, transpiration did not follow evaporative demand at high
values and saturated above a critical value of ET0. Soil drought
provoked a dramatic decrease of transpiration below a threshold of 50%
of REW in the topsoil or -0.45 MPa ψpredawn. And ETree reduction
was mainly explained by a decrease of the gL. Under soil drought, the
relative stability of ψminimum for sunny days supports an isohydric
behavior of these trees. Additionally, a simple modeling approach based
on the hydraulic limitation hypothesis proved to be successful to
simulate the main pattern of transpiration responses to soil and
atmospheric droughts.
Finally, the combination between the cohesion-tension theory, electric
analogy and hydraulic limitations hypothesis had provided a useful
framework to analyze transpiration responses to soil and atmospheric
droughts and to develop a simple process-based models. On this basis,
several developments of such process-based model could be considered
towards the inclusion of details about soil-root interface, vulnerability
to cavitation, stomatal behaviour, and consequence on carbon gain. This
approach is a promising way to better evaluate the performance of
genotypes in contrasted environments.
Whole-tree transpiration response to seasonal drought in mature
Hevea brasiliensis: hydraulic limitation and influence of leaf
phenological stages
The changes of whole-tree transpiration under atmospheric and soil
droughts were investigated for mature rubber trees, and the main clone
planted in Southeast Asia (RRIM600), in the seasonally dry period
where several major phenological changes occur: leaf senescence, leaf
shedding and leaf flushing.
The responses were analyzed under the framework of a simple
hydraulic limitation model ‘RER_ET0 model’ previously assessed by
Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya et al. (Paper 2) in full canopy conditions for
intermittent drought in rainy season. This model is mainly based on a
critical minimum leaf water potential (ψcrit) and the response of the
whole-tree hydraulic conductance (gL) to the relative extractable water
(REW) from soil.
Data were separated in three periods according to canopy phenology
and soil drought: full canopy period in well-watered soil conditions
(topsoil REW>0.5, September – mid November), full canopy period
with starting soil drought (topsoil REW<0.5, mid-November – mid
December 2007), and leaf senescence-shedding and leaf flushing
conditions which corresponded to a low green leaf area, and a severe
soil drought (topsoil REW < 0.25, mid December 2007 – mid March
2008).
Results proved first that the principles of RER_ET0 model hold:
stability of minimum leaf water potential (ψminimum) for sunny days
under soil drought, decrease of tree transpiration (ETree) mainly related
to change of gL, decrease of gL mainly related to REW. Secondly, the
deciduous pattern showed little influence upon the parameters and the
relationships of the hydraulic limitation model. The simulations
demonstrated the ability the model to describe the trend of transpiration
change under seasonal drought without considering the phenology and
variation of green leaf area by contrast with most transpiration models.
Finally, our results support the idea that phenological changes
converged toward a same response of whole-tree water relations to soil
and atmospheric drought, which was correctly described by the
concepts of hydraulic limitation: ψcrit, gL decrease versus soil water
availability. This convergence certainly hides complex adjustments
between short term process (stomatal regulation, xylem embolism) and
long-term process of leaf and root phenologies which change the
relative contribution of hydraulic conductances to the soil-root and
canopy-atmosphere interfaces.
Key words: Hevea brasiliensis, rubber tree, seasonal dry period, tree
transpiration, whole tree hydraulic conductance, leaf water potential
1. Introduction
Facing drought, plants must prevent excessive dehydration and
maintain the integrity of their hydraulic system. They can achieve these
goals by short term reversible responses like stomatal closure and by
long term responses like increasing root development in wetter soil
layers or reducing transpiring leaf area (Breda et al.2006).
Reducing leaf area is a major phenological adaptation of deciduous
trees to seasonal drought in the dry tropics (Eamus and Prior 2001).
Many deciduous trees drop all their leaves during seasonal drought and
sprout new ones just before or after the first rains (Taiz and Zeiger
1991). Moreover, the different stages of leaf phenology may
correspond to changes of root phenology: root decay or root growth in
different soil layers according to soil water availability. Hence,
environmental, and hydrological models must consider the phenological
stages and changes of leaf area and or root profile to predict the pattern
of tree transpiration under seasonal drought.
The hydraulic limitation hypothesis (Jones 1998; Sperry et al. 1998) is a
promising plant-based way to model transpiration under water stress.
This approach has proven to be valid for several temperate angiosperms
(Sperry et al. 1998; Cochard et al. 2002). Recently, Isarangkool Na
Ayutthaya et al. (Paper 2) proved the validity of this approach to
analyze and to simulate the change of rubber tree transpiration under
intermittent drought in rainy season while trees maintained full canopy.
In this simple model called ‘RER_ET0’, tree transpiration (ETree)
is calculated as the minimum value between the reference potential
evaporative demand (ET0) and a critical transpiration (Ecrit) according
to critical value of minimum leaf water potential (ψcrit) and whole-tree
hydraulic conductance from soil to leaves (gL):
Where ψpredawn is assumed to correspond to ψsoil in contact with
roots and a is a coefficient to transform midday sap flow density in total
flow of transpiration expressed per day and unit of soil area.
The hydraulic limitation hypothesis assumes that many species (i.e.,
isohydric ones) tend to adjust their transpiration with the effect of
maintaining Leaf above a critical value. In RER_ET0 model, gL and
predawn are calculated from relationships with the relative extractable
water from soil. Hence, Ecrit sets a functional limitation to ETree that
can be reached under soil drought (low predawn, low gL value) but also
under atmospheric drought in well-watered soil conditions (gL_max
value).
One question was how the changes of leaf phenological stage that
occurred in seasonal dry period for rubber trees may influence the
responses of transpiration to drought under this framework and by
comparison with the ones assessed by Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya et
al. (Paper 2) in rainy season.
Rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) is a tree member of the Euphorbiaceae
family and native from the tropical rainforest of the Amazon Basin. It is
a tropical brevi- deciduous tree. The rubber trees older than 3 or 4 years
are subject to ‘wintering’, which is the term used to describe the annual
senescence and shedding of leaves. The duration and intensity of
deciduousness are variable depending environment, clones, and
individuals. Leaf fall is quickly followed by bud bursting and expansion
of new leaves within few weeks (Webster and Paardekooper 1989). In
the water limited area of Northeast Thailand (the southern part), the
period of leaf yellowing-leaf falling- bud bursting–leaf flushing
normally lasts at its maximum extent five months, from December to
April. Hence, such period of relatively low green leaf area should
markedly reduce whole-tree transpiration. The dry season generally
lasts from November to April.
In the same area, Gonkhamdee et al. (2010) had followed growth
dynamics of fine roots of rubber trees down to 450 cm. They found that
the onset of the dry season (November) corresponded to a period of
active growth in the subsoil from 100 to 400 cm depth. After a rest
period, root growth appeared again in the very deep soil between 300
and 400 cm around the time of massive leaf flushing in March. The
onset of the rainy season (May) corresponded to an active growth in the
topsoil above 100 cm. The higher root length density was found above
50 cm. Root decay was observed above 100 cm at the end of the rainy
season in September-October.
Guardiola-Claramonte (2008) stressed up for rubber tree the importance
of including leaf phenology in soil water balance model to correctly
predict the trend of water uptake in dry season. Moreover, the same
authors found a shift of root water uptake from topsoil in the onset of
dry season to subsoil at the end of the dry season when leaf flushing
occurs.
Hence, the period of leaf senescence and shedding corresponds to
several long-term processes which could accelerate the decrease of gL
versus topsoil REW compared to intermittent drought conditions in
rainy season where no leaf yellowing and shedding were observed.
Leaves are assumed to contribute to between 40% and 80% of the gL
(Becker et al., 1999; Nardini and Tyree, 2000; Brodribb et al. 2002;
Domec et al., 2009). Following soil drying, root decay may decrease
furthermore the soil to root conductance. Reversely, root growth in the
wetter subsoil could increase soil to root conductance and root
conductance. At last, leaf flushing should increase the hydraulic
conductance of leaves.
Therefore, this work had two objectives. The first objective was to
investigate for mature rubber trees the change of whole-tree
transpiration under seasonal drought within the framework of a simple
hydraulic limitation model. The second objective was to assess how the
deciduous phenological pattern may influence the responses to
atmospheric and soil droughts under this framework and by comparison
with the ones assessed by Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya et al. (Paper 2) in
rainy season with full canopy condition. We hypothesized first that the
principles of RER_ET0 model apply also for seasonal drought with leaf
senescence-shedding and leaf flushing period: stability of ψminimum
under soil drought, decrease of ETree related to change of gL, and
decrease of gL related to REW. Secondly, we hypothesized that the
deciduous pattern markedly changes the parameters and relationship of
the model. Because of the periods of massive leaf shedding and leaf
flushing correspond first to changing and low green leaf area and
secondly to a possible shift of root water uptake between topsoil to
subsoil.
To address these issues, we selected a mature and representative rubber
tree stand of the main planted clone in South East Asia. It was in the
southern part of northeast Thailand where trees are exposed to soil and
atmospheric droughts in the seasonal dry period. Seasonal and diurnal
variations of xylem sap flow density, ψLeaf and gL were measured with
concurrent observation of canopy phenology and recordings of
atmospheric and soil water conditions.
2. Materials and methods
2.1 Field site and plant material
The experiment was conducted in a plot of RRIM600, planted at 2.5m x
7.0m spacing and tapped for 4 years. The plantation is located at Baan
Sila site (N15o 16′ 23″ E103o 04′ 51.3″), Khu-Muang, Bureerum
province in northeast Thailand. The average annual rainfall in 2007 was
less than 1,000 mm; the rainy season lasts approximately from April to
October. Six representative trees were selected for intensive
measurements. Their trunk girths, measured at 1.50 m height above the
soil, varied from 43.3 to 58.3 cm. The average circumference was 52.5
cm, and the maximal leaf area index was estimated around 3.9 in 2007.
The investigation was carried out from the end of the rainy season
(September 2007) to the period of massive leaf flushing in March.
2.2 Leaf phenology observation
Leaf phenology or more exactly the canopy fullness was regularly
assessed on the same sample of 38 trees including the six instrumented
trees. A percentage of canopy fullness was allocated to each tree
according to the seven following categories taking into account the
percentage of twigs bearing green expanded leaves in the whole-
canopy: 100, 90, 75, 50, 25, 10 and 0%.
2.3 Climatic measurements
Local microclimate was automatically monitored in an open field, 50 m
from any trees. A datalogger (Minimet automatic weather station, Skye
Instruments Ltd, U.K.) recorded half hourly values of air temperature,
relative humidity, incoming short-wave radiation, and rainfall. A
reference potential evapotranspiration (ET0) was calculated according
to Allen et al. (1998).
2.4 Soil water content measurements
Volumetric soil water content (θ) was measured with a neutron probe
(3322, Troxler, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA)
calibrated for the experimental soil with separated calibrations
between upper (0-0.2 m) and lower (below 0.2 m) layers. Twelve tubes
of 2.0 m in length were set up, six along the rows and six between the
rows. Measurements every 0.2 m, from 0.1m until 1.7 m depth, were
performed every month or two weeks from September 2007 to March
2007. According to soil water fluctuations, the soil profile was
separated between two layers, a topsoil (0-0.4 m) and a subsoil (0.4-1.8
m). Average field capacity and permanent wilting points were equal to
19.8 and 7 cm3/100 cm3 of soil for the topsoil, and to 25.1 and 10
cm3/100 cm3 of soil for the subsoil, respectively (Isarangkool Na
Ayutthaya et al. Paper 1).
Additionally, θ was measured continuously with a capacitive probe
(EnvironSCAN System, Sentek Sensor Technologies, South Australia,
Australia) within a single tube close to a tube dedicated to neutron
probe measurement. Capacitive sensors were located at the same levels
than neutron probe measurements. For each capacitive sensor, θ was
estimated from a cross-calibration with the neutron probe measurements
over the whole season range. To estimate continuous change of the
average soil water profile, linear regressions were performed between θ
of the average soil water profile (12 neutron probe access tubes) and θ
of the profile continuously measured with the capacitive probe. Relative
extractable soil water (REW) was calculated according to Granier et al.
(1999) and Breda et al. (2006).
2.5 Leaf water potential
Leaf water potential (ψLeaf) was measured on the six instrumented
trees with a Scholander type pressure chamber (PMS 1000, PMS
Instrument Company, Corwallis, Oregon, USA). Two trifoliate leaves
with petiole were randomly selected from sunny locations on each
experimental tree. ψLeaf measurements were performed in situ
rapidly after cutting. Regular measurements of ψLeaf were carried out
once or twice times per month, ψpredawn, between 05:30 and 06:15
hours, and midday leaf water potential (ψmidday), between 12:30 and
13:30 hours. Additionally, diurnal kinetics of ψLeaf measurement, i.e.,
every 1-2 hour from predawn to sunset, were performed on sunny days
in contrasting conditions of leaf phenology and soil drought. 2.6 Xylem
sap flux measurements and tree transpiration calculation.
The measurements of xylem sap flow density were made using the
transient thermal dissipation method (TTD) developed by Do and
Rocheteau (2002) which is a modification of the continuous thermal
dissipation method of Granier (1985). The modification avoids the
influence of passive temperature gradients. The TTD method is based
on the same Granier’s probe design and heating power but uses a cyclic
schedule of heating and cooling to assess a transient thermal index over
10 min change. The hourly sap flux density (Js) was calculated
according to the empirical and non-species-specific calibration assessed
by Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya et al. (Paper 1):
where ∆Ton is the temperature
difference reached at the end of
the 10 min heating period and
∆Toff is the temperature
difference reached after 10 min
of cooling, To measure Js every half hour with a heating period of 10
min, a cycle of 10 min heating and 20 min cooling was applied and
the temperature signals were recorded every 10 min. ∆Toff values
were averaged between values before 10 min of heating and after 10
min of cooling.
The transient thermal index was calculated as:

where ∆T0a is the maximum alternate temperature difference obtained

under zero flow conditions and ∆Tua is the measured alternate signal at
a given Js. The zero-flux signal was determined every night assuming
that sap flow was negligible at the end of the night. Probes were
inserted into the trunks at a height of 1.8 m above the soil. At this
height, average sapwood area was estimated at 1.97 dm2.
After removal of the bark, the probes, 2-cm long probes were inserted
into a hole of 2.5 cm deep within the sapwood, in such a way that the
whole probe was inside the conductive sapwood. Three probes were
inserted into each trunk to take circumferential variability into account.
After the probe was inserted, the exposed parts of the needles were
coated with silicone. The trunk area containing the probes was protected
from direct solar radiation and rainfall by a deflector. Probes were
connected to a data logger (CR10X, Campbell Scientific, Leicester,
U.K.). Js was cumulated over 24 h to calculate daily Js (Js_daily). For
taking care of the variation of sap flux density in the depth of wood, a
reduction coefficient of 0.874 was applied to the Js measured in the
outmost ring of conducting xylem (Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya et al,
Paper 1). Finally, neglecting tree water storage, ETree (mm day 1) was
estimated according to the equation:
2.7 Whole tree hydraulic conductance
The gL (expressed in L dm-2 h-1 MPa-1) was calculated from
concurring measurements of sap flow rate and leaf water potential. The
multi-points method plotted the diurnal changes of ψLeaf
versus sap flux density from kinetic measurements, the slope of
the assumed linear relationships representing the hydraulic resistance,
the reverse of the hydraulic conductance. The single point method
applied the simplified following formula (Cochard et al. 1996).

where Js_midday is the maximum daily sap flux density, ψpredawn and
ψmidday are predawn and midday leaf water potentials, respectively.
2.8 Hydraulic limitation model of water loss (RER_ET0 model) .The
basis of the “hydraulic limitation” model is a critical minimum leaf
water potential at the level of which, tree regulates its transpiration
whatever it is induced by atmospheric drought or soil drought. Called
‘RER_ET0’, it was developed in Microsoft Office Excel according to
Cochard et al. (1996, 2002) following the simple equation:

where Js_est is estimated maximum sap flux density, gL and ψpredawn

are both estimated daily from relationships with REW (input data).
ψcrit was assumed stable for the whole period (-1.95 MPa; Isarangkool
Na Ayutthaya et al. Paper 2).
The critical tree transpiration (Ecrit; mm day-1), was deduced from
Js_est with the multiplicative constant coefficient 0.7194 which
transforms the midday sap flow density in total flow of transpiration
expressed per day and unit of soil area (Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya et al.
Paper 2).
Ecrit defines a maximal value of daily transpiration due to the hydraulic
limitations of the trees; however, it may not be reached due to low
evaporative demand. Hence, the final step of modeling selects the
minimum value between Ecrit and ET0 (input data) according to Eq. 8.

The summary of model parameters and units has shown in Table 1.

The previous study on mature rubber trees in rainy season and full
canopy conditions (Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya et al. Paper 2) provide a
first set of parameter and relationships for the value of ψcrit and the
nonlinear relationships of ψpredawn and gL versus REW, which were
developed in intermittent drought in rainy season as Eq. 9 (R2 = 0.93, n
= 12) and Eq. 10 (R2 = 0.90, n = 10), respectively.

A second set of parameters were estimated when necessary in the

current study. The whole data set comprise 196 days of automatic
recordings of sap flux density, soil water and ET0. Within this, the 12
days with measurements of leaf water potential and calculation of gL
were used to assess the parameters and relationships of the simple
model. The remaining 184 days were used to test the model
performances.
2.9 Data analysis
Mean comparison, regression analysis and other statistics were
performed using SPSS 11.5 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, Illinois, USA) and
Sigmaplot 10.0 (Systat Software, Inc., San Jose, California USA).
Linear slopes were compared using their confidence intervals at 95%.
For the models, measured ETree and estimated ETree were compared
using the root mean square error (RMSE) according to the formula:

where x1, i and x2, i are measured ETree and estimated ETree,
respectively, and n is the number of estimated ETree.
3. Results
3.1 Environmental conditions and leaf phenology
Leaf phenology showed a stage of full canopy until the end of
November, one month and a half after the last significant rainfall
(Figure 1A). Leaf yellowing started in mid-December. The percentage
of green leaves in six experimental trees steeply decreased with leaf
shedding at the end December, and it reached its minimum value at the
end of January (13.33%). The tendency of decreasing in percentage of
green leaves exposed in the same values with 38 trees in the same 2
lines of six experimental trees. The trees were almost leafless from the
end January to mid-February. Flushing of new leaves occurred at the
end of February (Figure 1A).
ET0 fluctuated around 2 mm day-1 from September to mid-October. In
the dry period, ET0 rose to reach an average value of 3.10 mm day-1
from November to March. The maximum value occurred in early March
(5.85 mm day 1).
θ in both top and subsoil reached their highest values at the end of the
rainy season (Figure 1B). Topsoil θ had dramatically decreased at the
onset of the dry period from 25.8 cm3/100 cm3 of soil in mid-October
to 7.4 cm3/100 cm3 of soil in March 2008. Subsoil θ decreased more
slightly from 16.7 cm3/100 cm3 of soil to 10.0 cm3/100 cm3 of soil.
REW in the topsoil decreased below 0.5 (assumed soil drought) in mid-
November and below 0.25 (assumed severe drought) at the end
December. Maximum value of REW in subsoil in mid-October
corresponded only to 0.5 and decreased below 0.2 at the end of
November (Figure 1C)
3.2 Tree transpiration, leaf water potential and whole tree hydraulic
conductance at the end of the rainy season, ETree fluctuated around 2
mm day 1, awfully close to the ET0 values. ETree started to decline at
the end October while ET0 increased and trees were still with full
canopy. Leaf yellowing started approximately 1.5 month later.
Compared to the average value in September, the decrease of ETree
reached approximately 45% at the end of full canopy period (end of
November) and 80% at the time of maximal defoliation (end of
January). Surprisingly, ETree did not increase in March according to
the flushing of new leaves since February. (Figure 1A) predawn ranged
from -0.32 to -0.41 MPa during full canopy stage from September to
November (Figure 1D). Compared to the average value in September -
mid November, predawn slightly decreased in mid-December (P>0.05)
and reached - 0.65 MPa at end of December (P<0.01). For these two
periods, percentages of green leaves were 95.4 and 38.3%, while topsoil
REW were 0.25 and 0.16, respectively (Figure 1C). The lowest value of
ψpredawn, -0.81 MPa (P<0.01), was noticed in mid-March 2008 at the
stage of leaf flushing.
For ψminimum, the values recorded for sunny days from September to
October (full canopy, well-watered soil) averaged -2.03 MPa (Standard
deviation; SD = 0.19, Figure 1D). The value recorded for sunny days in
full canopy and soil drought conditions (end of November) was similar
(-1.96 MPa), even slightly lower. In mid December, while leaf
yellowing started, and soil drought reached severe rate (REW 0.25 in
topsoil and 0.08 in subsoil, the value was also similar (-1.94 MPa). gL
was maximal and stable around 1.60 L dm-2 h-1 MPa-1 from
September to October, in well-watered conditions (Figure 1D). It
significantly decreased by 40 % at the end of November (P<0.05),
before any visible changes of leaf phenology and ψpredawn. The
decline of gL reached 55% when leaf yellowing started in mid-
December and 65% at the time of leaf flushing in March.
3.3 Relationships with evaporative demand and soil water availability
Data were separated in three periods according to leaf phenology and
soil drought: full canopy period in well-watered conditions (P1; topsoil
REW>0.5, September – mid November), full canopy period with
starting soil drought (P2; topsoil REW<0.5, mid-November – mid
December 2007), and the period of leaf senescence-shedding and leaf
flushing conditions (P3; topsoil REW<0.25, mid December 2007 – mid
March 2008) where the green leaf area was markedly lower than in the
previous periods.
In well-watered conditions, P1, ETree increased according to ET0
increase (Figure 2A) but, it exhibited a saturating plateau for ET0 above
about 2 mm day 1. The periods P2 and P3 concerned ET0 above 1.5
mm day 1. For the P2 with starting soil drought, ETree dropped towards
1.0 mm day-1 average value. And for the P3, ETree dropped further
toward 0.5 mm day-1 value. When the relationship was considered with
the ratio of ETree/ET0, it showed that the 3 data groups belong to a
similar global trend driven by evaporative demand (Figure 2B).
The relationship between ETree and REW showed that tendency of the
data of P1 which is ETree above 0.5 REW seemly was stable and a
large variability (Figure 3A). Especially, this period in the sunny day
(ET0 > 2 mm day-1) average ETree was around 1.9 mm day-1. Below
0.6 REW, ETree decreased according to the same linear relationship
(P<0.01) from full canopy to almost leafless canopy. The relationship
expressed with ETree/ET0 ratio displayed a similar trend with a higher
variability above 0.6 REW and a steep early decrease below 0.6 REW
(Figure 3B).
3.4 Diurnal kinetics
Bi-hourly kinetics of ETree and ψLeaf were compared for 6 sunny
days of contrasted leaf phenology and soil drought conditions (Figure
4). The daily ET0 for sunny days increased towards the dry season from
1.76 mm day-1 in September 11 to 3.54 mm day-1 on March 13. The
diurnal ETree exhibited a classical pattern in full canopy stage and well-
watered soil conditions; ETree followed the steeply increase of ET0 and
reached maximum rate around midday. The pattern started to flatten on
November 26 at the end of the full canopy stage (Figure 4C), while
ψpredawn was still high (-0.35 MPa). The diurnal kinetic became
almost completely flatted at on end December while percentage of
green leaves equaled 38.3% (Figure 4E).
According to the effect of daily transpiration on leaf hydration, ψLeaf
equated the highest value at predawn, declined to the lowest value
around midday, and went back to high values at the end of the daytime
(Figure 4). During the full canopy period and onset of leaf yellowing,
ψminimum was stable around -1.95 MPa despite soil and atmospheric
drought (Figure 4A-4D). Finally, ψLeaf kinetic dramatically flattened
on December 27 following the pattern change of sap flow rates.
Maximum ETree had approximately declined according to the decrease
of the percentage of green leaves from 0.26 to 0.10 mm h-1. However,
in the period of leaf flushing, the maximum ETree was close to zero
(0.06 mm h-1) while the percentage of green leaves had increased to 45
% (young and light green leaves; Figure 4F).
3.5 gL multipoints
Diurnal ψLeaf plotted versus hourly Js, showed significant linear
relationships (P<0.0001, Figure 5) in which the slopes represent the
reverse of gL. The linear form supported the hypothesis that the effect
of water storage (capacitance) was negligible. It confirmed the validity
of the single-point method which used only the difference between
ψpredawn and ψmidday versus Js_max to calculate gL (Figure 1D).
The 3 periods of contrasted conditions of phenology and soil drought
were distinguished in Figure 5. The slope significantly changed
between the three periods (differed in 95% confidence interval, Table
2). The change which represents a decrease of gL was particularly
remarkable between P1 and P2, before any leaf
4. Discussion
4.1 Principles of a simple hydraulic limitation model
Results confirm the hypothesis that the principles of RER_ET0 model
hold to describe transpiration response to seasonal drought.
First, ψminimum for sunny days did not decrease under soil drought
and atmospheric drought while maintaining full canopy for two months
after the last significant rains. Secondly, the decrease of ETree was
mainly explained by the change of gL. The data corresponding to the
period of massive leaf shedding and leaf flushing are fully included in
the same linear trend. Thirdly, the decline of gL was strongly related to
REW decrease.
It was expected that the basis of RER_ET0 model applied similarly for
transpiration response under seasonal drought at least with full canopy
conditions. The principles of the “hydraulic limitation model” are
assumed to be clonal or species-specific characteristics, such as the
isohydric behaviour of mature trees for ψcrit, or the negligible
quantitative effect of tree capacitance on daily transpiration. Hence,
these properties are not expected to change depending drought
conditions. These conclusions confirm the principles of water losses
regulations and the isohydric behaviour previously assessed for mature
rubber trees under intermittent drought and for this clone (Isarangkool
Na Ayutthaya et al. Paper 2).
4.2 Influence of the deciduous pattern
Results do not confirm the hypothesis of a marked influence of the
deciduous pattern on the parameters and relationships of RER_ET0
model. The changes were lesser than expected despite the conditions of
changing and low transpiring leaf area and the possible shifts of root
water uptake from topsoil to subsoil. The model with previously
assessed parameters for intermittent drought in rainy season provides
the trend of transpiration decrease under seasonal drought. The newly
assessed parameters and relationships were not quite different from
initial parameters assessed in intermittent drought and full canopy
conditions (Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya et al. Paper 2). In the details,
there were similarities and differences.
4.3 Value of ψminimum under drought
The average ψminimum for sunny days under drought (end of
November and December) was awfully close to the value measured in
intermittent drought conditions. ψcrit equated -1.95 MPa in
intermittent drought of rainy season (Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya et al.
Paper 2).
4.4 predawn response to drought
The late change of ψpredawn compared to the decreases of transpiration
and gL was the main difference with the responses noticed for
intermittent drought in rainy season. The decrease of ψpredawn
occurred at least one month after the decrease of gL, at the same time
than the onset of leaf yellowing and shedding in mid-December. For the
intermittent drought, ψpredawn had decreased at the same time with
ETree and gL (Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya et al. Paper 2). Comparison
based on the relationships versus REW shows that both ψpredawn are
still mainly related to REW in the topsoil (Figure 7A). However,
ψpredawn started to decrease at a lower threshold value than in the
intermittent drought (Figure 10A). This result suggests that ψpredawn
was complementary controlled by other parameters than REW in the
topsoil. By contrast with the drought in rainy season (Isarangkool Na
Ayutthaya et al. Paper 2), more water was available in the subsoil at the
onset of the seasonal drought. Average REW in the subsoil (40-180 cm)
was between 0.2 and 0.3 in November against <0.1 in June-July
(intermittent drought). Moreover, root growth was observed in the same
experimental field at depths between 1.25 and 4.25 m in November
(Gonkhamdee et al., 2010). Hence, root water uptake in the subsoil
could have influenced ψpredawn at this period.
In the literature, it is known that the interpretation of ψpredawn is
complicated in conditions of large development of roots and
heterogeneous soil water content (Richter 1997; Ameglio et al. 1999).
Moreover, reduction of transpiration through stomatal regulation and
leaf senescence could have decrease daily dehydration and facilitate
nighttime rehydration of remaining green leaves, which may have
delayed the decrease of predawn.
4.5 gL response to REW
The relationship of gL versus topsoil REW yielded for seasonal
drought showed similarities and differences with the one obtained for
intermittent drought in full canopy conditions (Isarangkool Na
Ayutthaya et al. Paper 2). By comparison with subsoil, REW in the
topsoil still appeared as the main driver of gL decrease from the full
canopy stage to the leaf shedding and leaf flushing stages (Figure 7B).
The relationships showed both a plateau and a critical threshold around
0.5 REW for the onset of gL decrease. However, after the plateau, the
decrease of gL differed between the two periods of drought (Figure
10B). It was quicker in the seasonal drought where 40% of gL decrease
corresponded approximately to 0.4 REW of topsoil compared to 0.10
REW in intermittent drought.
4.6 Processes of gL decrease and increase
Such as in mid-drought conditions, the decline of the gL can be mainly
explained by the decrease of the soil to root conductance. The decrease
of the soil to root conductance is logically attributed to the decrease of
the soil water availability (measured) and the declining contact between
soil and roots. Moreover, a certain percentage of xylem embolism in the
petioles and branches may have contributed to the decrease of gL. For
example, ψminimum compared to 50% loss of hydraulic conductivity in
young potted trees that assessed by Ranasinghe and Milburn (1995) and
Sangsing et al. (2004) found values of xylem tension corresponding to
50% of embolism in the petioles between -1.5 and -2.0 MPa. Moreover,
a higher sensitivity to xylem embolism is expected with leaf aging
(Cochard et al. 1992; Cruiziat et al. 2002).
The period of leaf senescence and shedding also corresponds to several
long term processes which can explain the quicker decrease of gL
versus top soil REW compared to intermittent drought conditions in
rainy season where no leaf yellowing and shedding were observed
(Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya et al. Paper 2). At the stage of leaf
senescence preceding leaf shedding, there is the formation of an
abscission zone in the petiole (Taiz and Zeiger 1991). This abscission
zone should logically decrease the hydraulic conductance between
xylem of twigs and leaves. Additionally, several studies on temperate
species have shown decrease of gL before leaf senescence (Salleo et al.
2002; Brodribb and Holbrook 2003). Later, leaf yellowing and shedding
should reduce drastically the total hydraulic conductance of leaves.
Leaves are assumed to contribute to between 40% and 80% of the
whole-plant hydraulic conductance (Becker et al. 1999; Nardini and
Tyree 2000; Brodribb et al. 2002; Domec et al. 2009).
However, two other phenological long term processes in the seasonal
drought may have a reverse effect by increasing gL. The significant root
growth observed in the subsoil (Gonkhamdee et al., 2010) could have
increased soil to root conductance and Kroot. Later, in February and
March, the observed leaf flushing should have increased the hydraulic
conductance of leaves. Surprisingly, the leaf flushing observed in
February and March was not followed by an increase of gL and
transpiration (Figure 1A). This suggests a strong stomatal regulation
adjusted to the exceptionally low gL likely mainly controlled by low
soil water availability and soil to root conductance. To maintain steady-
state water status, stomatal conductance is assumed to adjust the water
losses in gas phase to the change of gL which controls the water
transfer from soil to leaf in liquid phase (Whitehead, 1998). The large
number of processes involved reflects the complexity of the regulation
of gL and transpiration in the seasonal drought.
4.7 Convergence of whole-tree responses and modeling
The simulations confirm the ability of RER_ET0 model to simulate the
trend of transpiration change under seasonal drought without
considering the phenology and variation of green leaf area by contrast
with most transpiration models. It was particularly remarkable to see
that transpirations simulated by the model with simple parameters
issued from full canopy conditions meet the values measured in January
with only 15 % of green leaves. The results imply that in our
experimental conditions the simple principles of the hydraulic limitation
model were enough to simulate the influence of the deciduous pattern
of the trees facing climatic and soil droughts.
This conclusion supports the idea that phenological changes converge
toward a same response of whole-tree water relations to soil and
atmospheric drought, which is correctly described by the concepts of
hydraulic limitation: gL decrease versus soil water availability and ψcrit
stability. This converging response of transpiration to droughts despite
contrasted conditions of leaf phenology and, i.e. green leaf area, was
particularly illustrated by Figure 2 and Figure 3 where the data
corresponding to leaf shedding and leaf flushing periods fit the same
tendencies against ET0 and REW than the ones of the full canopy
period.
Finally, this convergence certainly hides complex adjustments between
short term process (stomatal regulation, xylem embolism) and long-
term process of leaf and root phenologies which change the relative
contribution of hydraulic conductances to the soil-root and canopy-
atmosphere interfaces.
The results suggest that in our conditions the deciduousness of rubber
tree was completely driven by drought. However, it may be not always
the case even for the same rubber tree stand. We noticed in the
following year (2008/2009), a deciduous pattern despite a large soil
water availability. However, the duration of the period of changing and
low leaf area was particularly shortened compared to 2007/2008. The
next interesting step will be to apply RER_ET0 framework in various
environmental conditions and with different clones.
5. Conclusion
In this study, we investigated for the main clone planted in Southeast
Asia (RRIM600) the transpiration response of mature trees to
atmospheric and soil droughts in the seasonally dry period where
several phenological changes occur: leaf senescence and massive leaf
shedding, leaf flushing. The results were compared with responses to
intermittent drought in rainy season with full canopy conditions
(Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya et al. Paper 2) The results proved first that
such as for intermittent drought the principles of a simple hydraulic
limitation model hold: stability of ψminimum for sunny days under soil
drought, decrease of ETree mainly related to change of gL, decrease of
gL mainly related to REW in the top soil. Secondly, the deciduous
pattern showed little influence upon the parameters and the
relationships of the hydraulic limitation model.
Finally, our results support the idea that phenological changes
converged toward a same response of whole-tree water relations to soil
and atmospheric drought, which was correctly described by the
concepts of hydraulic limitation: gL decrease versus soil water
availability, while ψcrit stable. This simple convergence certainly hide
complex adjustments between short term process (stomatal regulation,
xylem embolism) and long term process of leaf and root phenologies
which change the relative contribution of hydraulic conductances at
the soil-root and canopy- atmosphere interfaces (Domec et al. 2009).
General conclusion
This general conclusion is developed according to the objectives set in
the general introduction.
1. Experimental conditions
Before to draw the general conclusion, it is of value to recall that the
conditions of droughts were particularly extreme compared to the other
areas of rubber growing. Before the onset of the rainy season in May,
the soil water availability was very low in the subsoil, below 0.2 REW
up to 1.8 m. Moreover, deep profiles up to 5 meters have shown that the
soil water availability was still low up to this depth (data not shown).
The annual amount of rainfall in 2007 was less than 1,000 mm, 15 %
lower than the average in the area and 45% lower than the optimum
amount of 1,800 mm.
The evaporative demand was particularly high, ET0 above 2 mm day-1
when soil drying occurred in both intermittent drought and seasonal dry
period. In the seasonal dry period (2007/2008), the duration of the
period of low leaf area, (including leaf senescence, massive leaf
shedding and leaf flushing) was maximum c.a. four months. However,
these conditions of drought occur regularly in this large area of rubber
growing. They represented a suitable environment to study water
relations under drought.
2. Accuracy of transpiration estimate
The first step of the study was to test and validate the estimate of
whole-tree transpiration by sap flow measurement. Paper 1 assessed a
reliable average calibration for rubber tree wood (and other woody
species) to estimate xylem sap flux density from very low rates (0.3 L
dm-2 h-1) to high rates (5 L dm-2 h-1). And the field comparison with
soil water balance in the dry season validated the absolute estimates of
whole-tree transpiration at a reasonable extent. The number of replicate
measurement in the field (11 trees and 3 probes per tree) insured a good
accuracy in the determination of the average sap flux density in the
outer xylem. The determination of the sapwood area was facilitated by
an extremely limited nonconductive heartwood and a strong
relationship between trunk diameter and bark thickness.
However, the average decreasing radial profile of sap flux density was
possibly a source of inaccuracy at medium and low flow. Because the
decreasing radial profile within the xylem was assessed with 4
replicates over 7 days for medium-high flow rates in the outer xylem in
well soil watered conditions. It is possible that the current reduction
coefficient (0.87) was slightly underestimated for medium-low flows.
This possibility may explain some overestimate values of whole-tree
transpiration which were substantially over ET0 (around 10 %).
However, the overestimation occurred in only low evaporative demand
or cloudy day (ET0 < 2.0 mm day 1). Therefore, another cause for this
overestimation could be occurred by water storage in the top part
canopy above sap flow probe installation area.
3. Thresholds of transpiration change
Results in papers 2 and 3 have shown thresholds of transpiration change
for evaporative demand, soil water availability and tree water status.
The whole-tree transpiration of the studied trees saturated when ET0
increased over 2.0 –2.2 mm day-1 or 1.6 – 1.8 kPa of vapour pressure
deficit (VPD) despite soil water availability. And values of relative
extractable soil water (REW) below 0.5 corresponded clearly too
constraining conditions for tree water uptake. Moreover, predawn leaf
water potential (ψpredawn) below -0.4 MPa indicated water stress and
the onset of transpiration decrease. However, in paper 3 it was shown
that values above ψpredawn threshold do not prove that there is no
water stress. Because of ψpredawn was extremely late indicator of
transpiration decrease, it decreased only after the tree exhibited leaf fall.
There are no reasons to think that these observations might not be
general. As detailed in the discussion of papers, threshold REW of 0.4-
0.5 is an agreement with literature references on other woody species
yielded mainly in temperate conditions. It is also known that ψpredawn
could be a very late indicator of soil water constraint because it is
influenced by features of the plant itself such as the relative equilibrium
of the root profile with a heterogeneous soil water profiles or the
rehydration allowed by reducing transpiring leaf area. The saturating
transpiration at high evaporative demand is a new and important insight
for rubber tree water relations. It has consequences on the modeling of
tree transpiration and on the reduction of carbon gain through the
induced stomatal closure. This behaviour has been recently observed in
several temperate species with different thresholds of evaporative
demand. However, it is possible that the threshold differs between
clones of rubber trees as it differs between species.
4. Framework of the hydraulic limitation model
The framework of a simple hydraulic limitation model was successful
to describe the main change of whole-tree transpiration under both
atmospheric and soil drought. Firstly, the saturating of transpiration at
high evaporative demand was explained by plant hydraulics. The
combination of a critical minimum leaf water potential (ψcrit) and of
the maximum value of whole-tree hydraulic conductance (gL) defines a
maximal transpiration that cannot be over-passed despite well soil
watered conditions. Secondly, the decrease of transpiration under soil
drought was correctly described by the decrease of gL versus REW.
Thirdly, paper 3 has shown that the simple model globally applied also
for the seasonal drought where the leaf area was dramatically reduced,
and root growth was noticed in the subsoil. This result implies complex
adjustment between short term process (stomatal closure, xylem
embolism) and long term process (canopy area, root dynamic) at the
different parts of the soil- plant-atmosphere continuum that converge
toward an apparently simple relationship of gL versus soil drought.
5. Limits of modeling framework
The conditions of very marked droughts were likely favourable to the
test of this approach particularly for the results with changing leaf area.
The model RER_ET0 was used as an exploring model. It has obviously
several over-simplicity and lack of general appliance. For instance, ET0
appeared correct here to explicitly define the maximum transpiration
without plant constraint. Hence, the maximum transpiration allowed by
climatic demand is certainly smaller for a young plantation where the
transpiration is limited by the size of the canopy and the sapwood area.
However, the model assessed represents an interesting base for further
improvement.
6. Limits of the experimental approach
As many works in the field, this experiment in 2007 has studied change
of tree transpiration under drought without factor experimentally
controlled (like with irrigation or rainfall restriction). In this case, one
difficulty is to separate causal from correlative relationships. It was
done by several ways. Firstly, the relationships are assessed from a
framework with mechanistic basis. Secondly inside the relationships,
the points corresponding to contrasted conditions of soil water
availability, evaporative demand or leaf phenology were clearly
identified and compared. Thirdly, the soundness of the observed
thresholds was considered. However, some correlative contribution may
not be completely excluded. For example, the relationship of gL versus
REW assessed in the seasonal drought with 0-40 cm topsoil, was likely
not completely causal, because a significant co-variance of REW in the
subsoil was noticed. It is likely that a relationship considering REW for
100 cm instead of 50 cm could have improved the analysis. In 2008,
we set up new experimental design comparing rainfed trees with trees
which were complementary irrigated. But these data were not usable to
complete the study of soil drought effects because 2008 was an
exceptional year with high rainfall and no natural water shortage and
likely several period of water stress due to excess of water. However,
the saturating transpiration was confirmed.
7. Isohydric behaviour
Our experimental and modeling results demonstrate the isohydric
behaviour of the studied mature rubber trees in both intermittent
drought and seasonal drought. Despite soil or atmospheric droughts,
trees maintained the minimum leaf water potential (ψminimum)
between -1.8 and -2.2 MPa, -1.95 MPa being the critical value
estimated. In the hypothesis of the hydraulic limitation, these trees
control leaf water potential above this critical value through a strict
stomatal closure to prevent the occurrence of runaway embolism. For
several temperate species, the critical minimum leaf water potential
corresponds to 10% of percentage loss of hydraulic conductivity (PLC)
and 90% of stomata closure (Cochard et al, 1996; Cruiziat et al., 2002).
However, these related parameters are not known for mature trees and
this clone. It is possible that values of ψminimum values at the lower
range of -2.2 MPa, corresponded to a substantial embolism. One next
step of research on this topic is to analyze for the mature trees the
xylem embolism occurrence (native embolism and vulnerability curve)
and the response of stomatal closure to decreasing leaf and xylem water
potential.
8. Summary of physiological responses values
Thresholds of atmospheric and soil droughts limitation and the value of
important physiological responses are shown in Table 1.

9. Clonal variability
Literature results yield on young and mature trees support the existence
of substantial variability of water relations within rubber clones
(Gururaja Rao et al.1990, Sangsing 2004). RRIM600 was ranked as a
drought tolerant clone with the best water status and long-term growth.
Hence, it is possible that the ψcrit may vary according to the clone.
One major interest of the hydraulic limitation model is that it will allow
to compared clone performance in contrasted environments
10. Consequence on potential growth and production
Hence, both soil and atmospheric drought decrease or limit the
transpiration of mature rubber trees of RRIM600 clone. Such regulation
implies a strong stomatal closure which should decline CO2 diffusion
and rate of photosynthesis. Then, the final impact of these droughts is
the inhibition of growth and production. As these droughts certainly
occur more often in sub-optimal area than in traditional area, it may
partly explain the difference of growth and production between the
areas. Irrigation is one obvious solution to improve growth and
production in water limited areas (Vijayakumar et al. 1998). However,
our results suggest that the gain will be not maximum because the
negative effect of high evaporative demand remains. One solution is
likely to adapt the clone choice to the agricultural practice. For instance,
a “water saver” as it is assumed for RRIM600 is may be a good choice
for rainfed growing, but it is likely that a clone with less strict control of
stomata will be more adapted to irrigation practice.
1.4. Disease on Rubber Tree
Diseases and Pests
Crops losses resulting from ravages of disease-causing agencies in
rubber plantations are substantial. Timely plant protection operations
ensure healthy growth and economic production. The major diseases
and pests of rubber are given below.

Topics
Abnormal Leaf Fall
Shoot Rot
Powdery Mildew
Colletotrichum Leaf Disease
Bird's Eye Spot
Leaf Spot
Pink Disease
Patch Canker or Bark Canker
Black Stripe, Black Thread or Black Rot
Dry Rot, Stump Rot Collar Rot or Charcoal Rot
Brown Root Disease
Poria Root Disease
Scale Insect
Mealy Bug
Termite (White Ant)
Cockchafer Grub
Bark Feeding Caterpillar
Mites
Slug and Snail
Rat
Porcupines and Wild Pigs
Cover Crop Pests
Parasitic and Non-Parasitic Maladies
Sprayers and Dusters
Some Useful Materials for Plantations
Abnormal Leaf Fall
Causative Agent: Phytophthora
palmivora Butl. P. meadii McRae. & P.
nicotianae var parasitica and P.
botryosa (Chee)

Occurrence: Annual recurrence during

southwest monsoon period. Prolonged wet weather coupled with humid
atmospheric conditions favour the disease. Disease incidence is less in
Kanyakumari District, but increasingly heavy northwards along the
southwestern coast.

Symptoms: First the fruits rot, later infected leaves fall in large
numbers prematurely, either green or after turning coppery red. A black
lesion may develop on the petiole with a drop of latex, often coagulated,
in the centre. Lesion may develop on the midrib and leaf blades
also. Heavy defoliation may lead to considerable loss of crop and die-
back of terminal twigs.
Clonal Susceptibility: Clones like PB 86, PB 235, PB 260, PB 311, PB
28/59, RRIM 600, RRIM 628, RRIM 703, RRII 5, PR 255, PR 261 and
Tjir 1 are susceptible to the disease. RRII 105, PB 217, GT 1 and GL 1
are clones showing some tolerant reaction to the disease.

Control Measures: Prophylactic spraying of the foliage prior to the

onset of south west monsoon with (1) Bordeaux mixture using high
volume sprayers or (2) Oil-based copper oxychloride dispersed in
diluent spray oil employing either low volume airblast sprayers from
the ground or through aerial application. For micron spraying, based on
the tree spread, foliage intensity, planting material used and age of
plants, two rounds of spray using about 17 to 22 litres of fungicide oil
mixture per hectare per round (1:6 proportion) with a gap of 10 to 15
days or a single round of spray with about 30-40 litres of fungicide oil
mixture per hectare (1:5 proportion) may be necessary. For aerial
spraying 6.2 litres of 40% oil-based copper oxychloride paste in 37
litres of diluent oil or 8 kg oil dispersible copper oxychloride powder
56% in 40 litres of oil is used per hectare. Spraying should be done as
close to the monsoon as possible.
Shoot Rot
Causative Agent: Phytophthora palmivora (Butl.)
Butl and P. meadii Mc Rae

Occurrence: Noticed during south west monsoon

period. Common during heavy rainfall periods.

Symptoms: The tender green shoots rot. More damaging for nursery
seedlings and the young plants in the field.
Clonal Susceptibility: Clones, which are susceptible to abnormal leaf
fall disease are severely affected by this disease.

Control Measures: Prophylactic spraying as above for mature

plants. For young plants in the nursery as well as in the field, spraying
with copper fungicides before the onset of south west monsoon coupled
with repeated spray rounds during bright
breaks protect the plants. Phosphorus acid
0.16% (Akomin and Phosjet 4 ml/L) and
metalaxyl Mz 0.2% (Ridomil Mz 2.77 g/L) are
aslo effective. For ensuring proper sticking of
the spray on tender foliage sticker (Sandovit,
Tenac, Teepol, Triton AE etc) may be added at
the rate of 0.5 ml/litre of spray fluid.

Powdery Mildew
Causative Agent: Oidium heveae Steinm.

Occurrence: Predominantly noticed on newly formed tender flush

during the refoliation period of January to March.
The disease is severe in Kanyakumari, Idukki and
Wynad district of South India and North Eastern
States. Cloudy days with light rains and/or misty
nights with dew formation during refoliation
favour serious disease outbreaks.

Symptoms: Tender leaves with ashy coating curl,

 crinkle, and edges roll inwards and fall,
leaving the petioles attached to the twigs like
a broom-stick. After a few days, the petioles
also fall. Die-back of twigs follows. On
older leaves white patches later causing
necrotic spots reduce photosynthetic
efficiency. Infected flowers and tender fruits
are shed, affecting seed production.
Clonal Susceptibility: Clones PB 86, GT 1, GL1, PR 107, PB 5/139,
RRIM 703, RRII 208 and PB 310 show some tolerance. The clones
RRII 105, RRII 118, RRII 300,
PB 217, PB 235, PB 280, PB 311,
PB 5/51, RRIM 605 Tjir 1 and PR 261 are susceptible to the disease.

Control Measures: Dusting during the refoliation period commencing

from bud break in about 10% of the trees, giving 3 to 5 rounds at
weekly to fortnightly interval using 11 to 14 kg 325-mesh fine sulphur
dust per round per hectare. Sulphur mixed with an inert material like
Talc (70:30) is commonly used. Wettable sulphur (Carbendazim 2.5 g
/l) is also effective in nurseries and for young plants as a
spray. Bavistin 0.05% a.i. (Bavistin 1g in 1 litre water) spraying is
more effective than sulphur for nurseries and young rubber. Alternate
use of Bavistin and sulphur is recommended to avoid resistance
problem. For efficiency, dusting may be carried out in the early
morning hours when the leaves are moist and the atmosphere
calm. Power dusters like Skoda Micro spray power 400 or Aspee
Turblow tree duster could be used for sulphur dusting.

Colletotrichum Leaf Disease

Causative Agent: Colletotrichum acutatum C. gloeosporioides (Penz.)
Sacc.

Occurrence: Observed during April to October. In

North East India, the disease is prevalent
throughout the year except during winter.

Symptoms: Infects tender leaves, mostly at the

 leaf tip region. Spots are small, brown in colour
and is sorrounded by a yellow hallo. Numerous
spots coalesce and dry up leading to defoliation.
The infected leaves often crinkle and become
distorted before shedding.
Clonal Susceptibility: Clones like PB 86, RRII
300,
RRII 105, RRII 118, RRII 208 and RRII 5 are susceptible to the
disease. PB 217, PB 260 and RRIM 600 are the clones showing some
tolerance. The clones RRII 105, RRII 118, RRII 300, PB 217, PB 235,
PB 280, PB 311, PB 5/51, RRIM 605 Tjir 1 and PR 261 are susceptible
to the disease.
Control Measures: Spraying with Bordeaux mixture 1%, copper
oxychloride 0.125% (Fytdan 2.5 g/l) mancozeb 0.2% (Dithane/ Indofil
M 45 2.66 g/l) or carbendazim 0.05% (Bavastin 1 g/l) at 10 - 15 days
intervals are effective.

Bird's Eye Spot

Causative Agent: Drechslera
heveae (Petch) M.B. Ellis

Occurrence: A hot weather disease serious

and damaging in the nursery. Weaker
plants and plants growing under exposed
situations are more susceptible.
Symptoms: Symptoms appear as small necrotic spots with dark/brown
margins and pale centre. Severe infection leads to premature
defoliation and die back.
Clonal Susceptibility: Nursery seedlings are susceptible
Control Measures: Repeated spraying with Bordeaux mixture 1% or
mancozeb 0.2% (Mancozeb/ Indefil M 45 2.5 g/l or Carbendazim
0.02% (Bavistin 0.4 ml/ l). Shading the nursery plants reduces the
disease incidence. Maintain seedlings in vigorous condition through
adequate balanced nutrition.
Leaf Spot
Causative Agent: Corynespora
cassiicola (Berk & Curt)

Occurrence: Earlier the disease was confined

to nurseries only. From 1996 onwards severe
incidence of the disease was observed in
mature plantations in the Dakshin Kannnada District of Karnataka State
and in the adjoining districts of Kerala. In nurseries, disease incidence
is noticed during November to May period. On mature trees, disease is
observed during the refoliation period from February to May.

Symptoms: Large spots, with brown margins and pale centre is the
common symptom. The centre may fall off forming shot holes. On
mature trees light green leaves during
refoliation are more susceptible. Several
lesions coalesce to form large blighted
area. Disease spreads along the veins leading
to a brownish “railway track” or "fish bone"
like appearance. Even a localised infection on
midrib or base of a leaf causes leaf abscission. Defoliation leads to die-
back of branches.
Clonal Susceptibility: Clones like RRII 105, RRII 118,
RRII 300, RRII 305, PR 107, PR 255, PR 262, RRIM 600,
PB 86, PB 235, PB 255, PB 260, PB 311, GL 1 and Tjir 1 are
susceptible to the disease.
Control Measures: Repeated spraying with Bordeaux mixture 1% or
Dithane (Indofil) M-45 0.2% or Bavistin 0.02% is recommended for
nursery. Shading the nursery reduces the disease incidence. Maintain
seedlings in vigorous condition through adequate balanced nutrition.
High volume spraying with mancozeb 0.2% (Dithane/Indofil M-45 2.66
g/l) carbendazim 0.05% (Bavistin 1g/l) at 2-3 weeks interval during
refoliation is effective in mature plantation. Micron spraying with oil
dispersible copper oxychloride 56% (8kg) or oil dispersible mancozeb
70% (7 kg) dispersed in 40 l spray oil per ha is also effective.

Pink Disease
Causative Agent: Corticium
salmonicolor Berk & Br.
Occurrence: The disease is noticed during
southwest monsoon period in the traditional
rubber growing areas in South India. The
disease incidence is very mild in Kanyakumari
District due to the weak southwest monsoon and absence of prolonged
wet conditions. Disease has been noticed in Assam, Tripura, and
Meghalaya in north east.
Symptoms: More damaging for plants in the
age group of 2 to 12 years.
Main seat of infection is usually the fork
region. White or pink coloured cobweb
mycelial growth on the bark surface with
streaks of latex oozing out from the
lesions. Rotting, drying up and cracking of the affected bark follow.
Sprouts develop from below the affected portion. The distal portion of
branches dry and dried leaves stick to the dead branches.
Clonal Susceptibility: Clones PB 217, PB 311 and
RRII 105 are highly susceptible. High incidence has been also noticed
in clones like Tjir 1, BD 10, RRIM 501,
RRIM 701, RRIM 707, and
PB 28/59 etc. Clones like PB 86, RRIM 513, GL 1, PR 107, GT 1 and
PB 260 are less susceptible.
Control Measures: Prophylactic: Prophylactic treatment for pink disease
can be done for highly susceptible clones planted in highly disease
prone areas. Two rounds of spraying with 1% Bordeaux mixture
(during May and August) on to the fork and branches reduces disease
incidence. For 2-year-old plants, the topmost brown portion must be
applied with Bordeaux paste in a 30 cm wide band all around. The
forking region also must be applied with the paste. In leaning plants in
addition, a 30 cm wide band on the convex side of the bend must be
applied. In 3 years, old plants, application must be made on all major
forking regions except the lowermost one and on all the leaders of the
topmost brown regions. Only one application is required. No scraping
is necessary. The application can be made from ground using a long-
handled brush before the onset of monsoon. During October, a single
tracing and treatment need be made for infection, if any. No sticker
should be added to the paste.
Curative: Frequent tree inspection during June to October for detecting
infection and application of Bordeaux paste in early stage on infected
part and up to 30 cm above and below. In advanced cases, Bordeaux
paste may be initially applied and then the affected portion scraped to
remove mycelium and decayed bark, followed by a second Bordeaux
paste application. Dried branches should be pruned after
disinfection. Thiram 0.75%thiride (TMTD) (10g in 1 kg) incorporated
in a wound dressing compound or tridemorph 2% (Calixin 25 ml/l) in
1% ammoniated field latex or thiride 0.75% or tridemorph 1% or
propiconazole 0.1% (Tilt 4 ml/l) in pidyvyl, china clay and water (1:2:4
by volume) is also effective as rainwash is prevented.

Patch Canker or Bark Canker

Causative Agent: Phytophthora palmivora, Phytophthora meadii,
Pythium vexans
Occurrence: Infection mostly during the wet
weather.
Symptoms: On the tapping panel region, or
anywhere on the stem including the collar
region and occasionally on the roots. Swelling
and bark burst with amber-coloured liquid
oozing out. This may not be evident in all cases. In most cases oozing
 of latex is observed. The bark rots, and a
coagulated rubber pad, emanating a foul
smell is seen in between the wood and the
rotting bark. When this is removed slight
discolouration of the wood in this region is
also noticed. Clonal Susceptibility: Clones
susceptible to abnormal leaf fall disease are
also susceptible to this disease. The clone PB 260 is highly susceptible
to this disease
Control Measures: The affected region may be scraped to remove all the
rotting bark and the coagulated rubber and the wound washed well with
mancozeb 0.75% (Dithane/ Indofil M-45 10 g/l). When the fungicide
dries up, apply would dressing compound.

Black Stripe, Black Thread or Black Rot

Causative Agent: Phytophthora palmivora, P.
meadii
Occurrence: Prevalent during the rainy season.
Symptoms: In the renewed bark region, small
depressions are formed due to localised rotting
and drying of bark, which gets pressed to the wood. When scraped,
deep vertical black lines running downward into the tapping bark and
upwards into the renewed bark are noticed. Bark rot often reduces
yield. The renewed bark becomes highly uneven.
Clonal Susceptibility: No distinct tolerance/resistance is noticed in any
of the popular clones. Disease incidence is severe in clones like RRIM
600, PB 235, PB 311 and
PB 28/59.
Control Measures: If tapping is regularly
done during rainy season, the tapping panel
should be disinfected at weekly intervals by
brushing with mancozeb 0.375% a.i
(Dithane/ Indofil M-45 5 g/l). Phosphorous acid formulations at 0.08%
(Akomin and Phosjet 2 ml/l) are also effective. In the infected cases,
scrape off the affected tissues and apply the fungicide. When the
fungicide dries up, a wound dressing compound may be applied.

Dry Rot, Stump Rot Collar Rot or Charcoal Rot

Causative Agent: Ustulina deusta (Hoffm.ex Fr)
Lind.Occurrence: Infection during the wet
weather.
Symptoms: Affects roots, collar, trunk, and
branches with copious exudation of latex from
the lesions. Affected bark and wood become
soft and powdery with double black lines in the
wood. Grey, crust-like flat fructifications, which later coalesce and turn
black seen on the bark. Affected trees or branches are killed or blown
over. Ustulina root infections are also noticed.
Clonal Susceptibility: Disease is noticed in clones
RRII 105 and RRIM 600.
Control Measures: Scrape off the fructifications, affected bark and
wood showing black lines. Apply a wound
dressing compound in which Thirum 0.75%
a.i (Thiride 10 g/l) incorporated.
Hexaconazole 0.02% a.i (Contaf 4 ml/l) is
also effective. Avoid accumulation of
rubber at the base of the tree. For root
infection see the treatment for brown root
disease.

Brown Root Disease

Causative Agent: Phellinus noxius Corner G.H. Cunn
Occurrence: The disease occurrence is sporadic
and often noticed in replanted areas and in sandy
or light soils. Low incidence of brown root
disease is noticed in Assam and Tripura.
Symptoms: Retardation in growth and a general
yellowish discolouration of the foliage. Affected
roots when examined show a thick encrustation of
soil, sand and fungal hyphae cemented to the root and brown lines in
the affected roots. In advanced cases the plants dry up. Infection is
noticed on young nursery plants also.
Control Measures: Open the root system. Completely killed and dried
roots may be traced, pruned off and burnt along with any rotting stump
in the immediate vicinity and partially affected and healthy roots
washed with tridemorph 0.5% (Calixin 6.25 ml/l) or propiconazole
0.13% (Tilt 5 ml/l) solution (Provisional recommendation). When the
fungicide dries up, a thin coating with a wound dressing compound may
be given. Refill the soil and drench the base with fungicide solution.
The dried-up plants may be uprooted, root traced, collected, and
destroyed. As prophylactic, measure the bases of trees neighbouring
the affected trees may also be drenched with fungicide solution
mentioned above. Drench the nursery beds having affected plants with
any of the above-mentioned fungicide solution.

Poria Root Disease

Causative Agent: Poria vincta (Berk.) Cooke
Occurrence: Sporadic
Symptoms: Yellow discolouration of leaves is the
only external symptom. The affected root shows
soil encrustation as in the case of brown root
disease but to a limited extent. Around the root
fungus forms a complete mat, pale white in colour
intermingled with brick-red and black tinges.
 Control Measures: Open the root
system. Completely killed and dried roots
may be traced, pruned off and burnt along
with any rotting stump in the immediate
vicinity and partially affected and healthy
roots washed with tridemorph 0.5%
(Calixin 6.25 ml) propiconazole 0.13%
(Tilt 5 ml/l) solution (Provisional recommendation). When the
fungicide dried up, a thin coating with a wound dressing compound
may be given. Refill the soil and drench the base with fungicide
solution. The dried-up plants may be uprooted, root traced, collected,
and destroyed. As prophylactic, measure the bases of trees
neighbouring the affected trees may also be drenched with any of the
above-mentioned fungicide solution. Drench the nursery beds having
affected plants with any of the fungicide solution mentioned above.

Scale Insect
Causative Agent: Saissetia nigra Nietn.
Occurrence: Seen generally in young
plantations and nurseries in almost all rubber
areas.
Symptoms: Small insects with an outer black,
dome-shaped covering. Occur on leaflets petioles and tender shoot
portions and suck the sap, severely affected portions dry up and
die. Ants and sooty mould are associated with this.
Clonal Susceptibility: Clones RRII 105 and RRIM 600 are affected
Control Measures: Natural enemies like insect parasites and
entomogenous fungi keep this pest in check. When severe infestation is
noted, spray Organophosphorus insecticides like Malathion at 0.05%
concentration.
Mealy Bug
Causative Agent: Ferrisiana virgata Ckll
Occurrence: Seen mostly in nurseries in all rubber
areas
Symptoms: Soft bodied small insects with white
mealy outer covering. Occurrence and damage like
scale insects.
Clonal Susceptibility: Clones RRII 105 and
RRIM 600 are affected
Control Measures: Spray Organophosphorus
insecticides like malathion 0.1% (2 ml/l) or
quinalphos 0.075% (Ekalux 25EC3 ml/L)

ermite (White Ant)

Causative Agent: Odontotermes
obesus Rambur
Occurrence: Dry regions of Central Kerala
(Thrissur & Palakkad) and non-traditional
areas like Dapchari in Orissa.
Symptoms: Feeds on the dead bark of trees
and young plants. Builds covered passageways of soil on the tapping
panel and collection cup. Sometimes young plants dry up due to attack.
Clonal Susceptibility: Clones PB 86, Tjir 1and RRII 105 are affected
Control Measures: Drench the soil at the base
of affected plants with Chlorpyriphos 0.1%
solution. When mulch is present spray the
mulch also. (Provisional recommendation)
Cockchafer Grub
Causative Agent: Holotrichia Serrata F. H.
rufoflava Brenske, Anomala varians Ol.
Occurrence: More prevalent near forest areas and
in loose soils.

Symptoms: Feeds on the roots of seedlings in the nursery and young

plants. The affected plants droop and fall over.
Clonal Susceptibility: Not specific

Control Measures: Incorporate 25 kg per hectare of Phorate 10G in the

soil at the time of bed preparation

Bark Feeding Caterpillar

Causative Agent: Aetherastis circulata Meyr. Ptochoryctis rosaria Meyr
Occurrence: Nagercoil, Nedumangad, Punalur, and Thrissur
localities.
Symptoms: The caterpillars build galleries with faecal matter and silk
all over the trunk region and branches of trees. Generally, feed on dead
bark and occasionally on live bark causing exudation of latex. Deep
scar found at the regions of feeding.
Clonal Susceptibility: PB 86, PB 235 and PB 311 are highly susceptible
clones.
Control Measures: When the infestation is severe apply Sevin 5% at the
rate of 10 kg per hectare or Fenval 0.4% dust at the rate of 7 kg per
hectare (provisional recommendation) with a power duster. Spraying
the trunk with fenvalerate 0.02% (Tatafen 20 EC, Arfen 20 EC 1 ml/L)
is also effective.
Mites
Causative Agent: Hemitarsonemus dorsalis
Occurrence: Sporadic incidence on young rubber
plants in nurseries.
Symptoms: Not a serious pest. Minute organisms
with four pairs of legs. Suck sap from the leaves resulting in crinkling
and shedding.
Clonal Susceptibility: Clones like PB 217,
RRII 105 and RRIM 600 are susceptible.
Control Measures: Dust sulphur or spray
sulphur 0.2% (Sulfex 80 WP 2.5g/L) or
dicofol 0.05% (Kelthane 18 EC 3ml/L)

Slug and Snail

Causative Agent: Mariaellae dussumieri Grey, Crytozona (Xestina)
bistralis Beck
Occurrence: Distributed randomly in rubber areas in Kanjirappally,
Thrissur and Calicut
Symptoms: Feed on latex by lacerating the tender leaves and
buds. Growth of affected buds is arrested, and side shoots develop
giving a bunchy appearance. Slugs drink latex from the tapping cut and
collecting cup also.
Clonal Susceptibility: Nursery seedlings are more
susceptible.
Control Measures: Broadcast 2.5% Metaldehyde
bait pellets (snail kill 2.5) at the base of the
infested plants or seedling beds. To repel slugs
and snails brush Bordeaux Paste 10% around the
stem above the bud union to a length of 30 cm. Repeat the application
after 30-45 days if the attack continues.

Rat
Causative Agent: Bandicota
indica Bech Bandicota
bengalensis Gray, Rattus meltada Gray
Occurrence: Almost all rubber areas.
Symptoms: Feeds on kernels of seeds sown in
germination bed. In young plants they gnaw
the roots and the plants dry up.
Clonal Susceptibility: Nursery plants are more susceptible.
Control Measures: Distribute baits of poisons of Zinc phosphide with an
attractive food like tapioca pieces or bait cakes of these poisons
prepared with wax in different regions of the affected
areas. Bromodiolone 0.005% a.i. bait is also found to be remarkably
effective. The single dose anticoagulant need be fed by the rats, only
once.

Porcupines and Wild Pigs

Causative Agent: Hystrix indica Kerr
Occurrence: Near forest areas.

Symptoms: Pull out young plants and feed

on the tap root. Debark basal portions of
young plants and trees.
Clonal Susceptibility: Not specific

Control Measures: Scaring away or repelling with electric fencing.

Cover Crop Pests
Causative Agent: Pagria signata
Eucomatocera vittata, Maruca
testulalis, Blasticorhinus rivulet, Tiracola
plagiata
Occurrence: Almost all rubber areas.
Symptoms: Various pests attack the cover crops, especially Pueraria.
The damage at early stage of establishment can be severe. Mucuna is
fed by T. plagiata.
Clonal Susceptibility: Peuraria phaseoloides, Mucuna bracteata

Control Measure: Spary carbaryl 0.1% (sevin 50 wp 2g/L) at 15 days

interval.

Please feel free to contact us

For more Information
Our website : http://punemid.com/spatechnicaladviser/
Personal Email : psatechno@gmail.com
Cell : 00 91 9850242282
1.5. Rubber Wood Preservation

Hevea Brasiliensis
The trees have a smooth bark,
palmately compound leaves,
small inconspicuous flowers. The
seeds are akin to castor beans. On
ripening, the fruit capsule
explodes and propels the seeds
away from the trees.

The Pará rubber tree (Para is a state of Brazil)

Family : Euphorbiaceae (about 20 latex bearing families)
Genus : Hevea.
Species : H. brasiliensis (about 18000 latex bearing species)
Location of latex in the tree depends on the species .Major economic
importance : due to its sap-like extract ( known as latex)
Planting : usually about 15 X 15 feet apart.
Height of the tree : can reach over 30m.
The colour of the latex : white or yellow
latex occurs in vessels in the bark
Vessels : spiral up the tree in a righthanded
: Angle of about 30 degrees with the horizontal.
Incisions : orthogonal to the latex vessels
deep enough to tap the vessels without harming the tree's growth,
The harvest : After 5-6 years
Older trees yield more latex Stop producing after 26-30 years.

PHOTO 8A

Christopher Columbus – During Second visit to South America,

- wondered about the heavy black ball the natives were using in
games(Story).
- made from the vegetable gum of the Para wood tree.
Prior to 1900, natural rubber was obtained solely from wild plants. The
following were most extensively utilized.

Hevea brasiliensis
Ficus elastica
Castilla elastica
Both later species had to be killed to extract the latex.
This factor, among others made Hevea brasiliensis is the best.

Historical origin of rubber in the world

Native place , South America - Discovery in 1500’s. But the cultivation
in South America was unsatisfied.
By 1770 , rubber cubes were used in England as erasers
In 1820’s , methods of reliquefying rubber were developed
and used to produce water-proof two-ply clothing.
By 1840’s , American inventor Charles Goodyear
using the findings of the two chemists discovered the method of
vulcanization which can be used to make rubber stable in hot
and cold temperatures.
In 1873, Attempts were made to grow rubber outside Brazil.
Twelve seedlings were germinated at Royal Botanical gardens, Kew
and sent to India for cultivation, but died.

Successful cultivation
After repeated efforts, successful cultivation in South Asia
Sir Clements Markham, (a Civil Servant) arranged the expeditions to
the Amazon to collect seeds and seedlings for transfer to South
Asia(and eventually to South East Asia).
In 1875 , Henry Wickhem successfully gathered 70,000 seeds of Hevea
brasiliensis in the Amazon region and shipped them back to Britain
to germinate in the Royal Botanical Gardens .
In 1876, about 2000 seedlings were shipped to Sri Lanka and
Singapore
Those were used to establish plantations first in Sri Lanka and then in
other tropical regions of the eastern hemisphere.
Henry Wickhem, Once established outside its native country,
extensively propagated in the British colonies.
In 1898, Established rubber plantation in Malaysia
The implications of this transfer failed to be
appreciated until estate
production in South East Asia began a long
time after the
seeds were gathered.
Collins and Cross also were involved.

Tapping methodology
Ficus elastica plantation - established in
Indonesia in 1876 and Hevea had flowered in
Malaysia in 1881
Plantation industry was slow to establish
because the investment in plantations had
to await the demand created by pneumatic tires and motoring.
To encourage the establishment of plantations Henry Ridley did much
to refine this methodology.

Some uses:
Elastics - produced for clothing
and
attempted to create tubing for
medical uses
Temporary rubber shoe - dipping
their feet into a latex mixture
strips to hold stone and metal
tools to wooden handles
padding for the tool handles.
In Brazil -water resistant cloth made in rubber.
A story says that the first European to return to Portugal from Brazil
with samples of such water repellent rubberized cloth
So shocked people that he was brought to court on the charge of
witchcraft. The para rubber tree initially grew in South America where
it was the main source for limited latex rubber consumers during 19th
century and about 100 years
ago, the Congo Free State in Africa was a significant source of natural
rubber latex, mostly gathered by forced labor. Millions of Africans
died because of lust for rubber and rubber profits.

This Victorian locomotive could attain speeds of 80 mile/hour and ran

on rubber springs

O-Rings (Seal)
The O-ring -most
widely adapted seal in
history
because of its
simplicity, low cost,
ease of installation, and
small space
requirements without
supporting structures. Suitable for dynamic or static seals within the
temperature limits
of elastomeric materials, Successful use depends upon proper
groove dimensions and selection of the right compound

Rubber cultivation in Sri Lanka

The first rubber tree is at Henarathgoda Botanical garden in Gampaha
district. This garden is home to trees from every corner of the tropical
world especially from Brazil.
In 1876 these first seedlings, about 2000 were transported to the warm,
moist climatic conditions at Henerathgoda.
Climatic condition : required a warm, moist moderate condition.
Areas : Rubber cultivation takes the first place in Kalutara and the
Ratnapura district areas.
Total area under rubber in Sri Lanka is approximately 559,257 acres.
Products :
Latex products (exported as sheet rubber or crepe rubber)
Wooden products (exported as finished products or parts of products)
Principle markets for Sri Lanka rubber :
China, U.S.S.R., USA, German, Italy, Poland

Latex
- is a milky colloidal suspension collected from a tapped rubber tree.
- coagulates on exposure to air
- some regards it as a form of stored food
- others regards as an excretory product (waste products of the plant are
deposited). Also believe as to protect the plant by
prevent entering of fungi and bacteria, against
browsing animals ( since latex of some plants are
very bitter or even poisonous )
The shell of half a coconut or any other vessel is
used as the collection
container for the latex.
The shells are attached to the tree via a short
sharp stick and the latex
drips down into the shell. The latex from multiple
trees are then poured into flat pans, and it is
mixed with formic acid, as a coagulant.
After a few hours, the very wet sheets of rubber
are wrung out by putting them through a press.
Next send to factories for vulcanization and further processing.

Rubber wood
After 25 to 30 years of latex
production, the tree ceases to
produce
enough latex.
Then the tree is cut, and the
wood of this tree is marketed
for a wide variety of end products,
such as furniture, parquet, paneling,
flooring, and indoor building
components, as an alternative timber
species
Para wood (rubber wood) is extremely
hard and very prevalent in the
furniture
industry because of its durability.
It is sometimes referred to as Malaysian Oak because of its strength.
The potential of rubber wood as a source of timber has already been
recognized in India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and Malaysia.
An increasing volume of sawn rubber wood is being used for furniture
manufacturing and a variety of
other applications.

Preservative treatment of rubber

wood. Rubber wood possess
excellent properties for interior
designing, wood working and
furniture making.
But it is very much susceptible to
sap stain and mold fungi which
decreases the service life. For
profitable uses, it is necessary to increase the service life of rubber
wood.
To protect the rubber wood from degrading agents, the sawn timber
were treated with Borax – boric acid solution and Copper-chrome boron
solution by soaking process and Lowry
empty cell pressure
process following moderate treatment
schedule. It was found that rubber wood
can be treated satisfactorily by both
processes with acceptable penetration
and retention.
 Kiln drying After the completion of chemical
treatment, the treated timber is dried in a
special kiln to reduce the moisture content of
them.
In this process, the hot air can pass through
the timber inside the kiln and the amount of
moisture is taking out by using the blowers.
A boiler used to prepare hot steam

Productivity in Sri Lanka.

Sri Lanka 9th largest producer, 10 th largest exporter of natural rubber
(NR), the major supplier of high-quality latex crepe to the world
market.
The BOI approved rubber industry projects consume nearly 75% of Sri
Lanka’s total domestic NR production.
Nearly 60% of the NR production in Sri Lanka is used for value
 added rubber
products. The
bulk of these
value-added
products are
for the export
market.
Foreign
investors from
20 countries have set up lucrative and long-standing world-class
ventures under BOI approval.

After the end of its latex producing cycle, the tree is cut for
manufacturing furniture and a new tree is planted in its place.
This is an example of man’s ability to fully utilize our natural resources,
without harming the environment. Therefore, The Rubber wood has
been accepted in the International market as an environmentally
friendly wood.

added rubber products. The bulk of these value-added products are for
the export market. Foreign investors from 20 countries have set up
lucrative and long-standing world-class ventures under BOI approval.

After the end of its latex producing cycle, the tree is cut for
manufacturing furniture and a new tree is planted in its place.
This is an example of man’s ability to fully utilize our natural resources,
without harming the environment. Therefore, The Rubber wood has
been accepted in the International market as an environmentally
friendly wood.
 Latex
Technology
Content
Chapter 2
2.1.0. Natural Rubber Latex Production 152-167
2.1.2. Rubber Cultivation 168-217
2.1.3.Rubber plantations 218-280
2.2.1.The growth and yield of rubber at maturity 281-295
2.3.1. Latex Concentration Process 296-297

Page | 1
2.1.1. Natural Rubber Latex Production
How to Enhance, the Technical Issues and the
Remedies.
The Natural Rubber Latex farmers / growers in India and south Asian
countries are going
through a really difficult time.
The key issues are
o Shortfall in Production
o Increasing Manpower cost
o Scarcity of Manpower
o Decreasing Price in the Global
Market
o Highly Labour oriented process

possible remedies

The requirements of Natural Latex will be rising sharply in the coming

years
How are we going to cope up with this situation ?
The only way is to try and see how we could increase the Natural Rubber
latex yield.
A time has to come to think deeply into this The Rubber latex Producers
, In India as well as The Southern Asia are going through a rough
situation.
The Latex yields are decreasing , the labor cost is going up and the , over
all Latex and Rubber Market is down.
How to cope up with extremely difficult situation. the only way is by,
Increasing the Latex yield per

In Kerala, tropical southern India, most rubber tree farms are very
small—a typical holding is less than 20 acres. These are not rubber
plantations with thousands of acres of land. Kerala-based Cocolatex,
which supplies natural Dunlop latex for Savvy Rest organic mattresses,
is a small company, privately owned and operated.
The rubber tree, or hevea brasiliensis, grows at higher elevations with
good drainage, and does not lend itself to mass cultivation. The farmers
take great care in planting the trees to ensure their health. In more open
areas, pineapple trees are inter-planted among the rubber trees. In hilly
regions, companion shrubs are added to shade the soil and maximize the
water available to the trees’ roots.

Rubber trees have three “skins” that are somewhat delicate. When
tapping a tree by hand, it’s easy to cut too deeply. The idea, which
involves much
practice and skill, is to create a long, slanted opening in the bark at just
the right angle. Although the farmers are kind to visitors and may even
allow one to try the knife, one can sense their collective sigh when an
amateur injures the bark. Fortunately, an experienced farmer will swiftly
reshape the cut so the serum will run properly. The cuts heal over in
about an hour.

Farmers start their day around 5 a.m. because rubber sap runs most freely
in the early morning. Walking from tree to tree in the shade, they finish
the daily collection around noon. At its peak, each tree yields just one to
two cups of serum per day. Older trees produce less, and the latex runs
more slowly toward the end of the tree’s annual cycle. Years ago and in
some locations still, farmers use halved coconut hulls to collect the
serum. They combine the output from many trees one at a time into steel
buckets, then pour the contents into drums that are sealed before being
moved to the factory.

Farmers regularly replant their holdings, setting in new seedlings. They

treat the trees with great respect and care. For the first seven years, young
trees are left to grow robust and remain untapped. A tree can produce
usable latex for up to 20 years, then it is cut and sent to a mill to be made
into furniture.
Rubber wood is one of the most sustainable woods, and is growing in
popularity in the United States. It is also widely used in local economies,
such as in making office desks for Cocolatex.

The Cocolatex facility employs 80 skilled workers in various roles whose

livelihoods depend on the remarkable utility of the rubber tree. They
produce foam rubber on a daily basis—emptying the drums into giant
mixers or
centrifuges, testing and correcting the liquid mixture, filling molds,
steam- baking and washing the finished layers, and inspecting their final
quality once they have dried. The finished sheets are stacked, then
double-wrapped in plastic and a puncture-proof material.

From the factory the latex is delivered to a loading facility where more
workers load the giant stacks into shipping containers. After a five-week
passage the ship arrives at the destination port – for Savvy Rest, the port
is nearby Norfolk, Virginia. A commercial transporter then picks up the
cargo and delivers it to our Central Virginia facility.
Just as the renewable serum yielded by tapping a tree is transformed into
many kinds of important products, the rubber industry itself provides
livelihood and comfort for many individuals and their families.

These include: Owners of small farms Farmworkers in rubber holdings

Skilled workers at several factories Dockworkers, merchant sailors,
shipping personnel Savvy Rest local staff
Business owners and employees who sell Savvy Rest Savvy Rest’s
customers Furniture makers While the deep interdependence of humans
and trees often goes unremarked, the stately rubber tree is one of the most
durable, renewable and depe

‘Global warming affecting rubber output’ Aravindan: Updated on

January 24, 2018
Research report says the trend is worrying
A study conducted by Rubber Research Institute of India (RRII) has
found out that extreme temperatures are becoming more frequent in
recent years in Kottayam, Kerala’s major rubber growing area.
An analysis of the data of daily maximum and minimum temperatures
from 1970 to 2010, conducted by the Climate Change and Ecosystem
Studies Division of RRII showed clear indications of the warming trend.
Yield to be affected
The production of latex in rubber trees is closely related to the ambient
temperature. The productivity of the crop decreases as the temperature
goes up beyond a threshold level.
Earlier studies clearly showed that the increase in atmospheric
temperature would affect rubber production in India’s traditional rubber
growing regions. Thus the impact of changing climate in this region may
seriously affect rubber cultivation, if the present warming trend
continues.

Temperature stress
Since the socio-economic sustainability of the region is highly dependent
on rubber cultivation, proper precautions and climate resilient measures
may have to be adopted by the farmers to overcome the adverse effects
of temperature stress.
The diurnal temperature range (difference between monthly mean
maximum and minimum temperatures) increased from 7.800 C during
1970s to 9.20 C in recent years. Frequency of occurrence of warming
days (with temperature above 32 C) also increased at a rate of 0.56 per
cent a year.
The number of days with minimum temperature decreased significantly,
indicating the warming nights are becoming more in Kottayam The
monthly highest temperature showed an increase of 0.0380 C per
year during 1970 to 2010.
Persistence of high temperature consecutively for six days or more
represents a warm spell. The number of such warm spells increased and
the gaps between warm spells became shorter in recent years.
The impact of such phenomenon in the production and productivity of
agricultural crops in South East Asia and Europe have already been
reported. Extreme
temperature events in the
form of heat wave and cold
wave in the northern states
of India impacts severely
on crop production and quality of grains leading to serious socio-
economic consequences.
The results of the study by RRII were presented in the recent Kerala
Environment Congress-2015 held at Kottayam during May 2015.

KOCHI: Rising temperature levels are likely to affect the natural rubber
yield in Kottayam, the major rubber growing district in Kerala, according
to a study conducted by Rubber Research Institute of India (RRII).
Kerala accounts for almost 90 per cent of total rubber production in
India. The natural rubber production in the country was down by over 15
per cent in 2014-15 at 6,55,000 tonnes.
An analysis of the data of daily maximum and minimum temperatures
from 1970 to 2010,

The number of days with minimum temperature decreased significantly,

indicating the warming nights are becoming more in Kottayam during
recent years. The monthly highest temperature showed an increase of
0.0380C per year during 1970 to 2010. Persistence of high temperature
consecutively for six days or more represents a warm spell. The number
of such warm spells increased and the gaps between warm spells became
shorter in recent years. The frequent occurrence of such high temperature
events is Kerala rains hurt rubber production By PK Krishnakumar
KOCHI: The supply crunch in the domestic market may push imports of
natural rubber this year to a new high despite a steep fall in rupee. Tyre
makers, who account for the bulk of consumers in India, have no choice
but to go for more imports as rubber output in Kerala, the largest
producer, has been hit by rains since May.
Production for April-July 2018 is down 14per cent from a year ago at
1,72,000 tonnes, Rubber Board data showed. Against this, consumption
climbed 15per cent to 4,08,50 ..

Rubber Tree Plant Problems

Pest and Disease Control
How to Take Care of a Rubber Tree
Rubber tree plants (Ficus elastica) are named for their original use and
not because
they are pliable. Their milky sap was formerly used as a source of rubber,
although it is no longer a commercial resource. Rubber trees are perennial
in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 10 through 12,
but they are commonly grown as houseplants elsewhere. They are
relatively problem-free, although an occasional pest or disease may be
bothersome.
Pests
Aphids, mealy bugs spider mites and scale insects are primary pests of
rubber tree. Aphids and mealy bugs are soft-bodied insects that pierce
plant tissue and feed on cell sap. Spider mites are tiny arachnids that also
feed on cell sap. You may see telltale signs of their presence by the
delicate webs they spin before you notice the mites. Sap feeders leave
stippled or speckled leaves as they remove chlorophyll.

Scale insects are also sap feeders, but they often go unidentified because
they live underneath protective scales that they use as armor against
predators. If you manage these pests early, your plant may suffer
minimal damage, but unchecked feeding results in unattractive leaves
that eventually drop from plants. Horticultural soaps or liquid
insecticides that you apply as a soil drench may be effective in treating
these pests when used according to label directions.
Diseases
Few diseases attack rubber tree. Overwatering plants so that the soil
becomes waterlogged favors pathogens that grow in soil. Root rot, which
is caused by various fungal pathogens, such as Phytophthora species,
causes roots to decay and is often signaled by yellowing leaves. Foliar
nematodes (Aphelenchoides spp.), which are microscopic roundworms,
infect rubber trees' leaves as they feed and cause the areas between leaf
veins to turn yellow and die. Penn State Extension notes that there is no
control for this disease and you must discard infected plants.

Cultural Problems
Rubber trees are sensitive to temperature changes. They like warm
environments and respond best to temperatures between 55 and 80
degrees Fahrenheit. If temperatures drop below this, they may respond
with discolored or disfigured leaves. Young leaves may pucker and
mature leaves sport brown blotches. Locations near air conditioners are
not suitable for a rubber tree. These plants are also sensitive to being
moved and may drop their leaves if you move them from their familiar
growing spot.
Although new leaves will grow, plants remain unsightly until they fill out
again.
Considerations
Rubber trees may reach a height of 10 feet inside your home, which may
be size- prohibitive unless you have vaulted ceilings. You can easily
prune these plants to conform to your room height, but each pruning cut
will exude a sticky white sap that is poisonous. It can cause contact
dermatitis that irritates your skin and it can cause burning inside mouths
and throats. Because it is poisonous if ingested, keep children
and pets away from newly pruned plants until pruning wounds heal and
the sap stops flowing. If your child or pet likes to chew on plants, rubber
tree is not a plant for your home.

What Will Kill Bugs on a Rubber Plant?

Rubber plants (Ficus elastica) are most commonly grown as houseplants,
but they are winter hardy in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant
hardiness zones 10 to 12 where they can be grown outdoors. They may
be attacked by a variety of bugs. To determine what should be done to
kill them, you need to identify the bugs. Proper care of the plant will
reduce the infestation severity and help the plant survive with little or no
permanent damage. Rubber plant houseplants should be planted in a
soilbased medium That drains quickly. The soil should dry slightly
between waterings And houseplant Fertilizer should be Given once A
month. Aphids Aphids can be black, brown, green, red or yellow and
have tiny oval to pear-shaped bodies. They have antennae and long legs
but they do not scurry around when disturbed. Aphids may or may not
have wings. They suck juices out of plant leaves and secrete a sticky
substance called honeydew. Heavy infestations will cause the leaves to
curl and turn yellow. Aphids can be knocked off of the plant and killed
with a strong spray of water from a hose.

When it is warm outside the plant can be taken outdoors to a shady area
and hosed off. In cold weather it can be placed in a shower. This will also
wash off the honeydew. Insecticidal sprays containing malathion may
also be used.
Mealybugs
Mealybugs are grayish-white bugs with tiny oval bodies that appear waxy
or cottony. They do not have wings or visible legs and move very slowly
if at all. Groups of them can usually be seen forming white, cottony
masses where the rubber plant leaves grow from the stem. They feed on
the plant juices and secrete honeydew.
Severe infestations cause the plant to grow slowly and drop leaves. The
plant should be sprayed with a hose to clean off the cottony masses and
honeydew. Insecticidal sprays containing malathion will kill them.
Armored and soft scale bugs are tiny insects that attach themselves to the
stems or leaves of a rubber plant and remain in the same spot throughout
their lives, feeding on the plant juices. Young scales or crawlers that have
not attached themselves yet look like tiny yellow or orange spots

Armored scales do not secrete honeydew but soft scales do. They are
commonly light tan but this varies depending on the species and life
stage. Severe infestations can cause plant leaves to wilt, yellow and fall
from the plant. If there is honeydew present it should be washed off.
Horticultural oil or an insecticidal spray containing malathion can be
used to kill both types of scale bugs. A systemic insecticide containing
imidacloprid can be used to kill soft scale bugs but it does not work on
armored scales.

Spider Mites
Spider mites are tiny spiders that are barely visible to the naked eye. The
rubber plant leaves develop a generally unhealthy appearance when
infested by spider mites, have tiny dots on them and may curl. There may
also be a fine spider web between leaves or on the undersides of leaves.
Hosing the plant down with water once or twice per week for several
weeks may be enough to kill spider mites. Insecticidal soap, miticides or
superior horticultural oil will also kill them.

Thrips
Thrips are tiny winged insects that puncture the leaves and feed on the
leaf tissue. They are generally dark brown, white or yellow and have
fringe on their wings. The rubber plant leaves develop white scars from
feeding and there will be tiny black flecks of fecal matter left behind.
Severe infestations may cause leaves to drop.
Imidacloprid, narrow-range oil, neem oil, pyrethrin-piperonyl butoxide
combinations and insecticidal soaps can be used to kill newly hatched
and young adult thrips.
Several applications applied at five- to 10-day intervals will be necessary,
as these pesticides do not kill the eggs.

My Rubber Tree Plant Leaves Are Turning Brown & Droopy

Written by Amie Taylor; Updated December 14, 2018
My Rubber Tree Plant Leaves Are Turning Brown & Droopy
Related Articles
1. Brown Spots on My Ficus Rubber Tree's Leaves
2. My Rubber Plant's Stems Are Turning Brown & Dying
3. What Makes the Bottom Leaves of Rubber Trees Fall Off?

4. Rubber Tree Plant Problems

Rubber tree plants (Ficus elastica), also known as India rubber figs or
India rubber trees, grow outdoors in U.S. Department of Agriculture
plant hardiness zones 10 to 12, but are typically grown as houseplants in
cooler climates. Native to Malaysia and
India, rubber tree plants have evergreen leaves and require little
maintenance.
Problems can arise that cause the leaves to droop and turn brown.
What Makes the Bottom Leaves of Rubber Trees Fall Off?
Perhaps rubber tree plants (Ficus elastica) were common in 1960s student
digs because they tolerated limited light and stale air -- and possibly
because the rugged plants were readily available in variety stores. Later,
numerous NASA studies would find that they help clean indoor air, too,
no doubt a boon to academic concentration.
When leaves begin dropping from the bottom of these sturdy trees, the
problem might lie in the soil below.

4. Rubber Tree Plant Problems

Rubber tree plants (Ficus elastica), also known as India rubber figs or
India rubber trees, grow outdoors in U.S. Department of Agriculture
plant hardiness zones 10 to 12, but are typically grown as houseplants in
cooler climates. Native to Malaysia and India, rubber tree plants have
evergreen leaves and require little maintenance.
Problems can arise that cause the leaves to droop and turn brown.
What Makes the Bottom Leaves of Rubber Trees Fall Off?
Perhaps rubber tree plants (Ficus elastica) were common in 1960s student
digs because they tolerated limited light and stale air -- and possibly
because the rugged plants were readily available in variety stores. Later,
numerous NASA studies would find that they help clean indoor air, too,
no doubt a boon to academic concentration. When leaves begin dropping
from the bottom of these sturdy trees, the problem might lie in the soil
below.

About Rubber Trees

Rubber tree plants are indeed trees, growing to 50 feet or more in their
native range from the Eastern Himalayas down the Malaysian peninsula
to Sumatra. Hardy in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness
zones 10 to 12, they are grown primarily as a houseplant in the U.S. and
valued for their thick evergreen leaves.
Breeders have expanded the species to include plants with purple or red
leaves or highlights along with the original foot-long green leaves.
Although the plants might attract the usual houseplant bad guys -- scale,
spider mites, mealybugs, aphids and
thrips -- these pests typically attack tender foliage, which would be near
the top of the plant.

Natural Aging
Bottom leaves drop as a rubber tree grows older. Like other ficus, rubber
plants grow Banyan-type aerial roots to age into a multiple-trunk tree
with roots along the surface of the ground. While this genus-specific type
of growth may not be likely in a rubber
plant that spends its life indoors, it’s not out of the question for one that
spends most of the year in a planter outdoors in dappled shade to consider
acting like one of its tropical forebears.

Needy Roots
Bottom leaves that turn yellow and fall off may be a sign of cramped
roots or shortage of nutrients. Rubber trees must be repotted periodically
into the next size pot or their roots will begin to grow around and around
the root ball and out the drainage holes, eventually strangling the plant’s
roots, blocking its ability to absorb nutrients. Plants need slow-release
or half-strength liquid houseplant fertilizer monthly while they are
actively growing. Rubber plants seldom bloom indoors, so nitrogen,
which provides food for foliage growth, is the probable need; shortages
of potash lead to necrotic leaf edges and leaf drop at the bottom of the
plant.

Operator Error
Both overwatering and underwatering might cause lower leaves to drop.
Rubber tree fleshy leaves are akin to succulents that store water in their
leaves, so too much water will cause leaves to become spongy and fall
off. Continual overwatering can lead to edema and death; underwatering
dehydrates the tropical plant. Rubber plants can be allowed to dry a bit
before water is added to encourage use of reserves.
Another common mistake involves placement of plants near floor vents
that create a draft of hot air in winter or cold air in summer. Rubber plants
do best in warm temperatures -- 75 to 80 degrees Fahrenheit during the
day and 60 to 65 degrees at night -- without drafts.

Brown Spots on My Ficus Rubber Tree's Leaves

Rubber trees (Ficus elastica) are broadleaf evergreen trees that grow
about 25 feet tall in the landscape. Outside their hardiness area of U.S.
Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 10 through 12, they are
often used as container plants and grow much smaller. The dark, glossy
leaves are large, reaching 8 to 12 inches
long,
so any leaf problems are very visible. If you
notice brown spots on your rubber tree
leaves, knowing the cause will help you
treat them.

What Is White Powder on Rubber Plants?

Valued for their large, glossy, exotic-looking leaves, rubber plants (Ficus
elastica), also known as rubber trees and India rubber figs, come from
Malaysia and India and grow outdoors in U.S. Department of Agriculture
plant hardiness zones 9 through 12. They can also grow as indoor
houseplants in cooler climates. Rubber plants don't typically suffer from
serious diseases, although they, like most other landscaping plants,
occasionally attract powdery
mildew fungal pathogens that
cause white
powder to spread across foliage
surfaces.

Powdery Mildew Symptoms

The powdery mildew fungus
causes a white to light gray,
powdery growth to form on the
surfaces of rubber plant leaves or
shoots. The mildew typically starts out as small spots or patches that
enlarge until they cover the entire surface area. This disease affects both
old and new foliage, but young, succulent leaves are especially
susceptible. New growth on affected rubber plants may be twisted,
dwarfed and covered with the white powder. Affected leaves typically
dry, yellow or brown, die and fall prematurely from the rubber plant.
Although powdery mildew symptoms may look unattractive, this disease
rarely kills any infected plants.

About Powdery Mildew

Powdery mildew is a fungal plant disease that easily spreads to new plant
hosts via wind gusts. Unlike other mildew diseases, the powdery mildew
pathogens can germinate and infect new plant tissue without the presence
of free water. The fungi thrive in shady locations with temperatures
ranging from 60 to 80 degrees Fahrenheit and humidity levels hovering
around 95 percent. This disease most commonly occurs when warm
spring or autumn days are followed by cool nights.

Cultural Controls
Following several cultural practices can help prevent or reduce powdery
mildew on rubber plants. Placing plants in fully sunny locations
frequently controls this fungal disease, but rubber trees can only handle
full-sun conditions in cooler climates.
Outdoor plants in hot, sunny climates prefer lightly to fully shady
conditions. In that case, focus on reducing the relative humidity levels
around your plant by pruning to improve air circulation, increasing plant
spacing and avoiding the use of overhead irrigation methods. Pruning out
and discarding diseased plant foliage helps get rid of the fungus that
spreads powdery mildew disease.

Chemical Control Methods

Several commercial fungicides effectively prevent or eradicate powdery
mildew disease, but less-toxic alternatives include neem oil, sulfur,
horticultural oils and biological fungicides containing Bacillus subtilis.
The Master Gardeners of Santa Clara County recommend preventing
powdery mildew disease by spraying your plant with a solution
containing about 2 1/2 tablespoons of horticultural oil, 4 teaspoons of
baking soda and 1 gallon of water. Using a solution of 1 fluid ounce of
neem oil and 1 gallon of water often works to eradicate the disease in as
little as 24 hours. Whether preventing or eradicating powdery mildew,
spray your rubber tree plant with the solution until you completely wet
the foliage. Repeat application every seven to 10 days until
environmental conditions no longer promote powdery mildew
growth.

Remedy to Diseases
We Recommend you to Contact Sanjeevan System of Farming, Pune.
Modern Agriculture has developed techniques like integrated nutrient
management, integrated pest management, precise farming, etc.
However while adopting these techniques too much interference is done
in the life cycle of crops as well as other living beings involved in
agriculture.
This interference leads to imbalance in their internal vital energies. This
imbalance is actually the root cause of various problem which we are
facing today.
Vasumitra Life Energies Pvt Ltd has developed Sanjeevan Krushi
System in 1995, to solve above mentioned problems. This system is
based on principles of Yog Shastra i.e. vital energy management.
It is also based on the basic principles of Vedas & Upanishads, in which
they have mentioned about Pancha Mahabhutas or Five Basic Elements
& Panch Prana or five life forces, of which all living beings are made of.
The ancient Indian sciences have postulated that all living beings have
two basic energies i.e. Self Nutrition Energy(SNE) & Self Protection
Energy(SPE). SNE is controlled by the energies of Pancha Mahabhutas
& SPE is controlled by Pancha mahabhuta.
They also postulated that all living beings including plants have capacity
and intelligence provided by nature, for nutrition & protection on their
own.
The balance between these two energies decides the health of the crop.
The balance is disturbed in case of biotic as well as abiotic stress. It is
the question how this balance could be restored.
It was thought if there was imbalance or block in the energies, then it can
be removed only by that source which is equivalent to the original vital
energy and not by any nutrient /hormone/enzyme, etc.
Our ancient Indian scientists have proven in Yog Shastra that this source
is solar/cosmic energy which enters into body at the time of respiration.
Solar/cosmic energies are stored in various herbs which work as primary
source of these energies.
Sanjeevan system identified various herbs and researched their role in
inducing the intelligent programme of the plants as well as in removing
the blocks in the energies of plants. In short we researched in vital energy
management in agriculture.
The potentized herbal extracts were formulated and were tried to solve
various problems like inability for uptake/ absorption of particular
nutrients N, P, K, etc., pests-disease attack, etc.
Research & Development
Team Of 4 Agriculture Scientists
Own lab of soil analysis, water analysis and plant analysis
Association for research with Apex agriculture institutes
Regularly sponsor PhD candidates in various universities

Manufacturing
5 manufacturing plants of Samved Humiphos in Kolhapur, Pune, Vasai
& Delhi.Manufacturing Capacity of 1000 MT per month which can be
increased up to 1500 MT per month. Liquid manufacturing plant at
Pune,Manufacturing Capacity of 1000 lit per day.

Marketing Network
 Strong marketing experience of 25 years
 Major focus on marketing of organic products
 VLEPL has own marketing network in Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Punjab, Assam, MP and Karnataka
 We are working in AP/ Telangana through a super distributor
(Sribs Biotekno Intrnational)
Products especially for Nutrition

Special Products

Dear Rubber Growing Farmers

Please feel free to contact
2.1.2. Rubber Cultivation
The Rubber Tree
Many plant species produce natural rubber. Considerations of quality
and economics, however, limit the source of natural rubber to one
species, namely Hevea brasiliensis.
It is a native of the Amazon basin and introduced from there to
countries in the tropical belts of Asia and Africa during late
19th century. It can be termed as the most far reaching and successful of
introductions in plant history resulting in plantations over 9.3 million
hectares, 95 per cent of it across the globe in Asia.
Hevea brasiliensis, also known as the Para rubber tree after the
Brazilian port of Para, is a quick growing, sturdy, perennial tree of a
height of 25 to 30 metres. It has a straight trunk and thick, somewhat
soft, light brownish gray bark.

The young plant shows characteristic growth pattern of alternating

period of rapid elongation and consolidated development. The leaves
are trifoliate with long stalks. The tree is deciduous in habit and winters
from December to February in India. Refoliation is quick and copious
flowering follows. Flowers are small but appearing in large clusters.
Fruits are three lobed, each holding three seeds, quite like castor seeds
in appearance but much larger in size. The seeds are oil bearing.
The rubber tree may live for a hundred years or even more. But its
economic life period in plantations, on general considerations is, only
around 32 years – 7 years of immature phase and 25 years of productive
phase. Commercial cultivation of rubber in India was started in 1902.

Propagation of Rubber
In India, Hevea seeds normally ripen during July-September when the
seeds are collected, and seedlings raised. All earlier plantations were
raised from unselected seeds. The yield potential of these having been
low, the production of those plantations was poor. Selection work on
Hevea with a view to improving the planting materials and the
introduction of vegetative propagation by budding led, in course of
time, to the establishment of numerous valuable clones.
Clonal Seeds
Seeds of clones are termed clonal seeds. There are different kinds of
clonal seeds – monoclonal, polyclonal, legitimate, and illegitimate.
Monoclonal seeds of clone Tjir 1 which gave rise to seedlings superior
to seedlings from ordinary, unselected seeds were once encouraged for
planting extensively in our country. Evolution of newer, improved
planting materials then progressively replaced Tjir 1 clonal seedlings.
Hybrid polyclonal seeds collected from approved polyclonal seed
gardens are the only seed material recommended for planting now.
For production of good quality polyclonal seeds, gardens have been
established in Kanyakumari district. Polyclonal garden seeds in the
name Prang Besar Isolated Garden (PBIG) seeds from Malaysia used to
find limited market in India until a few decades ago.

Polyclonal seedlings:
Seeds collected from clonal stands are known as clonal seeds.In olden
days monoclonal seeds of single mother clones such as Tjir 1, not
contaminated by crossing with seedling rubber or undesirable male
parent clones,had been extensively used as improved planting materials.
Now only clonal seeds of polyclonal origin which can be expected to
possess significant hybrid vigour are accepted. Ployclonal seeds of
good clones are planted in such seed gardens mixe as per
specific designs. For prevention of pollen contamination from rubber
trees of neighbouring area, an isolation belt of 100 meters width is
provided all around. Polyclonal seeds give rise to seedling of good
vigour and growth. Compared to buddings, they are easier to establish
and maintain. The trunk of seedling is much larger than those of
budded trees. Owing to the inherent genetic variability, they are
relatively less suceptible to wind damange and disease. However, the
general yield levels are far lower than selected modern clones. The
high tree to tree variability in growth and yield makes it necessary to
adopt thorough selection of seedling for planting based on initial viour,
high initial planting density in the main field and subsequent judicious
thinning out of weakilings and poor yielders in a phased manner. Still,
the trees exhibit proneness to tapping panel dryness. The average
annual yield is 1200 to 1300 kg/ha/yr.
Germination of Seeds
Rubber seeds lose viability very rapidly if left in the field. The seeds are
therefore picked up daily during the seed fall season and quickly
transported to nurseries for germination and planting.
For germination, raised level beds with a 5 cm thick layer of river sand,
90 cm wide and of convenient lengths are used. Partial shade to prevent
strong sun is necessary. The seeds are sown in a single layer touching
one another and germination beds are kept moist, but not wet, by evenly
sprinkling water during morning and evening. The seeds are covered
with loosely woven coir matting or gunnies.
Germination starts 6 to 7 days after sowing. Seeds sprouted each day
should be picked and planted in nursery beds or in the field. Germinated
seeds will have young roots emerging first. That is the ideal stage for
nursery planting. The sproutings are tender and require careful
handling. Usually, germinated seeds are carried to nursery beds in
buckets half filled with water. About 75 percent germination is
considered good. Pickings are done for about 21 days after sowing.

Nurseries
Nurseries are required for raising seedlings, budded stumps and
budwood. As far as possible open and level land should be selected for
raising nursery. Water should be easily available for irrigation. The soil
should be deep, well drained, and fertile.
The land should be dug to a depth of 75 cm and all stumps, roots, and
stones should be removed. Nursery beds should be prepared with 60 to
120 cm width and convenient lengths and with pathways laid in
between to facilitate manuring, watering, weeding etc.
Planting distances should vary according to the type of planting
materials to be raised in the nursery. The ideal spacing for seedlings is
30 cm X 30 cm. For budwood nurseries, the plants may be at distances
of 60 X 90 cm or 60 X 120 cm or 90 X 90 cm
Nursery management aims at the most rapid production of standard
healthy planting materials. More intensive care can be exercised in a
nursery than in a field. Plants which are obviously unsuitable can be
eliminated at an early stage. Mainframe operations for nursery include
weeding, mulching, irrigation during dry months, manuring and disease
and pest control.

Budding
The principle involved in budding is the replacement of the shoot
system of a plant with that of another more desirable plant. In this
process, a patch of bark of the seedling plant (stock) is replaced by a
patch of bark with a dormant bud (bud patch) taken from the clone to be
multiplied. The bud patch gets attached to the stock permanently and
becomes a part of it. The stock is then cut off above the budded portion
and the grafted bud develops into a shoot (scion) exhibiting the
characters of the plant from which it was taken. The new tree thus
formed is a two-part tree, comprising a root system belonging to the
stock plant and a shoot system contributed by the donor of the bud.
Depending on the colour and age of the buds as well as the age of the
stock plants used, three types of buddings are mainly recognized. These
are brown (conventional) budding, green budding and young budding.
In the first method, older buds having brown colour are used while in
the other two, green tender buds are utilised.
Depending on the part of the stock where budding is carried out,
buddings are classified into four types: base budding, crown budding,
over budding and high budding. Base budding is carried out at the base
of the stock plant and includes brown budding, green budding and
young budding.

Brown Budding

Brown budding is generally carried out by grafting brown coloured

buds taken from budwood of about one year's growth onto stock plants
of 10 months or more growth. Vigorously growing healthy stocks
having a girth of 7.5 cm at the collar region are ideal for budding.
Stocks should be budded when the bark peels off very easily. Peeling is
generally good when the top whorl of leaves is well developed, but
before further extension growth commences. Test peeling of a small
patch of bark above 15 cm from the base is the sure method to assess
the
peeling quality of the bark. Since all stock plants may not attain this
stage at the same time, more than one round of budding may be
necessary to cover all the stocks.
Brown buds are usually obtained from brown budwood produced by
budded plants raised in budwood nurseries. Buds found in the axils of
fallen leaves are generally utilised for budding. Budwood should be
collected when the top whorl of leaves has fully expanded but not
hardened to ensure proper peeling of the bark and high budding success.
Test peeling may be carried out beforeharvesting the budwood.
Collection of budwood should be done with sufficient care to avoid
bruising. As far as possible, budwood should be collected in
the morning or evening and should preferably be utilized for budding as
soon as collected. If budding is delayed, special measures should be
adopted for preventing moisture loss. Budwood is harvested as per the
requirement and cut into pieces of convenient length, usually 1 m.
Good quality budwood will have around 20 healthy, well-formed buds
per metre length. Weak and poorly formed buds should not be used.
While handling budwood of different clones, proper labelling must be
done for identification.
Budding is usually carried out with a specially designed knife having
two blades, called budding knife. However, an ordinary penknife with a
blade of 7 to 8 cm length could also be used. The first step in the
preparation of the stock plant for budding is thorough cleaning of the
basal 15 cm to remove dirt, soil, etc.
Cleaning can be done with cotton waste or rags. Then two parallel
vertical cuts starting from about 2.5 cm above the collar are made. The
length of these cuts should be a little more than 5 cm and 1.5 cm apart.
Then a horizontal cut joining the bottom ends of the vertical cuts is also
made. All the three cuts should be made deep enough to reach the
wood. After making these cuts the latex is allowed to completely ooze
out for a few minutes through the cuts. During this time, the budder can
mark a few more stocks in a similar manner. When the latex flow
ceases, it is wiped off from the surface. The flap of bark separated by
the three cuts is then gently lifted with the aid of the knife and peeled
upwards.
Alternatively, the upper ends of the vertical cuts may be connected by
the horizontal cut and the flap peeled downwards. The practice of
removing the flap completely is also adopted. The exposed region is
called the budding panel.
The bud patch used for brown budding should have a length of about 5
cm and a width of about 1.5 cm. For preparing the bud patch, two
parallel vertical cuts having a length of 5 cm are made on the two sides
of a bud, 1.5 cm apart Then two horizontal cuts are made connecting the
lower and upper ends ofthese cuts. A little time is allowed for the latex
to ooze out. During this time, incisions are made around neighbouring
buds of the same budwood. When the oozing of latex stops, it is wiped
off and the bud patch marked out by the four cuts is stripped off by
gently pushing to one side.
After removing the bud patch from the budwood, the inner side is
examined carefully for the presence of the core of the bud, which
appears as a slight projection. If it is not present, the bud patch should
be discarded. The bud patch should be handled with utmost care to
avoid any damage to the cambium.
It should always be held at the edges without touching the cambium.
Foreign matter like water, soil and sweat should not be allowed to fall
on the cambium.
Similarly exposing the cambium to strong sunlight or dry wind can
result in its drying. All these can cause damage to the cambium.
Damage to the cambium of the budding panel also should be avoided.
The four edges of the bud patch are then slightly trimmed. The bud
patch is then gently placed in the budding panel after lifting the flap. It
should be placed in such a way that the bud is above the leaf scar and its
inner side is in contact with the budding panel. Exposure of too
much area of the budding panel around the bud patch is unfavourable
for budding success. At the same time, the edges of the bud patch and
budding panel should not touch each other.
After placing the bud patch in the budding panel in the above manner,
the flap, if retained, is placed back over it and is then bandaged using
polythene strips of 45 cm length, 2.5 cm width and 250-gauge
thickness. Bandaging should commence at the bottom and move
upwards in a close spiral. During the first few turnings of the bandage,
the lower end of the flap should be kept gently pressed over the bud
patch to prevent it from slipping. Bandaging should be tightened to
keep the cambium tissues of the budding panel and the bud patch in
intimate contact with each other. The end of the tape is finally kept
intact with a knot. In the field and along borders of nurseries it may be
necessary to shade the bud patch against strong sunlight. This can
conveniently be done by tying a rubber leaf over the bud patch.
If the budding is successful, the cambium of the stock plant and that of
the bud patch unite and the bud patch establishes as a part of the stock.
The process requires 15 to 20 days and the plant is left undisturbed for
20 days after which the bandage is removed. The flap, if it had been
retained, is cut a little above the upper end of the bud patch and
removed. Freshness of the bud patch indicates initial success of the
budding. The final success is ascertained in a similar manner after
another 10 days.

Green Budding
Both the stock plant and budwood used for green budding are
incredibly young. Seedlings which are five to seven months old are
used as stock. Buds are collected from six to eight weeks old budwood,
also known as bud shoots or bud sticks. Buds found above the scale
leaves of the shoots alone are used for budding. These buds are green in
colour and hence the name green budding. Young, vigorous seedlings
raised in nursery or in polythene bags are used as stock plants for green
budding. Plants having a girth of about 2.5 cm at the base, with brown
bark up to a height of about 15 cm, can be used for this purpose. The
stock plants require about four to five months to attain this size. By
proper care, this period could be further reduced.
Green budwood is obtained from budwood plants (source bushes)
grown in nurseries for this purpose. They are collected when six to
eight weeks old, when they have a length of 30 to 60 cm with a whorl
of leaves at the top. The bud shoots are harvested by cutting at the base
with a sharp knife. For proper
peeling of the bud patch, harvesting should be done when the leaves are
copper brown to dark green in colour. After harvesting, the leafy
portion of the shoot is cut off. The non-leafy portion shows two to five
scale leaves with axillary buds which are utilised for budding.
After cleaning the basal portion of the stock, two vertical incisions, a
little more than 5 cm long and 1 cm apart are made starting from a point
about 2.5 cm above the collar region. The lower ends of these cuts are
joined by a horizontal cut and a few minutes allowed for the cessation
of latex flow. The flap is then cut off leaving a short "tongue" of about
1.5 cm at the top. The stock is now ready to receive the bud patch.
The bud patch can be stripped from the bud shoot in the same way as in
the case of brown budding. However, other methods can also be
employed for this purpose. In one such method, a 6 cm long bud patch
shaped like a pointed tower is marked out. Then the top 1 cm is
separated from the bud shoot and holding on to this portion (by
touching the inner and outer sides), the whole bud patch is gently
stripped off. The top 1 cm of the bud patch with damaged cambium is
pruned off. In a third method the bud patch along with a thin slice of
wood is first taken from the bud shoot. This is the bud slip. The two
sides of the bud slip are trimmed to the required width. The bud patch is
then gently separated from the wood by pulling them apart. While doing
so care should be taken to see that the bud patch does not bent. Only the
slice of wood is bend. After separation, the lower and upper ends of the
bud patch are also trimmed. When finally prepared, the bud patch
should have a length of approximately 5 cm and a width of 1 cm, so that
it fits snugly into the budding panel.
The upper end of the bud patch prepared in the above manner is gently
inserted under the `tongue’ and placed in the budding panel. Then the
bud patch is secured firmly by bandaging with a transparent polythene
strip as in the case of brown budding. This strip should be about 25 cm
long and 2 cm wide. Transparent tape is insisted upon as it allows light
to fall on the green bud patch which in turn enhances budding success.
For the same reason, no shading is given. Buds are examined three
weeks after the budding by observing through the bandage or after
removing the bandage. Retention of the green colour is the indication of
budding success. Final observation on budding success is done after 10
more days. If the observations are made through the bandage, after the
second observation, the bandage is removed. The plant is now ready for
cutting back.
Budding can be carried out at any time of the year. However, too dry, or
very wet weather is unsuitable. Generally, more success is obtained
during rainy season than in summer. Experiments have shown that in
India the period from April to October is generally suited for brown
budding. The success rate of green budding is more during summer
months also. However, heavy rainfall is not suited for budding. For best
results, budding should be carried out either in the early morning hours
or in the evenings.
Both brown budding and green budding have certain advantages and
disadvantages.

Advantages of Green Budding over Brown Budding

It utilizes the growth of the stock more efficiently, i.e. when green
budded plants are cut back, only a small amount of stock growth is
lost, Green budding is simpler and faster than brown budding and hence
more number of plants can be budded reducing the labour cost per
budding, It gives higher percentage of success during summer than
brown budding, Opening of the budding and cutting back can be done
simultaneously, thus saving labour cost, Yield of green buds from a unit
area of nursery is two to three times that of brown buds, Since the
polythene strip used for green budding is smaller, cost incurred for this
material is reduced, After cutting back green buds develop earlier than
brown buds, Green budding is more suitable for crown budding.

Major Defects of Green Budding Technique

Green bud shoots cannot be retained in the nursery for long after they
become mature enough for harvesting,
After harvesting, green sticks cannot be kept for long periods, unlike in
the case of brown budwood Scion of green budding is less vigorous
than that of brown budding and hence it requires very careful attention
during the early period of growth, especially in the field.

Young Budding
This is a kind of green budding carried out on incredibly young plants
less than two months old. Stocks are raised in small bags of lay flat size
33 x 15 cm. The plants are given intensive nursing such as foliar
application of fertilisers and fungicides twice weekly and soil
application of NPKMg mixture weekly. When seven to eight weeks old,
they are green budded. Four weeks after budding, plants are cut back
leaving a snag of 20 to 25 cm length. Buds on the snag are nicked or the
shoots coming from then pruned off promptly. When the scion develops
two or three whorls of leaves, the plants are transplanted to the field.
This technique has got certain advantages over the normal green
budding technique.
By adopting this technique bag plants could be produced within seven
months after the planting of germinated seeds in the bags, which is
usually done in August/September. In our country, the time required for
this is around nine months in the case of normal green budding. Since
small bags are used to produce plants transportation is easier.
The cost of production is also slightly less compared to the normal
method. Since the stock plants required for young budding are raised by
sowing seeds directly in the bag, these plants have a better developed
root system than the plants raised from green budded stumps. A well-
developed root system prevents breaking of soil core and ensures faster
and easier establishment of plants after transfer to the field.
However, under the climatic conditions existing in our country this
method does not have much practical application because by the time
the bag plants produced from young buddings are ready (February -
March) the climate becomes unfavourable for field planting. Hence
planting must be delayed up to the onset of monsoon (June). Bag plants
produced from green buddings also becomes ready by this time.

Crown Budding
Replacing the undesirable crown of a high yielding clone with a
desirable crown is of practical significance. In many of the modern
clones, though the trunk possesses a capacity for high yield, the crown
shows many undesirable characters like susceptibility to wind and
diseases. An undesirable crown can be replaced by a desirable one
through crown budding. The tree produced by crown budding is a three-
part-tree comprising the root system of the stock plant, trunk
of one clone and the crown of another clone. Thus, the desirable
characters of the trunk of one clone and crown of another clone are
combined.
Crown budding is ideally carried out when the scion of the budded plant
has attained a height of 2.4 to 3 m. One to two years are usually
required for the plants to attain such a growth. The height of the plant is
more important than the age. Crown budding may be commenced when
50 to 60 per cent of the plants in the field are buddable. Budding is
carried out at a height of 210 to 240 cm on the inter-whorl region below
the top whorl of leaves. It should be done only when the top flush of
leaves is fully expanded and hardened. Stem tissue should be green or
dark green at the time of budding. This ensures maximum budding
success.
Too tender or too mature stem tissues adversely affect budding success.
If the topmost flush of leaves is not mature enough, budding could be
done below the second whorl of leaves provided all other conditions are
satisfied.
Plants having height up to 4.5 m can also be used for crown budding. In
the case of such overgrown plants having green tissue at a height higher
than the prescribed, the height of budding must be raised
correspondingly to carry it out below the top whorl.
For crown budding, the budding green technique is followed. Since the
budding must be done at a higher level, a self-supporting ladder should
be used. On no account should the plant be bent for budding or any
other operations. If the budding is a failure, rebudding is done on the
opposite side of the stem, 5 cm above or below the first budding.
Successfully budded plants are cut back leaving a snag of about 5 cm.
Treating the cut ends of the stem with some wound dressing compound
is desirable. After cutting back, usually many trunk shoots arise. All of
them should be pruned regularly at fortnightly intervals with a knife
having a long handle. This should be continued until the crown bud
sprouts and the crown shoot grows to a length of about 2.5 cm. After
that, two or three trunk shoots arising about 15 to 45 cm below the
crown shoot can grow. These shoots should be spaced
apart and be on different sides of the stem as far as possible.
They should never be allowed to become more dominant than the
crown shoot, as this may suppress the growth of the latter. For this, if
necessary, the top portion of the trunk shoots may be pruned. About
nine months after cutting back, when the crown-trunk union is firmly
established, the trunk shoots are pruned. Necessary precautionary
measures must be taken for the protection of the crown shoot especially
from wind damage and perching of birds. The crown shoot later fully
establishes itself and in due course develops to be the crown of the
three-part tree. If the crown shoot is lost for some reason before the
pruning of the trunk shoots, the most vigorous among them is again
crown budded, if possible, or allowed to develop as the crown.
Over Budding
Budwood plants are sometimes budded at higher levels for converting
an existing budwood nursery of a clone to another clone without
replanting. This is termed as over budding. The method adopted is to
carry out budding at the basal portion of the brown budwood before
harvesting it. The budwood is harvested after the new bud is
successfully attached to the plant, by cutting above the budded portion.
Since the budding is carried out on a well-established plant, the scion
emerging from the new bud grows vigorously producing more budwood
compared to a newly established budwood plant. Thus, it is a quick and
economic method for converting budwood nursery of one clone to that
of another.

Tissue Culture
Propagation of rubber is possible through tissue culture also. Tissue
culture or micro propagation is the technique of producing plants from
small (micro) pieces of plant tissues. Studies on tissue culture of rubber
plants were started in 1966. Different parts of the plant such as embryo,
anther, shoot tip and integument can be used for tissue culture.
Rubber Research Institute of India has developed a technique to
produce tissue culture plants from shoot tips as well as somatic
embryogenesis of different tissues. Rubber plants were developed by
the somatic embryogenesis of anther tissue, integumental tissue,
immature inflorecence etc. Attempts are being made for the tissue
culture of other plant parts like leaf, floral buds, ovules, and micro
spores.
Key steps in tissue culture of hevea include collection of the explant,
sterilization, inoculation of the explant in a nutrient media
supplemented with growth hormones and sucrose. The cultures were
kept under optimum light and temperature conditions for the required
period.

Plants were formed in about eight months. They were then transferred
to small polybags and kept in a greenhouse for hardening. Even for the
same clone the culture conditions vary with the physiological stage of
the explant, seasons, part of the plant used etc. Because of these
variations separate protocols must be developed for each clone. This is
a laborious and time-consuming process. However, procedures have
been perfected for the propagation of several important clones by
optimising these parameters. As in the case of most other tree crops,
multiplication rate in tissue culture is exceptionally low for rubber.
Further in the post-laboratory stages mortality is extremely high.
However, after overcoming all these hurdles the RRII has successfully
developed many plants through various methods of tissue culture. These
plants have been established in the field . Test tapping carried out on
certain clones over their bud-grafted control and they are under
different stages of evaluation.

Preparation and Packing of Propagation Materials

The propagation materials handled by rubber growers are ungerminated
seeds, germinated seeds, seedling stumps, brown budwood, green bud
shoot, brown budded stumps, green budded stumps, polybag plants and
stumped buddings. Specific techniques are required for the preparation
of these materials. If not properly prepared, their quality could be
reduced, which in turn adversely
affects the establishment after planting. After preparation, these
materials may require storing and/or transportation. During storage and
transit, they are likely to get damaged by loss of moisture or by
breaking, rubbing, bruising, crushing, etc. To avoid these and to give
ample protection to these materials, certain specific methods are
adopted for packing and transporting.

Ungerminated Seeds
Fresh and healthy seeds collected from the field can be kept under
shade without much loss of viability for about seven days. Storing fresh
seeds in water at ambient temperature increases their water content,
which in turn prolongs the viability. By packing seeds loosely in well-
aerated containers with powdered charcoal having 20 per cent moisture,
70 per cent viability can be retained up to 30 days. Storage of seeds at
40 c in sealed polythene bags is also considered to be a reliable method
for retaining viability up to four months. Immediately after collection,
seeds are generally packed in powdered charcoal of 20 per cent
moisture for transportation. Containers usually used are wooden boxes,
double gunny bags, bags lined with polythene or polythene bags. For
transporting over exceptionally long distance, seeds may be packed
tightly in layers in aerated cases with damp sawdust-charcoal powder
mixture, at least 2 cm thick between two layers of seeds.

Germinated Seeds
Germinated seeds are collected from germination beds when the radicle
just comes out of the seed. If the root can elongate it may get damaged
while packing and transporting. To prevent this, germination beds are
inspected every day and germinated seeds are picked up.

Brown Budwood
After harvesting, the brown budwood is cut into pieces of one metre
length with a pruning saw for the convenience of handling. Immature
top portion, which may be green or partially brown, is discarded. For
use on the same day and transporting over short distance brown
budwood is kept wrapped in wet sacking. For longer storage and
transporting, their cut ends are sealed with melted wax and each piece
covered with banana sheath, wet sacking, coconut fibre, or
grass leaves. They are then tied into bundles of convenient size. By this
method, viability could be retained up to three days. For storing up to
14 days and carrying over exceptionally long distances each piece is
first wrapped with perforated polythene and then packed in boxes with
wet sawdust or coconut fibre.is possible up to six days.

Green Bud Shoots

After collection of the shoots, their leaf bearing top portion is cut off.
The leafless lower part having the scale leaves are used for taking buds.
Since green bud shoots are tender it is better to use them for budding
immediately after harvesting. Usually shoots harvested in the morning
are used on the same day, preferably by noon. In the seedling nursery
they are carried in trays or buckets containing water or kept rolled in
wet sack or cloth without touching each other and always kept in shade.
If packed with wet, aged saw dust in alternating layers after sealing the
cut ends with wax, storage
Seedling Stumps
Seedling prepared to a convenient size by pruning the stem and roots
are called seedling stumps. Healthy and vigorous one-year old seedlings
are generally used for this. The seedlings should have a minimum girth
of about 7.5 cm at the base and brown colour up to a height of 45 cm or
more. For stumping, at first, the seedlings are cut back at some point
between 45 and 60 cm, where the brown colour ends. Pruning is always
done with a slanting cut, preferably above a whorl of buds. While
cutting back green or partially brown stem should not be retained on the
plant. Transpiration can take place through such regions and the
resulting loss of water may lead to the drying of the after planting. saw
dust in alternate layers.

The plants are left in the nursery for 7 to 10 days. During this period, a
few buds below the cut end become activated and swell. At this stage,
the decapitated plants are pulled out without causing much damage to
the roots and bark of the stem. The taproot is pruned to the maximum
possible length, but not more than 60 cm and not less than 45 cm. The
minimum of 45 cm is insisted for the sake of better establishment and
the maximum of 60 cm is fixed for the convenience of handling. Lateral
roots are pruned to a length of 10 to 15 cm. Plants infected by diseases
or having defective roots are discarded. If more than one taproot is
present the most vigorous one alone should be retained, and all others
pruned off at the base. After preparing the seedling stumps by proper
pruning of roots and stem, the cut end of the stem is immediately sealed
by dipping in molten paraffin wax. For transporting over short distances
they are tied into bundles and then covered with a layer of grass or
leaves. In this manner they can be stored up to three days. If
transporting over large distances and storing for days together are
required, it is better to avoid stumping the seedlings days before pulling
out. Pruning of shoot and roots may be carried out after pulling out. The
stumps in such cases are packed in boxes along with wet saw dust in
alternate layers.
Brown Budded Stumps
Brown budded plant prepared for planting by pruning the stem and
roots is known as brown budded stump. The ideal way to prepare a
brown budded stump is to cut the stem of the plant at a height of about
7.5 cm above the upper end of the bud patch. The cut should have a
downward slant of around 45o from the side of the bud to the opposite
side. The plants are then pulled out and the taproot pruned to a length of
45-60 cm and the laterals to a length of 10-15 cm. While gripping the
stem for pulling out the plant, special care should be taken not to exert
any pressure on the bud patch. Otherwise there are chances for the bud
to get damaged. In case it is found difficult to pull out the plant after
cutting back the plant can be pulled out before cutting back and then
pruned. If the budded stumps are intended for planting in polybags the
taproot should be pruned to a length about 15 cm less than the height of
the soil core. Rejection of defective plants, pruning of multiple taproots
etc. are like those of seedling stumps.
Brown budded stumps are hardy and hence a proper method of packing
retains the viability for a longer time. The cut ends of the stem are first
sealed with melted wax. The bud patch is protected by covering with a
small piece of banana sheath or folded rubber leaf. For overnight
storing, they are kept erect in water as in the case of seedling stumps.
For retaining their viability up to three days and carrying over short
distances they are tied into bundles and each bundle covered with
banana sheath, grass, or leaves. At the time of planting the protective
covering of the bud patch is removed. For long distance transport of
budded stumps involving preservation over a few weeks, advance
cutting back of budded plants before pulling out should be avoided. The
freshly cut back and pruned budded stumps should have their cut ends
sealed by molten wax and the whole stump given a light fungicide
treatment. They are then packed in boxes with wet sterilized sawdust.

Green Budded Stumps

Green budded stumps are prepared from green budded plants in almost
the same way as that of brown budded stumps. The major difference is
that if cutting back is done before pulling out it should be done seven
days before pulling out as green buds require lesser time for activation.
Green budded stumps being comparatively tender and smaller with less
reserve food stored in them, it is always preferable to plant them
immediately after preparation. Packing methods adopted for green
budded stumps are basically the same as that adopted for brown budded
stumps. Protection to the bud patch can also be provided by retaining
the polythene strip used for bandaging the bud patch at the time of
budding. Standing in water enables preservation overnight. Additional
steps like sealing of the cut end of root, tying into bundles and covering
the bundles with grass etc. gives protection for two days. If packed in
boxes with wet saw dust these could be safely stored up to six days and
transported over long distances.
In the case of both types of budded stumps described above the budded
plant should be pulled out without much delay after budding. If retained
in the nursery for a long time the dormancy of the buds will increase
and consequently their sprouting after planting may be delayed.

Polybag Plants
While transporting polybag plants utmost care should be given to
prevent any damage to the soil core. If the soil core is damaged roots
may break and consequently the plant will be deprived of all the
advantages of bag planting. Transporting over a short distance is done
by carrying them on the head or shoulder. Vehicles like lorry, truck,
tractor, etc. are used for transporting over long distances. While
transporting by vehicles, the bags are stacked on the platform tightly to
reduce their swaying and shaking to the minimum.
Providing shade for protection from hot sun is also desirable. The bag
should always be kept in a vertical position while loading, unloading,
and transporting. Carrying them in inclined or horizontal position may
cause breaking of soil core. Care should also be taken to avoid tearing
of the bags as it also can increase the chances for breaking of the soil
core.

Stumped Buddings
Stumped buddings are mainly of two types, mini stumps, and maxi
stumps. To prepare mini stumps the scion is cut back when it develops
brown colour up to a height of 60 cm from the bud union. Pruning is
done at the point where brown colour ends preferably below a whorl of
buds. The cut end is treated with any wound dressing material to
prevent dehydration. Stem is then whitewashed with hydrated lime to
avoid sun-scorching. Ten days are given for the activation of buds.
Then the plants are pulled out and the roots pruned as in the case of
budded stumps. If pulling out is found to be difficult due to the deep
taproot it can be made easy by removing the soil at one side of the
taproot up to a depth of 45 to 60 cm. A crowbar is inserted through this
opening and the taproot is severed at the desired depth. This is called
tailing.
For preparing maxi stumps cutting back of the scion is carried out when
brown colour is formed up to a height of 240 cm. First step in the
extraction of the plant is the tailing which is done five weeks before
pulling out. Early tailing reduces the transplanting shock and enhances
the development of new roots from the cut end after transplanting. After
tailing soil removed for this purpose is placed back. Pollarding of the
stem is done 10 days before pulling out at a height of 240 cm. where
brown colour ends. As in the case of mini stumps pruning of stem is
done below a whorl of buds. Wound dressing, white washing, pulling
out and pruning of lateral roots are also undertaken as donefor mini
stumps. Packing and transporting of mini stumps are like that of
seedling stumps. Maxi stumps are not usually made into bundles due to
their large size. They are packed head to tail on lorries or trailers, using
grass or leaves as packing medium to prevent bruising and drying.

Root trainer plants

Root trainers generally used have a length of 26 cm with a capacity of
600 cc. The specific features like tapering shape, vertical ridges in the
container wall, drainage hole at the bottom are all incorporated with the
purpose of professionally training the structural development of roots
and hence the container is termed as root trainer. Cured coir pith mixed
with the appropriate quantities of single phosphate, neem cake, bone
meal, fungicides and pesticides are used as the potting medium. After
planting budded stumps, preferably greed budded stumps, the root
trainers are stacked in carriers made of iron rod or bamboo splints.
Initially the base of the container is covered with top soil and the roots
growing out of the soil put beneath the containers is removed, roots are
pruned and the plants along with the containers are kept suspended in
air for hardening for a minimum of eight weeks. During the hardening
process, the tap root resumes growth in a few days and undergoes
natural air pruning near the hole at the bottom and thus prevent its
coiling inside the container.
This stress induces emergence of large number of lateral roots into the
well aerated potting medium. The vertical ridges of the container wall
direct these roots downwards and thus prevent its circular growth.
These lateral roots also undergo air pruning and as a result a hardended
root trainer plant will have a root system consisting of central tap root
and large number of lateral roots well oriented without any deformity.
The root plug is separated from the container just before transplanting
to the field. The root trainer plant is kept up right down and the brim of
the container is tapped against a hard surface so that root plug comes
out of the container without causing any damage to the roots. A
planting hole is made in the refilled pit by pressing the empty container
itself and the root plug is inserted into it. The soil is pressed slightly
from the sides and all other cultural practices are adopted as in the case
of polybag plants.

Rubber Growing Regions

The rubber growing regions in India can be classified under two major
zones, traditional and non-traditional based on agro-climatic conditions.
Non-traditional Regions
These are hinterlands of coastal Karnataka, Goa, Konkan Region of
Maharashtra, hinterlands of coastal Andhra Pradesh and Orissa, the
northeastern states, Andaman, and Nicobar Islands etc, where rubber is
now being grown.
Agro-climatic Requirements
Humid tropical climate prevails in the rubber-growing tract. Average
annual rainfall in the tract varies from about 2000-4500 mm. The
southern parts of the traditional tract enjoy southwest and northeast
monsoons almost equally while the northern areas receive mostly the
southwest monsoon. From south to north the drought period extends
from two to five months in a year and the distribution of rainfall
becomes more uneven. However, variation in temperature and humidity
in the rubber tract is not so marked as that of the rainfall. The
temperature remains very warm and humidity extremely high
throughout the year.

Climatic Conditions for Optimum Growth of Rubber Tree

Rainfall of 2000 to 3000 mm evenly distributed without any marked dry
season and with 125 to 150 rainy days per annum
Maximum temperature of about 29oC to 34oC and minimum of about
20oC or more with a monthly mean of 25 to 28oC High atmospheric
humidity of the order of 80%
Bright sunshine amounting to about 2000 h per annum at the rate of 6 h
per day through all the months
Absence of strong winds
Only a few regions in India meet all these requirements. Fortunately,
rubber can be grown successfully under moderately deviating
conditions too.

Rubber Growing Soils

Soil Type
Soil in the rubber tract is generally highly weathered and consists
mostly of laterite, lateritic types. Sedimentary types and nonlateritic red
and alluvial soils are also seen in some non-traditional areas. The
laterite and lateritic soils are mostly very porous, well drained,
moderately to highly acidic, deficient in available phosphorus and
varying in potassium and magnesium content. Red soil found in some
areas is characterized by reddish to brown colour and fine loamy
texture. This soil is generally acidic and highly deficient in available
phosphorus.
Soil Depth
Soil for rubber cultivation should have a minimum depth of one metre
without any intervening hardpan or impenetrable layer. Water table
should also be well below one metre so that at least one metre of soil
with good aeration, essential for root penetration is available.

Drainage
Well-drained soil is essential for optimum growth and yield of rubber
plants. In marshy areas, owing to poor physical properties and
waterlogged conditions growth of rubber is always found to be
extremely poor.
Nursery Establishment
Nurseries are established and maintained for raising various
propagation materials for planting. These include seedling stumps,
budded stumps and advanced planting materials like polybag plants,
stumped buddings, and soil core plants. Mother plants or source bushes
for the multiplication of budwood are also grown in nurseries. Raising
of plants is easier and cheaper in nurseries than in the main field.
Moreover, nurseries offer an opportunity for selection of vigorous and
uniform plants.

Types of Nursery
Area required for various types of nurseries

Types of Nursery
Planting materials for establishing rubber plantations are generated in
seedling, budwood and polybag nurseries.

Selection of Site
The site selected for a ground nursery should have good accessibility
for supervision and transport of materials. If the purpose of the nursery
is to raise materials for planting a large area in the estate, it may be
located at a suitable site within this area itself. A good soil depth of at
least 75 cm is essential. Loamy soils are ideal for ground nurseries.
Extremely sandy soils are not suitable since leaching of plant nutrients
is faster. Retention of moisture is poor in such soils, necessitating
frequent watering during summer months. Soil containing too much of
clay are also unsuitable mainly because of poor drainage. A well-
drained level area is ideal for a nursery since the various operations will
be easy and cheap in such sites. However, undulating lands are also
suitable if adequate soil conservation measures are adopted. Contour
terracing is done where the slope is more than two per cent.
Waterlogged areas should be avoided, and water table should be
sufficiently low to allow sufficient soil depth for root development.
Shade free areas are preferred. Land with a history of intensive
cropping needs proper buildup of the nutrient status to the satisfactory
level.

Preparation of Nursery Beds

For the preparation of a ground nursery, the soil is first dug to a depth
of 60 to 75 cm. Stones, stumps, roots, etc present in the soil are
removed and the soil is brought to a fine tilth. Beds should be 90 to 120
cm wide and of convenient length. In the level lands, raised beds are
made with footpaths of about 45 cm width between the beds, and in
undulating lands, beds are prepared along the contours, one below the
other. At the time of preparation of nursery beds, 25 kg of compost or
well-rotten cattle manure and 4 kg of powdered rock phosphate (18%
P2O5) are incorporated for every 100 m2 of nursery bed. When
nurseries are established in newly cleared forest areas rich in organic
matter, compost or cattle manure need not be applied during the first
year. Similarly, when the same area is repeatedly used as a nursery,
rock phosphate need be applied only once in three years. Drainage and
pathways should be provided appropriately.

Seed Germination Beds

Rubber seeds are first germinated in germination beds and then planted
in nursery. A well-drained area with moderate shade is the ideal site for
germination beds. Level beds of 90 cm width and convenient length are
prepared with walking space in between. The beds should be raised 10
to 15 cm above the soil surface to avoid waterlogging. A free draining
friable material, like river sand, spread above the bed to a thickness of 5
cm is used as the medium for germination. Rubber seeds are viable only
for a short period and are put in germination beds as soon as obtained.
Seeds are washed thoroughly to remove charcoal and other packing
debris and spread over the bed in a single layer touching one another
and pressed gently into the sand. To prevent loss of too much moisture
from the rooting medium, the beds are covered with a thin layer of
gunny bag, coir matting or similar material. A high level of moisture is
maintained in the bed by evenly sprinkling water early in the mornings
and late in the evenings. Germination of the seeds starts within six to
seven days after sowing. The beds should be inspected daily, and the
germinated seeds picked up and collected in a bucket containing water
as soon as the radicle emerges for planting in the nursery beds or main
field. If the picking of germinated seeds is delayed, chances of damage
during handling will be greater. Seeds which do not germinate within
two to three weeks should bediscarded as they are likely to give rise to
weak seedlings.

Planting in Nursery
For planting germinated seeds in the nursery beds, small holes enough
to accommodate the seeds in a horizontal position and approximately 5
cm deep are made. The seeds are carefully placed in the holes with the
radicle pointing downwards and covered with soil. The sprouted seeds
should be planted when the young root is less than 2 cm long. The
germinated seeds should be carefully handled to prevent damage of the
radicle. Spacing varies according to the type of planting material to be
raised in the nursery. The common spacing adopted for raising seedling
stumps is 30 x 30 cm. To produce green-budded stumps 23 x 23 cm
spacing may be followed. For brown-budded stumps a spacing of
30 x 30 cm or staggered pairs of rows 60 cm apart and 23 cm between
plants may be adopted. A spacing of 60 x 60 cm, 90 x 30 cm, 90 x 60
cm, or 90 x 90 cm is required to produce various kinds of stumped
buddings. For raising soil core plants, a spacing of 35 x 35 cm, 38 x 30
cm or 60 x 60 cm may be followed. The spacing adopted for budwood
nursery is 90 x 60 cm or 120 x 60 cm., wider spacing being between
rows.
The rows are first marked on either end of each nursery bed using row
markers. A long cord of coir rope, wire or country twine, with the
planting distance along the row marked on it, is stretched tight along the
length of the bed on the row markers on either end and germinated
seeds are planted at each mark along the line. In budwood nursery,
budded stumps are planted at the required spacing.
Alternatively, seeds can be directly sown in the beds at the required
spacing and budded in situ. After bud take, they are cut back, and the
scion allowed to develop.

Budwood Nursery
Buds required for bud grafting are collected from budwood obtained
from plants raised specifically for this purpose. Budwood nurseries are
of two types, namely brown budwood nursery and green budwood
nursery. The former produces brown buds while the latter, green buds.
Site selected for establishing the budwood nursery is first cleaned and
levelled. Terracing is done on slopes. Soil is first dug to a depth of 45 to
60 cm. Planting can be done with polybag plants, budded stumps or
seed at stake followed by budding. Spacing usually adopted for brown
budwood nursery is 90 x 60 cm. For green bud shoot nursery, the
spacing is 1 x 1 m or 80 x 90 cm. Proper fertilizer application may be
carried out to ensure good growth. Other agronomic practices such as
irrigation, mulching, weeding, shading, protection against diseases and
pests are followed in a similar manner as for seedling nursery. Details
on this can be found at Sections "Manuring/ Fertiliser Application",
Weed Management", Mulching, Shading and Whitewashing" etc.
During the first year of planting only one shoot can grow. About 1 m of
brown budd wood can be obtained from this after one year. From the
second year, two or three shoots can develop on a plant depending on
the spacing adopted. To remove the leaves, present in the brown-
coloured

Budwood Nursery

After about one week the leaf stalk dries and falls off. Budwood is then
harvested by sawing off, leaving about 15 cm at the base. From this
portion shoots develop in the subsequent season. Green bud shoot
plants are shaped from brown budwood plants. For this, a well-
established brown budwood plant is first cut back at a height of about
75 cm. Several shoots emerge below the cut end. Among these, three to
five most vigorous ones alone are retained, and the rest removed. When
these shoots have grown and produced brown wood to a length of about
5 cm they are pruned at the point where the brown colour ends to
produce more branches. Two to three most vigorous branches are
retained on each shoot and the others cut off. When these secondary
branches develop brown colour at the basal 5 cm they are again pruned.
New branches arise from these and give the budwood plant a bushy
appearance. For producing green shoots, all the branches of a green bud
shoot plant (also called source bush) are pruned. The new branches
arising are harvested when one whorl of leaves develop. The harvested
budwood is cut into pieces of convenient length before being taken to
the nursery beds for budding.

Polybag Nursery
Planting materials in polybags can be prepared by two different
methods. Budded stumps can be planted in polybag and the scion
allowed to develop till they are ready for planting in the field. In the
other method, germinated seeds are planted in polybags and bud-grafted
when five to six months old. The former gives greater opportunity for
selection of the most vigorous plants and avoids wastage of bags
containing poor seedlings and budding failures. The roots of budded
stumps can be treated with indolebutyric acid (IBA), a hormone which
enhances root growth. Dipping root in cow dung slurry before planting
enhances root development.
The bags may be of black or transparent polyethylene. Transparent
bags, when used, should always be kept buried in soil, as otherwise, the
development of roots will be affected. The use of black polyethylene
bags is generally preferred. Depending on the size of the plant to be
produced, bags of different dimensions may be used. Polythene bags of
lay flat dimension 55 to 60 cm length and 25 to 30 cm width which can
hold about 8 to 10 kg soil, are usually used for raising plants up to two
to three whorlstage. For producing plants of six to seven whorls, larger
bags of 65 x 35 cm size and holding about 23 kg soil should be used. To
facilitate drainage, enough holes should be punched on the lower half of
the bags. Low density polyethylene (LDPE) sheet of 400 gauge and
500-gauge thickness are usually used for making small bags and large
bags, respectively. Bags made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE)
sheets can also be us0e4-d02f-2o0r13this purpose. However, such bags
are likely to deteriorate when exposed

Polybag Nursery
The soil used for filling the bags should have good moisture and
nutrient retention capacity, promote root development, and bind the
roots firmly to prevent damage during transport. Soils with clay-loam
texture, good structure and friability are ideal for this purpose. The
fertile topsoil collected after removing the surface vegetation and leaf
litter is ideal for filling the bags. Before filling, large clods of soil are
broken, and if too wet, partially dried. The soil is cleaned by removing
stones, roots, and stubbles. While filling, the bag should be gently
tapped to ensure compact filling of soil without leaving air spaces. The
bag is filled up to about 2 cm below the brim. Powdered rock phosphate
at the rate of 25 g for small bags and 75 g for large bags is mixed with
the top layer of soil. The filled bags can be kept in the nursery either in
trenches or on the ground supported with wooden poles. The former
method is better as it would give greater protection of the bags and
better growth of the plants. Trenches having width equal to the diameter
of the bag are usually dug in pairs. For small bags, depth of trench may
be about 20 cm and the distance between rows in a pair of trenches 15
cm. The corresponding depth and distance for large bags are 30 cm and
20 cm. The gap between bags of same trench is 10 cm. Footpath of 75
cm width may be left between two pairs of trenches. After placing the
bag in the trench, the excavated soil is filled in the gap between them.
The remaining soil is mounted around the bags. Planting of
budded stumps or sprouted seeds is undertaken thereafter.
Polybag Nursery

When budded stumps are used, the bud patch should face the footpaths
to facilitate growth of sprouts. Regular cultural operations like
manuring, watering, weeding, shading, and plant protection are
adopted. Application of NPK Mg 10-10- 4-1.5 mixture is done at
monthly intervals. During the first month 10 g of the mixture is given
per bag which is gradually increased to 30 g in four months’ time.
Fertilizer application should be avoided when the leaves are very
tender. While applying fertilizer, care should be taken to prevent it from
meeting the young plant as it may cause scorching. Watering should be
done soon after manuring. During dry periods, irrigation should be done
regularly. Watering can be done manually in small nurseries while
sprinklers or drip irrigation system is more economical in large
nurseries. Too much watering should be avoided to prevent
waterlogging. During summer months, partial shade may be provided to
the plants by erecting overhead shade. Appropriate prophylactic and
curative measures may be taken against diseases and pests.
Polybag plants are advanced planting materials which contribute to
reduction in immaturity period. Bagged plants should be transplanted to
the field, with minimum disturbance to the root system for proper
establishment. Such plants also help to achieve a uniform stand and are
also useful for vacancy filling and
late planting. Because of these advantages the use of polybag plants has
become extremely popular

Nuresry Management
For rapid and economic production of good quality planting materials,
incredibly careful management of the nursery is necessary. In India,
seed fall occurs generally from July to September and hence the period
available for nursery growth is about 10 months. Therefore, efficient
nursery management should aim at production of the maximum number
of buddable or transplantable seedlings at the end of the 10-month
period. Unhealthy and weak seedlings should be removed. The ideal
time for this culling is three to four weeks after the first fertilizer
application, by which time the vigorously growing and stunted plants
can easily be distinguished.
The nursery beds should always be kept free of weeds. Generally, three
rounds of weeding are needed. In India, hand weeding is commonly
practiced. The first weeding is done just before application of the first
dose of fertilizers and the second weeding before the second dose. The
third round of weeding is done just before commencement of budding
during May or June. The first round of manual weeding can be replaced
with the application of pre-emergence herbicides. After the final
preparation of the nursery beds, diuron at the rate of 2.5 kg per ha in
700 L water is sprayed on the beds and germinated seeds planted five
days later. However, planting germinated seeds on the same day of
herbicide application does not result in any harmful effect that there is
only minimum disturbance to soil while planting the seeds.

Nuresry Management
The beds can be kept free of weeds till the first round of fertilizer
application (6 - 8 weeks) by adopting this method.
Mulching is an important operation to be followed in seedling nurseries
before the beginning of the summer season and after the second round
of fertilizer application. Natural materials such as tree loppings, dry
leaves, undergrowth from forests, grass cuttings and cut cover crop
material are commonly used after they are dried. A single round of good
mulching in December is adequate. Black polythene sheets properly
anchored to the soil to prevent them from being blown away by wind
can also be used for mulching. Spreading a thin layer of soil above the
sheet is an effective way to achieve this.
Manuring may preferably be carried out after ascertaining the specific
requirements of individual nurseries by soil analysis. If this is found
difficult, the general fertiliser recommendation may be followed which
ia given under the title "Manuring/Fertiliser Application".
During the dry period which usually extends from December to April,
the nurseries should be irrigated. In large nurseries, overhead sprinkler
irrigation systems are ideal. Manual watering is convenient and cheap
for small nurseries. The nursery beds should be mulched before
commencement of irrigation. The quantity of water required varies with
soil, climate, and age of plants. Daily watering is preferred during the
initial weeks. Later, the frequency of irrigation can be reduced to once
in two or three days. When the seedlings are sufficientlyGrown they are
used for budding or directly used as seedling stumps.

Land Preparation
In India, rubber plantations are established in forest clearings, rubber
replantings or by crop replacement. Most of the areas available for
rubber cultivation are highly undulating and the extent of flat lands
suitable for planting rubber is limited. These situations necessitate
clearing of the land and adoption of proper soil conservation measures
before planting rubber.
Since June-July is the ideal period for planting rubber in South India, all
the pre-planting operations should be completed before the onset of
monsoon.

Clearing
The land to be brought under rubber cultivation should be cleared of all
vegetation. Large trees of economic value should be removed first
followed by felling and removing of smaller trees and slashing of the
under growth. A light burn after felling and drying facilitates planting
operations and slows down the regeneration of weeds. Nevertheless,
excessive cleaning and burning may cause the destruction of soil and
expose the soil to erosion. Replanting the old areas must be thought of
when the yield falls, and the cultivation becomes uneconomic. The old
trees may be slaughter tapped with yield stimulant application before
felling. Lining and digging of pits can be started before felling of trees
to save time. But there are chances of damaging the terraces at the time
of felling.

Roads, Fences and Buildings

A well-planned network of roads and footpath is necessary for the easy
transportation of inputs to the various fields, latex to the factory and for
the efficient supervision of field operations. The roads should be
preferably traced before the commencement of lining so that sufficient
strip of land could be reserved.
Sufficient provision should be made for estate office, stores, processing
factories and residential accommodations. The plantation should be
protected all around by erecting fences or walls to keep away grazing
cattle and to prevent pilferage.
Lining
Lining should be based on plant spacing and planting density to be
adopted. Rubber can be planted by adopting square or rectangular
planting system. Square planting is suitable for level and near level
lands. Rectangular system can be adopted in flat lands and slopes. In
rectangular planting the lines should be oriented in the East West
direction to intercept maximum sunlight. Contour lining is done in
undulating and hilly areas where the slope exceeds 8 per cent. Here the
planting points are marked as lines passing through points of the same
elevation. The planting density recommended is 420 to 500 plants per
ha in the case of buddings or plants proposed to be field budded and
445 to 520 plants per ha in the case of seedlings. Higher initial stand is
recommended for allowing proper thinning out.

Terracing
On hilly and undulating terrain, cutting of terraces along the contour is
a recommended practice to conserve moisture and prevent erosion.
The soil on the hill side is cut from a distance of 60-75 cm in front of
the planting row and thrown back in such a way that the terraces so
formed will have a width of 1.25 to 1.5 meter and an inward drop of 20-
30 cm. Steps of uncut earth are left out at intervals along the terraces to
check lateral flow of water. For economy, planting on hillside may be
done on square platform of size 1.25 x 1.25 meter (honeycomb terrace)
during the year of planting and later joined to form a complete terrace.
Drainage
Proper drainage enhances aeration, microbial activity, ground cover
establishment and helps in the development of an extensive root system.
Natural waterways available in the area may be cleared, dressed, or
deepened to form a good drainage system. If not, drains are dug at an
interval of 100-200 meters depending on the slope and drainage
problem.

Construction of Silt Pits and Contour Bunds

Silt pits are trenches of about 120 cm length, 45 cm width and 60 cm
depth taken along the contour at suitable intervals to check erosion and
to conserve water. Pits can be taken at the rate of 150-250 per ha
depending on the degree of slope. They are aligned in such a way that
the pits in the adjacent inter-rows are in a staggered manner.
Construction of stone pitched contour bunds is another method to check
erosion in steep slopes.

Pitting and Refilling

Pitting is necessary to provide an ideal medium for the proper growth of
the young rubber root system. The standard size of the pit is 75cm x
75cm x 75cm. The size of the pits varies depending upon the planting
material to be used. Stumped buddings need comparatively deeper and
larger pits. Smaller pits are sufficient for small and medium sized
polybag plants. On economic consideration in deep, loose and friable
soils, pits are sometimes dug wider at the top and tapering towards the
bottom or the depth is reduced to 60 cm with a central crow bar
(Alabang) hole of 15 cm or more depth for taproot. But in hard, stony,
and compact soils, the pits should be widened.
Pitting should be started sufficiently early and filling should be
completed well in advance of planting so that the filled soil will get
sufficient time to settle. While digging, the topsoil is kept on one side
and the subsoil on another side. Filling should be done with the top
fertile soil as far as possible. The organic manure and phosphatic
fertilizers applied to the pits should be mixed with the top 20 cm soil in
the pit. The pits should be filled to about 5 cm above ground level. A
peg is placed in the center of the pit to locate the planting point.
Tractor - mounted hole digging machines are increasingly utilized for
pitting. Machines which dig pits of 60 cm diameter and up to 90 cm
depth are now available.

Field Planting
The success of planting depends on the prevailing weather conditions,
quality of the planting materials used and the care with which the
planting operation is done. Continuous wet weather can be expected
during June-July in the major rubber growing areas in India and hence
this period is ideal for planting rubber. The actual method of planting
will depend on the materials used for planting. Different types of
planting materials used are seeds, seedling stumps, budded stumps, and
polybag plants. Of these, the last two are the most common ones.

Seed at Stake Planting

The system of planting seeds in situ is called seed at stake planting and
it is followed by field budding. Two or three germinated seeds may be
planted in a line or triangle. The weaker plants should be thinned out
later, allowing the most vigorous one to grow on which field budding is
carried out at the appropriate stage.

Seedling Stumps and Budded Stumps

It is always advisable to plant the stumps soon after pulling out from
nursery beds. While planting budded stumps, the bud patch should be
just above the ground level. If a considerable part of the stock below the
union is left above the ground level, it may maximize the effect of
‘elephant foot.’ If kept below the soil the union is likely to be infected
by soil organisms.
About 5 cm of surface soil is first removed from an adequate area
around the planting points to accommodate the whorl of lateral roots. A
planting cavity is then made with an Alabang to a depth equal to the
length of the pruned taproot. After thrusting the Alabang to the required
depth, its top end is moved around, and the cavity is widened
sufficiently for the whorl of lateral roots to be in position in the area
dug. The side roots are set neither too shallow not too deep. Special
attention should also be given to ensure that the tip of the taproot is in
actual contact with the soil at the bottom of the cavity.
Air gap should not be allowed in the planting cavity as it may lead to
failure of root development. Loose soil is put in the cavity around the
taproot and pressed firmly. This is best done by pushing the Alabang
into the edge of the planting hole as deep as the taproot is, in a slanting
manner so that the top part of the Alabang is away from the stump and
the lower end near the tip of the taproot and then pulling it strongly
towards the stump which is firmly held in position. This process is
repeated on all sides without causing any damage to the bud. Loose soil
on the surface of the refilled pits should be stamped and pressed down
firmly. The level of soil around the planted stump should be a
centimeter or two above the ground level so that rainwater does not
collect around it. Stumped buddings are also planted in the same
manner.

Polybag Planting
At the time of planting, the top whorl of leaves of the polybag plant
should be fully mature. The soil around the bag is removed and the bags
are taken out of the trench. Dressing of the lateral roots and taproot, if
grown out of the bags, may be necessary. Then they are carried to the
planting points.
A planting hole slightly bigger than the size of the bag is made. The
bottom of the bag is completely cut and then the bag along with the
plant is inserted into the planting hole. A vertical cut is made at the
bottom of the plastic sleeve, taking care not to damage the roots. Then
the cut is continued upwards as the hole is gradually filled so that the
cylinder of soil is unbroken. When the hole is partially filled, the bag is
slit along its full length and carefully pulled away. The soil is finally
packed firmly around the plants. While planting, the scion of the
polybag plants should be directed towards north east to minimize the
adverse effect of direct sunlight on the bud patch.
Aftercare
After planting, the plants should be inspected at regular intervals and
the false shoots sprouting from the stock should be removed and only
the vigorous bud shoot can develop. Any side shoot developing up to
2.5 meters from the ground level should also be removed.
Intercropping
During the initial years of a rubber plantation, the land area is not fully
occupied by the rubber plants and inter spaces are available in the
plantation which receive plenty of sunlight. These interspaces can be
utilized for growing intercrops, which will help the farmer to generate
additional revenue. Intercrops should be planted at least 1.5 M away
from plant bases. Intercrops should be separately and adequately
manured.
The topography of the rubber plantations varies from level lands to
gentle, moderate, and steep slopes. The high rainfall in the rubber
growing regions and the undulating topography in many situations
make the soil vulnerable to erosion hazards. Growing of inter crops
necessitates soil disturbing tillage operations of various kinds. This will
predispose the topsoil to erosion losses in steep and undulating lands.
The growing of intercrops, therefore, must be restricted to level lands
and gentle slopes. Even in such lands it should be ensured that
leguminous cover crops are established side by side with intercrops or
immediately after the intercropping is stopped. The general practice of
growing leguminous ground covers must be strictly followed in
plantations of moderate and steep slopes.
The Common Intercrops Cultivated in Rubber Plantations

Banana
Non-Ratoon types like Nandra is suitable as intercrop during the initial
three years. During the first year 1200 plants per hectare can be grown
in a double row system at 2 x 2 meter spacing. The stand should be
restricted to 600 during the second year in a single row system and 450
for third year. Ratoon types like ‘Platynotan’,
‘Popova’ etc. should be planted in a single row and only one sucker
should be retained during the second year. The pseudo stem, leaves and
mother rhizome left after harvest can be used for mulching the rubber
plant.

Pineapple
Pineapple can be grown as intercrop during the initial four years. Two
or three rows of pineapple suckers are planted along the inter rows of
rubber in trenches during the year of planting of rubber. In sloppy lands
the trenches should be taken across the slope parallel to the contour
terraces to reduce soil erosion. Proper manuring using organic and
chemical fertilizers is necessary to ensure high yield and to prevent
depletion of soil fertility. Pineapple once planted will give fruits for a
period of about four years.
Ginger and Turmeric
Since thorough digging of the soil is required for the cultivation of these
crops they may be grown only on level and near level lands. Heavy
application of cattle
manure or compost and organic mulches are important in the cultivation
of these crops. They can be grown for the initial two years.

Vegetables
Many vegetables like cowpea, cucumber, ladies’ finger, Amaranthus
etc. can be grown during the initial 2-3 years with proper addition of
organic manures.

Medicinal Plants
Some shade tolerant medicinal plants can also be grown in rubber
plantation Strobila thus
heiaus (‘Karimkurinji’), Adathoda vasica (‘Valia
Adalodakam’) and Plumbago
rosea (‘Chuvanna Koduveli’) are found suitable for
cultivation in rubber plantations.

Tuber crops
Amorphophallus, dioscorea, calocasia and arrowroot can be cultivated
as inter crop during the initial years ofplantations. These crops can be
grown alone, in mixed pattern along with banana or sequentially after
one or two crops of banana or vegetable and can be retained upto 4
- 5 years. Since cultivation of these crops need filling the soil to
varying degrees their cultivation should be restricted to level lands and
gentle slops and fillage operations should be kept to a minimum. when
dioscorea is cultivated, along with rubber, the vines should be trailed
on artifical supports.

Cover Crops

Ground Cover Management

The undulating topography coupled with the high rainfall of the
traditional rubber growing belt predispose the soil towards erosion. To
conserve soil and improve soil fertility cover crops are grown and
maintained. Leguminous ground cover enhances the growth and yield
of rubber.

Advantages of Cover Crops

Prevent the beating action of rain and effectively reduces run off
Increase soil moisture and keep down the temperature during summer
Smother weeds
Add large quantities of organic matter and improve soil structure
Fix atmospheric nitrogen resulting in improved soil fertility
Common Leguminous Cover Crops Grown in Rubber Plantations
Pueraria phaseoloides

This is an extremely popular cover crop in rubber plantations. It is a

vigorous twiner and creeper and forms a dense thick ground cover when
established. It can withstand strong sun and smother weeds. It is
propagated through seeds and cuttings. Seed rate about 3.0 to 4.5 kg per
ha. A disadvantage is that it is grazed by cattle unless afforded
protection.

Mucuna bracteata
It is a deep-rooted fast-growing legume with moderate drought
resistance and shade tolerance. A native of Tripura, it forms a thick
luxuriant cover and suppresses all weeds. The dried leaves form thick
mulch and is less palatable to cattle. Propagation of Mucuna bracteata is
through seeds and rooted cuttings. The seeds are comparatively big, and
the seed rate is 200g/ha. Fruits are covered by stinging hairs. However,
the plant does not bear fruits in low elevation situations of Kerala. Fruit
set is copious in winter conditions of Tripura. Calopogonium
mucunoides
It is a twiner and creeper with tolerance for poor soils. It has a rapid
initial growth and dies off during the dry months and is a prolific
seeder. Seed rate is 3.0 to 4.5 kg. per ha.
Centrosema pubescens
A perennial climber and creeper that can grow in shade. It grows slowly
and is Establishment of Cover Crop
Cover crops are generally established from seeds. However, P.
phaseoloides and M. bracteata can also be propagated by stem cuttings.
Preparation of Beds
Seeds or cuttings of cover crops are planted on raised beds prepared in
clean weeded areas in between rubber rows. About 420 beds of 1.2 x
1.0 metres per ha are prepared immediately after the pre-monsoon rains.
It is preferable to raise them immediately after clearing the area for
planting, and in the case of replanting, one year ahead of planting, if
possible, or soon after felling the old stand of rubber so as to reduce the
cost of weeding.
If cuttings are used, fresh cuttings two or three feet long should be
planted when frequent rains are available during the month of June or
July. On the other hand, if seeds are used, they should be sown in
prepared patches during May after the pre-monsoon rains. This practice
will ensure the proper establishment of the cover crop before the
drought season commences.

Pre-sowing Treatment of Seeds

Seeds of cover crops have extremely hard seed coat which delays or
inhibits germination. Therefore, pre-sowing treatment is done to ensure
uniformity and higher percentage of germination. This also helps in
reducing the toxic compounds present in the seed coat, which inhibit the
nodule forming bacteria.

Common Pre-sowing Treatments

Acid Treatment , Seeds are treated with concentrated sulphuric acid for
a period of 10 minutes for P. phaseoloides, 30 minutes for M. bracteata
and 20 to 30 minutes for C.
mucunoides. The seeds are put in a glass or any other acid resistant
container and stirred after adding sufficient concentrated sulphuric acid.
The seeds thus treated should be placed in a large container having cold
water and washed well to remove the acid completely. Acid treatment
may adversely affect C. pubescens seeds. Acid treated seeds can be
stored under dry conditions for about 10 days.

Hot Water Treatment

This method is suitable for the seeds of P. phaseoloides and C.
mucunoides. The percentage of germination may not be as high as in
acid treatment. Hot water treatment is
carried out by soaking cover crop seeds in
hot water at 60 - 80oC for a period of 4 to
6 hours before sowing.

Abrasion Treatment
Abrasion treatment is done by mixing the
seeds with sand (about 1-2 times the
quantity of seeds) and then grinding them
gently in a mortar. Scarification of seeds
by rotating in drums lined with sandpaper can also be adopted

Sowing of Cover Crop Seeds

The pretreated seeds are mixed with equal quantity of rock phosphate
and sown in rows or in equidistant patches between the plant rows. The
planting patches should be clean weeded and forked well. In drought
prone areas, for the establishment of cover plants, the germinated seeds
may be sown during January or February in coconut husks filled with
soil and the plants allowed to grow under shade till the pre-monsoon
showers are received. The plants with husks should then be planted in
prepared patches in the main field. The young cover plants in patches
should then be protected from weeds for four to five months. Cattle
grazing and cutting away of the crop for fodder purpose also should be
avoided for ensuring the proper development of the ground cover.

Manuring of Cover Crops

Application of rock phosphate alone or in combination with muriate of
potash has been found to be especially useful for the quick
establishment, easy maintenance, and efficient nitrogen fixation.
Powdered rock phosphate (18% P2O5) @ 165 kg. per ha is
applied in two equal splits, the first one month after sowing and
the second two months after the first application. In areas where the
soils are known to be deficient in available potassium, application of a
mixture of 165 kg of rock phosphate and 50 kg
of muriate of potash is recommended. In either case, it is enough to
broadcast the fertilisers on the strips where the cover crops are planted.

Control of Cover Crops

Cover crops established in patches will spread very rapidly and cover
the intervening spaces, smothering the weeds in most cases within a
year. Cover crop should not be allowed to grow
in a circle of about 2 metres diameter around the plants or along the
contour terraces for 3 to 4 years to prevent its competition with the
young rubber.

Mulching, Shading and Whitewashing

Mulching or covering the plant basin with
dry leaves, cover crop cuttings, grass
cuttings, paddy straw etc is a
recommended practice in rubber
plantations to protect soil in the immediate
vicinity of the plants from direct impact of
heavy rains and sunlight causing soil
degradation. Dried African Payal (Salvinia
sp.) also can be effectively used as mulch at the rate of 5 kg per square
metre (sun dried material).
Benefits of Mulching
* Improvement of water and plant nutrient holding capacity of the soil
* Maintenance of the soil around young rubber plants in a cool and
moist condition during summer months
* Multiplication of microbial population of the soil, ensuring better
nutrient availability
* Protection of the soil from beating effect
of heavy rainfall resulting in soil erosion
* Control of weeds around the plant bases
Mulching should be undertaken in
nurseries and young plantations after
fertiliser application and before the onset
of regular summer. Usually, November is the ideal time for mulching to
protect the plant from adverse effect of drought.
During the year of planting young plants may be protected by shading
before the beginning of summer. Plaited coconut leaves or used gunny
bags can be used for this purpose. The brown bark of the young plants
can be protected from the scorching action of the sun by whitewashing
the main stem of the plant from the second year of planting. This may
be continued till canopy of the plants develops and partially shades the
plantation. However, plants on the roadsides may need whitewashing
for a longer period as they are more exposed to sunlight. Whitewashing
can be done using lime or china clay.

Protection of Young Rubber Plants from Strong Sun

Young rubber plants in the field and nurseries are highly susceptible to
scorching resulting from exposure to strong sun. The incidence is more
on southern and southwestern aspects. Mulching and shading help
prevent sun scorch in nurseries. In the field too, mulching and provision
of bamboo or plaited coconut leaf tree guards afford same protection in
this regard. From the second year onwards, young plants in the field
may be protected by whitewashing brown portions of the main stem.
This is done by the beginning of the dry weather, that is during
November – December. For white washing, fresh lime is superior even
though china clay can also be used.

Induction of Branches
It has been observed that to achieve a high rate of girth increase the
rubber plant should produce branches at a height of about 2.5 to 3.0 m
from the ground. In high branching trees girth increment has been found
to be poor compared to low branching trees. Some plants show a
tendency for high branching, particularly clones like RRIM 600 and GT
1. In such cases branching must be induced by encouraging a few lateral
buds to develop. The branches thus induced should develop in different
directions in an equally spaced manner to ensure a well- balanced
canopy. Techniques like the double blade ring cut device and the leaf
cap method can be utilized for this.
The double-blade ring-cut device has two V-shaped blades fixed 20 cm
apart on a rod. By pressing the V-shaped blades and rotating them
around the trunk complete ringing of the bark is done down to the
surface of the wood. The cuts are made above a cluster of leaf scars so
that several trunk shoots are produced around this region. This method
can be applied only on greenish brown or brown tissues and is not
suitable for young green tissues. In young green tissues, the leaf
folding, or leaf cap method can be used. In the leaf folding method, the
leaves of the top whorl are folded down at the point of contact of the
petiole with the lamina using only the upper few leaves to enclose the
apical bud. The leaves are then tied with a rubber band. After three to
four weeks they are released. In plants where the terminal whorl of
leaves is in the leaflet or bud break stage, the leaf cap method is
recommended. Here, three mature leaflets are taken to form a cap to
enclose the terminal bud and tied with a rubber band.

Weed Management

Common Weeds
Borreria sp. (Button weed), Chromolaena odorata (Siam weed), Lantana
aculeate (Lantana), Mimosa pudica (Touch- me-not), Clerodendron sp.,
Mikania micrantha (Mile-a-
minute), Sida sp., Imperata cylindrica, Pennisetum sp. (Napier grass),
Axonopus sp (Carpet
grass), Paspalum sp., Digitaria sp. (Tropical crab grass), Cynodon
dactylon(Bermuda grass) etc.

Methods of Weed Control

Weeds can be controlled by either manual
methods or with the use of chemicals
known as herbicides. However, an
integrated method involving a
combination of these two methods is
more economical and ecofriendly.
Manual

Chemical
Weeds can be controlled with the use of herbicides or weedicides.
There are two main types of herbicides, the pre-emergent and post-
emergent herbicides.
Pre-emergent Herbicides
Pre-emergent herbicides are soil-applied chemicals used for killing
weeds before they emerge from soil. In newly prepared planting strips,
the application of pre-emergent herbicides immediately after planting
can check the weed growth for 6-7 weeks.

Post-emergent Herbicides
These herbicides are applied on the weeds and are used to kill the
weeds,
which have emerged and are actively growing.

Integrated Weed Management

This approach involves an integration of manual and chemical weed
control methods along with the establishment of cover crop during the
first year itself which helps in smothering weeds in the inter spaces and
thereby reducing the usage of herbicide to the minimum. Application of
herbicides in the plant basin alone and slash weeding the remaining
inter plant area along the planting strip was found to be cost effective
and sustainable.
Weed Management
This involves slashing, scraping, uprooting etc. As manual clean
weeding will expose soils to erosion, mulching should be done
immediately after weeding.

Weed Management in Different Stages

Rubber plantations are infested by various weed species throughout the
year and present major problems of access and competition. Weeds
compete with rubber for light, soil moisture and nutrients and serve as
alternate hosts for insects and pathogens. Therefore, management of
weeds is an important cultural operation to be followed in rubber
plantations.
Maintenance of a luxuriant ground cover in the early phase of plantation
can minimize the weed infestation to a great extent. However, during
the first year till the cover crops are fully established, the weeds that are
sprouting around the cover crops patches should be controlled for their
early establishment. Once the ground cover is established, the weed
management operations need be concentrated only on the planting
strips.

Seedling Nursery
Application of pre-emergent herbicide diuron at 2.5 kg per ha is
effective in controlling weeds for 6-7 weeks i.e., till the time of first
fertiliser application.

Immature Rubber
In the newly cleared areas, the growth of weeds is fast as the soil and
climatic conditions are favourable. Management of weeds can be done
either manually or with the use of post emergent herbicides as
mentioned earlier, depending upon the conditions and the nature of
weed flora.

Mature Rubber
As the trees grow old, the foliage is at a great height from the ground
which permits more sunlight into the inter row spaces? As a result,
weeds reappear, which can be controlled either by slash weeding or by
the use of herbicides.

Herbicide Applicators
For spraying herbicides knapsack sprayers with flood jet nozzle
(No.WFN40) or controlled droplet applicators (CDA) are used. With
the use of CDA, the spray volume can be reduced to 15-30 litres per ha
there by reducing the cost of spraying. But the doses of chemicals will
be the same as those for high volume spraying (knapsack sprayers).

Mechanical weed cutter

Mechanical weed cutters are now available. These machines can be
operated by single person and is operated on petrol

General Fertiliser
Recommendation Fertiliser
Recommendation for North-Eastern Region Discriminatory
Fertiliser Recommendation
Nutritional Disorders Commonly Observed in India

General Fertiliser Recommendation

The general fertiliser recommendation for rubber is derived based on
the results of the fertiliser experiments conducted by the Rubber
Research Institute of India on rubber of different age groups. Majority
of the rubber growing soils belong to the laterite and lateritic types and
hence this general fertiliser recommendation can be followed.
However, practicing discriminatory fertiliser recommendation based on
soil and leaf analysis will be more advantageous.
The nutrient requirements of rubber plant vary considerably during the
three important stages of growth: the nursery, immature and mature
stages.

Seedling Nursery
Basal Dressing – Incorporate two and a half tonnes of compost or well-
rotted cattle manure and 400 kg of powdered rock phosphate (18%
P2O5) for every effective ha, i.e., 25 kg of compost and 4 kg of rock
phosphate per 100 m2 of the nursery bed. If the nursery is opened in a
newly cleared forest area, addition of compost or cattle manure may not
be necessary during the year of opening and application of rock
phosphate alone is sufficient. If the same bed is used repeatedly,
application of rock phosphate is necessary only once in three years.
Top Dressing - Apply 2500 kg of 10-10-4-1.5 NPKMg mixture per
effective ha, i.e., 25 kg per 100 m2 of the nursery bed six to eight weeks
after planting. Again apply 550 kg of urea per effective ha, i.e., 5.5 kg
per 100 m2, six to eight weeks after the first top dressing. After
fertiliser application the plant bases can be mulched with suitable mulch
material.
The first application of the recommended quantity of NPKMg mixture
should be made during September-October period, i.e., six to eight
weeks after planting the germinated seeds in the nursery beds. The
fertiliser should be spread about eight cm away from the base of the
plants in a 14 cm wide linear band in between two rows and gently
forked in with a hand rake. The fertiliser should not meet the stem of
the seedling to avoid injury to the plants and ensure that there is
sufficient moisture in the soil at the time of application.

Budwood Nursery
The aim of manuring budwood nurseries is to obtain the maximum
quantity of good quality budwood per plant at the intervals of 10-12
months with an initial period of 12 to 18 months for the first crop of
budwood.
Incorporate 165 kg of powdered rock phosphate per ha i.e., 1.65 kg per
100 sq. metres of the nursery bed as a basal dressing at the time of
preparing the nursery bed.
For the first crop of bud-wood apply 250 g of 10-10-4-1.5 NPKMg
mixture per plant in two equal split doses. Apply the first split of 125 g
per plant two to three months after planting the budded stump or cutting
back if budding is carried out in situ. The second dose of 125 g per
plant should be applied eight to nine months after planting.
For the second and subsequent crops of bud-wood from the nursery,
apply 125 g of 10-10-4-1.5 NPKMg mixture per plant in one single
dose two to three months after cutting back.
The fertiliser application should be made during September – October
and March-April either in a band 8 cm away from the base of the plant
or in between two rows and lightly forked with a hand rake. For the
second and subsequent crops of bud-wood the one round of fertiliser
application recommended should be applied during September-October
season adopting the same method.

Immature Rubber
Up to the fourth year
The object of manuring rubber plants during the immature stage is to
accelerate the growth and to reduce the unproductive phase of the crop.
Under the agro-climatic conditions prevailing in the traditional tract,
rubber plants after planting takes about seven years to attain tappability
in most cases. The result of the field experiments carried out by the
Rubber Research Institute of India clearly indicated the possibility of
reducing the immaturity period by one year through systematic
manuring and agro management practices in the young rubber plant.
Pit manuring: Incorporate 12 kg of compost or well-rotted cattle manure
and 200 g of rock phosphate in every pit at the time of filling to provide
good soil conditions for development of a good root system. In newly
cleared forest areas, it is enough to apply 200 g rock phosphate alone,
well mixed with the top 20 cm soil in the pit as the surface soil in
general will be rich in organic matter.
The quantity and schedule of manuring for the first four years are
shown below. The quantity requirement for 10-10-4-1.5 NPKMg
mixture or 12-12-6 mixture is provided. The required dose of nitrogen
(N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg) can be
provided through mixing the straight fertilisers. The quantity of straight
fertilisers needed for preparing these fertiliser mixtures are also shown.
Two grades of mixtures, one with Mg and the other without Mg is
provided for application in Mg deficient and Mg rich areas,
respectively. In Kanyakumari district of Tamilnadu, Thrissur,

1.In the case of poly bag plants, during the first year, i.e. three months
after planting (Sept-October) apply 450/380 g of the fertiliser mixture
instead of 225/190 g shown in the Table.
2.If no leguminous ground covers were established in the field, the
fertiliser recommendation for the third year may be continued during
the fourth year also.
3.In the first two years it is advantageous to apply 50 per cent of the
phosphorus in the water-soluble form for better growth of the rubber
plants. Therefore, during the first two years, 10-10(5)-4-1.5 NPK Mg
mixture and 12-12(6)-6 NPK mixture containing 50 per cent of the
phosphate in the soluble form are recommended.

- 50%
water
soluble P
through
AP
AP –

Ammonium Phosphate (20-20 NP)

MOP – Muriate of Potash (60% K2O)
RP – Rock Phosphate (18% P2O5)
Mg - Magnesium Sulphate (16% MgO)
The fertiliser requirements of rubber during the remaining period of
immaturity depend to a great extent on the cultivation practices, such
as mulching the plant bases during the initial years and the
establishment and maintenance of leguminous ground covers in the
field. These cultivation practices will result in the improvement of the
soil conditions and availability of plant nutrients, particularly nitrogen.

Method of Application
For young rubber, fertilisers should be applied taking into consideration
the extent of root spread. During the first application after planting,
fertilisers should be evenly distributed over a circular band of about 30
cm around the base of the young plant, leaving about seven cm from the
base all around and slightly forked into the top five to eight cm of the
soil. The plant bases should then be immediately mulched. This will
help in better retention and utilization of the applied fertilisers and
control of weed growth in the plant bases.
The second round of fertiliser application, i.e., when the plants are 9
months old should be done in a circular band, the band width being 45
cm leaving 15cm all around the plant base. The fertiliser applications in
subsequent years till the canopy of the rubber plant closes should be
made in circular bands of steadily increasing width.
From the fifth year of Planting to Maturity

A. The fertiliser recommendation from the 5th year of planting for a

well-maintained field where mulching was practiced and leguminous
ground cover was established and maintained is 30,30,30 NPK kg/ha.
By mixing the straight fertilisers, 65 kg of urea, 165 kg rock phosphate
and 50 kg of muriate of potash, this can be supplied. Otherwise 300
kg/ha of 10-10-10 NPK mixture can be used. Alternatively, any of the
complex fertilisers of the grades 15-15-15 or 17-17-17 or 19-19-19
NPK may be used and the quantities of these 10-26-26 NPK complex
(115 kg) mixed with urea (40kg) or Ammonium phosphate sulphate
(Ammophos), 20-20 (150kg) with muriate of potash (50kg) or 65 kg
Diammonium phosphate (DAP) mixed with 40kg urea and 50 kg
muriate of potash may also be used. Diammonium phosphate is
recommended for soils having pH 6.0 or above which is exceedingly
rare.

B. For areas where no legume ground covers were established and no

mulching practiced during the initial years, the recommendation is
60,40,24 NPK kg/ha by mixing straight fertilizers - 130 Kg urea, 220
Kg Rajphos and 40 Kg MOP. The quality must be applied in two equal
splits in two seasons. This can also be supplied through 400 kg of 15-
10-6 mixture applied in two split doses of 200 kg each during the 5th
and subsequent years till the plants become ready for tapping.

Mature Rubber under Tapping

The general recommendation is 30-30-30 NPK kg/ha. This can be
supplied through mixing straight fertilisers or through mixtures. The
quantity of the same is provided in an earlier session (manuring from
5th year till attainment of maturity for well-maintained plantations).
Discriminatory fertiliser application based on the results of soil and leaf
analysis should be practiced for mature rubber wherever it is possible.

Method of Application
Fertilisers should be applied in square or rectangular patches in between
rows, each patch serving four trees. Once the canopy of the plants
closes, say, 5 to 6 years after planting, light forking to incorporate the
fertilisers into the topsoil is necessary. In areas where the legume
ground cover is present or where the legume cover has died out leaving
a thick mulch, it is enough to broadcast the fertilisers between two rows
of rubber trees. Deep pocket placement of fertilisers and application
too close to the base of the trees should be avoided.
2.1.3. Rubber Plantation
The Rubber Tree
Many plant species produce natural
rubber. Considerations of quality
and economics, however, limit the
source of natural rubber to one
species, namely Hevea brasiliensis.
It is a native of the Amazon basin
and introduced from there to
countries in the tropical belts of
Asia and Africa during late
19th century. It can be termed as the most far reaching and successful of
introductions in plant history resulting in plantations over 9.3 million
hectares, 95 per cent of it across the globe in Asia.
Hevea brasiliensis, also known as the Para rubber tree after the
Brazilian port of Para, is a quick growing, sturdy, perennial tree of a
height of 25 to 30 metres. It has a straight trunk and thick, somewhat
soft, light brownish gray bark.

The young plant shows characteristic growth pattern of alternating

period of rapid elongation and consolidated development. The leaves
are trifoliate with long stalks. The tree is deciduous in habit and winters
from December to February in India. Refoliation is quick and copious
flowering follows. Flowers are small but appearing in large clusters.
Fruits are three lobed, each holding three seeds, quite like castor seeds
in appearance but much larger in size. The seeds are oil bearing.
The rubber tree may live for a hundred years or even more. But its
economic life period in plantations, on general considerations is, only
around 32 years – 7 years of immature phase and 25 years of productive
phase. Commercial cultivation of rubber in India was started in
1902.

Propagation of Rubber
In India, Hevea seeds normally ripen during July-September when the
seeds are collected, and seedlings raised. All earlier plantations were
raised from unselected seeds. The yield potential of these having been
low, the production of those plantations was
poor. Selection work on Hevea with a view
to improving the planting materials and the
introduction of vegetative propagation by
budding led, in course of time, to the
establishment of numerous valuable clones.
Clonal Seeds Germination of Seeds
Nurseries
o Budding
o Tissue Culture
o Preparation and Packing of
Propagation Materials
o Root trainer plants
o Exporting of Propagation Materials

Clonal Seeds
Seeds of clones are
termed clonal seeds.
There are different
kinds of clonal seeds –
monoclonal,
polyclonal, legitimate,
and illegitimate. Monoclonal seeds of clone Tjir 1 which gave rise to
seedlings superior to seedlings from ordinary, unselected seeds were
once encouraged for planting extensively in our country. Evolution of
newer, improved planting materials then progressively replaced Tjir 1
clonal seedlings. Hybrid polyclonal seeds collected from approved
polyclonal seed gardens are the only seed material recommended for
planting now.
For production of good quality polyclonal seeds, gardens have been
established in Kanyakumari district. Polyclonal garden seeds in the
name Prang Besar Isolated Garden (PBIG) seeds from Malaysia used to
find limited market in India until a few decades ago.

Polyclonal seedlings:
Seeds collected from clonal stands are known as clonal seeds.In olden
days monoclonal seeds of single mother clones such as Tjir 1, not
contaminated by crossing with seedling rubber or undesirable male
parent clones,had been extensively used as improved planting materials.
Now only clonal seeds of polyclonal origin which can be expected to
possess significant hybrid vigour are accepted. Ployclonal seeds of
good clones are planted in such seed gardens mixe as per
specific designs. For prevention of pollen contamination from rubber
trees of neighbouring area, an isolation belt of 100 meters width is
provided all around. Polyclonal seeds give rise to seedling of good
vigour and growth. Compared to buddings, they are easier to establish
and maintain. The trunk of seedling is much larger than those of budded
trees. Owing to the inherent genetic variability, they are relatively less
suceptible to wind damange and disease. However, the general yield
levels are far lower than selected modern clones. The high tree to tree
variability in growth and yield makes it necessary to adopt thorough
selection of seedling for planting based on initial viour, high initial
planting density in the main field and subsequent judicious thinning
out of weakilings and poor yielders in a phased manner. Still, the trees
exhibit proneness to tapping panel dryness. The average annual yield is
1200 to 1300 kg/ha/yr.

Germination of Seeds
Rubber seeds lose viability very rapidly if left in the field. The seeds are
therefore picked up daily during the seed fall season and quickly
transported to nurseries for germination and planting.
For germination, raised level beds with a 5 cm thick layer of river sand,
90 cm wide and of convenient lengths are used. Partial shade to prevent
strong sun is necessary. The seeds are sown in a single layer touching
one another and germination beds are kept moist, but not wet, by evenly
sprinkling water during morning
and evening. The seeds are covered
with loosely woven coir matting or
gunnies.
Germination starts 6 to 7 days after
sowing. Seeds sprouted each day
should be picked and planted in
nursery beds or in the field.
Germinated seeds will have young
roots emerging first. That is the ideal
stage for nursery planting. The
sproutings are tender and require
careful handling. Usually, germinated
seeds are carried to nursery beds in
buckets half filled with water. About
75 percent germination is considered
good. Pickings are done for about 21 days after sowing.

Nurseries
Nurseries are required for raising seedlings, budded stumps and
budwood. As far as possible open and level land should be selected for
raising nursery. Water should be easily available for irrigation. The soil
should be deep, well drained, and fertile.
The land should be dug to a depth of 75 cm and all stumps, roots, and
stones should be removed. Nursery beds should be prepared with 60 to
120 cm width and convenient lengths and with pathways laid in
between to facilitate manuring, watering, weeding etc.
Planting distances should vary according to the type of planting
materials to be raised in the nursery. The ideal spacing for seedlings is
30 cm X 30 cm. For budwood nurseries, the plants may be at distances
of 60 X 90 cm or 60 X 120 cm or 90 X 90 cm
Nursery management aims at the most rapid production of standard
healthy planting materials. More intensive care can be exercised in a
nursery than in a field. Plants which are obviously unsuitable can be
eliminated at an early stage. Mainframe operations for nursery include
weeding, mulching, irrigation during dry months, manuring and disease
and pest control.

Budding
The principle involved in budding is the replacement of the shoot
system of a plant with that of another more desirable plant. In this
process, a patch of bark of the seedling plant (stock) is replaced by a
patch of bark with a dormant bud (bud patch) taken from the clone to be
multiplied. The bud patch gets attached to the stock permanently and
becomes a part of it. The stock is then cut off above the budded portion
and the grafted bud develops into a shoot (scion) exhibiting the
characters of the plant from which it was taken. The new tree thus
formed is a two-part tree, comprising a root system belonging to the
stock plant and a shoot system contributed by the donor of the bud.
Depending on the colour and age of the buds as well as the age of the
stock plants used, three types of buddings are mainly recognized. These
are brown (conventional) budding, green budding and young budding.
In the first method, older buds having brown colour are used while in
the other two, green tender buds are utilised.
Depending on the part of the stock where budding is carried out,
buddings are classified into four types: base budding, crown budding,
over budding and high budding. Base budding is carried out at the base
of the stock plant and includes brown budding, green budding and
young budding.

Brown Budding
Brown budding is generally carried out by grafting brown coloured
buds taken from budwood of about one year's growth onto stock plants
of 10 months or more growth. Vigorously growing healthy stocks
having a girth of 7.5 cm at the collar region are ideal for budding.
Stocks should be budded when the bark peels off very easily. Peeling is
typically good when the top whorl of leaves is well developed, but
before further extension growth commences. Test peeling of a small
patch of bark above 15 cm from the base is the sure method to assess
the peeling quality of the bark. Since all stock plants may not attain this
stage at the same time, more than one round of budding may be
necessary to cover all the stocks.
Brown buds are usually obtained from brown budwood produced by
budded plants raised in budwood nurseries. Buds found in the axils of
fallen leaves are generally utilised for budding. Budwood should be
collected when the top whorl of leaves has fully expanded but not
hardened to ensure proper peeling of the bark and high budding success.
Test peeling may be carried out before harvesting the budwood.
Collection of budwood should be done with sufficient care to avoid
bruising. As far as possible, budwood should be collected in the
morning or evening, and should preferably be utilized for budding as
soon as collected. If budding is delayed, special measures should be
adopted for preventing moisture loss. Budwood is harvested as per the
requirement and cut into convenient length, usually 1 m.

Good quality budwood will have around 20 healthy, well-formed buds

per metre length. Weak and poorly formed buds should not be used.
While handling budwood of different clones, proper labelling must be
done for identification. Budding is usually carried out with a specially
designed knife having two blades, called budding knife. However, an
ordinary penknife with a blade of 7 to 8 cm length could also be used.
The first step in the preparation of the stock plant for budding is
thorough cleaning of the basal 15 cm to remove dirt, soil, etc. Cleaning
can be done with cotton waste or rags. Then two parallel vertical cuts
starting from about 2.5 cm above the collar are made. The length of
these cuts should be a little more than 5 cm and 1.5 cm apart. Then a
horizontal cut joining the bottom ends of the vertical cuts is also made.
All the three cuts should be made deep enough to reach the wood. After
making these cuts the latex can completely ooze out for a few minutes
through the cuts. During this time, the budder can mark a few more
stocks in a similar manner. When the latex flow ceases, it is wiped off
from the surface. The flap of bark separated by the three cuts is then
gently lifted with the aid of the knife and peeled upwards. Alternatively,
the upper ends of the vertical cuts may be connected by the horizontal
cut and the flap peeled downwards. The practice of removing the flap
completely is also adopted. The exposed region is called the budding
panel.
The bud patch used for brown budding should have a length of about 5
cm and a width of about 1.5 cm. For preparing the bud patch, two
parallel vertical cuts into length of 5 cm are made on the two sides of a
bud, 1.5 cm apart.

Then two horizontal cuts are made connecting the lower and upper ends
of these cuts. A little time is allowed for the latex to ooze out. During
this time, incisions are made around neighbouring buds of the same
budwood. When the oozing of latex stops, it is wiped off and the bud
patch marked out by the four cuts is stripped off by gently pushing to
one side.
After removing the bud patch from the budwood, the inner side is
examined carefully for the presence of the core of the bud, which
appears as a slight projection. If it is not present, the bud patch should
be discarded. The bud patch should be handled with utmost care to
avoid any damage to the cambium.
It should always be held at the
edges without touching the
cambium. Foreign matter like
water, soil and sweat should not be
allowed to fall on the cambium.
Similarly exposing the cambium to
strong sunlight or dry wind can
result in its drying. All these can
cause damage to the cambium.
Damage to the cambium of the
budding panel also should be
avoided.
The four edges of the bud patch are then slightly trimmed. The bud
patch is then gently placed in the budding panel after lifting the flap. It
should be placed in such a way that the bud is above the leaf scar and its
inner side is in contact with the budding panel. Exposure of too much
area of the budding panel around the bud patch is unfavourable for
budding success. At the same time, the edges of the bud patch and
budding panel should not touch each other.
After placing the bud patch in the budding panel in the above manner,
the flap, if retained, is placed back over it and is then bandaged using
polythene strips of 45 cm length, 2.5 cm width and 250 gauge
thickness. Bandaging should commence at the bottom and move
upwards in a close spiral. During the first few turnings of the bandage,
the lower end of the flap should be kept gently pressed over the bud
patch to prevent it from slipping. Bandaging should be tightened to
keep the cambium tissues of the budding panel and the bud patch in
intimate contact with each other. The end of the tape is finally kept
intact with a knot. In the field and along borders of nurseries it may be
necessary to shade the bud patch against strong sunlight. This can
conveniently be done by tying a rubber leaf over the bud patch.
If the budding is successful, the cambium of the stock plant and that of
the bud patch unite and the bud patch establishes as a part of the stock.
The process requires 15 to 20 days and the plant is left undisturbed for
20 days after which the bandage is removed. The flap, if it had been
retained, is cut a little above the upper end of the bud patch and
removed. Freshness of the bud patch indicates initial success of the
budding. The final success is ascertained in a similar manner after
another 10 days.

Green Budding
Both the stock plant and budwood used for green budding are
noticeably young. Seedlings which are five to seven months old are
used as stock. Buds are collected from six to eight weeks old budwood,
also known as bud shoots or bud sticks. Buds found above the scale
leaves of the shoots alone are used for budding. These buds are green in
colour and hence the name green budding. Young, vigorous seedlings
raised in nursery or in polythene bags are used as stock plants for green
budding. Plants having a girth of about 2.5 cm at the base, with brown
bark up to a height of about 15 cm, can be used for this purpose. The
stock plants require about four to five months to attain this size. By
proper care, this period could be further reduced.
Green budwood is obtained from budwood plants (source bushes)
grown in nurseries for this purpose. They are collected when six to
eight weeks old, when they have a length of 30 to 60 cm with a whorl
of leaves at the top. The bud shoots are harvested by cutting at the base
with a sharp knife. For proper peeling of the bud patch, harvesting
should be done when the leaves are copper brown to dark green in
colour. After harvesting, the leafy portion of the shoot is cut off. The
non-leafy portion shows two to five scale leaves with axillary buds
which are utilised for budding.
After cleaning the basal portion of the stock, two vertical incisions, a
little more than 5 cm long and 1 cm apart are made starting from a point
about 2.5 cm above the collar region. The lower ends of these cuts are
joined by a horizontal cut and a few minutes allowed for the cessation
of latex flow. The flap is then cut off leaving a short "tongue" of about
1.5 cm at the top. The stock is now ready to receive the bud patch.
The bud patch can be stripped from the bud shoot in the same way as in
the case of brown budding. However, other methods can also be
employed for this purpose. In one such method, a 6 cm long bud patch
shaped like a pointed tower is marked out. Then the top 1 cm is
separated from the bud shoot and holding on to this portion (by
touching the inner and outer sides), the whole bud patch is gently
stripped off. The top 1 cm of the bud patch with damaged cambium is
pruned off. In a third method the bud patch along with a thin slice of
wood is first taken from the bud shoot. This is the bud slip. The two
sides of the bud slip are trimmed to the required width. The bud patch is
then gently separated from the wood by pulling them apart. While doing
so care should be taken to see that the bud patch does not bent. Only the
slice of wood is bend. After separation, the lower and upper ends of the
bud patch are also trimmed. When finally prepared, the bud patch
should have a length of approximately 5 cm and a width of 1 cm, so that
it fits snugly into the budding panel.
The upper end of the bud patch prepared in the above manner is gently
inserted under the `tongue’ and placed in the budding panel. Then the
bud patch is secured firmly by bandaging with a transparent polythene
strip as in the case of brown budding. This strip should be about 25 cm
long and 2 cm wide. Transparent tape is insisted upon as it allows light
to fall on the green bud patch which in turn enhances budding success.
For the same reason, no shading is given. Buds are examined three
weeks after the budding by observing through the bandage or after
removing the bandage. Retention of the green colour is the indication of
budding success. Final observation on budding success is done after 10
more days. If the observations are made through the bandage, after the
second observation, the bandage is removed. The plant is now ready for
cutting back.
Budding can be carried out at any time of the year. However, too dry, or
very wet weather is unsuitable. Generally, more success is obtained
during rainy season than in summer. Experiments have shown that in
India the period from April
to October is generally suited for brown budding. The success rate of
green budding is more during summer months also. However, heavy
rainfall is not suited for budding. For best results, budding should be
carried out either in the early morning hours or in the evenings.
Both brown budding and green budding have certain advantages and
disadvantages.

Advantages of Green Budding over Brown Budding

It utilizes the growth of the stock more efficiently, i.e. when green
budded plants are cut back, only a small amount of stock growth is
lost, Green budding is simpler and faster than brown budding and hence
more number of plants can be budded reducing the labour cost per
budding, It gives higher percentage of success during summer than
brown budding, Opening of the budding and cutting back can be done
simultaneously, thus saving labour cost,Yield of green buds from a unit
area of nursery is two to three times that of brown buds, Since the
polythene strip used for green budding is smaller, cost incurred for this
material is reduced, After cutting back green buds develop earlier than
brown buds, Green budding is more suitable for crown budding.

Major Defects of Green Budding Technique

Green bud shoots cannot be retained in the nursery for long after they
become mature enough for harvesting,
After harvesting, green sticks cannot be kept for long periods, unlike in
the case of brown budwood Scion of green budding is less vigorous
than that of brown budding and hence it requires very careful attention
during the early period of growth, especially in the field.

Young Budding
This is a kind of green budding carried out on noticeably young plants
less than two months old. Stocks are raised in small bags of lay flat size
33 x 15 cm. The plants are given intensive nursing such as foliar
application of fertilisers and fungicides twice weekly and soil
application of NPKMg mixture weekly. When seven to eight weeks old,
they are green budded. Four weeks after budding, plants are cut back
leaving a snag of 20 to 25 cm length. Buds on the snag are nicked or the
shoots coming from then pruned off promptly. When the scion develops
two or three whorls of leaves, the plants are transplanted to the field.
This technique has got certain advantages over the normal green
budding technique.
By adopting this technique bag plants could be produced within seven
months after the planting of germinated seeds in the bags, which is
usually done in August/September. In our country, the time required for
this is around nine months in the case of normal green budding. Since
small bags are used to produce plants transportation is easier.
The cost of production is also slightly less compared to the normal
method. Since the stock plants required for young budding are raised by
sowing seeds directly in the bag, these plants have a better developed
root system than the plants raised from green budded stumps. A well-
developed root system prevents breaking of soil core and ensures faster
and easier establishment of plants after transfer to the field.
However, under the climatic conditions existing in our country this
method does not have much practical application because by the time
the bag plants produced from young buddings are ready (February -
March) the climate becomes unfavourable for field planting. Hence
planting must be delayed up to the onset of monsoon (June). Bag plants
produced from green buddings also becomes ready by this time.

Crown Budding
Replacing the undesirable crown of a high yielding clone with a
desirable crown is of practical significance. In many of the modern
clones, though the trunk possesses a capacity for high yield, the crown
shows many undesirable characters like susceptibility to wind and
diseases. An undesirable crown can be replaced by a desirable one
through crown budding. The tree produced by crown budding is a three-
part-tree comprising the root system of the stock plant, trunk
of one clone and the crown of another clone. Thus, the desirable
characters of the trunk of one clone and crown of another clone are
combined.
Crown budding is ideally carried out when the scion of the budded plant
has attained a height of 2.4 to 3 m. One to two years are usually
required for the plants to attain such a growth. The height of the plant is
more important than the age. Crown budding may be commenced when
50 to 60 per cent of the plants in the field are buddable. Budding is
carried out at a height of 210 to 240 cm on the inter-whorl region below
the top whorl of leaves. It should be done only when the top flush of
leaves is fully expanded and hardened. Stem tissue should be green or
dark green at the time of budding. This ensures maximum budding
success.
Too tender or too mature stem tissues adversely affect budding success.
If the topmost flush of leaves is not mature enough, budding could be
done below the second whorl of leaves provided all other conditions are
satisfied.
Plants having height up to 4.5 m can also be used for crown budding. In
the case of such overgrown plants having green tissue at a height higher
than the prescribed, the height of budding must be raised
correspondingly to carry it out below the top whorl.
For crown budding, the budding green technique is followed. Since the
budding must be done at a higher level, a self-supporting ladder should
be used. On no account should the plant be bent for budding or any
other operations. If the budding is a failure, rebudding is done on the
opposite side of the stem, 5 cm above or below the first budding.
Successfully budded plants are cut back leaving a snag of about 5 cm.
Treating the cut ends of the stem with some wound dressing compound
is desirable. After cutting back, usually many trunk shoots arise. All of
them should be pruned regularly at fortnightly intervals with a knife
having a long handle. This should be continued until the crown bud
sprouts and the crown shoot grows to a length of about 2.5 cm. After
that, two or three trunk shoots arising about 15 to 45 cm below the
crown shoot can grow. These shoots should be spaced
apart and be on different sides of the stem as far as possible.
They should never be allowed to become more dominant than the
crown shoot, as this may suppress the growth of the latter. For this, if
necessary, the top portion of the trunk shoots may be pruned. About
nine months after cutting back, when the crown-trunk union is firmly
established, the trunk shoots are pruned. Necessary precautionary
measures must be taken for the protection of the crown shoot especially
from wind damage and perching of birds. The crown shoot later fully
establishes itself and in due course develops to be the crown of the
three-part tree. If the crown shoot is lost for some reason before the
pruning of the trunk shoots, the most vigorous among them is again
crown budded, if possible, or allowed to develop as the crown.

Over Budding
Budwood plants are sometimes budded at higher levels for converting
an existing budwood nursery of a clone to another clone without
replanting. This is termed as over budding. The method adopted is to
carry out budding at the basal portion of the brown budwood before
harvesting it. The budwood is harvested after the new bud is
successfully attached to the plant, by cutting above the budded portion.
Since the budding is carried out on a
well-established plant, the scion
emerging from the new bud grows
vigorously producing more budwood
compared to a newly established
budwood plant. Thus, it is a quick and
economic method for converting
budwood nursery of one clone to that
of another.

Tissue Culture
Propagation of rubber is possible through tissue culture also. Tissue
culture or micro propagation is the technique of producing plants from
small (micro) pieces of plant tissues. Studies on tissue culture of rubber
plants were started in 1966. Different parts of the plant such as embryo,
anther, shoot tip and integument can be used for tissue culture.
Rubber Research Institute of India has developed a technique to
produce tissue culture plants from shoot tips as well as somatic
embryogenesis of different tissues. Rubber plants were developed by
the somatic embryogenesis of anther tissue, integumental tissue,
immature inflorecence etc. Attempts are being made for the tissue
culture of other plant parts like leaf, floral buds, ovules and micro
spores. Key steps in tissue culture of hevea include collection of the
 explant, sterilization, inoculation
of the explant in a nutrient media
supplemented with growth
hormones and sucrose. The
cultures were kept under
optimum light and
temperature conditions for the
required period.

Plants were formed in about

eight months. They were then
transferred to small polybags and
kept in a greenhouse for hardening. Even for the same clone the culture
conditions vary with the physiological stage of the explant, seasons,
part of the plant used etc. Because of these variations separate protocols
must be developed for each clone. This is a laborious and time-
consuming process. However, procedures have been perfected for the
propagation of several important clones by optimising these parameters.
As in the case of most other tree crops, multiplication rate in tissue
culture is extremely low for rubber. Further in the post-laboratory
stages mortality is remarkably high. However, after overcoming all
these hurdles the RRII has successfully developed many plants through
various methods of tissue culture. These plants have been established in
the field. Test tapping carried out on certain clones over their bud-
grafted control and they are under different stages of evaluation.

Preparation and Packing of Propagation Materials

The propagation materials handled by rubber growers are ungerminated
seeds, germinated seeds, seedling stumps, brown budwood, green bud
shoot, brown budded stumps, green budded stumps, polybag plants and
stumped buddings. Specific techniques are required for the preparation
of these materials. If not properly prepared, their quality could be
reduced, which in turn adversely affects the establishment after
planting. After preparation, these materials may require storing and/or
transportation. During storage and transit, they are likely to get
damaged by loss of moisture or by breaking, rubbing, bruising,
crushing, etc. To avoid these and to give ample protection to these
materials, certain specific methods are adopted for packing and
transporting.

Ungerminated Seeds
Germinated Seeds Brown Budwood Green Bud Shoots Seedling
Stumps Brown Budded Stumps Green Budded Stumps Polybag Plants
Stumped Buddings

Ungerminated Seeds
Fresh and healthy seeds collected from the field can be kept under
shade without much loss of viability for about seven days. Storing fresh
seeds in water at ambient temperature increases their water content,
which in turn prolongs the viability. By packing seeds loosely in well-
aerated containers with powdered charcoal having 20 per cent moisture,
70 per cent viability can be retained up to 30 days. Storage of seeds at
4oC in sealed polythene bags is also considered to be a reliable method
for retaining viability up to four months. Immediately after collection,
seeds are generally packed in powdered charcoal of 20 per cent
moisture for transportation. Containers usually used are wooden boxes,
double gunny bags, bags lined with polythene or polythene bags. For
transporting over exceedingly long distance, seeds may be packed
tightly in

layers in aerated cases with damp sawdust-charcoal powder mixture, at

least 2 cm thick between two layers of seeds.

Germinated Seeds
Germinated seeds are collected from germination beds when the radicle
just comes out of the seed. If the root can elongate it may get damaged
while packing and transporting. To prevent this, germination beds are
inspected every day and germinated seeds are picked up.
Brown Budwood
After harvesting, the brown budwood is cut into pieces of one metre
length with a pruning saw for the convenience of handling. Immature
top portion, which may be green or partially brown, is discarded. For
use on the same day and transporting over short distance brown
budwood is kept wrapped in wet sacking. For longer storage and
transporting, their cut ends are sealed with melted wax and each piece
covered with banana sheath, wet sacking, coconut fibre, or
grass leaves. They are then tied into bundles of convenient size. By this
method, viability could be retained up to three days. For storing up to
14 days and carrying over exceedingly long distances each piece is first
wrapped with perforated polythene and then packed in boxes with wet
sawdust or coconut fibre is possible up to six days.

Green Bud Shoots

After collection of the shoots, their leaf bearing top portion is cut off.
The leafless lower part having the scale leaves are used for taking buds.
Since green bud shoots are tender it is better to use them for budding
immediately after harvesting. Usually shoots harvested in the morning
are used on the same day, preferably by noon. In the seedling nursery
they are carried in trays or buckets containing water or kept rolled in
wet sack or cloth without touching each other and always kept in shade.
If packed with wet, aged saw dust in alternating layers after sealing the
cut ends with wax, storage

Seedling Stumps
Seedling prepared to a convenient size by pruning the stem and roots
are called seedling stumps. Healthy and vigorous one-year old seedlings
are generally used for this. The seedlings should have a minimum girth
of about 7.5 cm at the base and brown colour up to a height of 45 cm or
more. For stumping, at first, the seedlings are cut back at some point
between 45 and 60 cm, where the brown colour ends. Pruning is always
done with a slanting cut, preferably above a whorl of buds. While
cutting back green or partially brown stem should not be retained on the
plant. Transpiration can take place through such regions and the
resulting loss of water may lead to the drying after planting. saw dust in
alternate layers.
The plants are left in the nursery for 7 to 10 days. During this period, a
few buds below the cut end become activated and swell. At this stage,
the decapitated plants are pulled out without causing much damage to
the roots and bark of the stem. The taproot is pruned to the maximum
possible length, but not more than 60 cm and not less than 45 cm. The
minimum of 45 cm is insisted for the sake of better establishment and
the maximum of 60 cm is fixed for the convenience of handling. Lateral
roots are pruned to a length of 10 to 15 cm. Plants infected by diseases
or having defective roots are discarded. If more than one taproot is
present the most vigorous one alone should be retained, and all others
pruned off at the base. After preparing the seedling stumps by proper
pruning of roots and stem, the cut end of the stem is immediately sealed
by dipping in molten paraffin wax. For transporting over short
distances, they are tied into bundles and then covered with a layer of
grass or leaves. In this manner they can be stored up to three days. If
transporting over large distances and storing for days together are
required, it is better to avoid stumping the seedlings days before pulling
out. Pruning of shoot and roots may be carried out after pulling out. The
stumps in such cases are packed in boxes along with wet saw dust in
alternate layers.

Brown Budded Stumps

Brown budded plant prepared for planting by pruning the stem and
roots is known as brown budded stump. The ideal way to prepare a
brown budded stump is to cut the stem of the plant at a height of about
7.5 cm above the upper end of the bud patch. The cut should have a
downward slant of around
45o from the side of the bud to the opposite
side. The plants are then pulled out and the
taproot pruned to a length of 45-60 cm and
the laterals to a length of 10-15 cm. While
gripping the stem for pulling out the plant,
special care should be taken not to exert any
pressure on the bud patch. Otherwise there
are chances for the bud to get damaged. In
case it is found difficult to pull out the plant
after cutting back the plant can be pulled out
before cutting back and then pruned. If the budded stumps are intended
for planting in polybags the taproot should be pruned to a length about
15 cm less than the height of the soil core. Rejection of defective plants,
pruning of multiple taproots etc. are like those of seedling stumps.

Brown budded stumps are hardy and hence a proper method of packing
retains the viability for a longer time. The cut ends of the stem are first
sealed with melted wax. The bud patch is protected by covering with a
small piece of banana sheath or folded rubber leaf. For overnight
storing, they are kept erect in water as in the case of seedling stumps.
For retaining their viability up to three days and carrying over short
distances they are tied into bundles and each bundle covered with
banana sheath, grass, or leaves. At the time of planting the protective
covering of the bud patch is removed. For long distance transport of
budded stumps involving preservation over a few weeks, advance
cutting back of budded plants before pulling out should be avoided. The
freshly cut back and pruned budded stumps should have their cut ends
sealed by molten wax and the whole stump given a light fungicide
treatment. They are then packed in boxes with wet sterilized sawdust.

Green Budded Stumps

Green budded stumps are prepared from green budded plants in almost
the same way as that of brown budded stumps. The major difference is
that if cutting back is done before pulling out it should be done seven
days before pulling out as green buds require lesser time for activation.
Green budded stumps being comparatively tender and smaller with less
reserve food stored in them, it is always preferable to plant them
immediately after preparation. Packing methods adopted for green
budded stumps are basically the same as that adopted for brown budded
stumps. Protection to the bud patch can also be provided by retaining
the polythene strip used for
bandaging the bud patch at the
time of budding. Standing in
water enables preservation
overnight. Additional steps like
sealing of the cut end of root,
tying into bundles and covering
the bundles with grass etc. gives protection for two days. If packed in
boxes with wet saw dust these could be safely stored up to six days and
transported over long distances.
In the case of both types of budded stumps described above the budded
plant should be pulled out without much delay after budding. If retained
in the nursery for a long time the dormancy of the buds will increase
and consequently their sprouting after planting may be delayed.

Polybag Plants
While transporting polybag plants utmost care should be given to
prevent any damage to the soil core. If the soil core is damaged roots
may break and consequently the plant will be deprived of all the
advantages of bag planting. Transporting over a short distance is done
by carrying them on the head or shoulder. Vehicles like lorry, truck,
tractor, etc. are used for transporting over long distances. While
transporting by vehicles, the
bags are stacked on the platform
tightly to reduce their swaying
and shaking to the minimum.
Providing shade for protection
from hot sun is also desirable.
The bag should always be kept
in a vertical position while
loading, unloading, and transporting. Carrying them in inclined or
horizontal position may cause breaking of soil core. Care should also be
taken to avoid tearing of the bags as it also can increase the chances for
breaking of the soil core.

Stumped Buddings
Stumped buddings are mainly of two types, mini stumps, and maxi
stumps. To prepare mini stumps the scion is cut back when it develops
brown colour up to a height of 60 cm from the bud union. Pruning is
done at the point where brown colour ends preferably below a whorl of
buds. The cut end is treated with any wound dressing material to
prevent dehydration. Stem is then whitewashed with hydrated lime to
avoid sun-scorching. Ten days are given for the activation of buds.
Then the plants are pulled out and the roots pruned as in the case of
budded stumps. If pulling out is found to be difficult due to the deep
taproot it can be made easy by removing the soil at one side of the
taproot up to a depth of 45 to 60 cm. A crowbar is inserted through this
opening and the taproot is severed at the desired depth. This is called
tailing.
For preparing maxi stumps cutting back of the scion is carried out when
brown colour is formed up to a height of 240 cm. First step in the
extraction of the plant is the tailing which is done five weeks before
pulling out. Early tailing reduces the transplanting shock and enhances
the development of new roots from the cut end after transplanting. After
tailing soil removed for this purpose is placed back. Pollarding of the
stem is done 10 days before pulling out at a height of 240 cm. where
brown colour ends. As in the case of mini stumps pruning of stem is
done below a whorl of buds. Wound dressing, white washing, pulling
out and pruning of lateral roots are also undertaken as done for mini
stumps. Packing and transporting of mini stumps are like that of
seedling stumps. Maxi stumps are not usually made into bundles due to
their large size. They are packed head to tail on lorries or trailers, using
grass or leaves as packing medium to prevent bruising and drying.

Root trainer plants

Root trainers generally used have a length of 26 cm with a capacity of
600 cc. The specific features like tapering shape, vertical ridges in the
container wall, drainage hole at the bottom are all incorporated with the
purpose of professionally training the structural development of roots
and hence the container is termed as root trainer. Cured coir pith mixed
with the appropriate quantities of single phosphate, neem cake, bone
meal, fungicides and pesticides are used as the potting medium. After
planting budded stumps, preferably greed budded stumps, the root
trainers are stacked in carriers made of iron rod or bamboo splints.
Initially the base of the
container is covered
with top soil and the
roots growing out of
the soil put beneath the
containers is removed,
roots are pruned and
the plants along with the containers are kept suspended in air for
hardening for a minimum of eight weeks. During the hardening
process, the tap root resumes growth in a few days and undergoes
natural air pruning near the hole at the bottom and thus prevent its
coiling inside the container.
This stress induces emergence of large number of lateral roots into the
well aerated potting medium. The vertical ridges of the container wall
direct these roots downwards and thus prevent its circular growth. These
lateral roots also undergo air pruning and as a result a hardended root
trainer plant will have a root system consisting of central tap root and
large number of lateral roots well oriented without any deformity.
The root plug is separated from the container just before transplanting
to the field. The root trainer plant is kept up right down and the brim of
the container is tapped against a hard surface so that root plug comes
out of the container without causing any damage to the roots. A
planting hole is made in the refilled pit by pressing the empty container
itself and the root plug is inserted into it. The soil is pressed slightly
from the sides and all other cultural practices are adopted as in the case
of polybag plants.

Rubber Growing Regions

The rubber growing regions in India can be classified under two major
zones, traditional and non-traditional based on agro-climatic conditions.

Traditional Regions
Non-traditional Regions
Traditional Regions
Rubber cultivation in India has been traditionally confined to the
hinterlands of the southwest coast, mainly in Kanyakumari District of
Tamil Nadu and Kerala

Non-traditional Regions
These are hinterlands of coastal Karnataka, Goa, Konkan Region of
Maharashtra, hinterlands of coastal Andhra Pradesh and Orissa, the
northeastern states, Andaman, and Nicobar Islands etc, where rubber is
now being grown.
Agro-climatic Requirements
Humid tropical climate prevails in the rubber-growing tract. Average
annual rainfall in the tract varies from about 2000-4500 mm. The
southern parts of the traditional tract enjoy southwest and northeast
monsoons almost equally while the northern areas receive mostly the
southwest monsoon. From south to north the drought period extends
from two to five months in a year and the distribution of rainfall
becomes more uneven. However, variation in temperature and humidity
in the rubber tract is not so marked as that of the rainfall. The
temperature remains very warm and humidity remarkably high
throughout the year.

Climatic Conditions for Optimum Growth of Rubber Tree

Rainfall of 2000 to 3000 mm evenly distributed without any marked dry
season and with 125 to 150 rainy days per annum Maximum
temperature of about 29oC to 34oC and minimum of about
20oC or more with a monthly mean of 25 to 28oC High atmospheric
humidity of the order of 80% Bright sunshine amounting to about 2000
h per annum at the rate of 6 h per day through all the months
Absence of strong winds Only a few regions in India meet all these
requirements. Fortunately, rubber can be grown successfully under
moderately deviating conditions too.

Rubber Growing Soils Rubber Growing Soils

Soil Type Soil Depth aculeate (aculeate (aculeate (

Soil Type
Soil in the rubber tract is generally highly weathered and consists
mostly of laterite, lateritic types. Sedimentary types and nonlateritic red
and alluvial soils are also
seen in some non-traditional
areas. The laterite and
lateritic soils are mostly
very porous, well drained,
moderately to highly acidic,
deficient in available
phosphorus and varying in
potassium and magnesium content. Red soil found in some areas is
characterized by reddish to brown colour and fine loamy texture. This
soil is generally acidic and highly deficient in available phosphorus.

Soil Depth
Soil for rubber cultivation should have a minimum depth of one metre
without any intervening hardpan or impenetrable layer. Water table
should also be well below one metre so that at least one metre of soil
with good aeration, essential for root penetration is available.

Drainage
Well-drained soil is essential for optimum growth and yield of rubber
plants. In marshy areas, owing to poor physical properties and
waterlogged conditions growth of rubber is always found to be
extremely poor.

Nursery Establishment
Nurseries are established and maintained for raising various
propagation materials for planting. These include seedling stumps,
budded stumps and advanced planting materials like polybag plants,
stumped buddings, and soil core plants. Mother plants or source bushes
for the multiplication of budwood are also grown in nurseries. Raising
of plants is easier and cheaper in nurseries than in the main field.
Moreover, nurseries offer an opportunity for selection of vigorous and
uniform plants.

Types of Nursery
Area required for various types of nurseries for producing planting
materials necessary for 100 ha

Types of Nursery
Planting materials for establishing rubber plantations are generated in
seedling, budwood and polybag nurseries.

Nursery
Budwood Nursery Polybag Nursery Nuresry Management
Seedling Nursery
Seedling nurseries are established to produce budded stumps, stumped
buddings and budwood.

Selection of Site Preparation of Nursery Beds Seed Germination Beds

Planting in Nursery
Selection of Site
The site selected for a ground nursery should have good accessibility
for supervision and transport of materials. If the purpose of the nursery
is to raise materials for planting a large area in the estate, it may be
located at a suitable site within this area itself. A good soil depth of at
least 75 cm is essential. Loamy soils are ideal for ground nurseries.

Extremely sandy soils are not suitable since leaching of plant nutrients
is faster. Retention of moisture is poor in such soils, necessitating
frequent watering during summer months. Soil containing too much of
clay are also unsuitable mainly because of poor drainage. A well-
drained level area is ideal for a nursery since the various operations will
be easy and cheap in such sites. However, undulating lands are also
suitable if adequate soil conservation measures are adopted. Contour
terracing is done where the slope is more than two per cent.
Waterlogged areas should be avoided, and water table should be
sufficiently low to allow sufficient soil depth for root development.
Shade free areas are preferred. Land with a history of intensive
cropping needs proper build-up of the nutrient status to the satisfactory
level.

Preparation of Nursery Beds

For the preparation of a ground nursery, the soil is first dug to a depth
of 60 to 75 cm. Stones, stumps, roots, etc present in the soil are
removed and the soil is brought to a fine tilth. Beds should be 90 to 120
cm wide and of convenient length. In the level lands, raised beds are
made with footpaths of about 45 cm width between the beds, and in
undulating lands, beds are prepared along the contours, one below the
other. At the time of preparation of nursery beds, 25 kg of compost or
well-rotten cattle manure and 4 kg of powdered rock phosphate (18%
P2O5) are incorporated for every 100 m2 of nursery bed. When
nurseries are established in newly cleared forest areas rich in organic
matter, compost or cattle manure need not be applied during the first
year. Similarly, when the same area is
repeatedly used as a nursery, rock
phosphate need be applied only once
in three years. Drainage and pathways
should be provided appropriately.

Seed Germination Beds

Rubber seeds are first germinated in
germination beds and then planted in nursery. A well-drained area with
moderate shade is the ideal site for germination beds. Level beds of 90
cm width and convenient length are prepared with walking space in
between. The beds should be raised 10 to 15 cm above the soil surface
to avoid waterlogging. A free draining friable material, like river sand,
spread above the bed to a thickness of 5 cm is used as the medium for
germination. Rubber seeds are viable only for a short period and are put
in germination beds as soon as obtained.
Seeds are washed thoroughly to remove
charcoal and other packing debris and spread
over the bed in a single layer touching one
another and pressed gently into the sand. To
prevent loss of too much moisture from the
rooting medium, the beds are covered with a
thin layer of gunny bag, coir matting or similar material. A high level of
moisture is maintained in the bed by evenly sprinkling water early in
the mornings and late in the evenings. Germination of the seeds starts
within six to seven days after sowing. The beds should be inspected
daily, and the germinated seeds picked up and collected in a bucket
containing water as soon as the radicle emerges for planting in the
nursery beds or main field. If the picking of germinated seeds is
delayed, chances of damage during handling will be greater. Seeds
which do not germinate within two to three weeks should be as they are
likely to give rise to weak seedlings.

Planting in Nursery
For planting germinated seeds in the nursery beds, small holes enough
to accommodate the seeds in a horizontal position and approximately 5
cm deep are made. The seeds are carefully placed in the holes with the
radicle pointing downwards and covered with soil. The sprouted seeds
should be planted when the young root is less than 2 cm long. The
germinated seeds should be carefully handled to prevent damage of the
radicle. Spacing varies according to the type of planting material to be
raised in the nursery. The common spacing adopted for raising seedling
stumps is 30 x 30 cm. To produce green-budded stumps 23 x 23 cm
spacing may be followed. For brown-budded stumps a spacing of
30 x 30 cm or staggered pairs of rows 60 cm apart and 23 cm between
plants may be adopted. A spacing of 60 x 60 cm, 90 x 30 cm, 90 x 60
cm, or 90 x 90 cm is required to produce various kinds of stumped
buddings. For raising soil core plants, a spacing of 35 x 35 cm, 38 x 30
cm or 60 x 60 cm may be followed. The spacing adopted for budwood
nursery is 90 x 60 cm or 120 x 60 cm., wider spacing being between
rows.
The rows are first marked on either end of each nursery bed using row
markers. A long cord of coir rope, wire or country twine, with the
planting distance along the row marked on it, is stretched tight along the
length of the bed on the row markers on either end and germinated
seeds are planted at each mark along the line. In budwood nursery,
budded stumps are planted at the required spacing.
Seeds can be directly sown in the beds at the required spacing and
Budwood Nursery
Buds required for budgrafting are collected from budwood obtained
from plants raised specifically for this purpose. Budwood nurseries are
of two types, namely brown budwood nursery and green budwood
nursery. The former produces brown buds while the latter, green buds.
Site selected for establishing the budwood nursery is first cleaned and
levelled. Terracing is done on slopes. Soil is first dug to a depth of 45 to
60 cm. Planting can be done with polybag plants, budded stumps or
seed at stake followed by budding. Spacing usually adopted for brown
budwood nursery is 90 x 60 cm. For green bud shoot nursery, the
spacing is 1 x 1 m or 80 x 90 cm. Proper fertilizer application may be
carried out to ensure good growth. Other agronomic practices such as
irrigation, mulching, weeding, shading, protection against diseases and
pests are followed in a similar manner as for seedling nursery. Details
on this can be found at Sections "Manuring/Fertiliser Application",
Weed Management", Mulching, Shading and Whitewashing" etc.
During the first year of planting only one shoot can grow. About 1 m of
brown buddwood can be obtained from this after one year. From the
second year, two or three shoots can develop on a plant depending on
the spacing adopted. To remove the leaves, present in the brown-
coloured

Budwood Nursery
After about one week the leaf stalk dries and falls off. Budwood is then
harvested by sawing off, leaving about 15 cm at the base. From this
portion shoots develop in the subsequent season. Green bud shoot
plants are shaped from brown budwood plants. For this, a well-
established brown budwood plant is first cut back at a height of about
75 cm. Several shoots emerge below the cut end. Among these, three to
five most vigorous ones alone are retained, and the rest removed. When
these shoots have grown and produced brown wood to a length of about
5 cm they are pruned at the point where the brown colour ends to
produce more branches. Two to three most vigorous branches are
retained on each shoot and the others cut off. When these secondary
branches develop brown colour at the basal 5 cm they are again pruned.
New branches arise from these and give the budwood plant a bushy
appearance. For producing green shoots, all the branches of a green bud
shoot plant (also called source bush) are pruned. The new branches
arising are harvested when one whorl of leaves develop. The harvested
budwood is cut into pieces of convenient length before being taken to
the nursery beds for budding.

Polybag Nursery
Planting materials in polybags can be prepared by two different
methods. Budded stumps can be planted in polybag and the scion
allowed to develop till they are ready for planting in the field. In the
other method, germinated seeds are planted in polybags and bud-grafted
when five to six months old. The former gives greater opportunity for
selection of the most vigorous plants and avoids wastage of bags
containing poor seedlings and budding failures. The roots of budded
stumps can be treated with indolebutyric acid (IBA), a hormone which
enhances root growth. Dipping root in cow dung slurry before planting
enhances root development.
The bags may be of black or transparent polyethylene. Transparent
bags, when used, should always be kept buried in soil, as otherwise, the
development of roots will be affected. The use of black polyethylene
bags is generally preferred. Depending on the size of the plant to be
produced, bags of different dimensions may be used. Polythene bags of
lay flat dimension 55 to 60 cm length and 25 to 30 cm width which can
hold about 8 to 10 kg soil, are usually used for raising plants up to two
to three whorlstage. For producing plants of six to seven whorls, larger
bags of 65 x 35 cm size and holding about 23 kg soil should be used. To
facilitate drainage, enough holes should be punched on the lower half of
the bags. Low density polyethylene (LDPE) sheet of 400 gauge and
500-gauge thickness are usually used for making small bags and large
bags respectively. Bags made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE)
sheets can also be used for this purpose. However, such bags are likely
to deteriorate when exposed

Polybag Nursery
The soil used for filling the bags should have good moisture and
nutrient retention capacity, promote root development, and bind the
roots firmly to prevent damage during transport. Soils with clay-loam
texture, good structure and friability are ideal for this purpose. The
fertile topsoil collected after removing the surface vegetation and leaf
litter is ideal for filling the bags. Before filling, large clods of soil are
broken, and if too wet, partially dried. The soil is cleaned by removing
stones, roots, and stubbles. While filling, the bag should be gently
tapped to ensure compact filling of soil without leaving air spaces. The
bag is filled up to about 2 cm below the brim. Powdered rock phosphate
at the rate of 25 g for small bags and 75 g for large bags is mixed with
the top layer of soil. The filled bags can be kept in the nursery either in
trenches or on the ground supported with wooden poles. The former
method is better as it would give greater protection of the bags and
better growth of the plants. Trenches having width equal to the diameter
of the bag are usually dug in pairs. For small bags, depth of trench may
be about 20 cm and the distance between rows in a pair of trenches 15
cm. The corresponding depth and distance for large bags are 30 cm and
20 cm. The gap between bags of same trench is 10 cm. Footpath of 75
cm width may be left between two pairs of trenches. After placing the
bag in the trench, the excavated soil is filled in the gap between them.
The remaining soil is mounted around the bags. Planting of budded
stumps or sprouted seeds is undertaken thereafter.

Polybag Nursery
When budded stumps are used, the bud patch should face the footpaths
to facilitate growth of sprouts. Regular cultural operations like
manuring, watering, weeding, shading, and plant protection are
adopted. Application of NPK Mg 10-10- 4-1.5 mixture is done at
monthly intervals. During the first month 10 g of the mixture is given
per bag which is gradually increased to 30 g in four months’ time.
Fertilizer application should be avoided when the leaves are very
tender. While applying fertilizer, care should be taken to prevent it from
meeting the young plant as it may cause scorching. Watering should be
done soon after manuring. During dry periods, irrigation should be done
regularly. Watering can be done manually in small nurseries while
sprinklers or drip irrigation system is more economical in large
nurseries. Too much watering should be avoided to prevent
waterlogging. During summer months, partial shade may be provided to
the plants by erecting overhead shade. Appropriate prophylactic and
curative measures may be taken against diseases and pests.
Polybag plants are advanced planting materials which contribute to
reduction in immaturity period. Bagged plants should be transplanted to
the field, with minimum disturbance to the root system for proper
establishment. Such plants also help to achieve a uniform stand and are
also useful for vacancy filling and late planting.

Nuresry Management
For rapid and economic production of good quality planting materials,
incredibly careful management of the nursery is necessary. In India,
seed fall occurs generally from July to September and hence the period
available for nursery growth is about 10 months. Therefore, efficient
nursery management should aim at production of the maximum number
of buddable or transplantable seedlings at the end of the 10-month
period. Unhealthy and weak seedlings should be removed. The ideal
time for this culling is three to four weeks after the first fertilizer
application, by which time the vigorously growing and stunted plants
can easily be distinguished.
The nursery beds should always be kept free of weeds. Generally, three
rounds of weeding are needed. In India, hand weeding is commonly
practiced. The first weeding is done just before application of the first
dose of fertilizers and the second weeding before the second dose. The
third round of weeding is done just before commencement of budding
during May or June. The first round of manual weeding can be replaced
with the application of pre-emergence herbicides. After the final
preparation of the nursery beds, diuron at the rate of 2.5 kg per ha in
700 L water is sprayed on the beds and germinated seeds planted five
days later. However, planting germinated seeds on the same day of
herbicide application does not result in any harmful effect that there is
only minimum disturbance to soil while planting the seeds.

Nuresry Management
The beds can be kept free of weeds till the first round of fertilizer
application (6 - 8 weeks) by adopting this method.
Mulching is an important operation to be followed in seedling nurseries
before the beginning of the summer season and after the second round
of fertilizer application. Natural materials such as tree loppings, dry
leaves, undergrowth from forests, grass cuttings and cut cover crop
material are commonly used after they are dried. A single round of good
mulching in December is adequate. Black polythene sheets properly
anchored to the soil to prevent them from being blown
away by wind can also be used for mulching. Spreading a thin layer of
soil above the sheet is an effective way to achieve this.
Manuring may preferably be carried out after ascertaining the specific
requirements of individual nurseries by soil analysis. If this is found
difficult, the general fertiliser recommendation may be followed which
ia given under the title "Manuring/Fertiliser Application".
During the dry period which usually extends from December to April,
the nurseries should be irrigated. In large nurseries, overhead sprinkler
irrigation systems are ideal. Manual watering is convenient and cheap
for small nurseries. The nursery beds should be mulched before
commencement of irrigation. The quantity of water required varies with
soil, climate, and age of plants. Daily watering is preferred during the
initial weeks. Later, the frequency of irrigation can be reduced to once
in two or three days. When the seedlings are sufficiently grey are used
for budding or directly used as seedling stumps.

Land Preparation
In India, rubber plantations are established in forest clearings, rubber
replantings or by crop replacement. Most of the areas available for
rubber cultivation are highly undulating and the extent of flat lands
suitable for planting rubber is limited. These situations necessitate
clearing of the land and adoption of proper soil conservation measures
before planting rubber.
Since June-July is the ideal period for planting rubber in South India, all
the pre-planting operations should be completed before the onset of
monsoon.

Clearing Roads, Fences and Buildings Lining Terracing Drainage

Construction of Silt Pits and Contour Bunds

Pitting and Refilling Clearing

The land to be brought under rubber cultivation should be cleared of all
vegetation. Large trees of economic value should be removed first
followed by felling and removing of smaller trees and slashing of the
under growth. A light burn after felling and drying facilitates planting
operations and slows down the regeneration of weeds. Nevertheless,
excessive cleaning and burning may cause the destruction of soil and
expose the soil to erosion. Replanting the old areas has to be thought of
when the yield falls, and the cultivation becomes uneconomic. The old
trees may be slaughter tapped with yield stimulant application before
felling. Lining and digging of pits can be started before felling of trees
to save time. But there are chances of damaging the terraces at the time
of felling.

Roads, Fences and Buildings

A well-planned network of roads and footpath is necessary for the easy
transportation of inputs to the various fields, latex to the factory and for
the efficient supervision of field operations. The roads should be
preferably traced before the commencement of lining so that sufficient
strip of land could be reserved.
Sufficient provision should be made for estate office, stores, processing
factories and residential accommodations. The plantation should be
protected all around by erecting fences or walls to keep away grazing
cattle and to prevent pilferage.

Lining
Lining should be based on plant spacing and planting density to be
adopted. Rubber can be planted by adopting square or rectangular
planting system. Square planting is suitable for level and near level
lands. Rectangular system can be adopted in flat lands and slopes. In
rectangular planting the lines should be oriented in the East West
direction to intercept maximum sunlight. Contour lining is done in
undulating and hilly areas where the slope exceeds
8 per cent. Here the planting points are marked as lines passing through
points of the same elevation. The planting density recommended is 420
to 500 plants per ha in the case of buddings or plants proposed to be
field budded and 445 to 520 plants per ha in the case of seedlings.
Higher initial stand is recommended for allowing proper thinning out.
Seedlings:
Terracing
On hilly and undulating terrain, cutting of terraces along the contour is
a recommended practice to conserve moisture and prevent erosion.
The soil on the hill side is cut from a distance of 60-75 cm in front of
the planting row and thrown back in such a way that the terraces so
formed will have a width of 1.25 to 1.5 metre and an inward drop of 20-
30 cm. Steps of uncut earth are left out at intervals along the terraces to
check lateral flow of water. For economy, planting on hillside may be
done on square platform of size 1.25 x 1.25 metre (honeycomb terrace)
during the year of planting and later on joined together to form a
complete terrace.

Drainage
Proper drainage enhances aeration, microbial activity, ground cover
establishment and helps in the development of an extensive root system.
Natural waterways available in the area may be cleared, dressed, or
deepened to form a good drainage system. If not, drains are dug at an
interval of 100-200 metres depending on the slope and drainage
problem.

Construction of Silt Pits and Contour Bunds

Silt pits are trenches of about 120 cm length, 45 cm width and 60 cm
depth taken along the contour at suitable intervals to check erosion and
to conserve water. Pits can be taken at the rate of 150-250 per ha
depending on the degree of slope. They are aligned in such a way that
the pits in the adjacent inter-rows are in a staggered manner.
Construction of stone pitched contour bunds is another method to check
erosion in steep slopes.

Pitting and Refilling

Pitting is necessary to provide an ideal medium for the proper growth of
the young rubber root system. The standard size of the pit is 75cm x
75cm x 75cm. The size of the pits varies depending upon the planting
material to be used. Stumped buddings need comparatively deeper and
larger pits. Smaller pits are sufficient for small and medium sized
polybag plants. On economic consideration in deep, loose and friable
soils, pits are sometimes dug wider at the top and tapering towards the
bottom or the depth is reduced to 60 cm with a central crow bar
(alavango) hole of 15 cm or more depth for taproot. But in hard, stony,
and compact soils, the pits should be widened.
Pitting should be started sufficiently early and filling should be
completed well in advance of planting so that the filled soil will get
sufficient time to settle. While digging, the topsoil is kept on one side
and the subsoil on another side. Filling should be done with the top
fertile soil as far as possible. The organic manure and phosphatic
fertilisers applied to the pits should be mixed with the top 20 cm soil in
the pit. The pits should be filled to about 5 cm above ground level. A
peg is placed in the centre of the pit to locate the planting point.

Tractor - mounted hole digging machines are increasingly utilised for

pitting. Machines which dig pits of 60 cm diameter and upto 90 cm
depth are now available.

Field Planting
The success of planting depends on the prevailing weather conditions,
quality of the planting materials used and the care with which the
planting operation is done. Continuous wet weather can be expected
during June-July in the major rubber growing areas in India and hence
this period is ideal for planting rubber. The actual method of planting
will depend on the materials used for planting. Different types of
planting materials used are seeds, seedling stumps, budded stumps, and
polybag plants. Of these, the last two are the most common ones.

Seed at Stake Planting Seedling Stumps and Budded Stumps Polybag

Planting
Aftercare
Seed at Stake Planting

The system of planting seeds in situ is called seed at stake planting and
it is followed by field budding. Two or three germinated seeds may be
planted in a line or triangle. The weaker plants should be thinned out
later, allowing the most vigorous one to grow on which field budding is
carried out at the appropriate stage.

Seedling Stumps and Budded Stumps

It is always advisable to plant the stumps soon after pulling out from
nursery beds. While planting budded stumps, the bud patch should be
just above the ground level. If a considerable part of the stock below the
union is left above the ground level, it may maximize the effect of
‘elephant foot.’ If kept below the soil the union is likely to be infected
by soil organisms.
About 5 cm of surface soil is first removed from an adequate area
around the planting points to accommodate the whorl of lateral roots. A
planting cavity is then made with an alavango to a depth equal to the
length of the pruned taproot. After thrusting the alavango to the
required depth, its top end is moved around, and the cavity is widened
sufficiently for the whorl of lateral roots to be in position in the area
dug. The side roots are set neither too shallow not too deep. Special
attention should also be given to ensure that the tip of the
taproot is in actual contact with the soil at the bottom of the cavity.
Air gap should not be allowed in the planting cavity as it may lead to
failure of root development. Loose soil is put in the cavity around the
taproot and pressed firmly. This is best done by pushing the alavango
into the edge of the planting hole as deep as the taproot is, in a slanting
manner so that the top part of the alavango is away from the stump and
the lower end near the tip of the taproot and then pulling it strongly
towards the stump which is firmly held in position. This process is
repeated on all sides without causing any damage to the bud. Loose soil
on the surface of the refilled pits should be stamped and pressed down
firmly. The level of soil around the planted stump should be a
centimetre or two above the ground level so that rainwater does not
collect around it. Stumped buddings are also planted in the same
manner.

Polybag Planting
At the time of planting, the top whorl of leaves of the polybag plant
should be fully mature. The soil around the bag is removed and the bags
are taken out of the trench. Dressing of the lateral roots and taproot, if
grown out of the bags, may be necessary. Then they are carried to the
planting points.
A planting hole slightly bigger than the size of the bag is made. The
bottom of the bag is completely cut and then the bag along with the
plant is inserted into the planting
hole. A vertical cut is made at the
bottom of the plastic sleeve,
taking care not to damage the
roots. Then the cut is continued
upwards as the hole is gradually
filled so that the cylinder of soil
is unbroken. When the hole is
partially filled, the bag is slit along its full length and carefully pulled
away. The soil is finally packed firmly around the plants. While
planting, the scion of the polybag plants should be directed towards
north east to minimize the adverse effect of direct sunlight on the bud
patch.
Aftercare After planting, the plants should be inspected at regular
intervals and the false shoots sprouting from the stock should be
removed and only the vigorous bud shoot can develop. Any side shoot
developing up to 2.5 metres from the ground level should also be
removed.

Intercropping
During the initial years of a rubber plantation, the land area is not fully
occupied by the rubber plants and inter spaces are available in the
plantation which receive plenty of sunlight. These interspaces can be
utilized for growing intercrops, which will help the farmer to generate
additional revenue. Intercrops should be planted atleast 1.5 M away
from plant bases. Intercrops should be separately and adequately
manured.
The topography of the rubber plantations varies from level lands to
gentle, moderate and steep slopes. The high rainfall in the rubber
growing regions and the undulating topography in many situations
make the soil vulnerable to erosion hazards. Growing of inter crops
necessitates soil disturbing tillage operations of various kinds. This will
predispose the topsoil to erosion losses in steep and undulating lands.
The growing of intercrops, therefore, must be restricted to level lands
and gentle slopes. Even in such lands it should be ensured that
leguminous cover crops are established side by side with intercrops or
immediately after the intercropping is stopped. The general practice of
growing leguminous ground covers must be strictly followed in
plantations of moderate and steep slopes.
The Common Intercrops Cultivated in Rubber Plantations

Banana
Pineapple
Ginger and Turmeric
Vegetables Medicinal Plants Tuber crops

Banana
Non-Ratoon types like Nendran is suitable as intercrop during the initial
three years. During the first year 1200 plants
per hectare can be grown in a double row
system at 2 x 2 metre spacing. The stand should
be restricted to 600 during the second year in a
single row system and 450 for third year.
Ratoon types like ‘Palayankodan’,
‘Poovan’ etc. should be planted in a single row
and only one sucker should be retained during
the second year. The pseudo stem, leaves and
 mother rhizome left after harvest can
be used for mulching the rubber plant.

Pineapple
Pineapple can be grown as intercrop
during the initial four years. Two or
three rows of pineapple suckers are
planted along the inter rows of rubber
in trenches during the year of planting
of rubber. In slopy lands the trenches
should be taken across the slope
parallel to the contour terraces to reduce soil erosion. Proper manuring
using organic and chemical fertilizers is necessary to ensure high yield
and to prevent depletion of soil fertility. Pineapple once planted will
give fruits for a period of about four years.

Ginger and Turmeric

Since thorough digging of the soil is
required for the cultivation of these
crops they may be grown only on level
and near level lands. Heavy application
of cattle
manure or compost and organic mulches
are important in the cultivation of these crops. They can be grown for
the initial two years.

Vegetables
Many vegetables like cowpea, cucumber, ladies’ finger, amaranthus etc.
can be grown during the initial 2-3 years with proper addition of
organic manures.

Medicinal Plants
Some shade tolerant medicinal plants can also be grown in rubber
plantation Strobilanthus
haenianus (‘Karimkurinji’),
Adathoda vasica (‘Valiya
Adalodakam’) and Plumbago
rosea (‘Chuvanna Koduveli’) are found suitable for cultivation in rubber
plantations.

Tuber crops
Amorphophallus, dioscorea, calocasia and arrowroot can be cultivated
as inter crop during the initial years of plantations. These crops can be
grown alone, in mixed pattern along with banana or sequentially after
one or two crops of banana or vegetable and can be retained upto 4
- 5 years. Since cultivation of these crops need filling the soil to varying
degrees their cultivation should be restricted to level lands and gentle
slops and fillage operations should be kept to a minimum. when
dioscorea is cultivated, along with rubber, the vines should be trailed
on artifical supports.

Cover Crops
Ground Cover Management
Common Leguminous Cover
Crops Grown in Rubber
Plantations
Establishment of Cover Crop

Preparation of Beds
Pre-sowing Treatment of Seeds
Common Pre-sowing Treatments Sowing of Cover Crop Seeds
Manuring of Cover Crops

Control of Cover Crops

Ground Cover Management
The undulating topography coupled with the high rainfall of the
traditional rubber growing belt
predispose the soil towards erosion. To
conserve soil and improve soil fertility
cover crops are grown and maintained.
Leguminous ground cover enhances
the growth and yield of rubber.

Advantages of Cover Crops

Prevent the beating action of rain and effectively reduces run off
Increase soil moisture and keep down the temperature during summer
Smother weeds Add large quantities of organic matter and improve soil
structure Fix atmospheric nitrogen resulting in improved soil fertility
Common Leguminous Cover Crops Grown in Rubber Plantations
Pueraria phaseoloides
This is an immensely popular cover crop in rubber plantations. It is a
vigorous twiner and creeper and forms a dense thick ground cover when
established. It can withstand strong sun and smother weeds. It is
propagated through seeds and cuttings. Seed rate about 3.0 to 4.5 kg per
ha. A disadvantage is that it is grazed by cattle unless afforded
protection.

Mucuna bracteata
It is a deep-rooted fast-growing legume with moderate drought
resistance and shade tolerance. A native of Tripura, it forms a thick
luxuriant cover and suppresses all weeds. The dried leaves form thick
mulch and is less palatable to cattle. Propagation of Mucuna bracteata is
through seeds and rooted cuttings. The seeds are comparatively big, and
the seed rate is 200g/ha. Fruits are covered by stinging hairs. However,
the plant does not bear fruits in low elevation situations of Kerala. Fruit
set is copious in winter conditions of Tripura. Calopogonium
mucunoides
It is a twiner and creeper with tolerance for poor soils. It has a rapid
initial growth and dies off during the dry months and is a prolific
seeder. Seed rate is 3.0 to 4.5 kg. per ha.

Centrosema pubescens
A perennial climber and creeper that can grow in shade. It grows slowly
and is Establishment of Cover Crop
Cover crops are generally established from seeds. However, P.
phaseoloides and M. bracteata can also be propagated by stem cuttings.

Preparation of Beds
Seeds or cuttings of cover crops are planted on raised beds prepared in
clean weeded areas in between rubber rows. About 420 beds of 1.2 x
1.0 metres per ha are prepared immediately after the pre-monsoon rains.
It is preferable to raise them immediately after clearing the area for
planting, and in the case of replanting, one year ahead of planting, if
possible, or soon after felling the old stand of rubber so as to reduce the
cost of weeding.
If cuttings are used, fresh cuttings two or three feet long should be
planted when frequent rains are available during the month of June or
July. On the other hand, if seeds are used, they should be sown in
prepared patches during May after the pre-monsoon rains. This practice
will ensure the proper establishment of the cover crop before the
drought season commences.

Pre-sowing Treatment of Seeds

Seeds of cover crops have awfully hard seed coat which delays or
inhibits germination. Therefore, pre-sowing treatment is done to ensure
uniformity and higher percentage of germination. This also helps in
reducing the toxic compounds present in the seed coat, which inhibit the
nodule forming bacteria.

Common Pre-sowing Treatments

Acid Treatment
Seeds are treated with concentrated sulphuric acid for a period of 10
minutes for P. phaseoloides, 30 minutes for M. bracteata and 20 to 30
minutes for mucunoides. The seeds are put in a glass or any other acid
resistant container and stirred after adding sufficient concentrated
sulphuric acid. The seeds thus treated should be placed in a large
container having cold water and washed well to remove the acid
completely. Acid treatment may adversely affect C. pubescens
seeds. Acid treated seeds can be stored under dry conditions for about
10 days.

Hot Water Treatment

This method is suitable for the seeds of P. phaseoloides and C.
mucunoides. The percentage of germination may not be as high as in
acid treatment. Hot water treatment is carried out by soaking cover
crop seeds in hot water at 60 - 80oC for a period of 4 to 6 hours before
sowing.
Abrasion Treatment
Abrasion treatment is done by mixing the seeds with sand (about 1-2
times the Quantity of seeds) and then grinding them gently in a mortar.
Scarification of seeds

Sowing of Cover Crop Seeds

The pretreated seeds are mixed with equal quantity of rock phosphate
and sown in rows or in equidistant patches between the plant rows. The
planting patches should be clean weeded and forked well. In drought
prone areas, for the establishment of cover plants, the germinated seeds
may be sown during January or February in coconut husks filled with
soil and the plants allowed to grow under shade till the pre-monsoon
showers are received. The plants with husks should then be planted in
prepared patches in the main field. The young cover plants in patches
should then be protected from weeds for four to five months. Cattle
grazing and cutting away of the crop for fodder purpose also should be
avoided for ensuring the proper development of the ground cover.

Manuring of Cover Crops

Application of rock phosphate alone or in combination with muriate of
potash has been found to be especially useful for the quick
establishment, easy maintenance, and efficient nitrogen fixation.
Powdered rock phosphate (18% P2O5) @ 165 kg. per ha is applied in
two equal splits, the first one month after sowing and
the second two months after the first application. In areas where the
soils are known to be deficient in available potassium, application of a
mixture of 165 kg of rock phosphate and 50 kg of muriate of potash is
recommended. In either case, it is enough to broadcast the fertilisers on
the strips where the cover crops are planted.

Control of Cover Crops

Cover crops established in patches will spread very rapidly and cover
the intervening spaces, smothering the weeds in most cases within a
year. Cover crop should not be allowed to grow
in a circle of about 2 metres diameter around the plants or along the
contour terraces for 3 to 4 years to prevent its competition with the
young rubber.
Mulching, Shading and Whitewashing
Mulching or covering the plant basin with dry leaves, cover crop
cuttings, grass cuttings, paddy straw etc is a recommended practice in
rubber plantations to protect soil in the immediate vicinity of the plants
from direct impact of heavy rains and sunlight causing soil degradation.
Dried African Payal (Salvinia sp.) also can be effectively used as mulch
at the rate of 5 kg per square metre (sun dried material).

Benefits of Mulching
* Improvement of water and plant nutrient holding capacity of the soil
* Maintenance of the soil around young rubber plants in a cool and
moist condition during summer months
* Multiplication of microbial population of the soil, ensuring better
nutrient availability
* Protection of the soil from beating effect of heavy rainfall resulting in
soil erosion
* Control of weeds around the plant bases
Mulching should be undertaken in nurseries and young plantations after
fertiliser application and before the onset of regular summer. Usually,
November is the ideal time for mulching to protect the plant from
adverse effect of drought. During the year of planting young plants
may be protected by shading before the beginning of summer. Plaited
coconut leaves or used gunny bags can be used for this purpose. The
brown bark of the young plants can be protected from the scorching
action of the sun by whitewashing the main stem of the plant from the
second year of planting. This may be continued till canopy of the plants
develops and partially shades the plantation. However, plants on the
roadsides may need whitewashing for a longer period as they are more
exposed to sunlight. Whitewashing can be done using lime or china
clay.
Protection of Young Rubber Plants from Strong Sun
Young rubber plants in the field and nurseries are highly susceptible to
scorching resulting from exposure to strong sun. The incidence is more
on southern and southwestern aspects. Mulching and shading help
prevent sun scorch in nurseries. In the field too, mulching and provision
of bamboo or plaited coconut leaf tree guards afford same protection in
this regard. From the second year onwards, young plants in the field
may be protected by whitewashing brown portions of the main stem.
This is done by the beginning of the dry weather, that is during
November – December. For white washing, fresh lime is superior even
though china clay can also be used.

Induction of Branches
It has been observed that to achieve a
high rate of girth increase the rubber
plant should produce branches at a
height of about 2.5 to 3.0 m from the
ground. In high branching trees girth
increment has been found to be poor
compared to low branching trees. Some
plants show a tendency for high
branching, particularly clones like
RRIM 600 and GT 1. In such cases
branching must be induced by
encouraging a few lateral buds to
develop. The branches thus induced should develop in different
directions in an equally spaced manner to ensure a well- balanced
canopy. Techniques like the double blade ring cut device and the leaf
cap method can be utilized for this.
The double-blade ring-cut device has two V-shaped blades fixed 20 cm
apart on a rod. By pressing the V-shaped blades and rotating them
around the trunk complete ringing of the bark is done down to the
surface of the wood. The cuts are made above a cluster of leaf scars so
that several trunk shoots are produced around this region. This method
can be applied only on greenish brown or brown tissues and is not
suitable for young green tissues. In young green tissues, the leaf
folding, or leaf cap method can be used. In the leaf folding method, the
leaves of the top whorl are folded down at the point of contact of the
petiole with the lamina using only the upper few leaves to enclose the
apical bud. The leaves are then tied with a rubber band. After three to
four weeks they are released. In plants where the terminal whorl of
leaves is in the leaflet or bud the leaf cap method is recommended.
Here, three mature leaflets

Weed Management
Common Weeds
Methods of Weed Control
Weed Management in Different Stages

Common Weeds
Borreria sp. (Button weed), Chromolaena odorata (Siam weed), Lantana
aculeate (Lantana), Mimosa pudica (Touch- me-not), Clerodendron sp.,
Mikania micrantha (Mile-a- minute), Sida sp., Imperata cylindrica,
Pennisetum sp. (Napier grass), Axonopus sp (Carpet grass), Paspalum
sp., Digitaria sp. (Tropical crab grass), Cynodon dactylon(Bermuda
grass) etc.

Methods of Weed Control

Weeds can be controlled by either manual methods or with the use of
chemicals known as
herbicides. However,
an integrated method
involving a
combination of these
two methods is more
economical and eco-
friendlier.

Manual
This involves slashing,
scraping, uprooting etc.
As manual clean
weeding will expose
soils to erosion, mulching should be done immediately after weeding.

Schedule of Manual Weed Management Operations

Overall weeding including weeding in the planting strips

Chemical
Weeds can be controlled with the use of herbicides or weedicides.
There are two main types of herbicides, the pre-emergent and post-
emergent herbicides.

Pre-emergent Herbicides
Pre-emergent herbicides are soil-applied chemicals used for killing
weeds before they emerge from soil. In newly prepared planting strips,
the application of pre-emergent herbicides immediately after planting
can check the weed growth for 6-7 weeks.
Recommended Doses and Combinations of Herbicides

Integrated Weed Management

This approach involves an integration of manual and chemical weed
control methods along with the establishment of cover crop during the
first year itself which helps in smothering weeds in the inter spaces and
thereby reducing the usage of herbicide to the minimum. Application of
herbicides in the plant basin alone and slash weeding the remaining
inter plant area along the planting strip was found to be cost effective
and sustainable.

Weed Management in Different Stages

Rubber plantations are infested by various weed species throughout the
year and present major problems of access and competition. Weeds
compete with rubber for light, soil moisture and nutrients and serve as
alternate hosts for insects and pathogens. Therefore, management of
weeds is an important cultural operation to be followed in rubber
plantations.
Maintenance of a luxuriant ground cover in the early phase of plantation
can minimize the weed infestation to a great extent. However, during
the first year till the cover crops are fully established, the weeds that are
sprouting around the cover crops patches should be controlled for their
early establishment. Once the ground cover is established, the weed
management operations need be concentrated only on the planting
strips.

Seedling Nursery
Immature Rubber Mature Rubber Herbicide Applicators Mechanical
weed cutter
Seedling Nursery
Application of pre-emergent herbicide diuron at 2.5 kg per ha is
effective in controlling weeds for 6-7 weeks i.e., till the time of first
fertiliser application.

Immature Rubber
In the newly cleared areas, the growth of weeds is fast as the soil and
climatic conditions are favourable. Management of weeds can be done
either manually or with the use of post emergent herbicides as
mentioned earlier, depending upon the conditions and the nature of
weed flora.
Mature Rubber
As the trees grow old, the foliage is at a great height from the ground
which permits more sunlight into the inter row spaces. As a result,
weeds reappear, which can be controlled either by slash weeding or by
treatment of herbicides.

Herbicide Applicators
For spraying herbicides knapsack sprayers with flood jet nozzle (No.
WFN40) or controlled droplet applicators (CDA) are used. With the
use of CDA, the spray volume can be reduced to 15-30 litres per ha
thereby reducing the cost of spraying. But the doses of chemicals will
be the same as those for high volume spraying (knapsack sprayers).

Mechanical weed cutter

Mechanical weed cutters are now available. These machines can be
operated by single person and is operated on petrol
Manuring / Fertiliser Application
Manuring/Fertiliser Application
General Fertiliser Recommendation Fertiliser Recommendation for
North-Eastern Region Discriminatory Fertiliser Recommendation
Nutritional Disorders Commonly Observed in India

General Fertiliser Recommendation

The general fertiliser recommendation for rubber is derived based on
the results of the fertiliser experiments conducted by the Rubber
Research Institute of India on rubber of different age groups. Majority
of the rubber growing soils belong to the laterite and lateritic types and
hence this general fertiliser recommendation can be followed.
However, practicing discriminatory fertiliser recommendation based on
soil and leaf analysis will be more advantageous.
The nutrient requirements of rubber plant vary considerably during the
three important stages of growth: the nursery, immature and mature
stages.

Seedling Nursery
Budwood Nursery
Immature Rubber
 Seedling Nursery

Basal Dressing – Incorporate two

and a half tonnes of compost or
well-rotted cattle manure and 400
kg of powdered rock phosphate
(18% P2O5) for every effective ha,
i.e., 25 kg of compost and 4 kg of
rock phosphate per 100 m2 of the nursery bed. If the nursery is opened
in a newly cleared forest area, addition of compost or cattle manure may
not be necessary during the year of opening and application of rock
phosphate alone is sufficient. If the same bed is used repeatedly,
application of rock phosphate is necessary only once in three years.
Top Dressing - Apply 2500 kg of 10-10-4-1.5 NPKMg mixture per
effective ha, i.e., 25 kg per 100 m2 of the nursery bed six to eight weeks
after planting. Again apply 550 kg of urea per effective ha, i.e., 5.5 kg
per 100 m2, six to eight weeks after the first top dressing. After
fertiliser application the plant bases can be mulched with suitable mulch
material.
The first application of the recommended quantity of NPKMg mixture
should be made during September-October period, i.e., six to eight
weeks after planting the germinated seeds in the nursery beds. The
fertiliser should be spread about eight cm away from the base of the
plants in a 14 cm wide linear band in between two rows and gently
forked in with a hand rake. The fertiliser should not come into contact
with the stem of the seedling to avoid injury to the plants and ensure
that there is sufficient moisture in the soil at Budwood Nursery
The aim of manuring budwood nurseries is to obtain the maximum
quantity of good quality budwood per plant at the intervals of 10-12
months with an initial period of 12 to 18 months for the first crop of
budwood.
Incorporate 165 kg of powdered rock phosphate per ha i.e., 1.65 kg per
100 sq. metres of the nursery bed as a basal dressing at the time of
preparing the nursery bed.
For the first crop of bud-wood apply 250 g of 10-10-4-1.5 NPKMg
mixture per plant in two equal split doses. Apply the first split of 125 g
per plant two to three months after planting the budded stump or cutting
back if budding is carried out in situ. The second dose of 125 g per
plant should be applied eight to nine months after planting.
For the second and subsequent crops of bud-wood from the nursery,
apply 125 g of 10-10-4-1.5 NPKMg mixture per plant in one single
dose two to three months after cutting back.
The fertiliser application should be made during September – October
and March-April either in a band 8 cm away from the base of the plant
or in between two rows and lightly forked with a hand rake. For the
second and subsequent crops of bud-wood the one round of fertiliser
application recommended should be applied during September-October
season adopting the same method.

Immature Rubber
Up to the fourth year
The object of manuring rubber plants during the immature stage is to
accelerate the growth and to reduce the unproductive phase of the crop.
Under the agro-climatic conditions prevailing in the traditional tract,
rubber plants after planting takes about seven years to attain tappability
in most cases. The result of the field experiments carried out by the
Rubber Research Institute of India clearly indicated the possibility of
reducing the immaturity period by one year through systematic
manuring and agro management practices in the young rubber plant.
Pit manuring: Incorporate 12 kg of compost or well-rotted cattle manure
and 200 g of rock phosphate in every pit at the time of filling to provide
good soil conditions for development of a good root system. In newly
cleared forest areas, it is enough to apply 200 g rock phosphate alone,
well mixed with the top 20 cm soil in the pit as the surface soil in
general will be rich in organic matter.
The quantity and schedule of manuring for the first four years are
shown below. The quantity requirement for 10-10-4-1.5 NPKMg
mixture or 12-12-6 mixture is provided. The required dose of nitrogen
(N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg) can be
provided through mixing the straight fertilisers. The quantity of straight
fertilisers needed for preparing these fertiliser mixtures are also shown.
Two grades of mixtures, one with Mg other without Mg is provided for
application in Mg deficient and Mg
Quantity and the Schedule of Fertiliser Application during the
First Four Years

Dose of mixture per plant (g)

1. In the case of poly bag plants, during the first year, i.e. three
months after planting (Sept-October) apply 450/380 g of the fertiliser
mixture instead of 225/190 g shown in the Table.
2. If no leguminous ground covers were established in the field,
the fertiliser recommendation for the third year may be continued
during the fourth year also.
3. In the first two years it is advantageous to apply 50 per cent of
the phosphorus in the water-soluble form for better growth of the rubber
plants. Therefore, during the first two years, 10-10(5)-4-1.5 NPK Mg
mixture and 12-12(6)-6 NPK mixture containing 50 per cent of the
phosphate in the soluble form are recommended.

Composition of Different Fertiliser Mixtures

Quantity of straight fertilisers (kg)
* - 50% water soluble P through AP
AP – Ammonium Phosphate (20-20 NP)
MOP – Muriate of Potash (60% K2O)
RP – Rock Phosphate (18% P2O5)
Mg - Magnesium Sulphate (16% MgO)
The fertiliser requirements of rubber during the remaining period of
immaturity depend to a great extent on the cultivation practices, such as
mulching the plant bases during the initial years and the establishment
and maintenance of leguminous ground covers in the field. These
cultivation practices will result in the improvement of the soil
conditions and availability of plant nutrients, particularly nitrogen.

Method of Application
For young rubber, fertilisers should be applied taking into consideration
the extent of root spread. During the first application after planting,
fertilisers should be evenly distributed over a circular band of about 30
cm around the base of the young plant, leaving about seven cm from the
base all around and slightly forked into the top five to eight cm of the
soil. The plant bases should then be immediately mulched. This will
help in better retention and utilization of the applied fertilisers and
control of weed growth in the plant bases.
The second round of fertiliser application, i.e., when the plants are 9
months old should be done in a circular band, the band width being 45
cm leaving 15cm all around the plant base. The fertiliser applications in
subsequent years till the canopy of the rubber plant closes should be
made in circular bands of steadily increasing width.
From the fifth year of Planting to Maturity
A. The fertiliser recommendation from the 5th year of planting for a
well-maintained field where mulching was practiced and leguminous
ground cover was established and maintained is 30,30,30 NPK kg/ha.
By mixing the straight fertilisers, 65 kg of urea, 165 kg rock phosphate
and 50 kg of muriate of potash, this can be supplied. Otherwise 300
kg/ha of 10-10-10 NPK mixture can be used. Alternatively, any of the
complex fertilisers of the grades 15-15- 15 or 17-17-17 or 19-19-19
NPK may be used and the quantities of these 10-26-26 NPK complex
(115 kg) mixed with urea (40kg) or Ammonium phosphate sulphate
(Ammophos), 20-20 (150kg) with muriate of potash (50kg) or 65 kg
Diammonium phosphate (DAP) mixed with 40kg urea and 50 kg
muriate of potash may also be used. Diammonium phosphate is
recommended for soils having pH 6.0 or above which is rare.
B. For areas where no legume ground covers were established and no
mulching practiced during the initial years, the recommendation is
60,40,24 NPK kg/ha by mixing straight fertilizers - 130 Kg urea, 220
Kg Rajphos and 40 Kg MOP. The quality must be applied in two equal
splits in two seasons. This can also be supplied through 400 kg of 15-
10-6 mixture applied in two split doses of 200 kg each during the 5th
and subsequent years till the plants become ready for tapping.

Mature Rubber under Tapping

The general recommendation is 30-30-30 NPK kg/ha. This can be
supplied through mixing straight fertilisers or through mixtures. The
quantity of the same is provided in an earlier session (manuring from
5th year till attainment of maturity for well-maintained plantations).
Discriminatory fertiliser application based on the results of soil and leaf
analysis should be practiced for mature rubber wherever it is possible.

Method of Application
Fertilisers should be applied in square or rectangular patches in between
rows, each patch serving four trees. Once the canopy of the plants
closes, say, 5 to 6 years after planting, light forking to incorporate the
fertilisers into the topsoil is necessary. In areas where the legume
ground cover is present or where the legume cover has died out leaving
a thick mulch, it is enough to broadcast the fertilisers between two rows
of rubber trees. Deep pocket placement of fertilisers and application
too close to the base of the trees should be avoided.
Rubber Cultivation in India: Para, Ceara, India and Russian Rubber
Plant

The following points highlight the four main types of rubber cultivation
in India. The types are: 1. Para Rubber 2. Ceara Rubber 3. India Rubber
4. Russian Rubber Plant.

Type # 1. Para Rubber:

Para rubber is a tall tree, 25-35 mtr.; stem smooth, straight, un-branched
up to a considerable height and then forming a leafy canopy; bark
greyish with copious milky latex. Leaves are trifoliolate, alternate or
sub opposite, at the end of the branchlets, long petioled; leaflets
glabrous, elliptic-lanceolate, acuminate, entire, 10-15 cm. long; petiole
7—10 cm. long, glandular at apex.

Flowers small sweet-scented, unisexual, in large, terminal, panicled

cymes. Calyx 5-toothed or lobed. Corolla absent. Disc of 5 free or
united glands. Stamens 5-10, filaments united to form a column, anthers
sessile on the column.

Ovary superior, 3-celled, with one ovule in each cell; stigma sub sessile
2-lobed. Fruit a capsule, dehiscing into 3 one seeded cocci; seeds
ellipsoid, 3-4 cm. long, mottled brown and shinning. Hevea brasiliensis
is indigenous to Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Equator and Colum-bia. It is
cultivated in India, Ceylon, Burma, Malay, Sumatra, Java, Borneo,
Sarawak, Siam, Indochina and in Equatorial Africa.

In India rubber plantations were first started in Kerala in 1905 from

seeds obtained from Ceylon. Ceylon was however the first country in
Asia to start cultivating Hevea brasiliensis from seedlings sent from
Royal Botanic Garden, Kew in 1876.

The latex of H. brasiliensis is obtained by tapping the bark of the trunk.

The over-flowing latex is collected in a plastic or enamel cup containing
a small amount of pre-servative viz. Ammonia or Sodium sulphite or
Formaldehyde to prevent coagulation.

As the latex stops flowing the cups are emptied into buckets which are
carried to the factory. The liquid is strained first through a course sieve
to remove the dirt and other impurities. It is then diluted and strained
for second time through a fine sieve. The latex is an aqueous serum
with a colloidal suspension of rubber particles.

A warm, humid, and equable climate is suitable for growing H.

brasiliensis. It thrives well in tropical countries lying between latitudes
15°N and 10°S with a temperature ranging from 74°F and 95°F. A
rainfall of 1750 mm. to 2500 mm. well distributed throughout the year
is ideal for its healthy growth.

Prolonged rainfall or prolonged drought are unfavourable while

moderate showers alternating with sunny weather are much needed.

Deep well-drained loamy soil is best for H. brasiliensis. The pH value

should range from 3.8 to 8.0. In alkaline soil the growth is stunted. To
start a rubber plantation a forest area is cleared of trees and
undergrowth’s and these are left there for some-time. The tree trunks
and the. branches are then removed and the leaves that fall on the soil
can rot.

Arrangement is made for good drainage and terraces are prepared

according to the sloping of the land. Square type of pits is dug in lines,
2/3 mtr. deep and of similar width. Pits are filled with surface soil and
organic manure.

Seedlings raised in the nursery or clones are transplanted in the pits

during monsoon 200 per acre or more. Later the plants are thinned out
and about 150 are left in a field of one acre. Seeds are sown in seed
beds in the nursery in winter and germinate in 1-3 weeks-time.
Seedlings attain a height of one mtr. or more in 6 months’ time when
they are ready for transplanting. In trees raised from seeds the yield of
latex varies.
In some the flow of latex is high while in others it is much less. So that
in a plantation it is desirable to have all high yielding trees. So instead
of transplanting seedlings, trans-planting of budded clones are
practiced. Such clones are prepared in the nurseries.

Buds taken from high yielding trees are grafted near the base of
vigorously growing seedlings about one year old. After a period of one
month or a little more the budded stocks are stumped 15-20 cm. above
the grafted bud. In another fortnight the budded stumps are ready for
trans-planting. After transplanting all other branches excepting the
shoot developing from the grafted bud are pruned off.

Suitable cover crops are grown close to check soil erosion and surface
run off. For this purpose, Pueraria phaseoloides Bth, Centrosoma
pubescens Bth, species of Crotalaria, Indigofera, Desmodium, etc. are
generally used. These enrich the soil also.

Sulphate of Ammonia and other nitrogenous fertilizers are used for

manuring and this is important when cultivated lands are converted into
rubber plantations. For grown up trees in a plantation, potash,
phosphate, and other fertilizers are used. Small quantity of magnesium
is often added.

The rubber trees are susceptible to fruit-rot disease and- die-back

disease. The former is controlled by spraying Bordeaux mixture and
other by cutting off the affected portions and burning them.
Black thread disease appears in the tapping cuts and this can be
prevented by painting that portion with a 5% solution of Brunolium,
Agriosol, Solignum or Jodelite. White ants often cause great damage to
the trees. These are rubbed off and the tree trunks are painted with tar or
kerosene.
Tapping is done on the base of the trunk up to a height of 11 mtr. from
the ground. Cuts are made by removing a thin shaving of bark by
special tapping knives. Usually the cut extends halfway around the
trunk, but it may completely encircle it, i.e. half spiral system or full
spiral system.
It may also be a V-cut system or herring bone-cut system. The cut is
made at 30-35° to the horizontal from upper to lower end of the cut and
a vertical cut is made to conduct the latex to a cup placed below. In V-
cut system two slanting incisions are made and at the base of their
junction a cup is placed where the latex is collected.
In herring bone system, a vertical cut is made in the bark with 4-6
diagonal cuts on either side. The cuts extend from one fourth to one half
of the circumference of the trunk. A cup is placed bellow the vertical
cut to receive the latex. The latex is collected through a small spout
fixed into the bark.
Tapping is done early in the morning when the flow of latex is
vigorous. The flow diminishes with the rise of temperature and ceases
in about 3 hours. The latex is then transferred into large pails or
buckets. Tapping is done every alternate day. The yield increases with
the repeated scrapings which is stopped before any injury is done to the
cambial tissues.

New tapping’s are done one below the other till it reaches almost the
ground level on one side of the tree in a period of 5—6 years. After that
tapping is done. on the other side of the tree trunk and continued for
another period of 5-6 years. Tapping commences when the tree is 7-8
years old.
Increase of flow of latex is affected by treating the bark below the
tapping cut with hormones. Seedling trees respond better to such
hormone treatment than the bud- grafts. Poor yielding trees are thus
converted to high yielding ones.

Rubber Cultivation in India: Para, Ceara, India and Russian Rubber

Plant
The following points highlight the four main types of rubber cultivation
in India. The types are: 1. Para Rubber 2. Ceara Rubber 3. India Rubber
4. Russian Rubber Plant.

Type # 1. Para Rubber:

Para rubber is a tall tree, 25-35 mtr.; stem smooth, straight, un-branched
up to a considerable height and then forming a leafy canopy; bark
greyish with copious milky latex. Leaves are trifoliolate, alternate or
sub opposite, at the end of the branchlets, long petioled; leaflets
glabrous, elliptic-lanceolate, acuminate, entire, 10-15 cm. long; petiole
7—10 cm. long, glandular at apex.
Flowers small sweet-scented, unisexual, in large, terminal, panicled
cymes. Calyx 5-toothed or lobed. Corolla absent. Disc of 5 free or
united glands. Stamens 5-10, filaments united to form a column, anthers
sessile on the column.
Ovary superior, 3-celled, with one ovule in each cell; stigma sub sessile
2-lobed. Fruit a capsule, dehiscing into 3 one seeded cocci; seeds
ellipsoid, 3-4 cm. long, mottled brown and shinning. Hevea brasiliensis
is indigenous to Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Equator and Colum-bia. It is
cultivated in India, Ceylon, Burma, Malay, Sumatra, Java, Borneo,
Sarawak, Siam, Indochina and in Equatorial Africa.

In India rubber plantations were first started in Kerala in 1905 from

seeds obtained from Ceylon. Ceylon was however the first country in
Asia to start cultivating Hevea brasiliensis from seedlings sent from
Royal Botanic Garden, Kew in 1876.

The latex of brasiliensis is obtained by tapping the bark of the trunk.

The over-flowing latex is collected in a plastic or enamel cup containing
a small amount of pre-servative viz. Ammonia or Sodium sulphite or
Formaldehyde to prevent coagulation.
As the latex stops flowing the cups are emptied into buckets which are
carried to the factory. The liquid is strained first through a course sieve
to remove the dirt and other impurities. It is then diluted and strained
for second time through a fine sieve. The latex is an aqueous serum
with a colloidal suspension of rubber particles.

A warm, humid, and equable climate is suitable for growing H.

brasiliensis. It thrives well in tropical countries lying between latitudes
15°N and 10°S with a temperature ranging from 74°F and 95°F. A
rainfall of 1750 mm. to 2500 mm. well distributed throughout the year
is ideal for its healthy growth.
Prolonged rainfall or prolonged drought are unfavourable while
moderate showers alternating with sunny weather are much needed.
Deep well-drained loamy soil is best for H. brasiliensis. The pH value
should range from 3.8 to 8.0. In alkaline soil the growth is stunted. To
start a rubber plantation a forest area is cleared of trees and
undergrowth’s and these are left there for some-time. The tree trunks
and the. branches are then removed and the leaves that fall on the soil
can rot.

Arrangement is made for good drainage and terraces are prepared

according to the sloping of the land. Square type of pits is dug in lines,
2/3 mtr. deep and of similar width. Pits are filled with surface soil and
organic manure.
Seedlings raised in the nursery or clones are transplanted in the pits
during monsoon 200 per acre or more. Later the plants are thinned out
and about 150 are left in a field of one acre. Seeds are sown in seed
beds in the nursery in winter and germinate in 1-3 weeks-time.
Seedlings attain a height of one mtr. or more in 6 months’ time when
they are ready for transplanting. In trees raised from seeds the yield of
latex varies.
In some the flow of latex is high while in others it is much less. So that
in a plantation it is desirable to have all high yielding trees. So instead
of transplanting seedlings, trans-planting of budded clones are
practiced. Such clones are prepared in the nurseries.
Buds taken from high yielding trees are grafted near the base of
vigorously growing seedlings about one year old. After a period of one
month or a little more the budded stocks are stumped 15-20 cm. above
the grafted bud. In another fortnight the budded stumps are ready for
trans-planting. After transplanting all other branches excepting the
shoot developing from the grafted bud are pruned off.
Suitable cover crops are grown close to check soil erosion and surface
run off. For this purpose, Pueraria phaseoloides Bth, Centrosoma
pubescens Bth, species of Crotalaria, Indigofera, Desmodium, etc. are
generally used. These enrich the soil also.
Sulphate of Ammonia and other nitrogenous fertilizers are used for
manuring and this is important when cultivated lands are converted into
rubber plantations. For grown up trees in a plantation, potash,
phosphate, and other fertilizers are used. Small quantity of magnesium
is often added.
The rubber trees are susceptible to fruit-rot disease and- die-back
disease. The former is controlled by spraying Bordeaux mixture and
other by cutting off the affected portions and burning them.
Black thread disease appears in the tapping cuts and this can be
prevented by painting that portion with a 5% solution of Brunolium,
Agriosol, Solignum or Jodelite. White ants often cause great damage to
the trees. These are rubbed off and the tree trunks are painted with tar or
kerosene.
Tapping is done on the base of the trunk up to a height of 11 mtr. from
the ground. Cuts are made by removing a thin shaving of bark by
special tapping knives. Usually the cut extends halfway around the
trunk, but it may completely encircle it, i.e. half spiral system or full
spiral system.

It may also be a V-cut system or herring bone-cut system. The cut is

made at 30-35° to the horizontal from upper to lower end of the cut and
a vertical cut is made to conduct the latex to a cup placed below. In V-
cut system two slanting incisions are made and at the base of their
junction a cup is placed where the latex is collected.

In herring bone system, a vertical cut is made in the bark with 4-6
diagonal cuts on either side. The cuts extend from one fourth to one half
of the circumference of the trunk. A cup is placed bellow the vertical
cut to receive the latex. The latex is collected through a small spout
fixed into the bark.

Tapping is done early in the morning when the flow of latex is

vigorous. The flow diminishes with the rise of temperature and ceases
in about 3 hours. The latex is then transferred into large pails or
buckets. Tapping is done every alternate day. The yield increases with
the repeated scrapings which is stopped before any injury is done to the
cambial tissues.

New tapping’s are done one below the other till it reaches almost the
ground level on one side of the tree in a period of 5—6 years. After that
tapping is done. on the other side of the tree trunk and continued for
another period of 5-6 years. Tapping commences when the tree is 7-8
years old.
Increase of flow of latex is affected by treating the bark below the
tapping cut with hormones. Seedling trees respond better to such
hormone treatment than the bud- grafts. Poor yielding trees are thus
converted to high yielding ones.

Fresh latex is susceptible to enzymic and bacterial action leading to acid

forma-tion and coagulation. Preservatives and bactericide are added to
the latex at the time of collection to inhibit acid development. Ammonia
(mainly) formaldehyde, Sodium hydroxide, soap and bactericides are
used as preservatives.
Usually a small quantity of ammoniated water is placed in the
collection cup to prevent coagulation. Addition of 3 parts of 25%
Ammonia solution to 100 parts of latex ensures the stabilisation of the
latter for six months.
Stabilized fresh latex free from sludge containing 30-40% of solids is
called “Normal latex”. By evaporation, creaming or centrifugation it is
concentrated to give’ a product with higher solid contents.
Concentration by eletro-decantation is popularly practiced.
The latex is a colloidal suspension of rubber particles in an aqueous
serum. Rubber content is richer in hard bark than in the soft bark. Other
constituents in the latex are proteins, resins, sugar and glycosoids,
tannins, alkaloids, and mineral salts.
As the slabs become firm these are taken out and washed in clean water.
Washed slabs are pressed between smooth rollers to squeeze out the
water and flatten them to a thickness of 3 mm. The sheets are passed
through marking rolls to impart a ribbed pattern.

The ribbed sheets are dried on racks or poles in shade for a few hours
and then smoked in smoking rooms to make them immune to the attack
of moulds. The dried sheets are translucent, amber coloured and elastic.
These are then packed for the market.

For crepe rubber the diluted and cleaned latex is mixed with Sodium bi-
sulphite and acid. The coagulated substance is cut into long pieces,
squeezed, sheared and mas-ticated through a series of differently geared
corrugated rollers.

It is then rolled into sheets with rough or corrugated rollers. It is finally

rolled into sheets and dried by hanging on racks in well-ventilated
drying rooms. Heat is often applied to hasten drying. The sheets are
then packed in bales for the market.

In India about 70,000 acres of land are under rubber (H. brasiliensis)
plantation. All plantations are in the south, 91% being in Kerala, 7% in
Tamil Nadu and 2% in Karnataka. Annual production is about 27,000
tons and is insufficient to meet the internal requirements of this country.

Rubber is obtained from the latex of several species of plants the most
important of which is Hevea brasiliensis (H.B.K.) M. Arg. and the
rubber obtained from this tree is known as Para rubber.

This tree is indigenous to Brazil but is cultivated in many tropical

countries including India and forms the chief source of commercial
rubber. Other rubber yielding plants are: —Manihot glaziovi M. Arg.
Ficus elastica Roxb. and Taraxacum Koksaghyz Rodin.

Type # 2. Ceara Rubber:

Ceara Rubber is also is a native of Brazil. It is a small tree not
exceeding 12 mtr in height, with a thick bark peeling off in horizontal
strips. Leaves are long petioled, palmipartite. The tree is suitable for
tapping when 5-years old. Continuous tapping is injurious and kills the
tree in a few years-times. The yield of latex as well as the quality is
poor in comparison to that of H. brasiliensis.

Ficus Elastica Roxb. (Moraceae)

Type # 3. India Rubber:

Indian rubber is a large tree with prop roots. Leaves are thick and
glossy, 12-30 cm. long. Flowers minute, densely arranged in a
hypanthodium. The hypanthodia occur in pairs in axils of fallen leaves.
The stem and the main branches as well as the thicker aerial roots are
tapped for the latex. The latex coagulates readily.

A part coagulates in the cut portion of the trunk while the rest flows
down and is collected on mats where it coagulates. The coagulum from
cut portion of the tree is pulled out and collected from the mats. The
coagulum is then dried, cleaned, and pressed into cubes.

The latex is acidic, slightly so when fresh but the acidity increases on
keeping. The resin content in the latex is high and the rubber hardens on
aging. It is inferior to para-or ceara—rubber. The tree is indigenous to
India and is common from Nepal tarai to Assam and extends to Burma.

Type # 4. Russian Rubber Plant:

Russian rubber plants are small herbaceous plant growing as a weed in
temperate countries. It is cultivated in Russia.

The leaves are basal, lyrate or pinnatifid. Capitulum terminates a hollow

scape. Flowers all ligulate, yellow. The involucral bracts have
prominent horn-like appendages.

The latex is obtained from the roots and the rubber is of good quality.
2.2.1. The growth and yield of rubber at maturity
is improved by intercropping with banana during
the early stage
of rubber cultivation
1. Introduction
Natural rubber provides a major source of income to more than 20
million farmers worldwide, the majority of whom have little income or
land. Whilst tradition- ally grown on large estates, over the last century
the cultivation of rubber has gradually moved to the small-
holder sector which now accounts for more than 75% of the world’s
natural rubber production (IRSG, 2000). In view of its importance any
research aimed at raising natural rubber production must consider the
needs and constraints of the primary producer—the small-holder
farmer. Rubber has an immature period of growth of ca. 6–7 years
during which no latex and hence income is produced. Whilst large
estates man- age the problem by annually replanting around 3% of their
total rubber land, small-holders are unable to

adopt this practice because of the limited land avail- able. In the
absence of any income produced from rubber, small-holders tend to
prioritise other crops/off- farm activities during the immature period so
resulting in neglect and poor growth of the rubber trees (Rubber
Development Department of Sri Lanka, personal com- munication).
Even for large estates, it is desirable to find different income sources to
overcome the problems associated with the fluctuation in price of
natural rubber (ANRPC, 2000). Intercropping pro- vides a practical
solution to all these problems by generating additional income from the
land during the unproductive immature phase of rubber (Rodrigo et al.,
2001a) whilst increasing land use efficiency, which is particularly
important in densely populated countries such as Sri Lanka.
When rubber was initially introduced to Sri Lanka it was grown as an
intercrop with other perennials, such as tea and cocoa (Amaraweera,
1976). Once rubber became firmly established in Sri Lanka the
importance of intercropping faded, at least until the 1970s. Several trials
on intercropping of rubber (e.g. with cocoa, passion fruit, banana,
coffee, pineapple, grass and legumes) were documented in the annual
reviews of the Rubber Research Institutes of Sri Lanka from 1965 to
1979, but all had been confined to observation plots without any
systematic assessment. In 1979, the first recommendations for
rubber-based intercropping were introduced in Sri Lanka, with the
main emphasis on minimising the risks of adverse competition on
rubber rather than improving the efficiency of land use in the small-
holder sector (Chandrasekera, 1979). For instance, planting banana was
recommended as single row between rubber, i.e. less than the 30% of
the recommended sole cropping density of banana. Dur- ing the past
decade, intercropping on smallholdings has gradually increased but
uptake has been slow (Jayasena and Herath, 1986; Rodrigo et al.,
2001a). At the moment, ca. 50% of the small-holders in Sri Lanka
practise intercropping during the immature phase (Rodrigo et al.,
2001a) and whilst opinions may vary, farmers in general are positive
about inter- cropping (Rodrigo et al., 2001a; Senevirathna, 2001;
Thennakoon, 2002). In most cases where growth has been monitored,
no adverse effect of intercropping on rubber has been observed
(Chandrasekera, 1984); indeed, some studies have shown an improved
perfor- mance of rubber both in Sri Lanka (with banana:

Rodrigo et al., 1997; with sugarcane: Rodrigo et al.,

2000) and elsewhere (with banana and pineapple: Jessy et al., 1997;
with banana and seasonal crops: Keli et al., 1997; with banana,
pineapple and capsi- cum: Rosyid et al., 1997).
In general, recommended agro-management prac- tices for rubber have
derived from experiments on sole crops with the aim to maximize latex
yields. Under field conditions cover crop management is often
neglected resulting in weed infestation and poor per- formance of
rubber. In view of this, Yogaratnam (1991) concluded that observed
improvements in growth of rubber when intercropped were the result of
better ground cover and crop husbandry. Several recent studies,
however, suggest that modifications in the microclimate as a result of
intercropping have beneficial effects on photosynthesis and growth of
rubber (Nugawela, 1989; Rodrigo et al., 1997; Rodrigo et al., 2000;
Rodrigo et al., 2001b; Senevir- athna et al., 2003).
Most studies on intercropping during the
immature phase of rubber has been restricted to the period when the
intercrop is present. Few, if any studies have examined the carry-over
effect of early intercropping on subsequent growth and latex yield of
mature rubber. Clearly, if intercropping is to be recom- mended it is
critical to know whether the presence of companion crops during the
early stages of establish- ment of rubber compromises future growth
and latex yield. Based on earlier studies which demonstrated improved
growth vigour of intercropped rubber (Rodrigo et al., 1997), the aim of
this study was to assess the hypothesis that intercropping of immature
rubber, even at high densities, can benefit small- holders and estate
owners alike, by (i) reducing the length of the unproductive immature
period of rubber and (ii) increasing the latex yield relative to the sole
crop.

2. Materials and methods

The study was an extension of an experiment established in 1993

(Rodrigo et al., 1997) on inter- cropping of Hevea brasiliensis Mull.
Arg. (rubber) and Musa spp. (banana) in the low country wet zone of
Sri Lanka (68300–78000N and 808000–808300E). The rub- ber
genotype (clone) RRIC 100 was planted together
with banana which belonged to the triploid genome group ‘AAB’ and
subgroup ‘Silk’ as described by Stover and Simmonds (1987). The
experiment com- prised five treatments, sole crop rubber (R), sole
banana crop (B) and three intercrops consisting of an additive series of
one (BR), two (BBR) and three (BBBR) rows of banana between each
row rubber. Banana was grown with rubber during the first 4 years and
because the focus here is on the long-term effects of intercropping on
growth of rubber, no further mention is made of the sole banana
treatment. Total planting density in the R, BR, BBR and BBBR treat-
ments was 500, 1000, 1500 and 2000 plants ha 1,
respectively with a fixed density of 500 plants ha 1 for rubber. All
treatments were replicated four times at the same site using a
randomized complete block design with a plot size of ca. 0.2 ha. The
number of rubber trees in each treatment replicate was ca. 100 and that
of banana varied according to planting density. Gen- eral maintenance
of banana accorded with recommen-
dations of the Department of Agriculture, Sri Lanka (Department of
Agriculture, 1995). A basal dressing of organic manure (i.e. ca. 5 kg of
poultry litter) was applied to each planting hole of banana and thereafter
ca. 750 g of inorganic fertilizer (Urea 2: Super phos- phate 1: Muriate
of potash 3) was applied at four monthly intervals starting from two
months after planting. Rubber was fertilized with a mixture of NPK
and Mg as given in Table 1 (RRISL, 1995).
Destructive whole plant dry matter analysis of rubber and banana was
performed at ca. 4 monthly intervals during the first 28 months after
planting (MAP), together with reproductive yield of banana. Full details
of the methods are given by Rodrigo et al. (1997). The height of ten
rubber trees per treatment replicate was measured at ca. 4 monthly
intervals up until 28 MAP and then again at 38 and 42 MAPS. It was
not practical to continue measurements after 42 MAPS due to the height
of trees. Girth of the same trees at 90 cm above the bud-grafted union
was measured at ca. 4–6 monthly intervals up until 72 MAPS. At
present,
a rubber clearing is tappable once 60% of the trees have achieved a
girth of more than 50 cm at the height of 120 cm above the bud-grafted
union (RRISL, 1999). Therefore, on the last sampling
date at 72 MAP girth of every rubber tree in all replicates was measured
to assess the tappability of the clearing. Since the earlier recommended
height to measure the girth for the determination of tappability was 90
cm above the bud-grafted union, both 90 cm and 120 cm heights were
used for girth measurements.

It was not economically feasible to tap small experimental plots at

different intervals during the early phase of rubber growth. Therefore,
to determine whether treatments had any effect on the time to tapping,
data were presented in terms of tappability, as
defined by girth measurements (i.e. when girth 50 cm). Tapping began
in all treatments after 72 MAPS, as the general practice, with trees
having a girth of 45 cm or above at 120 cm height from the bud grafted
union to enhance the profitability in tapping operation. After initial
shavings to induce latex production in trees, daily yield data were
recorded for 12 months based on daily latex volume and the Metrolac
reading, i.e. standardized hydrometer measurement (Nadarajah and
Muthukuda, 1963) in each treatment. Bark thickness at a height of 150
cm above the bud grafted union was measured for ten tappable trees in
each treatment at 60 and 72 MAPS using a bark gauge, i.e. a standard
scaled pin is inserted to the bark up to the wood (Rodrigo et al., 1995).
Girth expansion of rubber trees was not linear demanding a suitable
nonlinear function to assess the parameters of the growth pattern in
different treatments. Therefore, repeat measurements of girth
were assessed using nonlinear regression analysis (Genstat Statistical
Package, UK) and the logistic growth function:

where a, b, c, and m are constants. Of the growth function, parameters

‘a’ plus ‘c’ represent the upper asymptote whilst ‘b’ is a slope
parameter. The time point of inflexion of the growth curve is given by
‘m’. Yield and yield related factors (i.e. latex yield, bark thickness and
tappablity), were analysed using the ANOVA of randomised complete
block design procedure of the SAS statistical package (SAS Institute,
Cary, NC). Separation of statistically significant means was achieved
using duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT). Destructive growth data
were analysed using the Split Plot design model in which each
harvest was considered as a subplot (Roswell and Walters, 1976). The
relative performance of the component rubber crop in different cropping
systems was analysed by the crop performance ratio (CPR), which
refers to the productivity of an intercrop per unit area of ground
compared with that expected from sole crops grown at equivalent
planting density (AzamAli et al., 1990). The land equivalent ratio, LER
(Willey, 1985), which refers to the overall performance of components
in an intercrop relative to those in sole crops, was used to evaluate the
cropping system.

3. Results
Over the first 28 months after planting, total biomass production, leaf
area index and LER increased with overall planting density in the
different cropping systems, reaching a maximum in the BBBR
treatment (Table 2a). At the individual plant level, plant weight and
CPR based on biomass production of rubber showed a marginal
increase with planting density in the intercrop. Biomass production and
leaf area per plant of rubber were significantly improved by
intercropping (Table 2b).
Girth of rubber at 90 cm above the bud-grafted union is shown for the
initial 6 years of growth (Fig. 1). Although growth advantages due to
intercropping were evident throughout the experimental period, the rate
of girth expansion of rubber in the intercrops was superior to that of the
sole crop only up to ca. 48 MAP. Statistical analysis of the logistic
growth curves fitted to treatment data is given in Table 3. As indicated
by the parameter ‘m’, intercrops achieved the maximum growth rate
quicker than sole crop rubber (Fig. 1b). Despite no difference in the
overall slope parameter ‘b’, the parameter ‘m’ was significantly lower
in the intercrops, particularly in BBR and BBBR treatments (P < 0.05),
than in the sole crop rubber (Table 3) with that the initial slope of the
logistic curve was greater in the intercrops than the sole crop rubber
(Fig. 1b). Tree height was measured during the early stages of rubber
growth and showed that trees were tallest in the intercrops with the
differences between sole and intercrop treatments increasing over time
(Fig. 2). If growth of rubber is linear over time then all intercrops
showed an annual girth and height increment of 10 and 192 cm,
respectively, whilst the sole rubber achieved only 9.4 and 175 cm (Figs.
1 and 2).
Vigorous growth was achieved in all treatments as shown by the fact
that girth of most sampled trees exceeded 30 cm by 3 years (Table 4).
By the end of the fourth year, most trees in the intercrop
treatments had a girth exceeding 40 cm compared with only 15% in the
sole crop. Moreover, trees in
the intercrop treatments reached a tappable girth (i.e. 50 cm) earlier than
those in the sole crop. The proportion of trees attaining a tappable girth
exceeded 60% (which is the standard used for commencing commercial
tapping) before 5 years after planting in all intercrop treatments,
whereas the sole crop rubber required an additional 4 months (Table 4).
Not only in sampled trees, but in all trees, earlier tappability of
intercropped rubber was evident from girth measurements taken at both
90 and 120 cm heights at 6 years (Fig. 3). According to whole plot
measurements, tappability increased with banana density and was
significantly different between the sole crop and intercrops (P < 0.01).
Though not significant, girth generally declined with increasing height
of the measurement in all treatments showing the tapering
nature of the rubber trunk. Bark thickness did not differ significantly
between treatments, with mean values of 5.42 and 5.67 mm at 5 and 6
years after planting, respectively (Fig. 4). Seasonal variation in latex
yield per tree is shown in Fig. 5, with no latex harvested during April
and June due to heavy rainfall. There was no consistent treatment
effect on yield per tree with low values recorded during February and
March coinciding with leaf fall during the ‘winter’ months. Peak yields
were recorded during the last quarter of the year as canopy foliage
matured and little rain fell. The number of trees tapped was significantly
greater in the intercrop compared to sole crop treatments (P ¼ 0.05)
with the result that total latex yield over the 12 months was
consistently greater in the intercrop than sole crop treatments (Fig. 6).

4. Discussion
Intercropping is an acknowledged means of obtaining early and
increased returns from immature rubber plantations (Rodrigo et al.,
2001a). Although total plant population increases with intercropping of
rubber, with possible associated increases in competition for resources,
evidence suggests that growth of rubber is not detrimentally affected,
but is improved (Rodrigo et al., 1997). During the early stage of growth,
an average increase of ca. 25% in biomass yield of rubber was observed
on an individual plant
basis as planting density of the companion banana crop was increased
from one to three rows (Rodrigo et al., 1997). As clearly demonstrated
in the present

study by the rate of girth increase (Fig. 1), growth of rubber benefits
from the presence of banana during the first 3–4 years after the
establishment and then, this initial growth advantage is carried over to
the mature phase increasing the numbers of trees that could be tapped
for latex. Since latex yield was taken only from the trees that achieved
the required girth (i.e. ‘tappable girth’), the growth advantage of
intercropped treatments was not reflected by the yield at individual tree
level. However, considering the increase in number of trees exploited,
latex yield per hectare was greater in intercropped than sole-cropped
rubber. Out of the four parameters of the logistic function
fitted to girth development over time only the parameter ‘m’ (which
shows the time point of inflexion) differed significantly (P < 0.05). This
is proven by the fact that the maximum rate of girth expansion was
attained ca. 5 months earlier in the intercropped than the sole cropped
rubber. The initially greater rate of girth expansion in the intercrops was
not reflected by the slope parameter of the logistic curve, ‘b’, probably
because the rate of girth expansion in all treatment was the same after
ca. 4 years of growth when the banana was removed from the
intercrops. The parameters ‘a’ and ‘c’ which represent the upper
asymptote of logistic curve was not significantly different between
treatments suggesting similar girth values at the end of the crop
lifespan. However, the
initially more rapid rate of girth expansion in the intercrops suggest that
the maximum girth value would have been achieved earlier in the
intercropped than sole crop rubber.
Bark thickness of the rubber tree, which is a determining factor of
rubber yield, was unaffected by intercropping treatments but changed
with time. Bark thickness obviously increases as the tree grows and
according to Rodrigo et al. (1995), any increase in planting density of
rubber is likely to have a negative impact on bark thickness. The
present study, however, indicates that increased planting density of
intercropped banana had no such negative effect. Similar to the latex
yield per plant, the positive growth advantage of intercropped rubber
shown in the present study was not reflected by any increase in bark
thickness probably due to the fact that measurements were made only in
trees with tappable girth. Some may argue that because fertilizer was
applied not only to the rubber but also to the banana component
of the intercrop, the improved growth of the intercropped rubber was
due to the trees having access
to additional fertilizer. If this were the case, however, then the growth
of banana would have been compromised in the intercrop treatments
due to competition for nutrients with the companion rubber crop. In
fact, the growth of banana was superior in the presence of rubber with
that CPR for banana above 1.0 in both the BBR and BBBR treatments
(Rodrigo et al., 1997). Further, it has been reported that even with no
fertilizer inputs to banana in rubber/banana intercrops, intercropped
rubber has shown improved growth performance over the sole crop
(Rodrigo et al., 2003). On clear sunny days, radiation levels incident at
the top of the rubber canopy exceed the light-saturation point for
photosynthesis (Nugawela, 1989), and dynamic photoinhibition of
photosynthesis of rubber is commonplace (Senevirathna et al., 2003).
Mutual shading in the presence of banana would help to alleviate this
form of light induced depression of photosynthesis of intercropped
rubber. Similarly,
increased photosynthesis and growth have been recorded for rubber
when intercropped with sugarcane than when grown alone as a sole
crop (Rodrigo et al., 2000). Shade conditions have been shown to
promote leaf production in rubber (Senevirathna, 2001) and were also
associated with an increase in leaf area per plant in the present study
(Table 2). Consequently, any shade-induced reduction in photo-
inhibition together with an increase in leaf area in the intercrops would
most likely result in an improved whole plant photosynthesis and
productivity of intercropped rubber.
This long-term study confirmed that the benefits of intercropping on
growth of rubber observed during the initial stages of growth continued
to the mature phase resulting in improved growth and latex yield well
after the removal of the banana intercrop. For the first time, we have
evidence that intercropping, even at high densities, increases the overall
yield per hectare in both the short and long-term, which is immensely
important to both the small-holder and plantation sectors. Moreover,
improved girth and height of intercropped rubber could result in
increased timber volume at the end of its economic lifespan, providing
an additional source of income to rubber growers. The problems
associated with the lack of income generated by rubber during the long
immature period are compounded by the fact that many small holders
neglect their young rubber trees. This leads to further losses of income
because of failure to qualify for the rubber subsidy (Rubber
Development Department of Sri Lanka, personal communication) and
poor growth of rubber has long-term consequences in terms of
losses in latex and timber yields. Intercropping provides a practical
solution to all these problems. At the small-holder level, growth of
rubber is improved by intercropping because of the complementarity
between crops leading to improved resource use (Rodrigo, 1997;
Rodrigo et al., 2001b) and better care and attention by small holders
(Yogaratnam, 1991).
This study also shows that intercropping provides not only an
additional/improved income, but also an assurance of securing the full
rubber subsidy thereby contributing to the government strategy of
raising rubber productivity at the national level. In addition, and as
practiced in small-holder sector of Sri Lanka (Stirling et al., 1998), it
would seem that landlords can hire out their immature rubber lands to
contract farmers for intercropping without fear of any adverse
competitive effects of the intercrop on growth of rubber. A similar
system could be introduced in the estate sector allowing poorly paid
workers to cultivate cash crops on immature rubber lands during their
free time and raise the income, while the estate management
to reduce the cost on immature upkeep. In conclusion, the present study
confirms that the early positive benefits of intercropping on growth of
rubber observed by Rodrigo et al. (1997) are maintained through to the
mature stage resulting in increased economic benefits. Given the growth
vigour of banana and the very high planting densities used in the
present study, it is likely that the benefits of intercropping observed
here, with a potentially very competitive companion crop, can be
extrapolated to most other crop combinations.

Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka for
providing land for the experiment and staff at the institute for valuable
assistance in the field. This paper is an output from a project (Plant
Sciences Research Programme R7212) funded by the UK department
for international development (DFID) and administered by the centre
for arid zones studies (CAZS) for the benefit of developing countries.
The views expressed are not necessarily those of DFID.

References
Amaraweera J.A., 1976. History of rubber cultivation for a century.
Sci. 10, 5–14 (In Sinhalese).
ANRPC (2000) Quarterly natural rubber statistical bulletin. The
Association of Natural Rubber Producing Countries, vol. 24(4),
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Azam-Ali, S.N., Matthews, R.B., Williams, J.H., Peacock, J.M.,
1990. Light use, water uptake and performance of individual
components of a sorghum/groundnut intercrop. Explor. Agric.
26, 413–427.
Chandrasekera, L.B., 1979. Intercropping. In: Review of the
Botany Department, Annual Review for 1979. Rubber Research
Institute of Sri Lanka, Agalawatta, Sri Lanka, pp. 6–39.
Chandrasekera, L.B., 1984. Intercropping Hevea replantings during
the immature period. Proc. Int. Rubber Conference, Sri Lanka
1, 389–393.
Department of Agriculture (1995). Banana Cultivation. A publication
of the Department of Agriculture, Sri Lanka (In Sinhalese).
2.3.1. Latex Concentration Process
The quality control starts right from the
first step,
before acquiring the “Raw Material” from
local farmers,
LATEX sample is analysed in our
laboratory.

We only accept those raw material which

meet our lab criteria,
then Latex is poured into the storage tank for
preserve.
ammonia is added during this step, the
percent of ammonia depends on
type of latex needed.

LATEX as it comes to us contents up to

70% of water and other impurity,
the latex is filtered to remove impurity
then passed through the centrifugal
machines to extract concentraded latex
out of water.

After separating the water, latex is

transferred to the quality control tanks,
we store latex in different tank
according to different specs.
High Ammonia Latex (HA) with
minimum 0.60% ammonia added
Low Ammonia Latex (LA) with
maximum 0.29% ammonia added.
 The final product is packed in standard
drums with the capacity of 205
Kilogrammes,
each drum net weight is exactly 205
kilogrammes.

Latex Stock in DRUM ready for delivery,

90% of our production is destinated to
exportation.
 Latex
Technology
Content
Chapter 3
3.1.0.US Patent Preservation of
Natural Rubber Latex 299-317
3.1.1. Preserving Latex , US Patent by Monsanto 318-319
3.1.2. Biological Extracts for Preservation 320-327
3.1.3 Latex Preservation and Concentration 328-338

Page | 1
3.1.0. US Patent: Preservation of Natural Rubber
Latex
3.1.1. Preserving Latex, US Patent by Monsanto
3.1.2. Biological Extracts for Preservation of
Natural Rubber Latex
Introduction
Natural rubber (NR) latex is a stable dispersion of cis-1,4polyisoprene
In an aqueous phase 1,2. Upon centrifugation, NR latex can be divided
into three principal phases, namely rubber particles, aqueous phase and
lutoid phase. The aqueous non-rubber phase is made up of
carbohydrates, proteins and amino acids, other serum constituents as
well as a range of enzymes

. Non-rubber components in NR latex encourage the proliferation of

bacteria that causes latex destabilisation due to their metabolic
activities. Presence of bacteria in NR latex triggers a fermentation
process which hydrolyses the non-rubber substances. As a result of
acidic by-products produced (volatile fatty acids), the pH of latex
decreases and neutralisation of the charges occurs, contributing to
the destabilisation of NR latex particles. In order to preserve initial
stable conditions, NR latex is added with foreign materials that hinder
bacterial activities. According to Cook, preservation of latex can be
divided into two types

. Short term preservation retains field NR latex in a liquid condition for

a few hours or days before processing and is particularly applied in dry
rubber production. On the other hand, long-term latex preservation is a
preservation system that permits the shipment and storage of liquid
latex until it is ready to be processed by the product manufacturer.
Ideally, a good preservation system for NR latex should have the
following criteria, namely (i) free of N-nitrosamines (ii) does not affect
the rubber particles (iii) water soluble and can be used both for latex
concentrate and block rubber/sheet production (iv) able to preserve field
latex for dry rubber production for up to two weeks and latex
concentrates for at least one year with satisfactory properties (v) has
low toxicity (vi) locally available and (vii) cost effective. In the interim,
ammonia has been used for many reasons. However, due to its
pungent smell and effect on humans over prolonged time, alternative
means of preservation were studied. As a result, tetramethylthiuram
disulphide/zinc oxide (TMTD/ZnO), sodium penta chlorphenate (SPP)
and boric acid systems emerged, but ammonia was still required. As the
need to discontinue Ammonia based systems and Antibiocide chemicals
is stronger now, research at the Malaysian Rubber Board focuses on
using natural based extracts from bacteria and fungi for preservation of
natural rubber (NR) latex.
Available Preservative Systems: Chemically Based The oldest known
preservative for NR latex is ammonia. It became the most favourable
anticoagulant mainly due to its alkalinity and biocidal characteristic. It
is established that one of the crucial criteria for an effective preservation
agent is the ability to keep the volatile fatty acid (VFA) number of NR
latex at low levels while maintaining the stability of latex on storage
. Ammonia inhibits bacterial growth and therefore it can control the
VFA number level (Figure 1). It also acts as an ion stabiliser in NR
latex by forming complexes with metal ions, especially Mg 2+ and
helps to deposit the destabilising magnesium from the protective layer
of the rubber particles
. Furthermore, ammonia is easily available in for the intended
application. Although ammonia seems harmless to humans, exposure of
high concentrations for prolonged times could trigger burn and
inflammation of the respiratory tract system and skin
. Similarly, ammonia also affects the processing of natural rubber.
Apart from the smell, ammonia has the tendency to slightly discolour
latex products
. The cost of producing dry rubber products from NR latex also
increases due to the higher amounts of acid used to coagulate the latex
and in handling the resulting acidic waste
. Due to the drawbacks of ammonia, researchers have developed new
preservative systems dating back to 1950s. However, the presence of
ammonia was still needed although in low amounts. These low
ammonia (LA) systems are summarised in Table 1. Similar to
ammonia, these systems also have their drawbacks.

Vivayganathan et al. reported that the LA-TZ system caused

discolouration in latex based product. Rudzki and Rebandal reported
that the residual TMTD in latex
products from the LA-TZ system caused Type IV contact dermatitis
 . Another study by
Rama et al. showed that
ZnO is the major
industrial pollutant in
waste water and sludge
although ZnO assists in
inhibiting the growth of
microorganisms and
reacts with the enzymes
responsible
for NR latex decomposition

. Current Trend: Towards Eco-conscious Materials Latex processing,

namely from the preservation of the latex up to manufacture of the final
product involves extensive use of chemicals. In recent years, there has
been increased awareness with regards to the impact of these chemicals
to the environment and the community. In 2006, The European Union
launched the Registration,
Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals

(REACH) Regulation
. It is a strict law which addresses the production and usage of
chemicals for the protection of both human health and environment. It
is therefore important to develop environmentally sound technologies
and to reduce use of chemicals towards compatibility with nature. This
necessitates the inclusion of natural processing in future research
agendas, utilising biological resources to prepare products free of
chemical pollutants, in an effort to protect human and animal health as
well as to preserve the natural resource base of ecosystems and to
enhance environmental quality
. In the MRB, research is geared towards finding an alternative to
chemicals using biologically derived substances from microorganisms.
Microbial Extracts with Antimicrobial Activity as Biocidal Agent in
NR Latex Preservation In microbial biotechnology, application of
biological products from microorganisms such as antibiotics and
biosurfactants has been a topic of interest for centuries especially for
medicinal purposes. Antibiotics are chemical substances of microbial
origin that exert antimicrobial activities. The production of antibiotics
in metabolites excreted into the environment is assumed to be the
mechanisms for known cases of antagonism and competition in natural
habitats. In fact, antibiotic activity is one factor that can be classified
together with rapid growth, nutritional complexity and physiological
adaptability as mechanisms favouring colonisation and survival of
organisms in mixed populations

. Due to this, biologically derived compounds from microorganisms for

NR latex preservation have been suggested to be the biological
alternative to the chemically based preservative agents. Antimicrobial
compounds produced by microorganisms bear Varieties of
physiological properties and mode of action in terms of biological
toxins. Generally, the action of antimicrobial compounds can be
classified into two modes, namely membrane targeting and intracellular
and nuclear targeting mechanisms
. The classification however depends on the molecular weight of the
compounds, ionic interaction between the compounds as well as the
targeted bacterial cells, and surface hydrophobicity of the targeted
bacterial cells, provided that the antimicrobial compounds are in pure
form. Ammonia has immediate lethal effects that causes rapid
abatement to bacterial growth while the effect of biologically
synthesised antimicrobial compounds from bacteria or fungi depend on
the type of targeted cells (either Gram negative or Gram-positive
isolates).

Preparation of the microbial extracts involved the isolation of

microorganisms from field NR latex, coagulated latex and soil from the
rubber plantation. Tables 2 and 3 show the microbial isolates that were
successfully obtained by MRB.
Preparation of the bacterial and fungal extracts is shown in Figure 2.
Screening for antimicrobial activities
was carried out using agar diffusion assay as shown in Figure 3. The
screening assay gave an indication of effectiveness of the antimicrobial
activity from the extracts against the test microorganisms. The extracts
from fungal isolates were effective towards Gram positive bacteria
whereas the extracts from bacterial isolates had more diverse effects
towards both Gram positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The stability
 of latex with selected crude
microbial extracts on storage
characterised by means of
bacterial count is indicated in
Figure 4 and by VFA is shown
in Figure 5. Bacterial
population in field NR latex
treated with the extract from
isolate MRB-19 significantly
reduced from 1.7  10
cfu/mL after 16 h of
storage when compared to
other isolates. The extract
from isolate MRB-19 also
showed improved reduction in
bacterial population in field
latex compared to when 0.3%
ammonia was used. The VFA
number of field latex on the other hand was similar when both the
extract from isolate cfu/mL to 2.4  10
7 MRB-19 and 0.3% ammonia were used.

Summary
Commonly, ammonia is the most favourable preservative agent for NR
latex. Evolution of NR latex preservation via the chemical-based format
had always been the preferable alternative. However, with increased
awareness and regulations, research is now directed towards
environmentally friendly green materials. An attractive alternative is by
the microbially derived antimicrobial agent as a biological based
bactericidal format. Microbial extracts prepared in the present study
were capable of performing equally well as field latex stabilised with
low ammonia preserved systems. Hence, using the biological
pathway to produce extracts from microorganisms exhibiting
antimicrobial activity for NR latex preservation revealed a promising
outcome. In order to provide further understanding on the biochemical
and technical effect of the biological compounds comprising the
microbial extract to the microbial
metabolism and NR latex
stability, a comprehensive
investigation would be
necessary.

Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the
Malaysian Rubber Board for
providing technical and financial
assistance for this project. The
capable technical work rendered
by Mr. Hanipiah Basri and Mrs.
Aminah Yusuf is highly
appreciated.
3.1.3 Latex Preservation and Concentration

Preserved field latex

Field latex is preserved using suitable preservative for long term
storage. The processing of preserved field latex consists essentially of
adding the preservative (usually ammonia, minimum 1%) to the sieved
latex, bulking, settling, blending, and packing. Field latex can also be
preserved with LATZ (Low ammonia – TMTD – Zinc oxide) system.
Latex Concentrate
There is good market for preserved latex concentrate, as it is an
important raw material with a wide range of applications. Two
important methods of processing latex into preserved latex concentrate
are commercially practised.
1. Concentration by Creaming

The processing of latex into creamed concentrate involves the mixing of

a creaming agent such as ammonium alginate or tamarind seed powder
with properly preserved field latex and allowing the latex to separate
into two layers; an upper layer of concentrated latex and a lower layer
of serum containing very little rubber. The lower layer of serum is
removed, leaving the latex concentrate having about 50-55% DRC (dry
rubber content), which is often tested, packed, and marketed.
2. Concentration by Centrifugation

The processing of latex into latex concentrate by centrifugation involves

the separation of preserved field latex into two fractions, one containing
the concentrated latex of more than 60% dry rubber and the other
containing 4-8% dry rubber (skim latex).
Skim latex is generally coagulated with sulphuric acid, made into crepe,
dried, and marketed as skim rubber, which is a low-grade rubber.
Preservation of Centrifuged Latex
Centrifuged latices are commercially available as high ammonia (HA –
minimum 0.6% ammonia) and low ammonia (LA - 0.2 to 0.3%
ammonia) types. The former is preserved solely with ammonia and the
latter contains one or more preservatives in addition to ammonia. The
most popular LA type latex is low ammonia TMTD – Zinc oxide (LA-
TZ) which contains 0.2 to 0.3% ammonia, 0.013% TMTD, 0.013% zinc
oxide and 0.05% lauric acid.
Specifications
Preserved latex concentrates shall be graded and marketed in
conformity with the standards specified by the Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS) as given in IS: 5430-1981 (centrifuged latex), IS:
11001-1984 (double centrifuged latex) and IS 13101-1991 (creamed
latex).
Ribbed Smoked Sheet (RSS)
Latex is coagulated in suitable containers into thin slabs of coagulum
and rolled through a set of smooth rollers followed by a grooved set and
dried to obtain sheet rubber. Depending upon the drying method, sheet
rubbers are classified into two: Ribbed Smoked Sheets and Air-Dried
Sheets (Pale Amber Unsmoked Sheets).

A major quantity of natural rubber produced in this country (about

74.7%) is marketed in sheet form at present, as it is the oldest and the
simplest method of processing latex into a marketable form.

For processing latex into sheet rubber, it is important that the latex
collected is brought to the processing centre before pre-coagulation sets
in. In cases where the latex is found to be prone to pre-coagulation, an
anticoagulant is used.
Latex brought to the centre is strained through 40 and 60 mesh stainless
steel sieves. The volume of latex is measured with a standard vessel and
a calibrated rod. The dry rubber content (DRC) is estimated with a
Metrolac, which is a special type of hydrometer calibrated to directly
read the DRC. However, laboratory methods are employed for accurate
determination.
Latex is diluted in bulking tanks to a standard consistency of 1/2 kg of
dry rubber for every 4 litres of the diluted latex (12.5% DRC). The
diluted latex can stand in the bulking tank for a fixed time (usually 15 to
20 minutes) for the heavy dirt particles to sediment.
The diluted latex is drawn out from the bulking tank without disturbing
the sedimented layer of impurities into the coagulation pans or tanks.
Four litres of latex are usually transferred to each pan.
Coagulation
Formic acid or acetic acid is generally used for coagulation. The
quantity of acid required for satisfactory coagulation depends on
various factors like the amount and type of anticoagulant used, the
duration of coagulation, the season, and the nature of the latex.
The acid requirement may slightly change under varying conditions and
can be fixed up by experience. Only diluted acid should be used for
coagulation and should be thoroughly mixed with latex.

Catalyst AC and sulphuric acid are also used by growers. Catalyst AC

is a dry powder and comparatively a safe coagulant. Normally 100 ml
of a 5 per cent solution of this chemical is enough for making a ½ kg
sheet.
Since sulphuric acid is highly corrosive, care should be taken in its
handling and dilution. 300 ml of a 0.5% solution of the acid is required
for same day sheeting and 250 ml for next day sheeting.

Coagulum from latex often shows a tendency for surface darkening. To

prevent this, a small quantity of sodium bisulphite (1.2 g per kg DRC),
dissolved in water may be added to the diluted latex before coagulation.

After coagulation, the coagulum is removed from the pan or tank and
thoroughly washed in running water. They are rolled either in a sheeting
battery or smooth rollers to a thickness of 3 mm and finally passed
through the grooved roller. While sheeting, the coagulum is
continuously washed. The sheets are again washed in running water in a
tank.
Mould growth on sheet rubber can be prevented by treating freshly
machined sheet in a dilute solution of para nitrophenol (PNP). The
concentration of p nitrophenol is 0.05 to 0.1% in water. 100 litres of the
solution will be sufficient for treating 100 sheets. The wet sheets can
drip on reapers arranged in a well-ventilated dripping shed.
Smoking and Smoke Houses
The sheets after two or three hours of dripping in shade are placed in
the smoke house where the temperature is maintained between 40° and
60°C. In the smoke house, sheets are dried gradually whereby blisters
are avoided. In addition, the creosotic substances present in the smoke
prevent mould growth on smoked sheets.

It is preferable to smoke the sheets on the first day at a low temperature

(40° to 45°C). For the subsequent days (i.e. the second to the fourth
day) the sheets are to be dried at a higher temperature (not exceeding
60°C) and low relative humidity. Sheets can be dried by placing them
on the first day on the reapers at the bottom region of the smoke house
and at the higher regions on the subsequent days of smoking.

There are various types of smoke houses, all working on the same
general principle. The essential features of a smoke house are a
chamber in which the sheets can be placed on reapers, a furnace outside
the chamber and a flue duct connecting the furnace to the chamber.
Generally, the sheets are turned on the reapers every day for uniform
smoking and drying and to avoid reaper marks on dry sheets. Four days
of smoking is generally sufficient under normal conditions, but during
the rainy season five to six days are required for satisfactory drying of
sheets.

Drying of sheets in a smoke house has definite advantages. It is quicker

than sun-drying and does not cause oxidation by ultraviolet radiation.
Inside the smoke house, there is only limited supply of air and it is
mostly filled with smoke and carbon dioxide. Hence chances for
oxidation of rubber are extremely limited, provided the temperature is
within limits. Also, the creosotic i.e. materials present in smoke, get
deposited on the surface of the sheets thereby preventing mould growth
on sheets. The requirements of a good smoke house are:

* Minimum drying time

* Maintenance of temperature in the range of 40-60o C
* Maximum fuel efficiency
* Minimum heat loss
* Minimum drying cost
* Easy loading/unloading of sheets
* Minimum labour requirement
* Continuous operation
* Good ventilation
* Minimum number of defective sheets

A smoke house consists of a chamber into which the sheets are loaded
either on trolleys carrying reapers or on reapers fitted on a wooden
framework. Smoke is generated in the furnace, which is usually outside
the chamber. Smoke and hot air from the furnace are directed into the
chamber through a flu. Air inlets and ventilators are provided at the
bottom and top of the chamber, respectively. These can be opened or
closed for controlling temperature. Temperature can also be regulated
by adjusting the rate of burning of the firewood by opening or closing
the air inlets in the furnace door. A damper is usually provided at the
main flue outlet, as a safety measure to prevent fire entering the
chamber in an event of opening the furnace door. The chamber may be
of brickwork with a reinforced concrete frame. The smoke house shall
be provided with adequate drainage to facilitate removal of serum
dripping from the sheets. The roof and the ceiling may be of asbestos
sheets and the gap between the roof and the ceiling at the top of the
walls shall be closed from all the four sides of the smoke house, so as to
avoid heat loss due to air currents over the ceiling and to prevent
condensed moisture containing carbon from dripping on sheets. Smoke
houses are of two types, those in which the furnace is inside the drying
chamber and those in which the furnace is outside.

Furnace Inside the Chamber

Smoke house of the pit-fired-type and trolley box type which are used
in Sri Lanka come under this. In the pit-fired-type, smoke is generated
by burning firewood in a central pit, which is inside the smoke house. A
thick gauge galvanized iron sheet, slightly larger in size than the mouth
of the pit, is fixed 25 cm above to spread the smoke. The sheets are
hung inside the chamber and a minimum space of 180 cm between
the fire and the bottom layer of the sheet is given to avoid overheating
of the sheet near the pit. In the trolley box furnace-type, smoke is
generated in a fire trolley on wheels. The advantage of this type of
smoke house over the pit-fired-type is that the smoke house can be kept
clean since operations such as loading of firewood and removing the
ash can be done outside the smoke house.

Furnace Outside the Chamber

There are two types of smoke houses with external furnaces, the
ground-floor type, and the tunnel-type. In the ground-floor type, the
smoke from the furnace is directed to the centre of the smoking
chamber. The sheets are hung on reapers fitted on a wooden framework.
Fresh sheets, after dripping, are put on reapers near the ground and on
the next day they are taken from the lower reapers and hung on the
upper ones.
The usual drying time in this type of smoke house is four to five days.
The disadvantages of this type of smoke house are that only batch wise
operation is possible, and more labour is required, since sheets are
replaced on the reapers every day.>
The details of construction and blueprints of various types of smoke
houses are available for sale from RRII.

Solar-cum-Smoke Drying
Drying of sheets in direct sunlight increases the chances of oxidation of
sheets, especially when they are exposed to sunlight for longer periods.
However, solar energy could be indirectly used for drying the sheets
using flat plate solar collectors. In this system, hot air from the solar
collectors is blown into the drying chamber in which the sheets are
placed on reapers placed on trolleys. The system also contains a furnace
for burning firewood which acts as a back-up heat source for
maintaining the inside temperature during night and on cloudy days.
Reports show that with the back-up heat source, drying time could be
brought down to five days. Compared to conventional smoke drying,
the saving in firewood using the solar-cum-smoke drier is around 60 to
70 per cent and the quality of sheets is comparable to that of sheets
prepared by conventional smoke drying.
Sun Drying
Growers without smoke house facility dry their sheets in the open sun.
It has been reported that sun drying of sheet beyond 2-3 days causes
slight degradation of sheet apart from accumulation of atmospheric dust
on it. Therefore, it is advisable to limit open sun drying to two days
initially followed by smoke drying.
Air Drying
The sheets dried in hot air are called air-dried sheets.
Air-dried Sheet
This is a light-coloured sheet prepared in the same way as ribbed
smoked sheets but dried in a shed or tunnel in hot air instead of smoke.
As colour of the sheets is an important consideration, use of sodium
bisulphite, which inhibits enzymic discolouration of the sheets is
necessary in this process. Usually a calculated volume of a solution of
sodium bisulphite is added in the bulking tank to get 1.20 g of it in a kg
of dry rubber. Air-dried sheets may fetch a better price compared to
smoked sheets as they can be used as substitutes for pale latex crepe.
Trolley for Sun-cum-smoke Drying of Natural Rubber Sheets
Smallholders dry rubber sheets partially in sunlight and partially in a
smoke dryer/kitchen hearth. During this process, a lot of dirt, dust, and
other contaminants accumulate on the surface of the sheet leading to
downgrading of the dried sheet. Drying of rubber sheets put on wooden
rods fixed on trolleys can eliminate surface contamination to a great
extent. The trolley can be used to dry rubber sheets in open sunlight as
well as in a smoke dryer, thereby substantially reducing the drying time,
surface contamination and improving the grade of the sheet.

The trolley for sunlight-cum-smoke drying of natural rubber sheets

consists of four sliding layers, one guard layer and a top layer which are
fixed on a mild steel (M.S.) angle framework. The sliding layers can be
drawn out in four directions. Slots are cut, 75mm apart, on the sliding
and fixed frames to insert wooden rods of 20mm diameter on which the
rubber sheets are hung. For drying in open sunlight, the trolley is rolled
out of the smoke chamber and the sliding layers are drawn out in four
directions thereby avoiding the shade of the top layer of sheets from
falling on the bottom ones. This provides direct sunlight to sheets on all
the layers, better aeration through layers of sheet and avoids water
dripping from one layer to the other. The cumulative effect of all the
above is faster and uniform drying of the sheets. During night, the
sheets on the trolley can be dried in a smoke house, for which the
sliding layers are pulled in and arranged one above the other. As the
trolley is designed for maximum use of sunlight with minimum
handling, the period of drying is reduced. Since the trolley is fitted with
swivel caster wheels of 100 mm diameter it can be easily moved in and
out of the smoke house and rolled into the open space for sun drying.
The main frame of the trolley is made of M.S angles of 50x50x6mm
size. The sliding and guard layers are of 35x35x5mm M.S angles and
the top layer has 40x40x6mm M.S angles. The guard layer is intended
for collecting the sheet that may accidentally fall, thereby preventing it
from catching fire in the smoke house. The sliding layer when drawn
out are supported on 10mm. iron rods thereby providing overall balance
of the trolley carrying the sheets. Each layer can carry 30 sheets of 500
g, leading to a total capacity of 75 kg. of dried sheets per trolley.
Trials conducted at RRII indicated 50-60 per cent savings in firewood
using this new trolley for sun-cum-smoke drying.
Ribbed Smoked Sheet Cleaning Machine
A major portion of smallholder’s sheet rubber is of extremely poor
quality, due to incomplete drying, mould growth and a lot of surface
contamination. These problems could be overcome at least partially if
such sheets are thoroughly cleaned even after drying. The manual
method of cleaning is laborious and costly. Hence, a mechanical device
for cleaning of low-quality sheet rubber is developed.
The machine consists of a set of cast iron/mild steel rolls having a
specific design and which run at an rpm of 90, a set of brush rolls with
300 rpm and a third set of rolls (brush) of 360 rpm, arranged in a row.
The length of each roll is 70 cm. The brushes are made of nylon bristles
of 2.5 cm in length and are fixed on a PVC/nylon roll which has a steel
shaft at its core. The sheets are first fed to the cast iron rolls and as they
come out they are pulled by the first set of brush rolls under a forced
spray of water which is applied on the sheet from the bottom and top
sides. This semi-cleaned sheet passes through the second set of brush
rolls under the same conditions as in the previous case. For easy
movement of the sheets, rolls are arranged in a slanting manner. There
are two motors, each of 2HP. One motor drives all the bottom rolls
whereas the other one drives all the upper rolls. Rolls are arranged on
mild steel framework which is provided with stainless steel/aluminium
feeding and receiving trays. Aluminium plates are also provided
between each set of rolls to prevent the sheets from falling. The top
rolls have an upper and lower movement facility to accommodate sheets
of different thickness. This machine can clean dry sheets after soaking
in water which will upgrade the quality of sheets on drying. The sheet is
stretched due to the speed difference and brushed well when it passes
through the rolls. Cleaning of both the surfaces of the sheets takes only
two to three seconds, leading to an output of 20 to 30 sheets per minute
depending on the setting of the rolls and size of sheets.

The completely dried sheets are removed to the packing shed where
they are carefully inspected and graded according to the standards
published by the Rubber Manufacturers Association (RMA) Inc.
Washington in Green Book. This system at present provides for six
grades of ribbed smoked sheets, viz, RSS IX, RSS 1, RSS 2, RSS 3,
RSS 4, and RSS 5. The grading of sheet rubber is carried out by visual
examination. Normally this is accomplished by holding rubber sheets
against light when the most obvious defects become apparent.
 Latex
Technology
Content
Chapter 4
4.1.0. Compounding of Natural Rubber Latex 341-348
4.1.1. NR Latex Technology by Nocil India 349-405
4.2.0. Latex Compounding Technology 406-421
4.2.1. NR Latex Filler Master Batches 422-455
4.2.3. Process of Thickening on
NR Latex US Patent 456-457
4.2.4. Latex Compounding Latest Developments 458-468
4.2.5. Water based Dispersions
for Latex compounding 469-487
4.3.1. Foam Creation and Control A challenge 488-535
4.3.2. Dispersion Chemicals for Latex 536-536
4.4.1. Process of Thickening on NR Latex 537-540
4.5.1. Latex Additives 541-544
4.5.2. Magnesium content in latex
Pinholes in gloves 545-547
4.5.3. Hidden Cost in the Manufacture
of your own Filler Dispersions 548-549
4.5.4. Avoiding Over Curing to Boost the Tear
Resistance of Latex Film 550-552
4.1.0. Compounding of Natural Rubber Latex
Introduction
• Rubber is a polymeric material that are characterized by its ability of
reversible deformation under influence of external deformation forces.
• It is classified as natural rubber and synthetic rubber.
• Natural rubber only contains the monomers of isoprene whereas; the
synthetic rubber contains different types of monomers.
• Natural rubber is a coagulated latex obtain from certain types of trees
that are grown in the tropical regions whereas; synthetic rubber is
obtained by mixing butadiene and styrene which are two by products of
petroleum refining.
• Manufacturers of synthetic rubbers use different chemical
formulations to meet specific requirements and properties.

Concentration of Rubber Latex

• The natural rubber or latex obtained from the Hevea Brasiliensis plant
is known as field or fresh latex.
• The field latex which is known as unconcentrated latex is not suitable
for commercial use as it contains considerable amount of non-rubber
constituents and too much water in it.
• The latex is therefore concentrated to about 60% rubber solids before
it is used to make rubber products.
• This concentration process is carried by following processes.
1. Centrifuging
2. Creaming
3. Electro Decantation
4. Evaporation

• Centrifuging and Creaming processes works on the principle of

increasing
the gravitational force of the rubber particles, by applying centrifugal
force on these particles or by adding a creaming agent like sodium
alginate, gum arabic etc. Both these processes of concentration
result in a decrease of non-rubber content and water.
• In electrode carnation process the negative charge is produced on the
tiny rubber particles, this charge formation is used to extract the rubber
particles from the field latex which makes it concentrated.
• By the evaporation process only the water molecules can be removed
from the field latex. After the evaporation latex contains all the non-
rubber constituents which were present in the original latex.

Compound
• It is a homogenous mixture of ingredients used in a particular
product manufacture such that the properties of most of the ingredients
are unchanged in the final product whereby providing a defined set of
mechanical properties.

Compounding
• It is the science of selecting and combining polymers and additives to
obtain physical and chemical properties for a finished product.

Rubber Compounding
• The concentrated latex is first blended with the various additives as
required for different applications. The blending of different additives
is known as latex compounding.
• Latex compounding involves not only the addition of the proper
chemicals to obtain optimum physical properties in the finished product
but also the proper control of colloidal properties which enable the
latex to be transformed from the liquid state into finished product.
• Some other objectives of rubber compounding are as follows.
1. To secure certain properties in the finished product to satisfy the
service requirements.
2. To attain processing characteristics necessary for efficient utilization
of available equipment.
3. To achieve desirable properties and processability at the lowest cost.

Major Objectives of Compound Development

• Process Requirements –
1. Proper mixing (Incorporation, dispersion, distribution, and
plasticization)
2. Process safety
3. Stickiness and tackiness
4. Shaping (Calendering, extrusion, assembling and moulding)
• Property Requirements –
1. Hardness
2. Stress-Strain properties
3. Abrasion resistance
4. Hysteresis & set properties

• Resistance to Degradation –
1. Heat, oxygen, ozone
2. Flame
3. Liquids (Chemicals)
4. Light (UV & IR)
• Miscellaneous Property Requirements –
1. Low temperature flexibility
2. Electrical properties
3. Permeability
4. Contact with food stuff and drugs
5. Bonding to metal & non-metals
6. Swelling

Raw Rubber Selection Criteria

• Cost
• Ease of mixing
• Strength requirements
• Modulus or stiffness requirements
• Abrasion resistance requirements
• Elongation requirements
• Oil resistance requirement
• Fatigue requirements
• Service temperature
• Flammability
• Chemical resistance requirement

Compounding Ingredients
• Latex
• Thickening agents
• Wetting agents
• Vulcanizing Agents
• Antidegradant (Antioxidants, antiozonants, protective waxes)
• Processing aids (Lubricants & release agents)
• Fillers (Carbon black, non-black materials like calcium carbonate)
• Softeners
• Dispersing Agents
• Colour pigments

Thickening agents
• Sometimes, it is frequently necessary to increase the viscosity of latex
compounds. Thus, dipping mixes may require to be thickened so that
thicker deposits of rubber are obtained.
• Latex compounds may be thickened by adding thickening agents.
• A thickening agent or thickener is a substance which can increase
the viscosity of a liquid without substantially changing its other
properties.
• For thickening purposes, a wide range of natural products are
available, e.g., gums, casein, glue, and gelatine. These are all somewhat
unpredictable in effect, are subject to bacterial attack and although they
may cause high initial increase in viscosity.
• Now a days commonly used thickening agents are sodium
carboxymethyl cellulose, polyvinyl alcohol etc.

Wetting Agents
• Sometimes the addition of a wetting agent to the latex mix is
necessary for successful impregnation of fabrics or fibres with latex.
• Though a medium speed wetting agent, Calsolene oil HS has been
found to assist in obtaining a complete penetration between textile
fibres without any danger of destabilising the latex. Calsolene Oil HS
• Calsolene oil HS, a highly sulfonated oil, is available as a clear, amber
coloured liquid, readily soluble in water. Unlike some high-speed
wetting agents, Calsolene oil HS does not give rise to viscosity changes
of the latex compounds.

Vulcanizing Agents
• Vulcanizing agents
react chemically with the
raw gum elastomer
forming cross-links
between the polymer
chains, resulting in a
more dimensionally
stable and less heat-
sensitive product.

• This process generally involves the chemical reaction of the rubber

with sulphur in presence of an activator (such as zinc oxide) and
accelerator.
• For vulcanization process Elastomers need to have unsaturated bonds.
• Its cost is relatively low, but its function is essential.
• Amount of sulphur must be low because at high sulfur level, it can
show bloom on the surface.
• Sulfur donor like Tetramethyl thiuram disulphide (TMTD) or Zinc
diethyl dithiocarbamate (ZDC) can be also used.
• Some other Vulcanizing Agents are shown below.

Antidegradant
• Because of the great surface area exposure of most latex products,
protection against environment is especially important.
• To extend the service life of vulcanized elastomer by protecting them
from oxygen, ozone, light, heat, and flex fatigue antidegradant are
added.
• Many applications involve light colored products, which must not
darken with age or on exposure to light.
• Non-staining antioxidants such as hindered phenols (styrenated
phenols) must be used.
• Where staining can be tolerated, amine derivatives such as phenylene
diamines, phenyl beta-naphthylamine, ketone-amine condensates may
be
used. These have good heat stability and are also effective against
copper contamination, which cause rapid degradation of rubber.
• Selection Criteria for choosing accurate antidegradant involves
Volatility, Solubility, Chemical Stability, Concentration, Health &
Safety.

Processing Aids (Lubricants)

• Two types of lubricants are generally used in compounding.
1. External lubricants
2. Internal lubricants
• External lubricants prevent sticking of the compound to the
processing equipments by forming a film between the bulk of
the compound and the metal surface of the processing
equipment.
• Internal lubricants improve flow behavior of the materials.

Fillers
• Fillers are materials used to extend the range of physical properties, to
reduce compound cost, modify the processing properties, to increase the
viscosity and to influence the chemical resistance of the compound.
• Most of the nonblack fillers such as china clay, mica powder, whiting
(calcium carbonate), Lithopone, Blanc Fixe (barium sulphate) may be
used in latex compounds.
• Carbon black does not reinforce latex in the manner that it does dry
rubber, and is used only in small amounts in latex for color, as are
various other dyes and pigments.
• Selection Criteria for choosing accurate filler involves cost, processing
requirements, colour requirement, reinforcement requirement and any
another special requirement.

Softeners
• A Softener is an ingredient that –
1. Speeds up the rate of polymer breakdown
2. Helps to disperse the other compounding ingredients
3. Helps to reduce nerve within the compound
4. Can impart building tack
5. Improves the processing properties and modify the final compound
properties
6. Adjusts the compound cost and reduce power consumption during
processing
• In applications like toy balloons, softeners are added to soften them so
that they may be easily inflated.
• Generally paraffinic oil, naphthenic oil and aromatic petroleum
mineral oils and some plasticizers are used as softeners.

Dispersing Agents
• The particle size of solid materials added to latex must usually be
made as small as possible to ensure intimate contact with the rubber
particles.
• Solid materials are usually added to latex as dispersion.
• The material to be added is mixed with dispersing agents in deionized
water and ground to a small particle size in a ball mill or attritor.
• In these devices’ stones or other hard pebble-sized materials are made
to tumble and mix with chemicals reducing them to small size.
• The concentration of dispersing agents rarely exceeds 2% except in
special circumstances.
• None of the common materials such as gelatin, casein, glue, or soap
such as ammonium oleate possesses all the requisite properties and
hence it is necessary to use mixtures of two or more of them.

Compounding Criteria
• During compounding, it is essential to avoid the addition of any
material liable to cause coagulation. As already discussed, the latex
compound should be properly stabilized. In general, the addition of
water-soluble organic liquids, salts of polyvalent metals and acidic
materials are to be avoided.
• Water-insoluble liquids and solids must be added as emulsions and
dispersions respectively, in which the size of the individual particle is of
the same order as that of the rubber particles in the latex.
• Care should be taken to avoid the use of hard water at any stage of
latex compounding as it has a destabilizing action on latex.
• The containers for the latex storage must be made from stone,
enamelled iron, stainless steel, and wood lined with rubber or gutta-
percha.
• During the addition of the compounding ingredients, the mix should
be stirred slowly but thoroughly. Slow stirring of the latex mix assists
in the removal of bubbles and minimizes the formation of a skin, which
arises from evaporation of water in the latex.
• It is important to avoid contact between the stirrer and the container,
since latex is readily coagulated by friction.
4.1.1. NR Latex Technology by Nocil India
4.2.0. Latex Compounding Technology
The different compounding ingredients used in rubber latex can be
grouped into curing agents, sulfur, accelerators, antioxidants, fillers,
pigments, stabilisers, thickening and wetting agents, and other
ingredients such as: heat sensitisers, plasticisers, viscosity modifiers,
and so on.
Compounding Ingredients
Curing Agent: Sulfur
Sulfur is the universal vulcanising agent for natural rubber and also for
synthetic rubbers, which contain olefinic unsaturation in the polymer
chain, whether these polymers are in latex form or in the form of dry
rubber. Sulfur is the main vulcanising agent for natural rubber, synthetic
polyisoprene, styrene-butadiene rubber, acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber,
polybutadiene rubber, and so on. The crosslinks formed during sulfur
vulcanisation of olefinically unsaturated rubber are of three types:
monosulfidic, disulfidic and polysulfidic. The relative properties of
above crosslinks have an implication in the mechanical and ageing
behaviour of vulcanisates. Monosulfidic and disulfidic crosslinks give
better ageing resistance compared to polysulfidic linkage, whereas the
initial tensile properties are better for a rubber vulcanisates with
polysulfidic linkage. When the amount of sulfur used is high, a higher
percentage of polysulfidic linkage is formed.
Sulfur to be used for latex compound should be of good quality and
easily dispersed in water. Colloidal sulfur is preferred for latex
compounds, which is obtained by a reaction between hydrogen sulfide
and sulfur dioxide in an aqueous medium.
Thiurams, for example, tetramethylthiuram disulfide (TMTD) with
disulfidic linkage can be used as a vulcanising agent in olefinically
unsaturated rubber in the absence of elemental sulfur (sulfurless
curing). This type of curing is superior to conventional curing for heat
resistance, oxidative aging resistance, and so on.
Butyl xanthogen disulfide (at 4 phr) in presence of zinc oxide can be
used for vulcanising rubber latex without elemental sulfur. Vulcanisate
properties of this system are inferior to those obtained using the thiuram
system.
3.1.2 Accelerators
The rate of sulfur vulcanisation can be increased by the addition of
accelerators. The most important class of accelerators used in latex
industry are metallic and amine
dialkyl dithiocarbamate, thiazoles and thiurams function as secondary
accelerators. Dithiocarbamates are a class of accelerators used as
primary accelerators in latex compounds. It can be in the form of alkali
metal salts such as sodium diethyl dithiocarbamate (SDC) or zinc salts
such as zinc dimethyl dithiocarbamate (ZMDC).
An important difference between the ammonia and alkali metal salts
compared to the polyvalent metallic ions is that the former is soluble in
water, whereas the latter are not. Water insoluble solids are
incorporated in latex as dispersions in water. Table 1 shows the
preparation of a sulfur dispersion.

Commonly used dialkyl dithiocarbamates in latex compounds are zinc

diethyl dithiocarbamate (ZEDC), SDC, and piperidinium
pentamethylene dithiocarbamate.
The accelerating activity of various dithiocarbamates differs
considerably. ZDEC is of intermediate activity and it tends to cause
gradual thickening in ammonia preserved natural rubber latex (NRL)
under normal storage conditions due to the slow liberation of zinc ions.
An exception to this rule is zinc penta methylene dithiocarbamate.
Latex films turn brown in the presence of dithiocarbamate and copper
due to the formation of copper dithiocarbamate. Xanthates are very
reactive accelerators. They are active even at room temperature. They
are somewhat unstable and are invariably accompanied by a bad odour.
This may be due to a small amount of carbon disulfide, which is
evolved during their decomposition on storage. Alkali metal xanthates
are water soluble whereas heavy metal salts are insoluble. Typical
examples are zinc isopropyl xanthate, sodium isopropyl xanthate, zinc-
n-butyl xanthate.
Thiazoles are used as secondary accelerators in combination with
dithiocarbamates. They impart lower compression set and higher
modulus and load bearing capacity. Two thiazoles which are most
commonly used in latex compounding are sodium mercapto
benzthiazole (SMBT), and zinc mercapto benzothiazole (ZMBT).
SMBT
are usually prepared by dissolving mercaptobenzothiazoles in a slight
excess of sodium hydroxide solution. The most suitable thiazole
accelerator for latex work is the water insoluble ZMBT? This may be
prepared by a reaction between sodium mercaptobenzthiozle solution
and zinc sulfate solution. ZMBT can be used in place of ZDEC to get
desirable technological properties such as high modulus, and so on.
Thiurams are used as a secondary accelerator along with
dithiocarbamates. Some typical examples are tetramethylthiuram
monosulfide (TMTM), tetraethylthiuram disulfide dipenta methyl
enethiuram disulfide (DPTD), dipentamethylenethiuram tetra sulfide.
All these accelerators are insoluble in water and so they are
incorporated in latex as dispersions. The cure with these accelerators is
comparatively slow but their activity can be improved by incorporating
sulfur bearing compounds such as thiourea in the compound.
Antioxidants
The ageing characteristic of rubber latex vulcanisates is better compared
to dry rubber, since it is not subjected to any degradation during
processing (in latex processing there is no mastication or exposure to
high temperatures). For NRL products the aging resistance is further
improved by the presence of naturally occurring rubber constituents
which function as antioxidants. Similarly, some of the vulcanisation
chemicals such as ZDEC/zinc mercapto imidazole, and so on, also
improves aging resistance.
Two types of antioxidants are used in rubber compounding: the amine
type and the phenolic type.
Amine type antioxidants cause discoloration/staining on ageing and
because they are resinous in nature it is difficult to disperse them in the
rubber latex.
Phenolic antioxidants are the most commonly used in latex,
compounding examples are styrenated phenol (SP), substituted cresols,
and so on. Water insoluble liquid antioxidants are incorporated in to the
latex as an emulsion in water. The emulsified antioxidant droplets are
adsorbed on to the rubber particles as the compound matures.
Even if this does not occur, they will be expected to disperse rapidly in
the rubber phase when the latex is dried down to form a solid deposit.
Fillers and Pigments
Inorganic fillers and pigments are added to the latex in order to make it
less expensive and to stiffen the product or to colour it. These fillers
don’t have any reinforcing effect when they are added to latex as they
do in dry rubber. If the compounded latex with carbon black as filler is
subjected to irradiation by high-energy radiation this causes some
reinforcement. This study was conducted by A and G Lamm. The next
sections discuss the important inorganic fillers used in the latex
compounding.
Kaolinite Clays
Kaolinite clays are a class of inorganic fillers, which are commonly
incorporated in to latex compounds. The kaolinite clays form an
important group of fillers, which are an inexpensive material of fine
particle size and they are readily dispersed in water with the aid of small
amounts of dispersing agents. Some grades of kaolinite clays can be
added directly in dry form. The pH of an aqueous clay slurry is usually
in the range of 7 to 8. In some cases, the pH is lower and in range of 4.0
to 4.5. The acidity may be readily corrected by the addition of a small
amount of potassium hydroxide (KOH).
Kaolinite clay is sometimes added to NRL at a level of 400 phr. At
these levels the products are very hard and show virtually no rubbery
properties.
Calcium Carbonate
Naturally occurring forms of calcium carbonate are whiting, chalk,
limestone, and so on. All of these are very inexpensive and give poor
quality products with a marked tendency to discoloration. Precipitated
calcium carbonate is widely used in latex compounds. It may contain
small quantities of water-soluble calcium salts, which tend to reduce the
stability of the latex. One method of detecting the presence of soluble
calcium salts is by the addition of a small amount of sodium carbonate
prior to the addition to the latex.
Titanium Dioxide
The most effective white pigment used in latex compounding is rutile
(titanium dioxide). For regular application five parts (phr) is used in
latex paints.
Lithopone
Lithopone is a mixture of barium sulfate and zinc sulfide, and it may be
used as filler. It is used as an inexpensive alternative for titanium
dioxide.
Barytes
Barytes is precipitated barium sulfate, which has been used with NRL
to give filled compounds with good extensibility and elongation at
break. The main disadvantage of this pigment is its tendency to
sediment rapidly. This is because of its high specific gravity.
Carbon Black
Carbon black is used as black pigment in latex compounding. The
carbon blacks are added to latex in the form of dispersion or slurries
after adjustment of the pH to alkaline. Wet ground mica is also used as
a filler in latex compounding.
Stabilisers
Surfactants: These are substances which lower the surface free energy
against air and aqueous media, along with interfacial free energy against
immiscible organic liquids.
One method to classify these agents is based on function:
• Wetting agent
• Dispersing agent
• Dispersion stabilisers
• Emulsifiers
• Foam promoters and foam stabilisers

The disadvantage of this classification is that there exists a considerable

degree of overlap among different categories. For example, potassium
oleate is classified as a foam promoter for latex foam and as a stabiliser
for synthetic and NRL. Most surfactants are tolerably efficient in the
majority of functions but may be outstandingly efficient in just one
respect.
Chemically surfactants are classified as amphoteric, anionic, cationic,
and non-ionic, and so on, depending upon the active entity present.
Anionic surfactants: In this case the surface activity is attributed to the
anion – examples are carboxylates, sulfates, sulfonates, and so on.
Unsaturated straight chain aliphatic carboxylates derived from oleic
acid find application as colloidal electrolytes in emulsion
polymerisation. The oleates are also used as an emulsifier in water
immiscible oils, and as a foam promoter in the manufacture of latex
foams.
Fugitive soaps: These are ammonium soaps. They lose free amines by
vulcanisation. Ammonia is the most volatile base but is rather too
volatile for some applications, alternatives include morpholine and
triethanolamine. Rosin acid soaps also find applications as emulsifiers,
colloidal electrolytes and foam promoters.
Sulfonates: are much more sensitive to acids and heavy metal ions than
are the carboxylates. They mainly function as wetting agents and
examples of this group are sodium diisopropyl naphthalene sulfonate,
sodium dibutyl naphthalene sulfonate, and so on. A well-known
compound sodium naphthalene formaldehyde sulfoxylate is prepared by
reacting two molecules of sodium naphthanate sulfonate with
formaldehyde. This substance is a deflocculating and dispersing agent
and it finds
application in preparing dispersions of insoluble powder. Sodium salts
or esters of sulfonic acid are another group and they find application as
wetting and dispersion stabilisers.
Sulfate: In general, substances of this class are all strongly surface
active and find application as wetting agents and dispersion stabilisers.
The typical examples of straight chain alkyl sulfonates include sodium
dodecyl sulfate, sodium hexadecyl sulfate and a mixture of them.
Thickening and Wetting Agents
Thickening agent: It is frequently necessary to increase the viscosity of
latex compounds. Thus, dipping mixes may require to be thickened so
that thicker deposits of rubber are obtained or spreading mixes are
thickened to prevent the latex from striking through the fabric.
Latex compounds may be thickened in two ways: (i) by filling the mix
or (ii) by adding thickening agents. The tolerance of latex for these
fillers is limited and their addition may produce undesirable effects in
the rubber. It may prove necessary, therefore to add thickening agents,
among which a wide range of natural products are available, e.g., gums,
casein, glue and gelatine. These are all somewhat unpredictable in
effect, are subject to bacterial attack and although they may cause high
initial increase in viscosity, this effect decreases on prolonged storage.
Furthermore, they have marked effects on the ‘handle’ of the rubber
article and on its resistance to water.
Commonly used thickening agents are sodium carboxymethyl cellulose,
polyvinyl alcohol, and so on.
Wetting agent: Sometimes the addition of a wetting agent to the latex
mix is necessary for successful impregnation of fabrics or fibres with
latex. Though a medium speed wetting agent, Calsolene oil HS has
been found to assist in obtaining a complete penetration between textile
fibres without any danger of destabilising the latex.
Calsolene oil HS: Calsolene oil HS, a highly sulfonated oil, is available
as a clear, amber coloured liquid, readily soluble in water. Unlike some
high-speed wetting agents, Calsolene oil HS does not give rise to
viscosity changes of the latex compounds.
Other Compounding Ingredients
High styrene resin latex can be used as a reinforcing resin. High
styrene-butadiene co-polymer lattices enhance the stiffness and
hardness of the deposits.
There is a progressive increase of modulus and a progressive reduction
in elongation at break as the proportion of resin in the vulcanisate is
increased. Tensile strength increases at first as the level of resin is
increased/and then passes through an optimum and falls off, which may
be due to the breakdown of resin particles and the rubber matrix
interface. High styrene resin lattices may be used in conjunction with
lattices of polychloroprene/acrylonitrile-butadiene and co-polymers of
styrene-butadiene and natural rubber.
Resorcinol formaldehyde resin: The direct condensation of resorcinol
and formaldehyde in natural rubber is not easy to affect. Formaldehyde
tends to destabilise the latex. Excess ammonia is added to prevent
coagulation. Formaldehyde reacts with ammonia and prevents the resin
formation. If excess of a fixed alkali is added to prevent coagulation,
difficulty may arise because of the faster rate of resorcinol
formaldehyde resin formation
Preparation of Aqueous Dispersions and Emulsions
All dispersions or solutions, which are to be added to latex should be
prepared with distilled water or soft water. The degree of dispersion
required depends upon the quality of the rubber article to be made.
Thus, for thin articles, in which high strength is necessary, finely
dispersed compounding ingredients are essential. Poor dispersions may
also adversely affect the transparency and colour of the product. It is
sometimes more convenient to mill all the solid ingredients together as
a single batch. It should be realised, however, that if this procedure is
adopted it will be found that the time required to produce a reasonable
dispersion of the most difficult ingredient, is the same as that required
to reduce the particle size of the most intractable component. For
example, it is difficult to prepare a sulfur dispersion and so it is given
72 hours of ball milling so if sulfur is also mixed together with other
chemicals then at least 72 hours has to be given so that a good
dispersion of sulfur together with other ingredients is obtained. For the
production of high quality ‘pure gum’ rubber articles, it is
recommended that all dispersions be prepared individually. Dispersions
prepared individually should be mixed together prior to addition of
latex since, even though no obvious flocculation is apparent, the
particles may aggregate and the quality of the mix be impaired.
Dispersion of Water Insoluble Solids The treatment required to produce
high-quality dispersions of water-insoluble solids depends on the
physical nature of the materials. Those which have been prepared by
drying from a colloidal state (e.g., clays) do not usually require
prolonged milling. Their primary particles are small but have
aggregated and can sometimes be redispersed merely by stirring with
Water containing a dispersing agent, followed by passing the paste
through a colloid mill or by brief ball milling. Other materials, however,
require actual
grinding of
the particles
and for this
purpose ball
or gravel
milling is
necessary,
the latter being reserved for difficult materials such as sulfur.
Ball milling: The container is rotated about its cylindrical axis in a
horizontal plane at such a speed that the charge is tumbled. In this
example of the ball mill (Figure 3.1), the grinding charge consists of
unglazed porcelain or glass balls, their size being governed by the
diameter of the container. A small laboratory mill may use balls of 1.2–
1.5 cm diameter. Larger mills require balls of an average diameter of
about 2.5 cm.
The rate of grinding by the mill is related to the diameter of the
container. If the mill rotates too rapidly, centrifugal force will cause the
charge to adhere to the container walls and no grinding results. Large
mills must rotate more slowly than small ones and the following table
of optimum speeds assists the operator in arranging the milling
operation. Slower speeds may be used but the time of milling will be
extended since the grinding is achieved by a definite number of
rotations of the mill. Table 3.2 shows the ball mill size and suggested
speed of operation.
 Colloid mill:
A colloid mill
essentially
consists of
two circular
plates, one of
which is
stationary and
the other is
rotating at a very high speed (1,000 to 20,000 rpm). The clearance
between the two plates is generally adjusted to within 0.025 to 0.200
mm.
Most colloidal mills are provided with water cooling devices to prevent
overheating of the material being dispersed. The solid powder is first
made into a slurry with the required amount of water and dispersing
agent and fed into the space near the axis of the mill and is carried
outwards between the discs by the centrifugal pressure set up. Besides
its use in the preparation of aqueous dispersions of soft materials (e.g.,
china clay), the colloid mill is also used to wet the powders before ball
milling. The powder is made into slurry and then passed through the
colloid mill. By this treatment, the material will be wetted properly and
after ball milling will produce a satisfactory dispersion.
Dispersing agents: The selection and amount of dispersing agent are
determined by the physical properties of the material to be dispersed.
The functions of these agents
are too wet the powder, to prevent or reduce frothing and to obviate re-
aggregation of the particles. The concentration of the dispersing agent
should be maintained at the minimum required to produce the desired
effect and need rarely exceed 2% except in special circumstances.
Dispersol F Conc: Dispersol F Conc is a very effective dispersing agent
recommended for use in the preparation of aqueous dispersions of the
water insoluble solid ingredients used in the various types of latex
compounds. By using a sufficient quantity of this dispersing agent, the
water insoluble compounding ingredients in powder form can be
dispersed in water by an appropriate mechanical milling process, e.g.,
ball milling. The mechanical action necessary to secure good
dispersions depends on the physical nature of the material to be
dispersed. Sulfur for example, which is a hard material and occurs in
relatively large ultimate particles requires actual grinding in a ball mill
for a long period. For materials such as accelerators and zinc oxide, ball
milling for a shorter period or colloid mill may be used. When re-
aggregation of the ultimate particles is very weak, for example, in the
case of good quality china clay, simple mechanical stirring in the
presence of Dispersol F Conc will suffice. For resinous materials such
as Accinox B, there is a tendancy for it to adhere to things and so the
addition of an inert material, such as China clay is necessary to prevent
this.
Tables 3.3–3.6 show the formulae and methods for the preparation of
the aqueous dispersions of the common compounding ingredients used
in latex.
Evaluation of the Quality of Dispersion
Consistency in quality and stability of the dispersions are highly
desirable. Suitable tests should be done to assess the quality of the
dispersion before addition to the latex. In doubtful cases it is advisable
to carry out a small-scale test also with the compounded latex prepared
by using the dispersions under test.
A drop of the dispersion is allowed to fall on the surface of the water
taken in a tall glass cylinder. The drop must not fall to the bottom, but
should disperse well in the water phase, leaving a cloudy trail.
Preparation of Emulsions
As for dispersions, distilled or softened water should also be used for
the preparation of emulsions of the water immiscible liquids, which are
used in latex compounds. An emulsion is defined as a system in which a
liquid is colloidally dispersed in another liquid. The emulsions for latex
use should be of the oil-inwater type, in which the water is the
continuous phase and the suspended droplets Carry a negative charge.
Equipment used for the preparation of an emulsion consists of a tank
and a high-speed stirrer. Very fine and stable emulsions can be prepared
by a device, which imparts a shearing action, e.g., a colloidal mill or a
homogeniser. In a homogeniser the liquid is mixed with the required
amounts of water and the emulsifying agent is forced through a fine
orifice under high pressure (6.9 MPa to 34 MPa). Thus, liquid mix is
subjected to a high shearing force, which breaks down the particles to
the required size. Various synthetic emulsifying agents are available on
the market, but for latex use, soaps have been found to be quite
satisfactory. Often the addition of the ingredients to the soap solution
with stirring will produce a satisfactory emulsion.
However, a better and more effective method of emulsification, is to
produce the soap in situ during the mixing of the components. In this
method, the cationic part of the soap (ammonia, KOH or amine) is
dissolved in water and the anionic part (oleic, stearic or rosin acid) is
dissolved in the liquid to be emulsified. Soap is formed when these
solutions are mixed. Often this technique is modified in that the water
solution is added in small amounts to the non-aqueous phase, producing
at first a ‘water-in-oil’ emulsion, which undergoes an inversion to an
‘oil-in-water’ emulsion on further addition of the water-solution. Table
3.7 and Table 3.8 give the formulations used for the preparation of
liquid paraffin and SP emulsions.
In the formulation in Table 3.7, oleic acid is mixed with liquid paraffin
and the mixture added to the water containing the concentrated
ammonia solution. The two phases are mixed by agitation and the
stability and dispersion of the emulsion is improved by being passed
through a homogeniser. A further improvement in quality is obtained by
replacing one part of water in the formulation by one part of Vulcastab
VL.
In the formulation in Table 3.8, Part A is heated to about 60 °C and then
added with high speed stirring to part B also at the same temperature.
The stirring is continued until the emulsion attains the required
temperature.

References
1. B.L. Babitskii and L.E. Vinitskii, Soviet Rubber Technology, 1961,
20, 28.
2. G.G. Winspear in The Vanderbilt Latex Handbook, R.T. Vanderbilt
Co., Inc., New York, NY, USA, 1954, p.136.
3. A. Lamm and G. Lamm, Rubber Chemistry and Technology, 1962,
35, 4, 848.
4.2.1. NR Latex Filler Master Batches
Fillers when added to polymer systems are known to cause a
considerable change in dynamic properties. This phenomenon has been
investigated in-depth, especially in relation to rubber products. The
level of dispersion of fillers like carbon black, silica and nanoclay in a
rubber matrix is an important issue in a large variety of rubber products.
Though carbon black could be easily dispersed in natural rubber by
conventional mill mixing, there are issues like air pollution, material
loss and higher energy consumption. Preparation of latex–carbon black
masterbatch by the addition of carbon black as a slurry has been
suggested as one of the methods to avoid some of these problems. In the
case of fillers such as silica and nanoclay, it is extremely difficult to
disperse these highly aggregate fillers in natural rubber using a mixing
mill.
The mixing of filler in rubber includes stages like incorporation,
distribution and dispersion. The first two processes are known to be
energy intensive operations. Incorporation of fillers as dispersions in the
latex stage followed by co-coagulation of the latex filler system is
expected to be a less energy intensive process. The present study aims
at standardisation of a method for quick coagulation of natural rubber
latex, identification of a suitable form of the latex for the preparation
latex-filler masterbatches, development of a protocol for the preparation
of latex-dual filler masterbatches, preparation of masterbatches
containing a nanofiller in addition to the conventional fillers and
evaluation of the validity of natural rubber – filler masterbatches in
blends of natural rubber with poly butadiene rubber.
The thesis consists of eight chapters. A concise introduction to the
subject is presented in the first chapter. A review of literature and the
objectives of the work are mentioned in this chapter. The second
chapter describes the materials used and the various experimental
procedures employed in the work. The third chapter describes fatty acid
soap sensitised coagulation of fresh natural rubber latex. Fresh natural
rubber (NR) latex coagulates immediately by sensitisation with fatty
acid soaps.
Forth chapter reports the latex stage incorporation of fluffy carbon
black (carbon black powder before palletisation) in different forms of
natural rubber latices like fresh latex, preserved latex, concentrated
latex and a blend of preserved field latex and skim latex. The fifth
chapter deals with carbon black / silica masterbatch from fresh natural
rubber latex. A simple method for production of natural rubber latex -
carbon black/silica masterbatches with enhanced mechanical properties
is described. The results of investigations on HAF/silica/nanoclay
"ternary"
masterbatch from fresh natural rubber latex is reported in chapter 6. A
process for the production of carbon black/silica/nanoclay ternary filler
masterbatch from fresh natural rubber latex was standardized. Chapter
seven deals with blends of fresh natural rubber latex based masterbatch
(dried) and polybutadiene rubber. The conclusion of the investigations
is presented in the last chapter of the thesis.

1.1 Introduction
Natural rubber latex is a colloid, the dispersed phase being
predominantly rubber and the dispersion medium water. Fresh latex
has a specific gravity of 0.96 to 0.98 and a pH in the range of 6.5 to 7.0.
In addition to rubber and water, latex contains small quantities of
proteins, resins including fats, fatty acids, other lipids, sterol and sterol
esters, carbohydrates and mineral matter. Fresh latex is composed of
rubber (30-40%), proteins (1-1.5%), resins (1.5-3%), mineral matter
(0.7-0.9%), carbohydrates (0.8-1%) and water (55-60%).
The size of the rubber particles ranges from 0.02 to 3.0 μm and them
shape is mostly spherical. The particles are strongly protected by a film
of adsorbed proteins and phospholipids. The other particles in latex
comprise lutoids and Frey-Wyssling particles. The lutoids are
subcellular membrane bound bodies ranging in size from 2 to 5 μm,
containing a fluid serum known as B-serum, which is a destabilizer for
rubber particles.
Frey-Wyssling particles are spherical, larger in size and are yellow
coloured. Methyl-l-inositol (quebrachitol), sucrose and glucose are the
major carbohydrates in latex. About 20% of the available proteins in
latex is adsorbed on the rubber particles, an equal quantity is found in
the B-serum and the remainder in the latex serum. The adsorbed
proteins and phospholipids impart a negative charge on the rubber
particles thereby improving the stability of the colloid. The lipids
associated with rubber and non-rubber particles play a key role in the
stability and colloidal behaviour of latex. Latex also contains amino
acid nucleotides and low molecular weight thiols. The nucleotides are
co-factors and intermediates in the biosynthesis of rubber.

1.2 Processing of natural rubber latex

Fresh field latex is obtained from the bark of Hevea brasiliensis by a
process of controlled wounding during which thin shavings of bark are
removed. Generally latex accounts for about 80 % of the crop the rest
being field coagulum. The fresh latex and the various forms of field
coagulum are not suitable for storage and marketing as these are likely
to deteriorate on storage. The presence of carbohydrates and other non-
rubber constituents makes latex a suitable medium for the growth of
micro-organisms such as bacteria and yeast. While bacteria cause
conversion of carbohydrates into volatile fatty acids and proteins into
simple compounds the yeast causes fermentation of the carbohydrates.
These reactions cause spontaneous coagulation and putrefaction of
latex. Thus, fresh latex on keeping slowly undergoes thickening and
ultimately coagulates into a lump.
Putrefaction of proteins causes the formation of foul-smelling gases
such as hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide. Fermentation leads to
the production of large quantities of carbon dioxide which causes the
coagulum to expand.
Also prolonged storage of the wet coagula leads to deterioration of the
rubber. Hence, both fresh latex as well as the field coagula have to be
processed into forms suitable for long-term storage, marketing and
further processing into a finished product. The process of conversion of
fresh latex and field coagulum into a suitable marketable form of raw
rubber is called primary processing as another stage of processing is
necessary to convert the raw rubber into a finished product. The
various marketable forms of raw rubber include preserved field latex
and concentrated latex, ribbed smoked sheet (RSS) and air-dried sheet
(ADS), block or technically specified rubber (TSR), crepe rubber
consisting of pale latex crepe (PLC) and estate brown crepe (EBC) and
other low-grade crepe made from field coagulum.

1.2.1 Preserved and concentrated latex

Preservation of latex aims at preventing bacterial activity and
enhancing its stability. It is achieved by using preservatives such as
ammonia. Apart from being a good bactericide, ammonia enhances the
colloidal stability of latex and deactivates certain harmful metal ions.
To be effective as preservative, ammonia is used at 0.7 to 1.0% by
weight of latex. During storage, the higher fatty acid esters present in
latex get hydrolysed into ammonium soaps, which improve the
mechanical stability of latex. However, the pungent smell of ammonia,
the low stability of latex in the presence of zinc oxide and longer
gelling time of latex foam are disadvantages. Hence, many low
ammonia preservative systems have been developed, in which the
concentration of ammonia is reduced to around 0.2% and supplemented
with secondary preservatives such as tetramethyl thiuram disulphide
(TMTD) - zinc oxide combination, zinc diethyl dithiocarbamate, boric
acid etc. Of these, a combination of 0.2% ammonia, 0.0125% each of
TMTD and zinc oxide and 0.05% of lauric acid (LATZ system) is the
most promising.
Concentration of latex is necessary on account of the preference by the
latex products manufacturing industry for a latex with high dry rubber
content (DRC) and for transport economy and purification of latex.
Rubber products such as gloves, condoms, rubber bands, balloons, foam
mattresses, elastic thread etc. are made directly from latex for which
about 10% of the global production of NR is processed as preserved and
concentrated latex.
The processes for concentration include evaporation,
electrodecantation, creaming and centrifuging. Evaporation removes
only water and hence the ratio of non-rubber constituents to rubber and
the particle size distribution remain unchanged. However, the other
three processes involve the partial removal of non-rubber materials and
smaller rubber particles. Centrifuging and creaming are more popularly
used for the production of concentrated latex. The principle of creaming
and centrifuging involves the application of Stokes’s Law [16, 17]. In
any dispersion, the dispersed particle cream or sediment under the
influence of gravity and the velocity of creaming depends on several
factors and is stated mathematically as:
2V = 2g (Ds – Dr) r / 9ή --------------------------------------------(1.1)
 Where V is the velocity of creaming (m/s)g is the acceleration due to
gravity (m/s 2) Ds, Dr are the densities of serum and rubber particles,
respectively (g/cm) r is the effective radius of the particle (cm), and ή
is the coefficient of viscosity of serum (centipoise)
In the creaming process, the creaming agent such as sodium alginate,
forms an adsorbed layer over the rubber particles which reduces the
Brownian movement and the intensity of the negative electric charge on
the particle surface, thereby promoting temporary agglomeration of
particles. Thus, the effective size of the particle increases, favouring
faster creaming.
In the centrifugal process, when the latex enters the machine, rotating at
a high speed of around 7000 rpm, the centrifugal force, which is several
thousand times larger than the gravitational force causes rapid
separation of the latex into cream and skim.
In creaming, the skim is almost clear serum and is therefore
discarded. However, in the centrifugal process, the skim contains 2 –
8% rubber, which is recovered by coagulation using dilute sulphuric
acid and processed as skim rubber, which is a low-quality rubber.
Concentrated natural rubber latex is marketed to strict technical
specifications. The current ISO specifications for latex concentrates are
given in Table 1.1

1.3 Properties of natural rubber

Natural rubber molecule is a linear, unsaturated, long chain aliphatic
hydrocarbon polymer identified chemically as cis – 1, 4 polyisoprenes.
As in the case of other high polymers, natural rubber too is formed of
molecules of different sizes with the weight average molecular weight
ranging from 100,000 to about 10 million. A random blend of natural
rubber shows a weight average molecular weight in the range of 1 – 1.5
x 10 and a number average molecular weight of 3 – 5 x 10. High
molecular weight results in high viscosities. The Mooney viscosity of
fresh dry natural rubber is in the range of 55 to 90. During storage the
viscosity of natural rubber increases from 70 to 100 Mooney units
depending on the length of the storage period.
The natural storage hardening is believed to be due to the crosslinking
reaction between aldehyde groups present in the rubber molecule with
the amino groups of free amino acids and proteins. The aldehyde
groups can be deactivated and storage hardening reaction can be
inhibited by treating the rubber with 0.15% hydroxylamine salt. This is
the technique used for the production of viscosity stabilized rubber
grades, also known as constant viscosity (CV) rubbers.
Because of the high structural regularity, natural rubber crystallizes
spontaneously when stored at low temperatures, or when it is stretched.
Unstrained sample shows a maximum rate of crystallization at about -
26 oC Maximum degree of crystallinity attained is about 25 – 30 %.
The un-stretched raw rubber shows a crystalline melting point (Tm) of
+25 oC the strain induced crystallization behaviour gives natural rubber
high tensile strength even in pure gum or vulcanizates filled with non-
reinforcing fillers. Glass transition temperature of natural rubber is
higher than that of cis-1, 4 polybutadiene. The density of natural rubber
is about 0.913 g per cc., and its bulk density is about 0.85 g per cc. The
rubber hydrocarbon content of raw natural rubber is about 94%. The
presence of small quantities of non-rubber constituents such as proteins,
fats, fatty acids, carbohydrates and mineral matter in natural rubber
influences its physical and chemical properties.
A small percentage of rubber undergoes cross-linking even when
present within the latex vessels of the tree. This is evident from the 5-
10% gel content (microgel) in freshly prepared natural rubber. The gel
content increases during storage and it is known as the macrogel. The
macrogel is responsible for increased viscosity of natural rubber during
storage. The macrogel breaks down almost completely during
mastication of the rubber, and dissolves completely in aliphatic and
aromatic solvents, chlorinated hydrocarbons, tetrahydrofuran and
carbon disulphide. Coagulated and dried natural rubber is highly elastic
at ambient temperature. On subjecting the dry rubber to intensive
mechanical shearing, it becomes progressively more plastic. This
process is known as mastication. Masticated rubber is capable of flow,
and therefore it can be shaped. The efficiency of mastication is
temperature dependent and is minimum at about 100 oC Staudinger and
Boundy suggested that mastication involves the rupture of the rubber
molecules due to the shearing forces. Efficiency of mastication can be
improved by the addition of small quantities of chemicals known as
peptizing agents (e.g. Zinc penta chloro thiophenate).
The high molecular weight, and the polymer chain entanglements
make the dissolution of natural rubber in solvents difficult. The
chemical reactivity of natural rubber is influenced by the presence of
double bond in its molecular backbone. The presence of methyl group
in the cis-1, 4-polyisoprene further enhances the reactivity of the double
bond. Thus, natural rubber is more reactive than polybutadiene, and
poly styrene butadiene rubber to a number of chemicals, including the
vulcanization chemicals.

1.4.1 Physically modified latex - filler masterbatch.

In the past several researchers have attempted the preparation of filler
slurry incorporated natural rubber latex coagulum [31-35]. The
preparation of carbon black masterbatch is carried out by mixing carbon
black in water with latex and coagulating the latex carbon black
mixture. However, the mismatch in the rate of coagulation of fresh field
latex and carbon black slurry leads to poor dispersion of carbon black in
rubber as well as significant loss of filler during the coagulation,
making the process economically unviable. Different forms of natural
rubber latices like pre-vulcanized latex, modified latex and centrifuged
latex were used for masterbatch preparation.
US Patent 20080262123 describes a method to prepare pre-vulcanised
latex coated carbon black powder. In one of the methods coagulations
was affected by high speed mixing of filler slurry and latex.
Takashi et al. have patented a process in which the filler slurry is
irradiated with high amplitude ultrasonic waves having amplitude of 80
μm or more and then mixed with concentrated natural rubber latex. It
was expected that the proteins adsorbed on rubber particles would
interfere with polymer filler interactions and therefore in some methods
the amide bonds in natural rubber latex were cleaved before preparing
the masterbatch. However, the expected benefit of reinforcement of
rubber by fillers could not be realized by these attempts.
US Patent 2009/0088496 A1 reports a process where rubber
filler composite is obtained by jetting field latex of natural rubber in at
high speed having a flow rate of 500 m/sec. or more into a mixing
chamber, while supplying a filler slurry to the mixing chamber thereby
separating and removing protein in the field latex and at the same time
mixing the field latex and the filler slurry. US Patent 6841606 reports a
process wherein natural rubber masterbatch is prepared by mixing
natural rubber latex having its amide linkage cleaved and an aqueous
slurry having a filler dispersed in water and coagulating. US Patent
7960466 [48] discloses a method for latex stage incorporation of
various types of fillers, like carbon black and silica along with
surfactant, vulcanising agent and anti-ageing agent.

Fillers are classified into two groups: reinforcing and non-reinforcing.

Reinforcing fillers are used for enhancement of properties like tear
strength, abrasion resistance, and tensile strength. Examples of
reinforcing fillers are carbon black, precipitated silica, and silicates.
Non-reinforcing fillers are incorporated primarily to cheapen and stiffen
the final product.

Vulcanizing agents are substances which are added in order that cross-
linking may occur subsequently, when the compounded rubber is heated
to an appropriate temperature. Sulphur is the principal vulcanizing
agent for natural rubber.
Accelerators and activators are essential ingredients in the compound to
achieve economic rates of vulcanization. A wide variety of organic
accelerators are available today. The most widely used vulcanization
activators are combinations of a metal oxide (e.g. zinc oxide) and a
higher fatty acid (e.g. stearic acid). Anti-degradants are added in rubber
compounds in order to increase the ability of the vulcanized products to
resist the various deteriorative influences like oxygen, ozone, sunlight,
etc., to which it may be subjected to during service.

1.7 Reinforcing fillers

Reinforcement of a rubber vulcanizate results in increase of tensile
strength, improved tear strength and abrasion resistance as compared to
the gum vulcanizate of the same rubber. The degree of reinforcement
depands to a large extent on the molecular, chemical and rheological
characteristics of the elastomer, filler characteristics, and the mixing
process.
The surface area of the filler particles together with the loading
determines the effective contact between the filler and the polymer. For
a significant reinforcement the filler particles must have high specific
surface area.
Carbon black, silica and recently nanoclay too have attained great
significance as reinforcing fillers in rubber industry. These fillers are
popular for tyres due to the requirement of durability, fuel efficiency
and improved safety.
The level of dispersion of fillers in a rubber matrix is a very important
parameter that decides the mechanical and dynamic mechanical
properties of a large variety of rubber products. The mixing of filler and
dry rubber includes stages like incorporation, distribution and
dispersion. The mixing of dry rubber and reinforcing fillers is an energy
intensive and environmentally harmful operation. The production of
natural rubber latex – reinforcing filler masterbatch by the addition of
suitable filler dispersion to the latex is a technique to avoid these
problems.

1.8 Carbon black

In rubber industry carbon black is the most commonly used reinforcing
filler. Its application plays a major role in elastomers, plastics, paints
and inks.
The beneficial effects in rubber applications include increase in strength
related parameters (tensile strength, tear and cut growth resistance),
abrasion resistance,
stiffness (hardness and
modulus), energy absorption
characteristics, and tyre
traction.
Well known detrimental
Side effects are increased
hysteresis properties and
poor fatigue resistance as
the stiffness of the polymer-
black mixture increases.
About 90% of the
worldwide production of the
primary morphological properties of the carbon black are determined in
the reactor and can only be changed to a very minor extent later in the
process. In the reaction zone, the gasified oil feedstock is subjected to
very high temperatures of about 1900
C. This causes the molecules to decompose into fragments. On loosing
hydrogen, these fragments combine with other fragments until they
have reached a size where they are spontaneously precipitated from the
gas phase as nuclei.
The higher the temperature, the higher the rate of pyrolysis and the
more frequent the formation of such nuclei. As pyrolysis proceeds, the
new molecular fragments precipitate on to existing nuclei which then
continue to grow until all of the feedstock has been consumed. The
higher the number of nuclei at any given amount of feedstock, the
earlier the particles will stop growing since the amount of starting
material is limited.

1.9 Silica
Various forms of silica are commercially available. The important
natural forms include silica (amorphous), silica (crystalline), silica
diatomaceous (fossil origin) and microcrystalline silica. The important
types of synthetic silica are precipitated, fumed (pyrogenic), aerogels,
and hydrogels. The types of silica
used for rubber reinforcement are precipitated, and fumed. Precipitated
silica is produced by acidification of alkali silicate solution under
controlled conditions. Fumed silica is manufactured by the flame
hydrolysis of silicon tetrachloride.
SiCl4 + 2 H2O → SiO2 + 4HCl ----------------------------- (1.5)
Precipitated silica is silicon dioxide containing about 10-14% water
with particle size in the range 1-40 nm. They are reinforcing fillers
giving high tensile strength, tear strength, abrasion resistance and
hardness. Fumed silica is silicon dioxide containing less than 1.5% of
adsorbed water.

High surface area of the filler results in a high level of reinforcement.

Silica surface area values are higher than those of blacks of comparable
particle size. Efficient reinforcing action, however, requires the
presence of surface functional groups (surface activity) which provide a
substantial bond of filler to elastomer. In contrast to the organic nature
of the black surface, the silica surface is inorganic, and saturated with
silanol (SiOH). These silanols are the reason for the hydrophilic
reactivity of precipitated silica.
Silica without coupling agent is less reinforcing than carbon black.
Coupling agents act as a connecting bridge between the silica and the
rubber thereby enhancing the rubber reinforcement aspect of silica.
Coupling agents are composed of a silane moiety which is capable of
reacting with silica surface and also a part capable of reacting with
rubber, particularly with sulpur vulcanizable rubber containing carbon-
carbon double bonds. Some of coupling agents of commercial
importance
are TESPT (bis(triethoxy
silylpropyl) tetrasulphide),
TESPD(bis (triethoxy
silylpropyl) disulphide),
TESPM (bis (triethoxy
silylpropyl) monosulphide), and
MTMO (mercapto propyl
trimethoxy silane (A189)) .The
main advantage of silica
combined with a coupling agent
over carbon black are improved
tear resistance, abrasion
resistance, heat resistance, flex stability, hardness, modulus, tack, and
resilience . The replacement of carbon black by silica fillers with the
selection of a proper coupling agent in tyre tread formulations, results in
significantly reduced rolling resistance of tyres and reduced fuel
consumption of the vehicle, while keeping the wet traction and abrasion
resistance on the same level. This environmental and economic
incentive of silica technology is enough to overcome the higher
production costs due to the difficult processing behavior and the higher
raw material costs of these tyres.

1.10 Nanofillers
Nanofillers are necessarily nanoscopic (at least one dimension in the
nano‐scale, < 100 nm) and have a high specific surface area.
The specific surface area is one of the reasons why the reinforcement
imparted by these materials in rubber vulcanizates even at very low
filler loading (<10 phr) is very high. In typical rubber vulcanizates, the
properties are dictated by the bulk properties of both matrix and filler.
The interaction between the filler particles and the polymer decides the
stiffening of the vulcanizates. In the case of the rubber vulcanizates
filled with nanofillers the polymer filler interaction is concentrated at
the interface. The terms like “bound polymer” and “interface” have
been used to describe the polymer at or near the interface. The
interfacial structure is known to be different from bulk structure, and in
polymers filled with nano-fillers possessing extremely high specific
surface area, most of the polymer is present near the interface, in spite
of the small weight fraction of filler. If the interaction at the interface is
a strong one, or if the structure of the interfacial polymer is very
different from the bulk, markedly different properties in the material as
a whole can be observed. The changes have a fundamentally different
origin than those found in the rubber vulcanizates filled with
conventional fillers. The particle size and the aspect ratio of the fillers
make another difference between conventional fillers and nano fillers.
Till date smectite group clays are most used nano-fillers in elastomers.
Montmorillonite (MMT) is the most common smectite clay.
 1.11 Reinforcement
Properties of filler that influence
rubber reinforcement are:
1) The particle size or specific
surface area which together with
loading
determines the effective contact
area between the filler and
rubber
matrix.
2) The structure or the degree of
irregularity of the filler unit,
which plays an essential role in the restrictive motion of elastomer
chains under strain.
3) The surface activity, which is the predominant factor with regard to
filler-filler and filler-polymer interaction.
Most of the elastomeric components are formed dynamically and
required to have specified dynamic properties, therefore the effect of
strain amplitude on the dynamic modulus was observed very
intensively. Even in shear the modulus of filled rubber decreases with
increasing applied strain, without regard to the dynamic or static nature
of the deformation. A detailed study of the low frequency dynamic
properties of filled natural rubber was carried out by Fletcher and Cent
and was later extended by Payne. In cyclic strain tests the shear
modulus can be simply expressed as a complex modulus G
The addition of fillers to rubber compounds has a strong impact on
the static and dynamic behavior of rubber samples. Similar to the model
of Payne, we see the strain-independent part of the modulus as a
combination of the polymer network, the contribution from the
hydrodynamic effect and the modulus resulting from the in-rubber
structure (Figure 1.14). The polymer network contribution depends on
the crosslink density of the matrix. The hydrodynamic effect in this
model is nothing but the effect of strain amplification, resulting from
the fact that the filler is the rigid phase, which cannot be deformed. As a
consequence, the intrinsic strain of the polymer matrix is higher than
the external strain yielding a strain independent contribution to the
modulus
Production of latex-carbon black masterbatch by the addition of carbon
black as a slurry has been suggested as one of the methods to avoid
some of the problems arising during filler incorporation. During the last
few decades, a great effort has been made to produce carbon black
polymer masterbatches by mixing polymer latex with filler slurry and
then coagulating the mixture physically or chemically. Masterbatch has
been prepared from fresh latex, centrifuged preserved latex, modified
latex, deproteinised latex and prevulcanized latex. Many of the
methods reported earlier had drawbacks like longer coagulation time
and hence poor filler dispersion and filler loss, reduction in mechanical
properties, need for special mixing equipment’s, application of higher
shear forces and use of modified latex. The full potential of carbon
black masterbatch can be achieved if these problems are solved partially
or fully.
To be economically viable, fresh natural rubber latex obtained from
the field should be used, the process has to be simple, filler loss should
be minimum and the filler dispersion should be good and uniform with
acceptable mechanical and dynamic properties. It will be highly useful
if there exists a method for production of filler latex masterbatch using
a simple latex coagulation process, with minimum filler loss, better
filler dispersion and enhanced mechanical properties.
This has not been fully realised in the methods reported earlier.

Literature survey
also depicts that there are no systematic reports on latex filler
masterbatch prepared from fresh natural rubber latex using a simple
process of modified coagulation with minimum process loss and
enhanced mechanical and dynamic properties. Research reports in the
literature that make use of a quick coagulation of fresh latex for latex
stage incorporation of fillers are really scanty. The cited need for an
environment friendly simple and effective process for latex filler
masterbatch have led to the foundation of this research work.

Objective of the present work

The main objectives of the present investigation are:
1) Standardisation of a method for modified coagulation of fresh
natural rubber latex.
2) Identification of the most suitable form of natural rubber latex
for preparing latex- carbon black masterbatch.
3) Standardisation of a protocol to prepare and evaluate latex dual
filler masterbatch using commercially available carbon black
and silica.
4) Improvement of the dynamic and mechanical properties of latex
filler masterbatch using trifiller combination of commercially
available carbon black, silica and nanoclay.
5) Evaluation of the validity of natural rubber latex filler masterbatch in
blends of natural rubber with polybutadiene rubber.

2.1.1.1 Fresh natural rubber latex

Fresh natural rubber latex used in the investigation was collected from
the plantation of the RRII, Kottayam. Properties of fresh latex used are
given in Table 2.1

2.1.1.2 Preserved
field latex
Preserved natural
rubber latex of dry
rubber content (drc)
39 used in the
investigation was collected from Central Experiment Station, Rubber
Board, Chethackal, Ranni, Kerala.
2.1.1.3 Centrifuged natural rubber latex
The specifications of the
centrifuged natural rubber
latex (high
ammonia (HA) type as per
ASTM D 1076-2010)
collected from Central
Experiment Station, Rubber
Board, Chethackal, Ranni,
Kerala are given in
Table 2.2
2.1.1.4 Skim latex
Skim latex is a protein rich byproduct obtained during the centrifugal
concentration of natural rubber latex. Skim latex of drc 5 used in this
study was collected from Central Experiment Station, Rubber Board,
Chethackal, Ranni, Kerala.

2.1.1.5 Dry natural rubber

The dry natural rubber used in this study were RSS 1X grade, and
ISNR-5 (Table.1.2 ISO 2000: 1989 (E) (Specifications for raw natural
rubber), chapter 1 (1.2.5)) obtained from RRII, Kottayam.

2.1.1.6 Polybutadiene Rubber

Cis-1,4-polybutadiene rubber (Cisamer1220) was obtained from M/s
Reliance Industries Ltd,
Vadodara, Gujarat, India
(Figure 2.1).

2.1.2 Fillers
2.1.2 1 Carbon black.
The carbon black used was
high abrasion furnace (HAF)
type; N330 grade (Table 2.3) supplied by M/s. Phillips Carbon Black
Ltd, Kochi, India.

2.1.2 .2 Precipitated silica

Precipitated silica used was Ultrasil VN3 (Table 2.4), manufactured
by Degussa AG,
Germany.
 2.1.2.3 Nanoclay
Cloisite 93A
(nanoclay) obtained
from M/s, Southern
Clay Products,
Texas, USA was used
for the study. Cloisite
93A (Table 2.5) is a
natural
montmorillonite with a quaternary ammonium salt.

2.1.3 Other Chemicals

2.1.3.1 Ammonium laurate
20 % ammonium laurate was prepared in the laboratory.
2.1.3.2 Zinc oxide
Zinc oxide (Zn O)
used in the study
was supplied by
M/s. Meta Zinc
Ltd, Mumbai.
2.1.3.3 Stearic
acid
Stearic acid
(Table 2.6) used was supplied by M/s. Godrej soaps Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai.

2.1.3.4 Sulphur
Sulphur (Table 2.7) was supplied by M/s. Standard Chemical Company
Pvt. Ltd, Chennai

2.1.3.5 Other
compounding
ingredients
The materials such
as antioxidants,
 rubber process oils and
accelerators
used in this study were
rubber chemical grade.
2.2 Experimental
Methods
2.2.1 Dry rubber
content percent by mass (DRC)
DRC is defined as the mass in grams of rubber present in 100g of
latex. The drc was determined using ISO 126 test method.

2.2.2 Total solids content (TSC)

The TSC was determined by ISO 124 test method. The TSC is
defined as the mass in grams of total solids present in 100g of latex.

2.2.3 Approximate DRC determination

About 10g of fresh natural rubber latex was accurately weighed by
difference method. About 0.8 to 1 ml ammonium laurate solution was
added and mixed well. The latex was diluted to about 20-25% drc by
addition of distilled water. The latex as coagulated by addition of 0.5%
(v/v) sulphuric acid with stirring.
The coagulum was pressed into a thin sheet. Washed in running water
and pressed with filter paper to remove moisture on the surface. The
coagulum was dried in a microwave oven set at 360 watts for about 10-
12 min. After about five minutes the sample was turned upside down.
After drying the weight of the dry rubber was accurately noted. The
experiment was conducted in duplicate to agree with results.
DRC, % = (W1 / W2) x 100) - C
Where, W1 = Weight of dry rubber in grams
W2 = Weight of NR latex in grams
C = 1.0 (C is the correction given due to addition of
ammonium laurate solution)
2.2.4 Particle size measurement
The particle size of carbon black, silica, nanoclay in dispersions
and natural rubber in latex was determined using dynamic light
scattering technique (Figure 2.2) in Malvern Zetasizer, model Nano-S
(U.K.) [3].
 2.3 Preparation fluffy
carbon black
masterbatch using
different
forms of latex. 25 %
dispersion of fluffy
carbon black (Table 2.8) was prepared using a mechanical stirrer
rotating at 400 rpm in presence of 20% ammonium laurate for 30 min
and in the case of HAF pellets, 25 % dispersion was prepared by ball-
milling for 24 h.
This dispersion was added slowly in to fresh natural rubber latex
(which was sensitised for
quick coagulation by adding
the required
quantity of fatty acid soap)
under stirring and coagulated
to produce latex carbon black
masterbatch (Scheme 1). For
coagulation, the latex-fluffy
black mixture was poured
into a tray and 0.5 %
sulphuric acid was sprayed
over this. This coagulum
was pressed mechanically, to
effect uniform coagulation of
latex - fluffy black slurry.
The coagulum was passed
through rubber roller (Figure
2.4) to get thin sheets of wet
masterbatch. This coagulum
was washed well to remove the
acid and
dried in an air oven maintained
at 70 oC to get the latex–filler
masterbatch (Figure 2.5)
 a- Fresh natural rubber latex /
filler dispersion, b-Coagulum
after quick
coagulation using acid and clear
serum (No loss of filler), c- More
quantity of masterbatch
coagulum after coagulation, d-
Dried masterbatches
The same method was used to
produce masterbatches using
ammonia preserved natural rubber field latex, centrifuged natural rubber
latex and skim latex with fluffy carbon black.

2.4 Preparation of carbon black, carbon black /silica and

carbon black /silica/nanoclay masterbatches
The carbon black masterbatch, carbon black/silica dual masterbatch
and carbon black/silica/nanoclay ternary masterbatch were prepared
based on the quick coagulation process using the commercially
available carbon black, silica and nanoclay. 25% dispersions of carbon
black and silica were prepared separately by ball milling for 24 h (Table
2.9 to 2.10). 10% dispersion of nanoclay (Table 2.11) was prepared
using mechanical stirrer at 400 rpm for 30min. The dispersion was
added slowly in to fresh NR latex and coagulated by adding acid to
produce the mixed filler masterbatch as described earlier (Scheme1).

2.5 Preparation of natural

rubber latex carbon
black/silica
masterbatches and
polybudadiene (BR)
Blends
Natural rubber- filler
masterbatch and
polybutadiene were
separately
 masticated and mixed
with the required
quantity of carbon
black and silica on a
mixing mill so as to
have 25/25 phr carbon black / silica in 80/20 and 60/40 NR/BR blends.
Rubber compounds were prepared in the conventional mill mixing
process.

2.6 Determination of cure characteristics

The cure behaviour was determined using moving die Rheometer
(MDR2000, ALPHA Technologies, Akron, USA) at 150 oC as per
ASTM D 2084 (2007). The relevant data that could be taken from the
torque–time graph is:
1) Minimum torque: Torque obtained by the mix after homogenizing
at the test temperature before the onset of cure.
2) Maximum torque: Torque recorded after the complete curing of mix.
3) Scorch time (t10): Time taken for attaining 10% of the maximum
torque.
4) Optimum cure time (t90): Time taken for attaining 90% of the
maximum torque.
5) Cure rate: Cure rate was determined from the following equation.
t10. Where L max and L min
are maximum torque and minimum torque and t90 and t10 the times
corresponding to the optimum cure time and scorch time respectively.
Cure rate (Nm/min) = L max - L min / t90

2.7 Preparation of test specimens

The test specimens for the physical property determination were
prepared by vulcanizing the blanks cut from un-vulcanized rubber
compound sheets marked with mill direction, at a temperature of 150 o
C by compression molding in an electrically heated hydraulic press.
The molded samples after curing were quickly cooled and stored for 24
h before tests.

2.8 Mechanical properties

For the test described below five specimens per sample were tested
for each property and mean values are reported.
The stress-strain properties were determined according to ASTM
D412 (2006), Test Method A using dumbbell specimens on a Universal
Testing Machine (Zwick Roell Z010, Germany). All the tests were
carried out at ambient temperature. Samples were punched out from
compression molded sheets along the mixing mill direction using a
dumb-bell die. A thickness gauge was used to measure the thickness of
the narrow portion.
The sample was held tight by the two grips, the upper grip of which was
fixed. The gauge length between the jaws at the start of each test was
adjusted to 30 mm and the rate of separation of the power activated
upper grip was fixed at 500 mm/min. The tensile strength, elongation at
break and modulus were tested.
The tear strength of the samples was tested as per ASTM D 624
(2007) methods using unnicked 90 o angle test pieces (die C) at ambient
temperature at a cross-head speed of 500 mm/min using a Zwick Roell
Z010 Universal Testing Machine.
The hardness (Shore A) of the moulded test specimens was measured
using Zwick 3114 hardness tester according ASTM D 2240-05 (2010).
The compression set of the samples (6.5mm thick and 18 mm diameter
- in duplicate) were measured at 70 oC as per ASTM D 395(2008) [8].
The abrasion resistance of the samples was tested using a rotary drum
Zwick abrasion tester as per ASTM D5963–04 (2010). The Goodrich
flexometer (Model II - BF Goodrich, USA) conforming to ASTM D
623 (2007) was used for measuring the heat build-up [9] of the samples
(2.5cm height and 1.9cm diameter). Rebound resilience of the samples
were tested using a Dunlop Tripsometer (Model Bench R2/R2A,
Wallace, England) as per ASTM D 2632-01 (2008).
2.9 Measurement of dispersion rating Filler dispersion was studied
using Dispergrader (Figure 2.6) model disper GRADER+, Tech Pro,
USA, as per ISO 11345 method B. This technique is based on
interferometric microscopy (IFM) and utilizes the interference fringes
between in-phase light beams reflected from the rubber sample and a
smooth reference surface to measure the three-dimensional surface
topography.

The peaks and valleys present on the fresh-cut surface are

representative of the carbon black agglomerates and are used to
characterize the dispersion. A set of ten image standards has been
established for each of the different reference scales in the
Dispergrader. For each of these reference images a numerical rating 1-
10 (the x-value) has been assigned.

2.10 Scanning electron microscopic studies (SEM)

The fractured surfaces and the abraded surfaces where sputter
coated with gold within 24 h of testing and examined under SEM. Th
e study was conducted using a Hitachi SEM (model 2400).

2.11 X- ray diffraction analysis the X- ray diffraction (XRD) analysis

was used to determine the inter-spatial distance between the clay
platelets. X-ray diffraction patterns
Fresh natural rubber (NR) latex coagulates immediately by
sensitisation with fatty acid soap. When soap is added to latex, the
fatty acid ions displace a part of protein molecules and strongly adsorb
on the rubber particles. These surface bound anions get converted to the
corresponding unionized acid groups by reaction with acids during the
process of coagulation. The fatty acids retained on rubber during
coagulation play a major role on the cure characteristics and mechanical
properties.
Better raw rubber properties are obtained for natural rubber prepared by
quick coagulation in comparison with the conventionally produced
natural rubber. Carbon black filled vulcanizates give a higher modulus,
tensile strength, hardness and abrasion resistance as compared with the
conventional rubber vulcanizate.
The compression set, tear strength and heat build-up characteristics are
comparable with conventional rubber vulcanizate. A noticeably higher
solvent resistance is also observed for carbon black filled NR prepared
by the new process due to better interaction of filler with rubber.

3.1 Introduction
Natural rubber latex obtained from latex vessels of rubber tree
(Hevea brasiliensis) is a colloidal dispersion of rubber particles in an
aqueous medium. Along with rubber particles, latex contains non-
rubber ingredients like proteins, phospholipids, carbohydrates, and
inorganic cations. The non-rubber constituents play a major role in the
colloidal stability of latex and on the cure characteristics and
mechanical properties of the dry rubber obtained from the latex. The
composition of non-rubber constituents change after the latex leaves the
tree and the obvious consequence of this is the spontaneous coagulation
of latex within a few hours after tapping. Another change that takes
place in latex at a later stage is putrefaction which is followed by
development of bad odours. Normally rubber is recovered from latex by
a slow coagulation process after addition of suitable coagulants. Earlier
reports show that the process of spontaneous coagulation, which occurs
in the absence of added coagulants, can be accelerated by addition of
carboxylate soaps.
The mechanism of this is believed to be due to displacement of
protective layer of proteins by added carboxylate soap anions followed
by their interaction with divalent metal ions which are either initially
present or formed in latex. Hence sensitisation of latex with carboxylate
soaps could reduce the time of coagulation of latex by the
conventionally used coagulants like acids. By using suitable fatty acid
soaps, the non-rubber constituents retained in rubber could also be
adjusted so that rubber of improved cure characteristics and mechanical
properties could be obtained.

This chapter presents the quality parameters and other characteristics

of rubber recovered by fatty acid soap sensitised coagulation of fresh
natural rubber latex. The effect of HAF black (N330) on the mechanical
properties of the recovered rubber using conventional dry mixing is also
presented.

3.2 Preparation of dry natural rubber obtained by fatty acid

soap sensitised coagulation (NRSC)
The approximate DRC of fresh field latex was determined as per the
method given in chapter2 (2.2.3). The latex was then sensitised to quick
coagulation by addition of suitable quantity of surfactant (20 %
ammonium laurate solution, Figure 3.1). The latex was then diluted to a
DRC of 20 % and coagulated using 5 % formic acid.
 The freshly coagulated
rubber was passed
through creper mill and
the crepe rubber was
washed free of acid and
dried at 70
C in a laboratory oven. The control natural rubber (NRCV) was
coagulated as per conventional method. Latex was diluted to a DRC of
12.5 %. 2 ml formic acid diluted to 400 ml with water was added to
this, mixed well and left undisturbed for about six hours for
coagulation. The coagulum obtained was washed thoroughly and
passed through creper mills to obtain rubber in the crepe form. This
crepe rubber was dried using a laboratory oven set at 70 oC
The dried rubber and carbon black filled mixes were processed in the
conventional way as per ACSI ((American Chemical Society test
recipe1) (Table 3.2and Table 3.4))

3.3 Effect of fatty acid soaps on coagulation of latex

It was observed that addition of long chain fatty acid soaps results
in immediate coagulation of fresh latex within 3-5 seconds. Earlier
reports show that spontaneous coagulation of latex was possible by
different types of vegetable oil soaps [7, 8]. On addition of fatty acid
soaps to latex they cause displacement of proteins and get strongly
adsorbed on rubber particles. In this way the protein stabilised latex gets
transformed into a soap stabilised system. On addition of acids to soap
treated latex the adsorbed soap anions react with acid to form
undissociated fatty acid, and deprive the latex particles of stabilisers.
As a consequence, latex coagulates immediately.
Shortening of coagulation Time has certain advantages Which are
realised During latex Stage incorporation of fillers. Slow coagulation
can lead to filler loss while quick coagulation can ensure homogeneous
dispersion of fillers with minimum process loss. This process of quick
coagulation of latex also improves the properties of rubber due to the
presence of the surfactants incorporated during coagulation.
This benefit cannot be achieved by addition of appropriate quantity of
higher fatty acids during compounding of the rubber because during
latex stage incorporation they
are added as water soluble fatty
acid soaps where it is expected
that the dispersion is better.

3.7 Filler dispersion study

using Disper Grader
The filler dispersion
characteristics of the different
vulcanizate are
presented in Figure 3.2 and Table.3.7. A better dispersion and lower
degree of aggregation is shown by the vulcanizates prepared from NRM
as compared to the vulcanizate prepared from DRM. It is expected that
there is better dispersion of carbon black when they are mixed in the
modified coagulation process compared to mixing of carbon black in
dry rubber using conventional mill mixing technique.

The plasticizers in general

helps in the incorporation of
fillers and
they are likely to cause lower
level of filler dispersion,
caused by the lower shear
forces experienced during
mixing if the quantity used is
high. From AFM studies it is
observed that the filler
aggregation is lower for
rubber prepared by modified
coagulation process. The
hydrocarbon portion of the
fatty acid soaps formed during vulcanization is soluble in rubber and it
is expected that the degree of solubility of this portion is one of the
factors that influence the mechanical properties of rubber. Wider
molecular weight distribution of hydrocarbon chain of the surfactant
processing additive results in a lowering of melting point and easy
dispersion in rubber. High polarity functional groups tend to reduce the
solubility in rubber somewhat and give the product more activity as a
surface lubricant. But they have the advantage that they provide an
attraction for polar fillers improving the dispersion of such fillers in the
rubber compound.
Carbon blacks have functional groups such as hydroxyl, carboxyl,
ketone and aldehyde on their surface and it are expected that there can
be
some interactions of filler with the polar groups of the surfactants added
to latex.

3.11 Conclusions
1) The coagulation of NR latex in presence of acids is accelerated
by addition of small quantities of anionic surfactant.
2) A proportion of the surfactants added to latex gets adsorbed on
rubber particles and are retained in rubber after coagulation.
3) The surfactants retained on rubber activate the vulcanization
and enhance the filler dispersion thereby improving the
mechanical and solvent ageing characteristics of recovered
rubber.
4) The carbon black filled rubber vulcanizates based on rubber
obtained by modified coagulation show significantly higher
abrasion resistance mainly due to the lubricating action of the
fatty acids formed in rubber.

4.1 Introduction
Concentration of latex is necessary for transport economy and
purification of latex. Centrifuging is the most popular processes for
concentration of natural rubber latex. During concentration of latex by
centrifuging process the comparatively bigger particles along with
lower proportion of non-rubber ingredients separate into the latex
concentrate and smaller particles along with greater proportion of non-
rubber ingredients separate as skim fraction.
Factors like particle size, zeta potential, colloidal stability, rubber
content, non- rubber ingredients, sensitivity to coagulation by acids and
raw rubber properties are different for the concentrated and the skim
latices [3]. Latex stage mixing has been described as an energy saving
method for preparing rubber compounds.
Many early patents and reports described the use of latex stage
incorporation of fillers for lower energy consumption, better filler
dispersion and enhanced mechanical properties (4-8). There are several
reports on production of carbon black masterbatch using preserved field
latex (PFL), concentrated natural rubber latex, pre- vulcanized latex,
and modified latex.
The carbon black used was either in the fluffy or pelletised form. In
most of these methods, filler dispersion is prepared under suitable
conditions, the dispersion is mixed with latex by applying high shear
forces using special equipments and finally the latex-filler mixture is
coagulated either physically or chemically. The coagulum is dried and
processed in the conventional method. In all the reported methods the
mixing process was energy intensive using specialised equipments,
there was filler loss or the resulting material had inferior properties. So
there exists a need to prepare latex filler masterbatch with enhanced
dynamic and mechanical properties using a simple and economical
process which is less energy intensive.
There have been no systematic reports on the influence on particle size
and non-rubber ingredients in the production of latex masterbatches. An
attempt has been made to study the effect of these parameters using
different types of natural rubber latices such as fresh field latex (FL),
preserved field latex (PFL), centrifuged latex (LC) and skim latex - all
obtained from the same source of natural rubber, for the production of
latex fluffy carbon black masterbatch.

4.2 Features of various types of natural rubber latices

The size of rubber particles varies from about 80 to 5000 nm for fresh
latex (FL), 85-5000 nm for preserved field latex (PFL), 100-6000 nm
for latex concentrate (CL) and about 80-600 nm for skim latex is close
to the values reported earlier (Figure 4.1). A higher acetone extract and
 higher nitrogen content is
observed for the skim
rubber compared to rubber
from fresh NR latex and
concentrated latex. (Table 4.1) Rubber obtained from concentrated latex
has the lowest nitrogen content.
It is known that during centrifugal concentration a fraction of the rubber
particles with wide variation of size distribution separate into skim
fraction and cream fraction based on the size of rubber particles. While
the latex is concentrated without the application of centrifugal force
the rubber particles are subjected to three different forces: force due to
gravity (Fg), force due to viscous drag (Fd) and force due to buoyancy
(Fb). During the centrifugal concentration of latex, the gravitational
force is replaced by relative centrifugal force.

Hence the particle size of

skim fraction is
comparatively low and the
serum content is high. As
the skim fraction has
smaller particles and
higher surface area it is
expected that the quantity
of the non-rubber
constituents adsorbed on
the surface of the particles are higher. Consequently, the proteinaceous
materials are higher as revealed from higher nitrogen content and the
surfactants retained on rubber are higher as shown by higher acetone
extactable materials. Since bigger particles are separated in cream
fraction, the acetone extractable materials and proteinaceous materials
are comparatively lower for centrifuged latex.
The zeta potential of different natural rubber latices as a function
of pH is shown in Figure 4.2 and the values for zeta potential at pH 9
are presented in Table 4.2. The zeta potential values are in the order
fresh field latex > preserved field latex > centrifuged latex. The fresh
natural rubber latex is composed of proteins, phospholipids,
carbohydrates and metal ions.
 4.3.2 Coagulation
characteristics of
latex- fluffy carbon
black masterbatches
It was observed that
surfactant treated
fresh latex, preserved
latex and
latex concentrate containing the filler dispersion (with particle size
varying from 200 to 500 nm as shown Figure 4.3) coagulated to a
consolidated mass quickly on addition of 0.5 % solution of sulphuric
acid. However, it is observed that the coagulation was more uniform for
fresh field latex compared to the other forms. From the values of zeta
potential, it is observed that fresh field latex had a higher zeta potential
than other forms of latices. As explained earlier the type and number of
adsorbed anions are different for the different forms of latex and for
concentrated latex the adsorbed ions are predominantly those of higher
fatty acid soaps. In presence of added surfactants there is displacement
of less active surfactants (proteins) by the more active ones (fatty acid
soap anions) leading to an increased tendency for colloidal
destabilization by coagulants. The difference in the coagulation
behaviour of the latex-fluffy black mixtures for the different forms of
NR latex may be attributed to the varying type and number of
surfactants adsorbed on rubber particles.
Due to the increased sensitivity to coagulation by acids in all these
forms of latex the well dispersed carbon black added to latex is
expected to remain un-aggregated in the latex coagulum.
The different types natural rubber latex - fluffy (HAF) carbon black
masterbatchs and the dry natural rubber (RSS-IX) - fluffy (HAF) carbon
black masterbatch (control) shown in Table 4.3 were prepared as per the
procedure described in Chapter 2. The formulations based on the
master batches are shown in Table 4.4

4.9 Effect of fluffy carbon black on dry natural rubber prepared

by latex stage masterbatching process as evident from the results shown
above the fresh natural rubber latex–fluffy carbon black (30 phr)
masterbatch shows improved cure characteristics and vulcanizate
properties as compared to the equivalent masterbatches prepared using
centrifuged latex and preserved field latex as base materials. Table 4.10
shows the formulations of mixes prepared from the fresh natural rubber
latex– fluffy carbon black masterbatches containing 10, 20, 30 and
40phr carbon black (e.g.: Fresh natural rubber latex – carbon black
dried masterbatch = 100 parts natural rubber + 10 parts fluffy carbon
black)

5.1 Introduction
Silica along with carbon black, have attained great significance in
recent years as fillers especially for the tyre sector due to the
requirement for increased durability, better fuel efficiency and
improved safety. There are issues such as air pollution due to use of the
fluffy fillers and higher energy consumption when reinforcing fillers are
incorporated in dry rubber. The dispersion of these fillers in a rubber
matrix is the crucial parameter that controls the resulting dynamic and
mechanical properties.
In the case of carbon black and silica the production of natural rubber
latex masterbatches by their addition as aqueous dispersion has been
suggested as one of the methods to avoid some of the problems arising
during filler incorporation.
The mixing of filler and rubber includes stages like incorporation,
distribution and dispersion. The first two processes are known to be
energy intensive operations. Incorporation of fillers as dispersions in the
latex stage followed by co-coagulation of latex filler system is expected
to be less energy intensive.
The results of the investigations reported in the previous chapters show
that latex stage masterbatch process can produce well dispersed rubber-
filler mixes. The Cabot Elastomer Composite is a natural rubber-
carbon black masterbatch produced by a continuous liquid phase
process. Several techniques are described for the production of filler
master batches from prevulcanized latex, modified latex or from
centrifuged natural rubber latex. The preparation of latex carbon
black/silica dual filler masterbatches from fresh natural rubber latex by
a modified coagulation process, and the characterization of the
masterbatches are discussed in this chapter.
5.2 Preparation of fresh natural rubber latex-carbon black/
silica masterbatches by quick coagulation method. 25% dispersions of
carbon black and silica were prepared separately as per the recipes
given in Tables 2.9 and 2.10 (Chapter 2) by ball milling for 24 hours.
The dispersions were added slowly into fresh natural rubber latex
containing 20% ammonium laurate (surfactant) under stirring at 50 rpm.
The stirring was continued for 15 minutes and the masterbatch was
coagulated by the addition of 0.5% dilute sulphuric acid. In this method
the filler-latex mixture is coagulated within 3-5 seconds by the addition
of acid. Since the soap sensitization of fresh latex ensured the
simultaneous coagulation of latex and filler slurry, there was practically
negligible or no loss of filler during coagulation. The coagulum was
washed well to remove the acid and dried for 48 hours in an air oven
maintained at 70 oC
The formulations (Tables 5.1 and 5.2) based on the dried masterbatches
and the control dry rubber were prepared on a two- roll mixing mill.

5.3 Coagulation characteristics

The particle size distributions in the dispersions of carbon black and
silica is shown in Figures 5.1a and 5.1b. Particle size of carbon black
varies from 150 nm to 290 nm and that of silica varies from 150 to 220
nm. It is expected that these dispersions mix uniformly with latex as the
particle sizes of dispersions, and the sizes of the rubber particles in the
latex are almost similar. In the presence of added surfactants there is a
displacement of proteins from the rubber particle surface which make
the latex more sensitive to coagulation and help in better dispersion of
fillers. On addition of acids to surfactant containing latex, the latex
become more sensitive to coagulation by acids. As a consequence, latex
coagulates immediately. Due to quick coagulation it is expected that the
uniformly mixed fillers remain unaggregated during coagulation and
further processing.

5.9 Conclusions
Modified coagulation process of natural rubber latex provides a
method to produce fresh natural rubber latex/carbon black/silica
masterbatches with very good mechanical and dynamic properties. The
filler masterbatch prepared by this method shows a higher level of
vulcanization along with better filler dispersion compared to
conventionally prepared mixes. Due to this, a comparatively low tan
delta value at 60 oC that correlates to a lower rolling resistance is
observed for the masterbatch vulcanizates.

6.1 Introduction
The key factors for reinforcement by fillers like silica and carbon
black is smaller particle size, better polymer filler interaction and good
dispersions. Carbon black has remained as the most prominent filler in
the tyre sector for over hundred years. Silica gained importance in tire
sector due to the lower hysteresis in the presence of a silane coupling
agent. Mixing of rubber with carbon black, silica, and nanoclay are
highly energy consuming process. Mill mixing of these fillers with
rubber pollutes the ambient air due to flying of the particles. In the
case of silica and nanoclay, it is extremely difficult to disperse these
highly aggregate fillers in natural rubber by mill mixing [6, 7]. In the
case of carbon black, preparation of latex-carbon black masterbatch by
the addition of carbon black as a slurry has been suggested as one of the
methods to avoid the problems of mixing filler and to give vulcanizates
with enhanced properties .Masterbatch has been prepared from fresh
latex, and centrifuged preserved latex as described in the chapters 3-5.
This chapter presents the preparation of latex carbon
black/silica/nanoclay triple filler masterbatches from fresh natural
rubber followed by a modified coagulation process.
6.2 Preparation of carbon black /silica / nanocly dispersions
25% dispersions of carbon black and silica based on the recipes given
in Tables 2.9 and 2.10 were prepared separately by ball milling for 24
hours. 10% dispersion of nanoclay as per the recipe given in Table 2.11
was prepared by stirring at 400 rpm for 30 minutes (Chapter 2). The
calculated quantities of the dispersions were added to the drc estimated
fresh natural rubber latex slowly in the order nanoclay, silica and
carbon black. The latex after the addition of dispersions is coagulated
immediately by the addition of 0.5% sulphuric acid with stirring
(Chapter 2.4). The formulations of carbon black/silica/nanocly
masterbatches from latex based and dry natural rubber-based
compounds are shown in Tables 6.1 and 6.2

6.6 Filler dispersion characteristics

a) Dispersion grading by using disper grader the filler dispersion
images are presented in Figure 6.2 and the rating is given in Table 6.5.
Comparatively better dispersion and lower aggregation of the filler
particles is shown by masterbatch vulcanizates as compared to dry
rubber vulcanizates.

6.10 Conclusions
A novel method of preparing natural rubber based masterbatch
containing carbon black/silica/nanoclay tri-filler system from fresh
natural rubber latex has been developed. The properties of the nanoclay
containing masterbatch vulcanizates prepared by latex stage showed
excellent improvement in abrasion resistance, lowering of heat build-up
and lower tan delta at 60 oC compared to a conventional dry rubber
vulcanizates.
4.2.3. Process of Thickening on NR Latex
US patent No. 1,770,092
4.2.4. Latex Compounding Latest Developments
LANXESS is a globally operating supplier of latex chemicals for the
latex processing industry with a broad product range, tailored to meet
the requirements of a wide variety of applications. Several generations
of latex specialists

In latex processing LANXESS can look back on a long history of

achievement. Important milestones include the first patent
for synthetic latex in 1912 and the development of thiazoles and
dithiocarbamates as accelerators, which are particularly
suitable for the manufacture of dipped and molded articles.
Further landmarks were innovations in an important class of zinc
oxides, and in colloidal sulfur, antioxidants and special purpose
latex chemicals.

Expertise at every level This considerable experience is one of the

reasons why LANXESS
has become one of the most important partners of the latex processing
industry. Others include the high quality of the products,
which is assured through internal and external quality management
systems, the high reliability of delivery ensured through in-house
production and a worldwide service network, enabling LANXESS to
provide individual on-site support for specific issues concerning latex.

Information of latex chemicals.

Know-how for your products
Whatever your application is, chemicals experts at LANXESS will
provide individual technical advice tailored to your needs. We are
aiming to optimize applications for individual customers by modifying
products or formulations.

Examples of solutions for producers of rubber threads, for example, a

special formulation of the accelerator ZMBT containing only a small
amount of free MBT has been developed. Due to its structure, MBT can
cause breakage in fine rubber threads. By reducing the free MBT
content we have managed to improve the quality and reduce the number
of rejects.

Latex Applications

Latex Formulations
Vulcanization with Vulkacit ZBEC

The use of vulcanization accelerators such as dithiocarbamates (ZDEC,

ZDBC, ZDMC and ZEPC) and thiurams (TMTD), just to mention the
most important types of latex accelerators, can cause the formation of
carcinogenic nitrosamines during vulcanization and subsequent storage.

LANXESS offers the product Vulkacit ® ZBEC which, according to

current knowledge, does not form any dangerous nitrosamines (please
see for example German Technical Regulations on Hazardous
Substances, TRGS 552). It is in chemical compliance with 21 CFR
FDA §§ 175.105 (Adhesives) and 177.2600 (Rubber articles intended
for repeated use), subject to the limitations of these regulations and any
other applicable regulations. It also is in chemical compliance within
certain limits with the German BfR* Recommendation XXI
(Commodities based on Natural and Synthetic Rubber).
Safer production
The use of Vulkacit ® ZBEC reduces the formation of nitrosamines to
such an extent that they become negligible in the manufacture of
products such as foam coatings for carpet coverings (GuT carpet
regulations for Europe), car seats made of rubberized hair and all kinds
of gloves. This is particularly important when exporting these articles to
Europe and the USA where legal specifications demand the use of “safe
amines”. Technical information Vulkacit ® ZBEC is mainly used as an
ultra-accelerator for latex articles such as dipped goods, impregnated
nonwoven fabrics, and foam. It does not cause discoloration, has a
neutral * BfR = Federal Institute for Risk Assessment.
odor but has low resistance to aging which means that antioxidants
must also be used. Vulcanization is slower than with the nitrosamine-
forming dithiocarbamates.
The graphs below show different vulcanization curves that can be
controlled using Vulkacit®
ZBEC.

Vulcanization of overly
sensitive articles –
Colloidal Sulphur 50
Fine-particle Colloidal Sulfur 50
for overly sensitive articles in
the traditional vulcanization
technology of latex, sulfur is
required as crosslinker. Colloidal
Sulfur 50 is a special product
from LANXESS which, due to
its high transparency and
outstanding dispersibility, is
predominantly suitable to produce overly sensitive articles, such as the
production of condoms.

Higher product quality the use of milled and predispersed colloidal

sulfur leads to extremely high transparency in latex films.
Due to its special production process the particle size of Colloidal
Sulfur 50 is much smaller compared to standard sulfur grades.
This allows far better distribution in latex compounds, reducing
sedimentation and the risk of overcuring due to poor distribution which
is possible with regular sulfur.

Improving aging resistance by combining Vulkanox ® SKF and

Vulkanox ® MB2
One of the main objectives of manufacturers is to increase the
aging resist-ance of polymers. Everyone involved in manufacturing
latex products, whether from latex alone or in combination with other
materials, is striving to prolong the life of these products. The
fundamental requirements can be satisfied by using suitable
antioxidants. Such products can be classified as follows:
Monofunctional or oligofunctional amines
Example: Vulkanox ® 4020 Monofunctional or oligofunctional phenols
Example: Vulkanox ® SKF Heterocyclic merkapto (-SH) compounds
Example: Vulkanox ® MB2

Some basic information on oxidation and antioxidants

The oxidation tendency of a polymer depends essentially not only on its
content of double bonds, but also on the atoms near the double bonds.
The vulcanization system, as well as the antioxidant, plays a part in the
oxidation process. As a rule, in the linking of the rubber molecule
chains through sulfur (Six) bridges, the aging resistance is always better
with lower values of x. The antioxidant effect is based on the existence
of active H atoms in the molecule. Essentially this involves:
-SH
-OH
-NH groups
These hydrogen atoms work as chain breakers for the radical chain
reactions that transfer oxygen to the polymer substrate.
Any remaining antioxidant not involved in this process is stabilized
monomerically. Oxygen aging reactions Oxygen can trigger the
following reactions within the product:
1. Scission of the molecular chain – network loosened
(degradation/softening)
2. Crosslinking – network closed (cyclization, hardening)
3. Bonding in polymer – chain cleaved or crosslinked

The changes in the mechanical properties of a vulcanizate caused by the

aging process depend on the result of the three competing reactions.
Generally only reactions 1 and 2 are effective, with the third playing
merely a minor role. In the case of natural rubber, reaction 1 initially
dominates, so that after a maximum has been reached (in the case of
thiazole-based accelerators), it is mainly a softening of the polymerizate
that is observed.
As the aging continues,
reaction 2 wins the upper hand
and the hardness begins to
increase again. Fully oxidized
natural rubber vulcanizates are
normally hard, stiff, and
thermoplastic. The increase in
hardness is always combined
with an increase in modulus
and a loss in elongation.
A combination of Volcano ® SKF and Volcano ® MB2 has a
synergistic effect on the protection of latex articles. The protection
effect is significantly larger compared to the effect of one of the single
components. Furthermore, the combination is effective against rubber
poisons in general.

Reduction of zinc content using Zincify aktiv® and Zinc Oxide

Transparent
Reduction of the zinc content in latex compounds with Zinkoxyd aktiv
® Organic vulcanization accelerators nearly always require the addition
of inorganic and/or organic activators. The most important
inorganic activator is zinc oxide. For economic and especially
environmental reasons, however, it is desirable to keep the zinc oxide
content in latex compounds as low as possible.

LANXESS offers two special Zinc Oxide grades

for this application to meet this requirement. Zincify aktiv ® has
particularly fine particles and contains an extremely high surface area as
indicator for its activity. For this reason, an addition of 0.5 phr to
natural latex, for example, is enough to help ensure that for many
purposes vulcanization proceeds at an acceptable rate to give a
sufficient degree of cure. With standard grade or coarser particle size
products,
higher additions or longer vulcanization times are required. Further
more the articles obtained by curing with Zincify aktiv ® are more
transparent compared to those produced using other grades.

Zinc Oxide Transparent Zinc Oxide Transparent is chemically a caustic

zinc carbonate.
It can be used as alternative to zinc oxide if its higher solubility in
rubber and a high trans-patency of light colored rubber article are
desired. Due to its higher molecular weight and to achieve the same
degree of vulcanization, however, it is necessary for stoichiometric
reasons to use higher amounts of zinc carbonate than of standard zinc
oxide.
Zinc carbonate also has a greater stiffening effect than zinc oxide.
Making environmental and economic sense Both products, zincify aktiv
® and Zinc Oxide Transparent, can be easily incorporated into latex.
During preparation of the vulcanization paste the amount of dispersing
agent must be increased to compensate for the larger surface area of
these highly active products. Zincify aktiv ® has
important benefits in the production of latex articles. Owing to its
exceptionally fine particles, zincify aktiv ® can considerably lower the
zinc content of a latex compound. At the same time, the large surface
area of the zinc oxide particles prevents an increase in the number of
zinc ions in the wastewater.
This considerably reduces environmental impact and helps to save
costs.

The concentration of zinc ions in wastewater is regulated for example in

the United States by the Clean Water Act. Even in countries where there
are no such regulations, there is a need for a reduction of zinc ions in
wastewater streams in accordance with the Responsible Care initiative.
Since the manufacture of gloves necessitates several washings
routines owing to the proteins, stabilizers and chemicals contained in
natural latex, large amounts of wastewater are generated.

The use of finely divided, surface-active zinc oxide will reduce the
likelihood of separate treatment measures being necessary to meet
wastewater standards.

Advantages in production and disposal

Zincify aktiv ® is also a suitable alternative for European carpet
manufacturers. First, efforts to reduce the amount of zinc in these
formulations will lower the concentration of zinc ions in wastewater.
Secondly, the incineration of scrap carpet is subject to limits which can
be exceeded using larger amounts of zinc oxides with a low surface
area. For this reason, it is recommended that in the foam coating of
tufted carpets by the gel process, normal zinc oxide
seal grades (RS, GS and WS) should be replaced by grades with a
higher surface area such as Zincify aktiv ®
.
Coagulant WS: A product with a variety of effects
Coagulant WS was originally developed as a heat sensitizer. In practice
it turned out that this product could do a lot more.
Today it is used as a release agent, a film former, a film thickness
equalizer, a defoaming agent and as a viscosity regulator in carpet
manufacture.
Heat sensitization with Coagulant WS Since the initial phase of
Coagulant WS the product is used as a coagulator for heat sensitive
latex compounds. Together with the emulsifier Emulvin ® WA, this
polysiloxane specifically adjusts the coagulation point of latex
compounds. In this way, migration of the latex particles to the surface
can be avoided, for example, when thick textile structures such as
nonwovens are impregnated with heat-sensitive latex compounds. This
property is also used with cleaning cloths: in this case after a specific
penetration time the foam can be spontaneously coagulated into the
nonwoven or fabric by infrared treatment.

Coagulant WS for an even film thickness and more homogeneous film

formation
The addition of Coagulant WS leads to a more even film formation,
especially in the case of gloves made of NBR. Incorporating only a
small amount into the latex compound improves the rate of coagulation
and thus prevents visible flaws on the latex film. Gloves that are
produced this way show significantly improved appearance and
production is more reliable.

Coagulant WS as a release agent

In glove manufacturing, Coagulant WS improves the release properties
of the vulcanized latex when added to the pre-dip solution before
applying it to the former. This helps to avoid overstretching of the latex
film while it is not yet completely vulcanized and reduces the number
of flaws. The adhesive effect of natural latex is also slightly reduced.

Coagulant WS as a defoaming agent

With its silicone-containing structure Coagulant WS has a slight
defoaming effect. In contrast to other silicone defoaming agents,
however, it has no tendency to “fisheye” formation since it was
specially designed for aqueous applications. Coagulant WS in the carpet
industry in the case of carpet backings, e.g. for drainage knob
applications

Coagulant WS can be used as a viscosity regulator

in certain latices. Knobs are mainly applied to textile floor coverings
used outdoors. Only the high viscosity of the compound
prevents the knobs from collapsing during drying, thereby ensuring that
the desired drainage effect takes place.
These needlefelts or tufted carpets are then used as “artificial lawns” for
the surrounds of swimming pools or on patios and balconies.

Emulvin® AS a dispersing agent for latex compounding

Dispersing agents are important chemicals in the production
of latex articles. With Emulvin ® AS, LANXESS offers a dispersing
agent that has additional benefits for the quality of latex goods through
dispersions of rubber chemicals. It wets the powder
materials used in latex compounding, which are insoluble in water to
bring them into dispersion. Once
materials are dispersed, Emulvin ®
AS prevents re-aggregation in the
latex dispersion. Emulvin ® AS is a
light yellow to brown colour powder
which is soluble in water and free
flowing for excellent dosage.
Replacing an existing dispersing
agent in a formulation with Emulvin
® AS is possible, usually in the ratio
1:1. Compared to casein, dispersions
based on Emulvin ® AS do
not show the tendency of petrification.

Emulvin® WA as a stabilizer for heat-sensitized compounds

Emulsifiers are important chemicals in the production of latex articles.
With Emulvin ® WA, LANXESS offers an emulsifier
that has additional benefits for the quality of latex goods.

Adjusting the coagulation point

Emulvin ® WA is an excellent stabilizer for heat-sensitized mixtures of
different latices. In combination with Coagulant WS it
enables the coagulation point to be adjusted between 35 °C (95 °F) and
70 °C (158 °F).
Protection of Latices
Emulvin ® WA can also be used to protect natural and synthetic latices
against mechanical and chemical influences, especially
against the sensitizing effects of fillers and electrolytes.

In both applications it is important to note that in its supply form

Emulvin ® WA has a high viscosity. Hence for use in latex,
Emulvin ® WA should be diluted with water and stirred to a
concentration of 20 to 25 % before being added to the compound. In its
diluted form, distribution is quicker and more effective.

Use as a nonionic emulsifier

Another advantage is its use as a nonionic emulsifier for oils,
plasticizers, and waxes etc. that normally cannot be used
for latex applications. Emulsification is then carried out in a 2–10 %
solution of Emulvin ® WA, the ratio between oil etc.
and emulsifier solution being between 40:60 and 50:50 pbw. A high-
speed stirrer or jet dispersion unit must be used to produce
a stable emulsion. The aqueous phase should be stirred vigorously
while the oily substance is added very slowly. The rate of addition can
be increased as the emulsion forms.

Warming both components can aid the formation of the emulsion.

By using a jet disperser, the pressure of both liquids can be increased to
create finer particles. In order to obtain a very stable emulsion, it is
necessary to adjust the dispersion unit to achieve a particle size of
around 0.5 μ.
4.2.5. Water based Dispersions for Latex
Compounding.
Today, products made from latex can be found everywhere.
Manufacturers of carpet, wall covering, paper, adhesives, condoms,
gloves, balloons, foam pads, mattresses, tubing, non-woven fabrics, and
asphalt all use and rely on natural or synthetic latex to build a viable
and marketable product. Commercial latexes are robust and stable.
They are adequately able to resist breakdown from high shear mixing,
wide swings in temperature, addition of high volumes of fillers and
changes in ph.
These latexes, while having some unique and interesting physical and
chemical properties are typically formulated with other chemical
ingredients to improve, stabilize, and protect the latex. The process of
making incremental addition of ingredients to the latex in a formulation
is called compounding and it plays a key role in the manufacture of a
quality product.

Typically, there are 5 categories of materials used in latex

formulations:
o Curatives – sulfur, zinc oxide
o Accelerators – dithiocarbamates, thiurams, etc
o Antioxidants – phenolic and amine type
o Fillers, clays, calcium carbonate, mica etc.
o Modifiers – plasticizers, extenders, etc.

These materials are added to the latex as aqueous or water-based

dispersions. Aqueous dispersions are defined as water insoluble
compounding ingredients added to the latex in the form of a stable, fine
particle size, heterogeneous water-based system. It is a key requirement
that dispersions, when added to the latex must not cause harm to the
latex or diminish its properties. After addition of the dispersion the
stability of the latex must at least remain unchanged and preferably
improved. It is nearly impossible to produce a good latex compound
with poor dispersions. Dispersions that exhibit a wide particle size
distribution, show evidence of particle re-agglomeration, excessive
settling and inconsistent viscosity will contribute to poor or inconsistent
performance of the latex compound during the manufacturing process.
It is therefore important for the dispersion manufacturer to assure
consistent dispersion quality by producing a stable fine particle size
dispersion that will not re-agglomerate or exhibit excessive
sedimentation or settling while standing, be easy to stir, be pumpable or
pourable and not affect the latex stability after addition. A major
element in the above requirement will be particle stability.
The dispersion manufacturer can assure particle stability by the
appropriate addition of a dispersant or surfactant (surface active agent).
Chemically, surfactants are amphipathic molecules. That is, they have
two distinctly different characteristics, polar and non-polar, in different
parts of the same molecule. Therefore, a surfactant molecule has both
hydrophilic (water loving) and hydrophobic (water hating)
characteristics. The organic portion (tail) of the molecule will orient
itself to the particle and the polar “head” will orient itself to the water
medium. The particle will be surrounded by these molecules thereby
achieving a natural repulsion between particles and a degree of particle
stabilization. Agents functioning as dispersants must accomplish at least

2 objectives:
1) Effectively cover the particle surface to minimize particle to particle
interaction and
2) The outward directed portion of the dispersant molecule must
coordinate or express similarity to that phase

The four primary processes involved in a stable dispersion are:

1) Displacement of adsorbed gas on the solid particle by the liquid
2) Formation of a protective boundary preventing particle to particle
adhesion
3) Mechanical separation of particles to allow for complete liquid
encapsulation.
4) Complete and homogenous redistribution of the particles into the
liquid phase.

The displacement of adsorbed gas on the particle is facilitated by the

addition of the dispersant into the liquid phase of the dispersion. The
liquid’s resulting energy of wetting, measured in erg/cm, is increased
sufficiently to allow the ready displacement of adsorbed gases on the
particle surface. This ability of the liquid to “wet” the particle has a
direct bearing on the promotion of a stable dispersion.
Most particles in an aqueous colloidal dispersion exhibit an electric
charge. The net charge on the particle affects the distribution of ions in
the surrounding interfacial region resulting in an increase of ions with
the opposite charge close to the surface of the particle. There exists an
additional, more diffuse layer, surrounding the compact counter ion
layer.

This diffuse layer will have the same charge as the original particle
albeit electrically weaker. The layer represents the overall charge that
the particle acquires in a medium. The “thickness” of this layer or Zeta
Potential is an indication of the particle’s ability to repel other particles
in the medium. The greater the zeta potential, the greater will be the
stability of the dispersion system due to mutual electrostatic repulsion.
In anionic systems, the zeta potential increases (becomes more
negative) with increasing pH and can be reduced by decreasing the
system ph. The pH where the zeta potential is zero will be the
dispersion’s isoelectric point and is the point at which the dispersion
will be the least stable.
Under conditions where the zeta potential is small, the particles in
dispersion, are subject to agglomeration or flocculation. An
agglomerated group of particles will, in effect, exhibit an outward
increase in particle radius and, subsequently, based on Stokes Law,
have a greater tendency to settle out of the dispersion. This effect can be
overcome, often with an increase in the system pH, with the addition of
an alkali. An increase in dispersion grind time can cause dispersion
instability by reducing the particle size and thereby increasing the
particle’s surface area. A 50% reduction of the particle radius will
double the surface to volume ratio. Since there is a finite level of
dispersant in the formulation, it stands that the layer of dispersant
around each particle will be reduced, thereby increasing the likelihood
of particle to particle contact, increase in dispersion viscosity and
particle agglomeration.

Characteristics of Dispersions:
Dispersions are evaluated on a variety of characteristics or attributes
assuring that the dispersions made on Friday are identical to the same
dispersion formulation made the previous Monday – consistency is the
key.

The characteristics are:

o Total Solids : Dry weight as a percent of wet weight
o Active Solids : Weight of major ingredient (dry) as a
percent of wet weight
o pH : Nominal range 8-11
o Viscosity: Ideal range approx. 500 cps, easily stirred and poured
o Particle Size : Target is less than 5 micron (mean)
o Particle Size Distribution: Normal distribution, tight range
o Color : White to off-white
o Odor : Absence of any distinct or detectable
odor
o Thixotropy : Shear thinning – Non-Newtonian fluid
o Specific Gravity : Normal range for materials in
formulation
o Settling Rate : Minimal settling over time
o Settling Character : Easily re-incorporated with minimal
effort

Manufacturing of Dispersions:
The simple addition of a dry chemical and a surfactant into water with
subsequent stirring will not really produce an acceptable dispersion.
The stirring may de-agglomerate the clumps of dry powdered chemical
temporarily but will not reduce its particle size and the particles may re
agglomerate yet again. To effectively reduce the particle size, the dry
chemical, water, and surfactant, along with colloidal stabilizers would
need to be put into a ball mill, attritor or horizontal mill for grinding.
These mills, although different in construction and design, share some
common properties. They all contain grinding media i.e. flint pebbles,
ceramic beads, high density alumina cylinders or zirconium silicate
pellets that are used to grind and pulverize the dry chemical and reduce
its particle size. All the mills rely on motion which produces a
tumbling, agitating or rotating action in the mill.
The material in all the mills will experience a cascading effect creating
a sliding mobile mass of media and product. The media in this mass
will begin to pulverize the mill contents by point contact at the tangent
point of the media spheres. The smaller the media, the greater the
number of contacts over time and the greater the rate of particle size
reduction. Grind time can be affected by:

Choice of material

o Formulation
o Media (size and type)
o Material charge (quantity in the mill)
o Rotational speed of the mill

Handling Dispersions – Preparation for Compounding:

The 1st Law of Latex Compounding: Gravity Always Wins!

Most dispersions regardless of particle size or settling characteristics
should be adequately stirred before using. This is a recommended
practice with all compounding materials to assure consistency. The
dispersions may show some signs of settling over time but can be
readily re-dispersed in a short amount of time. During the stirring
process care should be taken not to create a vortex on the material
surface which will draw air into the product and create a stable bubble
and a foamed product. A foamy product will tend to dry quickly on the
sides of the container producing flakes of
agglomerated material which can be re-incorporated into the latex and
may affect the latex film quality. Typical product shelf life is 6 months,
but this can be affected by storage temperature and conditions.

The 2 Nd Law of Latex Compounding: Do No Harm!

Assuming the latex compounder has access to sufficiently stabilized,
dispersions, the compounding process begins with the addition of a
latex stabilizer followed by stepwise additions of the individual
dispersions until the recipe has been completed. The compounder will
allow for adequate mixing of the latex between dispersion additions.
The accelerator and antioxidant dispersions are typically at a 50%
activity level with the curatives, zinc oxide and sulfur at a 60-68%
activity. Since the densities of the various additives might range from 1
to 6 (g/cm), one can expect that the sedimentation rates and
dispersibility of these materials might be varied, also. The compounder
might choose to add the denser materials first, to allow for a more
thorough mixing and follow with the materials that have lower specific
gravities. This would allow longer mixing for the denser materials.

Specific Gravity of Various Compounding Ingredients

Zinc Oxide : 5.6 g/cm
Sulfur : 2.07
Accelerators : 1.2-1.7
Antioxidants : 1.04-1.06

The order of addition, therefore, may contribute to a more consistent

final product. In addition to specific gravity, the dispersions may differ
in
viscosity, thixotropy and settling rate; therefore, it would prove
beneficial to assure thorough mixing of each material prior to its
addition.

Masterbatches:
The addition of 4-5 compounding ingredients, as dispersions, represents
several activities that qualify as opportunities for error that could
contribute to a variable final product. From the selection of material
from inventory, the determination of the required amount of each
material to the physical act of weighing and addition into the latex, all
present opportunities to introduce variability into the system. The
opportunities for weighing and addition errors are exacerbated if the
compounding operation has multiple work shifts.

In addition, if the dispersions are purchased, then the ordering,

receiving, inventory and quality evaluation of multiple stock keeping
units
(SKU’s) represent hidden manufacturing costs, as well. A
masterbatch, a single dispersion comprising all the various
compounding additives offers an array of advantages to the operation.
There can be a five-fold reduction in the number of SKU’s required for
the formulation. This represents an opportunity to simplify and
streamline the operation from order placement, inventory, and quality
assurance to compounding.
The use of a masterbatch dispersion that simplifies the operation by
reducing the number of required dispersions, minimizes the number of
weighing and additions, reduces the compounding time and variability
shift to shift, and simplifies operator training will, ultimately, lead to a
more reliable and consistent operation.
Beyond the matter of process simplification, there are several other
advantages to the use of masterbatches in latex compounding. There
are anecdotal reports of a 25-35% reduction in downtime associated
with tank cleaning because of less material “settling out” in the latex
tanks. In addition, compounders have noted that they require 15-25%
less additives in their latex after a conversion to a masterbatch
dispersion. The observance of less settling and less additives required,
go hand in hand. Less settling means more material available in the
latex. Improvement in film clarity is also an observance in compounds
with masterbatches vs. single dispersions.
Typical single product dispersions are manufactured with an activity of
50% to 60%. The finished dispersions are then added to the latex at a
level equivalent to the parts per hundred rubber (phr) required. As
stated earlier, a latex recipe may require 5 separate additions. The single
ingredient dispersion is typically produced at the high activity because
it represents the lowest cost model for manufacturing. The highly
concentrated single dispersion may not be the most readily miscible in
the latex, when compared with a dispersion of lower concentration. The
masterbatch, however, employs the high activity method but uses
approximately 20% of each ingredient to make up the whole dispersion
“package”. With all the chemical components undergoing the same
grinding history, in the same dispersion, there is a uniformity of
morphology and isotropy of the dispersed particles.
In a masterbatch, there exists a maximum blending of the components
that assure that when the dispersion is added to the latex it offers
complete particle to particle (dispersed chemical particle to rubber
particle) contact, in the correct stoichiometric proportions. Further,
some dissolution and interaction of the zinc oxide and sulfur takes place
during the manufacture and storage of the masterbatch dispersion,
particularly in an ammoniated environment. If a formulation requires
multiple dispersions, it may be wise to consider using a masterbatch
approach.

Selection of Dispersions for Compounding Latex – what to use and

when?

It was Charles Goodyear in the early 1800’s that discovered when

natural rubber was mixed with sulfur and subsequently heated that it
became more elastic, durable, less tacky and less affected by climate –
heat or cold. He was describing the effects of vulcanization. Although
there have been significant strides in the understanding of the chemistry
of vulcanization over the past 170 years, we still use sulfur and heat to
initiate the cross-linking reaction.

The required time and temperature for vulcanization to take place can
be reduced by the addition of a variety of accelerators. These materials
are in turn, activated by the presence of zinc oxide. Sulfur and zinc
oxide are collectively known as curatives and together with an
appropriate accelerator and antioxidant they can initiate, vulcanize, and
stabilize a polymer to produce the desired commercial properties.

Sulfur is inherently difficult to grind and usually requires a longer grind

time than other materials. In addition, it is nearly twice as heavy as
most other materials, except zinc oxide and can lead to settling of the
material when mixed with thin latex. It is usually added to the latex
formulation at a 0.5 – 2.0 parts per hundred rubber (phr). Care should
be taken to not add more than is necessary to minimize settling and
improve the aging characteristics of the rubber. Using a fine particle
size dispersion may allow you to reduce the quantity of sulfur required.
Zinc oxide can be added at 0.5 to 3.0 parts in a formulation depending
on type of polymer with more added into synthetic (SBR, CR and NBR)
latex than with natural latex. Typically, a higher surface area material is
selected (9-11 M22/gram) vs 2-5 M/gram. The higher surface area
material is more reactive with less required by comparison.
There are approximately 50 chemicals that are used as accelerators and
the selection is usually based on the desired speed of reaction as well as
the intended shelf life of the product, the vulcanization method used,
whether a liquid or powdered chemical (sodium or zinc salt) will be
required and the resistance to over cure processing heat history.

The choice of accelerators is extensive with 4 major classes of

materials used:
o Dithiocarbamates
o Thiurams
o Thiazoles
o Sulphonamides

Dithiocarbamates or ultra-accelerators are typically chosen for their

speed of reaction. They usually require zinc oxide in the formulation for
processing efficiency. The zinc dialkyl dithiocarbamates will tend to
precure natural latex but will have little effect with synthetics. These
materials may also cause some light colored goods made from natural
latex to turn slightly brown when in the presence of copper. It is
therefore recommended that process wash water be piped with plastic or
stainless materials rather than copper piping to eliminate this effect.

These materials are typically added at a 1 phr level and may be used in
combination with thiazoles i.e. zinc mercaptobenzothiazoles (ZMBT) as
a secondary accelerator to provide a flatter cure and greater heat
resistance to the polymer. Thiuram accelerators are extremely fast
accelerators with a later onset of cure that can provide some processing
safety and reduced pre-cure to latex compounds. They are widely used
as secondary accelerators with dithiocarbamates as well as
sulphenamide. They are often used in “sulfurless” cure systems where
long-term aging is a consideration.

Thiazole accelerators are medium fast accelerators that show good

processing safety, minimal procuring and are relatively flat curing.
They can be retarded slightly by incorporating a thiurams accelerator in
combination.
Sulphenamide accelerators are often used as delayed action accelerators
and can be improved with the addition of DPG. These materials should
be stored in a cool dry environment.

Antioxidants:
These materials are used in latex to reduce or eliminate polymer
deterioration due to heat (thermal oxidation), light (photo-oxidation)
and flexing.

For rubber products to be commercially viable their useful life had to be

extended to meet environmental and mechanical demands.
There are a wide variety of antioxidants used for latex products
manufacture. The characteristic that separates these materials will be
whether they are staining (phenolic) or non-staining (amine type).
Antioxidants used to produce white or light colored goods are
predominantly phenolic. The selection of an antioxidant will depend on
a variety of factors i.e. life cycle environment for the rubber product
and its target manufacturing cost, product packaging, the requirement
for minimal taste and odor, the requirement for a non-staining, non-
discolouring antioxidant? How will the antioxidant affect the latex
chemical stability? Will antioxidant volatility be important? Will the
antioxidant be required to meet certain FDA considerations such as
CFR Title 21 designations?

The correct interpretation of these factors and their effect on the final
product should lead to a successful application of an antioxidant
dispersion.

Machines and Equipment for Manufacture of Dispersion.

Ball mill
A ball mill is a type of grinder used to grind, blend and sometimes for
mixing of materials for use in mineral dressing processes, paints,
pyrotechnics ,ceramics and selective laser sintering. It works on the
principle of impact and attrition: size reduction is done by impact as the
balls drop from near the top of the shell.
A ball mill consists of a hollow cylindrical shell rotating about its axis.
The axis of the shell may be either horizontal or at a small angle to the
horizontal.
It is partially filled with balls. The grinding media are the balls, which
may be made of steel (chrome steel), stainless steel, ceramic or rubber.
The inner surface of the cylindrical shell is usually lined with an
abrasion-resistant material such as manganese steel or rubber lining.
Less wear takes place in rubber lined mills. The length of the mill is
approximately equal to its diameter.

The general idea behind the ball mill is an ancient one, but it was not
until the industrial revolution and the invention of steam power that
an effective ball milling machine could be built. It is reported to have
been used for grinding flint for pottery in 1870.

Working
In case of continuously operated ball mill, the material to be ground is
fed from the left through a 60° cone and the product is discharged
through a 30° cone to the right. As the shell rotates,
the balls are lifted up on the rising side of the shell and then they
cascade down (or drop down on to the feed), from near the top of the
shell. In doing so, the solid particles in between the balls and ground are
reduced in size by impact.

Applications
The ball mill is used for grinding materials such as coal, pigments, and
feldspar for pottery. Grinding can be carried out either wet or dry but
the former is performed at low speed.
Blending of explosives is an example of an application for rubber balls.
For systems with multiple components, ball milling has been shown to
be effective in increasing solid-state chemical reactivity.
Additionally, ball milling has been shown effective for production of
amorphous materials.

Description
Bench top ball mill
Laboratory scale ball mill
High-energy ball milling

A ball mill, a type of grinder, is a cylindrical device used in grinding (or

mixing) materials like ores, chemicals, ceramic raw materials and
paints. Ball mills rotate around a horizontal axis,partially filled with the
material to be ground plus the grinding medium. Different materials are
used as media, including ceramic balls, flint pebbles and stainless steel
balls.
An internal cascading effect reduces the material to a fine powder.
Industrial ball mills can operate continuously, fed at one end and
discharged at the other end.
Large to medium-sized ball mills are mechanically rotated on their axis,
but small ones normally consist of a cylindrical capped container that
sits on two drive shafts (pulleys and belts are used to transmit rotary
motion). A rock tumbler functions on the same principle. Ball mills are
also used in pyrotechnics and the manufacture of black powder,
but cannot be used in the preparation of some pyrotechnic mixtures
such as flash powder because of their sensitivity to impact. High-quality
ball mills are potentially expensive and can grind mixture particles to as
small as 5 nm, enormously increasing surface area and reaction rates.
The grinding works on the principle of critical speed. Critical speed can
be understood as that speed after which the steel balls (which are
responsible for the grinding of particles) start rotating along the
direction of the cylindrical device; thus causing no further grinding.
Ball mills are used extensively in the mechanical alloying process in
which they are not only used for grinding but for cold welding as well,
with the purpose of producing alloys from powders.

A section cut thru of ball mills

The ball mill is a key piece of equipment for
grinding crushed materials, and it is widely
used in production lines for powders such as
cement, silicates, refractory material, fertilizer,
glass ceramics, etc. as well as for ore dressing
of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals. The
 ball mill can grind various ores and other
materials either wet or dry.
There are two kinds of ball mill, grate
type and overfall type due to different
ways of discharging material. Many
types of grinding media are suitable for
use in a ball mill,
each material having its own specific
properties and advantages. Key
properties of grinding media are size,
density, hardness, and composition.
Size: The smaller the media particles, the smaller the particle size of the
final product. At the same time, the grinding media particles should be
substantially larger than the largest pieces of material to be ground.
Density: The media should be denser than the material being ground. It
becomes a problem if the grinding media floats on top of the material to
be ground.
Hardness: The grinding media needs to be
durable enough to grind the material, but
where possible should not be so tough that
it also wears down the tumbler at a fast
pace.
Composition: Various grinding
applications have special requirements.
Some of these requirements are based on
the fact that some of the grinding media
will be in the finished product.
Others are based in how the media will
react with the material being ground.
Where the color of the finished product is
important, the color and material of the
grinding media must be considered.
Where low contamination is important,
the grinding media may be selected for
ease of separation from the finished
product
(i.e.: steel dust produced from stainless steel media can be magnetically
separated from non-ferrous products). An alternative to separation is to
use media of the same material as the product being ground.
Flammable products have a tendency to become explosive in powder
form. Steel media may spark, becoming an ignition source for these
products.
Either wet-grinding, or non-sparking media such as ceramic or lead
must be selected.
Some media, such as iron, may react with corrosive materials. For this
reason, stainless steel, ceramic, and flint grinding media may each be
used when corrosive substances are present during grinding.
The grinding chamber can also be filled with an inert shield gas that
does not react with the material being ground, to prevent oxidation or
explosive reactions that could occur with ambient air inside the mill.

Advantages of the ball mill

Ceramic ball mill before 1945 Thiem&Towe Halle. Property of Faculty
of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology
Ball milling boasts several advantages over other systems: the cost of
installation and grinding medium is low; the capacity and fineness can
be adjusted by adjusting the diameter of the ball;
it is suitable for both batch and continuous operation, similarly it is
suitable for open as well as closed circuit grinding and is applicable for
materials of all degrees of hardness.

Varieties
Aside from common ball mills there is a second type of ball mill called
a planetary ball mill. Planetary ball mills are smaller than common ball
mills and mainly used in laboratories
for grinding sample material down to very
small sizes. A planetary ball mill consists of
at least one grinding jar which is arranged
eccentrically on a so-called sun wheel.
The direction of movement of the sun
wheel is opposite to that of the grinding jars
(ratio: 1:-2 or 1:-1). The grinding balls in
the grinding jars are subjected to superimposed rotational movements,
the so-called Coriolis forces. The difference in speeds between the balls
and grinding jars produces an interaction between frictional and impact
forces, which releases high dynamic energies.
The interplay between these forces produces the high and very effective
degree of size reduction of the planetary ball mill.

Vertical roller mill is a type of grinder used to grind materials into

extremely fine powder for use in mineral dressing processes, paints,
pyrotechnics, cements and ceramics. It is an energy efficient alternative
for a ball mill.

Overview
Vertical roller mill is a kind of grinding machine for cement, raw
material, cement clinker, slag and coal slag. It has the features of simple
structure and low cost of manufacture and use.
Vertical roller mill has many different forms, but it works basically the
same. All of these forms of machine come with a roller (or the
equivalent of roller grinding parts),
and roller along the track of the disc at the level of circular movement
imposed by external grinding roller in the vertical pressure on the disc
on the material being the joint action of compression and shear, and to
crush.

Vertical roller mill.

Operation
Material grinding process motor through
reducer rotating drive disc, the material falls
from the mill under the central entrance and
exit, under the action of centrifugal force to
the disc edge
by the roller to move and the crushing,
grinding out lap after the material was speed
up the flow to and vertical mill with one of
the separator, after the meal by the separator
back to the mill,
the re-grinding; powder while grinding out with air, dust collection
equipment in the system to collect down, that is, products. Established
through the mill in the pneumatic conveying of materials,
a larger air flow rate, which can use waste heat of gas, at the same time
dry grinding operations.

Principle
Used in cement grinding production grinding parts of its various forms,
there is a cylinder, cone type, ball type, etc., and roller surface is also
flat, curved, convex round noodles.
Applied to the grinding roller to roller grinding along the track bed in
close contact with the material strength of a
spring pressure, hydraulic, etc.

Method of operation
It has two pairs of grinding rollers, each pair
of roller composed of two narrow rollers,
mounted on the same axis and can rotate at
different speeds. There are two circular disc
slot,
and roller to the tire shape, work pressure in
the tank. Disc roller and the relative sliding
velocity between small and roller can swing,
even if the roller sleeve and the disc after
the liner wear can guarantee a good abrasive,
will not affect the grinding effect. Roller
symmetrical structure, one side can be upside
down after use and wear.
Material grinding process: hydraulic pneumatic roller device through
the pressure applied to the material on the crushing of materials, the
materials have been moved to crush the edge of disc,
from the disc around the nozzle from the exhaust air to improve these
materials to Separator.Meal to separate returns after a concentrated mill,
fine powder was collected in the precipitator unloading.
In the gas flow is small, the meal can not be increased to enhance air
flow, they would fall through the nozzle discharged outside the mill,
bucket elevator to be transported to the feeder of vertical roller mill,
and was re-grinding mill feed people.
This cycle features of the way there:
ring by adjusting the air valve, can change the product fineness can
Shide mill bed load material uniformity and stability, improving the
grinding efficiency; coarse particles in the external circulation, helps
reduce Fan power consumption and overall system power.
Benefits over ball mill

Laboratory vertical roller mill

Smaller footprints
Can be erected on site which avoid logistical issues.
Low wear rate
Low operation cost and long service life
More grinding capacity (approx. 20–25% more) than ball mill
lower power consumption (KWh/Ton) than ball mill + pregrinding
Limitations

Complex system
Maintenance requirement are higher, In cement grinding, Practically
need 2 times annually to re-weld roll and table due to excessive wear
Higher overall cost

Colloid Mill Machine

A colloid mill is a machine that is used to reduce the particle size of a
solid in suspension in a liquid, or to reduce the droplet size in
emulsions. Colloid mills work on the rotor-stator principle: a rotor turns
at high speeds (2000 - 18000 RPM). The resulting high levels of
hydraulic shear[clarify] applied to the
process liquid [clarify] disrupt structures in
the fluid. Colloid mills are frequently used
to increase the stability of suspensions and
emulsions, but can also be used to reduce
the particle size of solids in suspensions.
Higher shear rates lead to smaller droplets,
down to approximately 1 μm which are
more resistant to emulsion separation.
Following types of colloid mill are
available:
Lab Colloid Mill - Small Scale
Machine
Industrial Colloid Mill - Medium
Scale Machine
Inline Colloid Mill - Large Scale
Machine
High Shear Mixer Colloid Mill-Large Scale Machine
Summary:
• Latex materials are used in the manufacture of a wide variety of
products
• Latex must be compounded with chemical ingredients to improve its
properties – these chemicals are in the form of water-based dispersions
• Typical materials to be found in a latex compound are curatives,
accelerators, and antioxidants.
• Masterbatches are combinations of materials in a single dispersion -
they offer advantage to the compounder.
• Excellent products from latex depend on excellent dispersions
4.3.1. Foam Creation and
Control A challenge
Foam Control in Water Borne
Coatings
What is Foam?
1. Pure liquid do not foam. Presences
of surfactant impurities are necessary
for foaming to occur and stabilize.
2. Foams are unstable and tend to collapse quickly to separate gas and
liquid components. Concentration of surfactant impurities opposes this
collapse by several mechanisms.
3. The foam stability depends on many factors. Some of which are film
viscosity, surface elasticity, electrical repulsion, and gaseous diffusion.
Disruption of these conditions enables to control foaming.
Antifoaming agents are
usually non-ionic surfactants
with temperature dependent
solubility.
They have the important
characteristics of low
volatility, ease of dispersion, strong spreading power and surface
attraction and orientation. They act to lower the surface tension of the
vapor/liquid interface, reducing liquid film strength and surface
viscosity and speeding drainage from bubbles.
Predicting Defoamer Performance
What is the usual procedure for selecting a defoamer for a new
waterborne coating formulation? A compounder will try the defoamer
that he currently uses; if these do not work then try samples in the lab,
ask a colleague or friend or, maybe, ask a supplier. This approach
makes good sense when working with formulations that are similar, as
defoamer will
usually give
consistent
performance in
similar
formulations.
However, when these tried and trusted defoamer do not work, you have
the frustrating task of trying to find a suitable product. Difficulties in
finding a suitable defoamer exist because the performance of each
defoamer is affected by the formulation it is used in. Change the
formulation and the defoamer performance may change as well.
Defoamer selection is also one of the last steps in readying a
formulation for final use, so the rest of the formulation is already
mostly decided, and the defoamer must work within this formulation.
Foam Theory
Foam is a dispersion of gas bubbles,
usually air, at the surface of a liquid
that can be generated in several
ways, but most commonly by
vigorously mixing. A simple shake
test with a bottle of water will show
that, in pure liquids, these bubbles
are not stable and quickly burst,
destroying the foam. Small bubbles
coalesce into bigger bubbles that rise to the surface, where the bubbles
expand due to the greater gas pressure inside the bubbles. This causes
each bubble wall or lamella to thin and, ultimately, the bubble will
break open as liquid in the lamellae drains under gravity.
However, water-based coating formulations are not pure liquids; they
are dispersions of many different materials suspended in water and
stabilized by surfactants. These surfactants can also stabilize foam, so
bubbles can accumulate at the liquid surface as foam (Figure 1).1-3
Once foam is present, it can cause many problems, including reduced
production efficiency and higher
energy demand, incorrect raw
material dosing due to the lower
density of foamed material, and
incomplete filling of production
vessels and product packaging. Foam also affects the application of the
coating by reducing the amount of coating applied; bubbles trapped at
the surface or inside the dry film will spoil both the surface appearance
and protective qualities of the finished coating. Defoamers are the most
widely used method of removing unwanted foam from a coating.
Chemical defoamers work by disrupting and breaking the surfactant-
stabilized bubble walls to release the trapped air. Most defoamers are
complex mixtures of different materials, including:
o A carrier fluid that can spread across and bridge the bubble wall,
forming an unstable film that is easily ruptured (Figure 2a); the carrier
also facilitates the entry of hydrophobic particles into the bubble wall.
o Hydrophobic particles that bridge the lamella and cause rupture
by Dewetting (Figure 2b).
o Non-foamy surfactants that can displace the foam-stabilizing
surfactants at the lamella surface (Figure 2c).
o Other components added to improve defoamer stability,
incorporation, and
compatibility
Factors Affecting
Defoamer
Performance
Hegedus reviewed
the many different factors that affect the performance of a defoamer in
different formulations and highlighted how this information could be
used to more effectively guide defoamer selection.5 Higher viscosity
and more highly filled (high filler to binder ratio) formulations are
harder to Defoam but are usually less sensitive to defects. Similarly,
fast-drying formulations and coatings applied in thick films are also
harder to Defoam and often less prone to surface defects, whereas low-
viscosity formulations are generally more sensitive to surface defects
but easier to Defoam. Craters, fisheyes, and other defects are also more
visible in high-gloss formulations and clearcoats, and often require
more careful defoamer selection. Brushes and rollers often create more
surface foam when the coating is applied, while spray techniques can
often leave bubbles trapped below the film surface (microform).6 The
substrate is also important; porous substrates such as wood and concrete
can be less sensitive to defects but release air into the coating film as
the liquid coating wets and penetrates the substrate. Smooth, low-
energy surfaces like Silicone Release Coated Liners are harder to wet
and more prone to surface defects. However, even with this
understanding, it can still be challenging to find a product that gives
acceptable performance with the many defoamer samples that are
available.

Foam Control in Water based Adhesives

Water based adhesives are subject to commonly faced problems of
Foaming.
The problem is saviour and expensive considering the facts that
We need to produce more in less time, by faster machine speed and
higher production lines.
The recent tread of switching over to water-based formulation from
solvent based, due to environmental regulations.
The continues development of surfactant technology.
Foam is generally generated during Polymerization, compounding, or
conversion process.
The other stages of foam generation are Packing / Filling,
Transportation, and coating/ application.
Foam can lead to problems like
o Instability of Adhesive emulsion
o Overflow in coating tray / tanks
o Process inefficiency
o the foaming while coating in adhesive leads to further
problems such as
o Cratering
o Fisheyes (Pin Holing)
o De wetting

Coating Problems
All these problems result into improper coating and drop in adhesion
properties. That is why it is especially important to choose a suitable
surfactant or add a foam control agent, to avoid excessive foaming
while processing.
Fortunately, suitable foam control additives are available to overcome
these problems.
There are additives available to eliminate, pre-existing foam, called as
Defoamers and added before formulation to prevent it from foaming
called as Antifoaming Agents.
Effective foam control agents are useful in preventing
1. Reduced surface defects
2. Not allowing to viscosity increase, volume increase
3. Reduce incorporation of air
4. Increase in coating speed
The surfactants that are present will attach themselves to the gas
bubbles that are entrained in a liquid adhesive (Figure 1) and form an
oriented interfacial layer around the bubbles. As the bubble rises to the
surface, a liquid lamella form. The lamella is a thin layer of liquid that
is trapped between two opposing surfactant treated surfaces. (Figure 2)
It can be represented as a double surfactant layer lined balloon. The
hydrophilic end of the surfactant extends into the liquid lamella while
the hydrophobic end resides at the surface of the liquid. The interaction
between the charges associated with the hydrophilic heads, the
atmospheric pressure, and the gas pressure within the bubble result in a
stable foam
The lamella is a very stable structure. As more and more of these
lamella structures form at the surface interface layer, they begin to pack
together and change from their natural spherical shape into
polyhedrons, as the buoyancy force of the bubbles squeezes the liquid
out from between the surfactant layers of the lamella.
The formation of bubbles or foam on a thin adhesive coating requires
special consideration. In a waterborne adhesive coating applied to a
substrate, as the water in the formulation evaporates at the surface it
causes an increase in viscosity. This viscosity increase prevents the
smaller bubbles within the coating from rising to the surface and
inhibits the possibility of the liquid from flowing back into the space
originally occupied by the bubble. This situation causes craters to form
in the coating.
The smaller bubbles that remain in the coating cause pinholes as the
film thickness shrinks, making the bubble create a void between the
substrate and the air interface.
Foam Control Mechanisms
Foam control agents can be added to destabilize the foam or prevent
any tendency for foam to occur. These are generally referred to as
defoamers or antifoaming agents. Strictly speaking, defoamers act by
destabilizing already existing foams and antifoaming agents prevent the
formation of the foam in the first place. In practice, the terms are often
used interchangeably and the mechanisms by which they impart foam
control are similar. Whether a defoamer or an antifoaming agent, the
factors that have been found necessary for efficient foam control
characteristics are indicated below:
The liquid phase of a defoamer must have a degree of incompatibility or
insolubility with the media into which it is placed. The liquid must have
a rapid spreading coefficient so that it spreads across the media. This is
generally evident in additives that provide for a low surface tension.
The hydrophobic particles work on a semi-specific contact angle, so
they must have the correct size and shape. This enables the agent to
penetrate the foam wall.
Foam control agents’ function by being more surface active than the
surfactant that is stabilizing the foam. In this way, they can enter the
surface layers of the potentially foaming liquid and displace it from the
gas / liquid interface. The mixed surfactant layers will prevent close
association of molecules in the original liquid. The thermodynamic
factors and surface properties influencing the foam control mechanism
and foam stability have been well covered in the literature. When a
defoamer is added to a foamed system, it quickly spreads to a
monolayer across the surface. The rapid spreading pulls the underlying
liquid in the direction of the spreading defoamer. The outer lamella
walls then begin to thin until it finally breaks down. The defoamer then
spills through the hole into the liquid lamella and repeats the action on
the inner lamella wall. The composition of foam control agents is
extremely diverse. They can be supplied as solids, pastes, or liquids.
Liquids are the most predominant form. Foam control agents are
typically composed of a hydrophobic material, a carrier vehicle and,
optionally, an emulsifier.
Hydrophobic components are considered the most active ingredients in
a foam control agent for reasons described above. Typical hydrophobic
material is treated silica, synthetic or natural waxes, polyglycol, and
silicones or silicone derivatives. These hydro phobes may either be used
alone or in combination. Carrier vehicles are generally mineral,
vegetable and silicone oils, alcohols, glycols, and water. The long-term
stability of the carrier in the original liquid is important in achieving
foam control with long shelf life products. The purpose of the carrier
fluid is to transfer the hydrophobic active agents with some
homogeneity into the hydrophilic system that is holding the air. The
carrier fluid usually has a lower surface tension than the foaming liquid.

Composition of Foam Control Agents

The composition of foam control agents is extremely diverse. They can
be supplied as solids, pastes, or liquids. Liquids are the most
predominant form. Foam control agents are typically composed of a
hydrophobic material, a carrier vehicle and, optionally, an emulsifier.
Hydrophobic components are considered the most active ingredients in
a foam control agent for reasons described above. Typical hydrophobic
material is treated silica, synthetic or natural waxes, polyglycol, and
silicones or silicone derivatives. These hydrophobes may either be used
alone or in combination. Carrier vehicles are generally mineral,
vegetable and silicone oils, alcohols, glycols, and water. The long-term
stability of the carrier in the original liquid is important in achieving
foam control with long shelf life products. The purpose of the carrier
fluid is to transfer the hydrophobic active agents with some
homogeneity into the hydrophilic system that is holding the air. The
carrier fluid usually has a lower surface tension than the foaming liquid.

Commercial Foam Control Agents

The choice of the foam control agent and its concentration level is a
delicate balance between the technical requirements inherent to the
product and process parameters that will be employed and economic
constraints. Silicone foam control agents are extremely popular in
waterborne adhesive formulation because of their significant
hydrophobic nature and water incompatibility. They also have an
exceptionally low surface tension (20 mN/m), which makes them highly
surface active. The simplest silicone polymer is polydimethylsiloxane,
an oil. By appropriate modification of the silicone content in the
molecule, the inherent hydrophobic nature can also be changed. Good
results can be achieved with a relatively low Si-containing organ
modified siloxane. The main disadvantage of PDMS is that it is so
insoluble that it is exceedingly difficult to disperse in water-based
systems and almost inevitably causes surface defects. To correct this
problem PDMS is modified in the form of silicone-polyether
copolymers. The copolymers are synthesized from reactive siloxanes
and polyethylene/polypropylene glycol ethers.1,7 A range of modified
PDMS structures is available. Filling with particles also influences
defoaming. Inorganic fillers are well known silicas, fumed or
precipitated. However, finely divided organic substances such as waxes
can also be used. Silicon-containing agents are usually boosted by
filling (organic or inorganic). With other organic foam control agents
filling with inorganics does not improve the defoaming properties, but
organic fillers will lead to an improvement. This gives two possible
pathways for foam control agents, one based on silicone and another
without any silicone. It is possible to formulate completely silicone free
foam control agent, only based on organic substances, with an activity
as good as a silicone-based product. 8 Several of the other major
pathways for the development of commercial foam control agents are
shown in Figure 3.

Popular non-silicone additives that can be used as nonfoaming

surfactants are acetylenic diol-based surfactants (e.g., Surfynol from Air
Products and Chemicals). These offer low molecular size and branching
geometry that provides the low dynamic surface tension required for
good wetting and for a foam control product.9 They are claimed not to
interfere with peel, tack, shear, and other properties of the adhesive, and
they are available in an assortment of grades to meet a broad range of
requirements for direct and indirect food contact. .
It should also be noted that new procedures have also been developed to
produce foam control agents. An ultra-dispersion process (UDP), for
example, has been developed to effectively disperse the hydrophobic
component into the carriers.10 This results in extremely stable
antifoaming agents whereas any oil based foam control agent will show
some form of phase separation on storage. The UDP process also
optimizes the efficiency of the antifoaming formulation.
It is critical for adhesive formulators to choose a foam control
compound that provides the required antifoaming properties without
adversely affecting the adhesive characterizes.
Major suppliers of foam control agents for waterborne adhesive systems

Performance Additives
performance additive benefits Performance
• Better re dissolve / strike-in resistance
• Superior flow and leveling
• Improved atomization
• Optimal metallic-flake control
• Increased flexibility in Al flake selection Productivity
• Reduced dry-to-touch time
• Improved wetting (fewer defects)
• Improved block resistance (early hardness)
• Fewer coats/thicker coats (increased sag resistance)
• Superior application consistency over wide range of climatic
conditions

Performance
When it comes to curb appeal, a smooth, bright-metallic basecoat is
unmatched in eye-catching power. Formulations delivering this
unmistakable presence require a finely tuned coatings formulation that
delivers optimal performance and appearance without negatively
impacting productivity in paint lines. Eastman Solus™ 3050
performance additive is a multifunctional performance additive
specifically engineered to meet these needs through optimal metallic-
flake control, increased flexibility in metallic-flake selection, better re
dissolve/strike-in resistance, exceptional flow and leveling, and
improved atomization. These benefits not only translate into superior-
looking coatings but can also mean superior performance and
productivity.

A key aspect in achieving the brightest, most attractive basecoat is

metallic-flake orientation. Because Eastman Solus™ 3050 performance
additive has the ability to improve aluminum flake orientation, both our
tests in OEM and refinish basecoats containing Solus 3050 showed
much higher face brightness and flop index compared with the control
(both before and after applying clear coat).
After application of the clear coat, the face brightness and flop index of
the control decrease considerably as the clear coat attaches to and
disturbs the basecoat surface.

Comparatively, the basecoat containing Solus showed less decrease in

face brightness and flop index.
This indicates that Solus 3050 improved the clear coat strike-in
resistance of the basecoat (which is especially vital for good layer
separation in three wet one-bake systems), enabling coating suppliers
The graphs below illustrate the superior flow and profilometer after
basecoats were spray-applied to smooth leveling in the early stages of
drying a basecoat containing substrates. As illustrated, Solus 3050 can
help minimize the Eastman Solus™ 3050 performance additive vs. the
control.to meet OEM appearance specifications and increase their
market share.

Superior flow and leveling, wrinkling and shrinking that normally

occurs during drying
The topo graphs were constructed using a non-contact surface
Exciting new technology developments in foam measurement and
control are bringing important benefits to the food industry, as well as a
wide range of other process industries. The accurate and reliable
measurement of foam brings substantial savings to companies through
the improved control of anti-foaming agents, improved process control,
increased yield, reduced product loss and reduction in equipment
failure. In certain processes, especially in the food sector, significant
energy savings can be made through improved foam control.
The patented measurement technique developed by Control uses level
measuring technology specifically developed for measuring foam levels
and foam-liquid interfaces. Suitable for both aqueous and non-aqueous
liquids, this technology already has a proven track record in a wide
range of applications and industries. By comparison, alternative, less
effective solutions use existing level measuring technology that has
been ‘adapted’ to measure foam. These tend to be inherently unreliable,
inaccurate, and adversely affected by process product build-up on the
measuring probes.
“Measurement is the first step that leads to control and eventually to
improvement. If you cannot measure something, you cannot understand
it. If you cannot understand it, you cannot control it. If you cannot
control it, you can’t improve it.” H. James Harrington, 1929
Harrington’s principle is certainly true of the challenges presented by
industrial foaming and its subsequent control, as we shall see.
Foaming affects almost every industrial sector: from pharmaceuticals to
brewing, from paint manufacture to wastewater treatment, from oil &
gas to food processing, from textiles to pulp and paper. Foam may be an
integral and important part of a process or it may be an unwanted side
effect.
Foaming has the appearance of a simple material, partly because we are
all familiar with it whether, for example, in the form of bath foam,
bubbles in a milkshake or the head on a glass of beer. However, in
practice foam is an overly complex, dynamic material with its
production involving physical, chemical, and biological processes.
Most of the common foams are an unstable, two-phase medium of gas
and liquid with a structure consisting of gas pockets trapped in a
network of thin liquid films and plateau borders. Several conditions are
needed to produce foam: there must be aeration (generated for example
by mechanical agitation, mixing, stirring and sparging) and surface-
active components (surfactants) that reduce the surface tension. There is
always a natural drainage along the thin films of liquid between the
bubbles. Liquid gradually drains out from top to bottom, creating a
density gradient through the column of foam. The foam at the top of the
column collapses as the films become too thin to support the bubbles.
Equilibrium develops between this material collapse at the top and the
build-up of new foam from the liquid surface below.
This ongoing process limits the maximum height of the foam column.
However, in some processes foam stabilizing agents such as proteins
reduce the drainage, resulting in much more stable foam. In these
circumstances, the foam production rate can far exceed the dispersal
rate and the foam can build up to a serious level. Proteins as long chain
molecules have this effect by lying along the thin films between the
bubbles, thereby preventing drainage. The stability of such foams
clearly has a large impact on their lifetime.
Additional factors such as poor system design and leaking pumps can
exacerbate foaming problems. In all instances, to minimize the impact
of foam, it requires to be effectively monitored, measured, and
controlled.

Controlling foam
There is an extremely diverse set of chemical formulations that can be
effective either to prevent foam forming or to destroy it once it has
formed. In practice most foam-dispersing chemicals can serve either
role. Each anti-foam or de-former agent is specifically developed for
individual applications and the world-wide market for these essential
evils is worth billions of pounds per annum. Commonly used agents are
insoluble oils, polydimethylsiloxanes and other silicones, certain
alcohols, stearates, and glycols.
The most universal characteristic of any de-former is the fact that it is
surface active. Most are insoluble; however, some are water-soluble
which only adds to the complexity. The latter type has a property
known as inverse solubility. An increase in the temperature of an
aqueous system in which the de-former is present causes a decrease in
its solubility. At or above the cloud point (the initial effective
temperature), the de-former separates from solution and acts as an
extremely effective de-former. Reduction of the system temperature
below the cloud point enables the de-former to become solubilized
again.
Insoluble de-foamers must be formulated so that they will be dispersed
as tiny droplets, i.e. as an emulsion. The surface-active nature of the
material causes it to spread very rapidly onto any air-liquid interface
that it encounters. This is especially the case if that interface is already
covered by the types of surface-active materials that tend to stabilize
foams.
Anti-foamers and de-foamers operate by being absorbed into bubble
surfaces in preference to the foam stabilizing agent. They are then
effective in increasing the drainage rate so that the bubbles drain
quickly and then collapse. An effective defoamer can disperse foam in a
few seconds and the process can be dramatic to watch.
Adding up the costs
Foam generation can cause a variety of expensive and time-consuming
problems. These include environmental pollution, potential product
contamination, loss of product through excessive foaming, downtime,
and clean-up costs if foams spill over from the process. Excess foam
can severely limit product throughput in a process and can result in
damage to equipment including pumps, filters, and valves. Add into this
the ongoing cost of defoamers and it is clear how important it is to
implement effective foam control.
The key problem is being able to understand the characteristics of the
foam and then measure its thickness and, in some applications, where
the foam-liquid interface resides. The foam can be controlled through
the addition of defoamers, but without the above key information their
addition is typically done on an empirical basis, often based on
historical experience. This can then result in a cyclic or sine wave
solution to the problem. Defoamers are added in quantities based on
maximum demand and the foam subsides. It then develops again above
acceptable levels and more defoamer is added. This staccato, reactive
(rather than proactive) approach is expensive and wasteful. In many
cases, when the foam disappears and the problem subsides, the rate of
defoamer addition is not reduced, resulting in excess chemical usage,
which can have substantial cost implications.

Measuring problems
The effective and reliable measurement of foam thicknesses and foam-
liquid interfaces presents several challenges. Results can be adversely
affected by a range of factors including constantly varying foam density
and gradual coating or fouling of the measurement probes with residual
product from the process chemicals.
Traditional measurement techniques have been based on a range of
existing level probe technologies adapted for foam measurement. In
most applications, these fall short of providing an adequate and
sustainable solution.

The Solution
A highly versatile range of Foam Control systems have been
specifically developed to fulfil a variety of functions, for example
measuring the thickness of foam in a process; detecting foam-liquid
interfaces; or measuring liquid levels whilst ignoring the presence of
any foam. Hycontrol point out that the technology behind these systems
originated from detailed research into foam control during
pharmaceutical fermentation and that the special measuring sensors and
control equipment have been designed specifically for foam control and
are not modified level sensors. This is a tool that has been specifically
created for this task alone.

Industry specific foam problems

Uncontrolled foam generation can affect productivity in a wide range of
industries. It causes problems in the wastewater, pharmaceutical, and
food & beverage sectors. The foam control systems developed by
Hycontrol are proving to be amazingly effective in these industries,
bringing significant cost savings and productivity improvements. By
monitoring and measuring foam production, real time data can be used
to ensure de-foamers are only added in controlled quantities when
required.

Food and Beverage

In the food-processing and beverage industries, foam can be generated
at various points in a production process. This is caused predominantly
by the presence of surface-active substances such as proteins, fatty
acids, and sugars. Foam is a problem in alcohol distillation and in the
production of deep-frozen foods, deep-frying oils and gelatin, as well as
in fruit conservation and vegetable washing. Invariably, the resulting
foam impairs product properties in many ways and greatly disrupts the
process flow. Foam spillages are disruptive and time-consuming to
clean up and dispose of. Silicone-based antifoam agents are the most
common chemicals used to manage foam, but product contamination is
a major consideration.

Conclusion
Companies world-wide spend billions of pounds each year dealing with
foam and the effects it has on their businesses. Consideration must also
 be given to
the long-term
detrimental
effect that the
disposal and
dispersal of
de-foaming
chemicals has
on our health
and the
environment.
There is clear evidence that considerable savings can be made by
actively controlling the addition of antifoaming chemicals and the
technology is now available to achieve this. There is no need for
companies to continue with outdated control systems, which ultimately
only serve the interests of the chemical
suppliers.

More on Foam a real Challenge:

Foam A very much wanted phenomenon in
our day to day life , for example , Foam seat
in our Car, Foam seats on our sofa, foaming
of , Pure Vegetarian eatables like South
Indian, Idly or Dose Mixture , Western Indian , Khaman Dhokala etc,
our day to day in use , detergent powder for washing clothes , where
Foam is the most essential property. However, the same more and more
Wanted Foam, is a big hassle / Problem/ obstacle / main cause for
wastages, rejection, as far as Adhesive Tape, Flexible laminate, Coated
Paper, Manufacturing Industry. This is an effort from my side , to
understand what is foam, how it’s created, how to eliminate or destroy
this unwanted Foam , and save on your manufacturing cost , by
controlling the quality , and reducing the wastage , to its minimum
level. Water based adhesives are subject to commonly faced problems
of Foaming.

The problem is savior and expensive considering the facts that, we need
to produce more in less time, by faster machine speed and higher
production lines. There is a recent tread of switching over to water-
based formulation from solvent based, due to environmental
regulations. Now let us see what Foam is. Foam can be described as
dispersion of gas or Air in liquid. It is generated during production or
while mixing or the coating operation. Generally, the foam generation
depends on the viscosity of the coating, and the surfactant used in it.
Foam is generated if a disturbance force is applied to the liquid. For
example, using high speed mixer or a stirrer can disturb the liquid. This
disturbance inside the liquid., and this is responsible for foam
generation. It is remarkably interesting to know what the lifetime of this
generated foam will be. There are many factors chemical and physical,
involved in the stability of the foam. The stability of Foam depends on
the elasticity of its thin liquid membrane. Higher the elasticity, more
will be the stability or the life of that foam in the form of a bubble. The
liquid we have almost the same surface tension all around the surface
and it will remain the same As long as no external material being added
or changing its physical status from liquid phase to gas or solid phase.
In all our coating formulations there is always more than one liquid,
with different molecular structure, or molecular weight. Problems
encountered due to Foam Generation Foaming is a problem taht plagues
many adhesive applications. Water based (Emulsion adhesives are
especially prone to the trouble and expensive consequences created by
foaming.

Any emulsion moving in contact with air, there is a risk of Foam

Generation. That is why foam formation tkes place while mixing or
during high speed coating process. Foam is often an undesirable
consequence of the water borne adhesives and coatings, while
polymerisation process is on. Foam can also be developed during other
stages of the adhesive handling, like filling or packaging, transportation,
coating, or application. Foam can deteriorate adhesive system by:
Reducing Adhesion and Aesthetics Foam can lead to Process
inefficiency overflow in tanks Instability of the adhesive emulsion, and
poor substrate coating or wetting. While coating a water borne
adhesive, for eg, foaming problem cab result into defects such as
Cratering Pin holes (fisheyes), and Dewetting
These defects are responsible for reducing the adhesion properties as
well as the aesthetics of the finished product. Increasing Viscosity of
the System: The formation of bubbles or foam on a thin adhesive
coating requires special consideration. In a waterborne adhesive coating
applied to a substrate, as the water in the formulation evaporates at the
surface it causes an increase in viscosity. This viscosity increase
prevents the smaller bubbles within the coating from rising to the
surface and inhibits the possibility of the liquid from flowing back into
the space originally occupied by the bubble. This situation causes
craters to form in the coating. The smaller bubbles that remain in the
coating because pinholes as the film thickness shrinks, making the
bubbles create a void between the substrate and the air interface. So,
what could be the possible solution for these problems?
And Here Comes the Role of Defoamers... In addition to reducing
surface defects on coated substrates, effective foam control agents are
beneficial in preventing or reducing many common problems such as:
Viscosity increase and loss of mechanic shearing power during milling
(resulting in smaller batch sizes and poor dispersion of fillers and
additives) Volume increase during mixing or shearing processes that
leads to over-foaming Slower package-filler rates due to inefficient
pumping Air incorporation during transport and handling, and Slower
coating speeds or lower pressures during spraying1 Foaming is an
emulsion of gas in liquid. All processes favoring gas formation and
their introduction in liquids favor foaming as, for example: A low
surface tension of the medium the generation of gas in-situ (temperature
increase, pressure decrease, etc.) The incorporation of the surrounding
gas, usually air into the liquid by mixing, pumping, spraying, etc. Foam
problems are especially prevalent during high speed processes that are
used to formulate, mix, or apply the adhesive. These high-speed
processes are dynamic and new air-liquid interfaces are created very
rapidly. Choose a surfactant system or add a foam control agent that
will provide the desired adhesive characteristics, yet not cause
excessive foaming Proper Selection Defoamers/ Anti-foaming Agents
Selecting the proper defoamer/ anti-foaming agent for a unique
application can be a daunting task. This is because, the optimal anti-
foaming properties will depend heavily on the distinct adhesive
formulation and on the processes employed in formulation or
conversion.

Different descriptors are used to describe the products designed to

control or prevent foaming. The common ones are defined below. Most
foam control products can serve either role or are used interchangeably.
Defoamers are generally added to pre-existing foam to eliminate the
foam Anti-foaming agents are added to prevent a formulation from
foaming in the first place, and Air release agents remove micro-air
bubbles from a liquid and help them to rise to the surface How foam is
generated?

Foaming in Pure Liquids Pure liquids do not foam. If gas is

incorporated into a pure liquid, it tends to form spherical bubbles since
this involves the least amount of surface energy. However, if the liquid
is pure, the bubbles will rise toward the surface and collapse
immediately. As the air in the bubble is expelled, liquid quickly rushes
into the space vacated by the air. Thus, stable foam is never achieved in
pure liquids on the other hand, foaming will result if the liquid is not
pure or if it is contaminated. Common contaminants can include:
Minerals Salts Starches, and Metabolized wastes from microbes in
waterborne adhesives, these “contaminants” are generally additives
used to impart specific properties such as reduced surface tension to the
adhesive formulation. In waterborne adhesives these include:
Surfactants and wetting agents to modify the spreading characteristics
of the coating Emulsifying agents for separation of the polymeric phase,
and Dispersing agents for the pigments and fillers Other additives can
contribute to foaming as well. Table below describes how several
common additives affect foam generation.

Sometimes the surfactants that contribute to foaming are not

deliberately added to the liquid but they either come from: Other
formulation ingredients Accidental contamination in processing
equipment Gas can also be generated within an adhesive as a result of
curing processes. This is especially evident in certain polyurethane
adhesive systems. Also, application of the adhesive onto a porous
surface may result in some of the entrapped air entering the liquid
adhesive. Surfactant Activity with Liquid System The surfactants that
are present will attach themselves to the gas bubbles that are entrained
in a liquid adhesive and form an oriented interfacial layer around the
bubbles. This is shown in the figure below: And Here Comes the Role
of Defoamers... In addition to reducing surface defects on coated
substrates, effective foam control agents are beneficial in preventing or
reducing many common problems such as: Viscosity increase and loss
of mechanic shearing power during milling (resulting in smaller batch
sizes and poor dispersion of fillers and additives) Volume increase
during mixing or shearing processes that leads to over-foaming Slower
package-filler rates due to inefficient pumping Air incorporation during
transport and handling, and Slower coating speeds or lower pressures
during spraying1 Foaming is an emulsion of gas in liquid. All processes
favoring gas formation and their introduction in liquids favor foaming
as, for example:
A low surface tension of the medium the generation of gas in-situ
(temperature increase, pressure decrease, etc.) The incorporation of the
surrounding gas, usually air into the liquid by mixing, pumping,
spraying, etc. Foam problems are especially prevalent during high
speed processes that are used to formulate, mix, or apply the adhesive.
These high-speed processes are dynamic and new air-liquid interfaces
are created very rapidly. It is important in such applications for
adhesive formulators to: Choose a surfactant system or add a foam
control agent that will provide the desired adhesive characteristics, yet
not cause excessive foaming Proper Selection Defoamers/ Anti-foaming
Agents Selecting the proper defoamer/ anti-foaming agent for a unique
application can be a daunting task. This is because, the optimal anti-
foaming properties will depend heavily on the distinct adhesive
formulation and on the processes employed in formulation or
conversion. Different descriptors are used to describe the products
designed to control or prevent foaming. The common ones are defined
below. Most foam control products can serve either role or are used
interchangeably.

Defoamers are generally added to pre-existing foam to eliminate the

foam Anti-foaming agents are added to prevent a formulation from
foaming in the first place, and Air release agents remove micro-air
bubbles from a liquid and help them to rise to the surface Foam Control
Mechanisms Foam control agents can be added to destabilize the foam
or prevent any tendency for foam to occur. The factors that have been
found necessary for efficient foam control characteristics are indicated
below: The liquid phase of a defoamer must have a degree of
incompatibility or insolubility with the media into which it is placed.
The liquid must have a rapid spreading coefficient so that it spreads
across the media. This is generally evident in additives that provide a
low surface tension.

The foam control agents that are hydrophobic particles work on a semi-
specific contact angle. So, they must have the correct size and shape.
This enables the agent to penetrate the foam wall. Foam control agents’
function by being more surface active than the surfactant that is
stabilizing the foam. In this way, they can enter the surface layers of the
potentially foaming liquid and displace it from the gas / liquid interface.
The mixed surfactant layers will prevent close association of molecules
in the original liquid. The thermodynamic factors and surface properties
influencing the foam control mechanism and foam stability have been
well covered in the literature.1,2 The efficiency of antifoaming agents
depends on the ability to spread them throughout the liquid and the
ability to penetrate foam When a defoamer is added to a foamed system,
it quickly spreads to a monolayer across the surface. This rapid
spreading pulls the underlying liquid in the direction of the spreading
defoamer.
The outer lamella walls then begin to thin until they finally breakdown.
The defoamer then spills through the hole into the liquid lamella and
repeats the action on the inner lamella wall. The efficiency of anti-
foaming agents depends on the ability to spread them throughout the
liquid and the ability to penetrate foam.
Composition of Foam Control Agents The composition of foam control
agents is extremely diverse. They can be supplied as solids, pastes, or
liquids. Liquids are the most predominant form. Foam control agents
are typically composed of: A hydrophobic material: Hydrophobic
components are considered the most active ingredients in a foam
control agent for reasons described above. Typical hydrophobic
materials are: Treated silica Synthetic or natural waxes Polyglycol, and
Silicones or silicone derivatives These hydrophobes may either be used
alone or in combination. A carrier vehicle: Carrier vehicles are
generally: Mineral Vegetable and silicone oils Alcohols Glycols, and
water the long-term stability of the carrier in the original liquid is
important in achieving foam control with long shelf life products. The
purpose of the carrier fluid is to transfer the hydrophobic active agents
with some homogeneity into the hydrophilic system that is holding the
air. The carrier fluid usually has a lower surface tension than the
foaming liquid.

Optionally, an emulsifier: Emulsifiers ensure the optimum distribution

of the hydrophobic component in the carrier, and it eases the spreading
of the foam control agent throughout the liquid. The type and quantity
of emulsifier to be used depends on the application (high shear forces,
etc.). The minimum possible quantity of emulsifier should be used since
emulsifiers themselves can contribute to foam formation. Emulsifiers
typically used include: Ethoxylated alkylphenols Sorbitan esters
Polyethylene glycol esters, and Others The final foam control agent is a
sophisticated blend of these materials along with secondary ingredients
such as silica powder. For example, a ready-to-use foam control agent
based on silicone can be formulated as follows: Polydimethylsiloxane
(PDMS) Polyether modified PDMS Silica powder Emulsifiers Water or
other aqueous carrier3 Types of Foam Control Agents Several types of
materials are available to achieve suitable anti-foaming properties as
indicated in the figure below: Basic foam control agents are generally
classified as being silicone-based or non-silicone. However, there are
many commercial products that are blends of different components, and
a large number have unspecified or proprietary chemistry.

Silicone-based Foam Control Agents Silicone foam control agents are

extremely popular in waterborne adhesive formulations because of their
significant hydrophobic nature and water incompatibility. They also
have an exceptionally low surface tension (20 mN/m). This makes them
highly surface active. The simplest silicone polymer is
polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), an oil. (CH3)3SiO-(Si (CH3)2O) n-Si
(CH3)3 where n = 0 to > 1000 By appropriate modification of the
silicone content in the molecule, the inherent hydrophobic nature can be
changed. Good results can be achieved with a relatively low Si-
containing organo-modified siloxane the main disadvantage of PDMS is
that it is so insoluble that it is exceedingly difficult to disperse in
waterborne systems and almost inevitably causes surface defects. To
correct this problem PDMS is modified in the form of silicone-
polyether copolymers.

The copolymers are synthesized from reactive siloxanes and

polyethylene / polypropylene glycol ethers.4,5 A range of modified
PDMS structures is available. Mineral Oils-based Foam Control Agents
Another large classification of foam control agent is based on mineral
oils. These are insoluble in water, exist in a broad range of molecular
weights, and present a large choice of chemical structure. As with
silicone-based additives, mineral oils can be chemically modified to
adjust their properties. Pure water and silicones are at two ends of a
broad range of surface tension and solubility parameters. Silicone-free
Foam Control Agents It is possible to formulate a completely silicone-
free foam control agent, only based on organic substances, with an
activity as good as a silicone-based product. Popular non-silicone
additives that can be used as non-foaming surfactants are acetylenic
diol-based surfactants (e.g., Surfynol from Air Products and
Chemicals). These offer low molecular size and branching geometry
that provides the low dynamic surface tension required for good wetting
and also for a foam control product.6 They are claimed not to interfere
with peel, tack, shear, and other properties of the adhesive. Also, they
are available in an assortment of grades to meet a broad range of
requirements for direct and indirect food contact. Role of Fillers Filling
with particles also influences defoaming. Inorganic fillers are well
known silicas, fumed or precipitated. However, finely divided organic
substances such as waxes can also be used. Silicon- containing agents
are usually boosted by filling (organic or inorganic). With other organic
foam control agents filling with inorganics does not improve the
defoaming properties, but organic fillers will lead to an improvement.
This gives two possible pathways for foam control agents: Based on
silicone, and Without any silicone Selection of Foam Control Agents
While formulating adhesives, it is critical to choose a foam control
compound that provides the required anti-foaming properties without
adversely affecting the adhesive characteristics. Table below lists some
critical properties of the adhesive formulation that can be affected by a
foam control additive. The choice of the foam control agent and its
concentration level is a delicate balance between the technical
requirements inherent to the product and process parameters that will be
employed and economic constraints.

This is shown in the figure below: The effectiveness and the Side
effects of a Defoamer, depend upon the Compatibility Selecting the
proper type of defoamer from the huge number of available products
requires some basic selection criteria. Figure below illustrates an
example of a decision tree that can be used in the selection process.
Answers to specific process parameters, economics, and technical
requirements are required to identify the right solution.

The applicability of a defoamer strongly depends upon the specific

adhesive system and processes utilized in formulating and applying the
adhesive. One of the main selection criteria to be made is the choice
between silicone-based or silicone-free defoamers. Table below
provides a breakdown of the various foam control agents. If the
Defoamer has good Computability than there is No De foaming Effect
NO Cratering If the Defoamer is In Computability than there is a
possibility of Defoaming Effect Cratering will be consistent This is
ideal situation.

Once a balance between Compatibility and Incompatibility is achieved

you find Good Defoaming Effect There is no Cratering Problem
Silicone- or polysiloxane-based defoamers excel in low surface tension
and good solubility. This makes these products first candidates for use
in solvent borne systems, where the low surface tension of the solvent
must be passed to create good defoamer spreading features.
Furthermore, polysiloxanes are preferred in clear systems for reasons of
not effecting transparency. However, polysiloxanes are more sensitive
for effecting adhesion properties and are typically more expensive
compared to polysiloxane-free defoamers. Optimal defoaming
properties are obtained by ensuring limited compatibility of the
defoamer with the foaming system. Poor compatibility results in high
risk for creating film surface defects, whereas excellent compatibility
generally means poorer defoaming properties. Test Methods Several
test methods are known for determining the efficiency of defoamers. It
is important that one considers both the type of formulation being
modified as well as the practical processing (formulating and
application) conditions that will be used in practice.

Testing in liquid non-aqueous systems is often difficult, as the amount

of foam is typically much less compared to aqueous systems. It is
essential to select a test method that is most closely related to the actual
application or foam generation mechanism. This starts with analyzing
the highest risk of foam formation. For example, roller application,
dipping, spraying, etc. are conditions of intensive contact between the
liquid formulation and air and provide the greatest risk of foam
formation. Depending on main risks in practice, the best corresponding
laboratory test method is chosen. Agitation Test A method related to
dispersion or mixing conditions is the agitation test. This can be
accomplished using either a paint shaker or a high-speed mixer with a
dissolver disc.

The common paint shaker is often used to simulate foaming in

formulations. The various defoaming candidates should be evaluated at
two or three concentrations. And the modified formulations should be
shaken for several minutes. After this, the degree of foaming may be
visualized or if qualitative results are required, the specific gravity of
the formulation is determined - the higher the specific gravity, the lower
the presence of foaming. An alternative method is to stir about 50 gms
of modified formulation (about one minute for low to medium viscosity
formulations and three minutes for high viscosity formulations) at high
speed (3000 rpm) with a dissolver disc. This incorporates and finely
disperses a large amount of air into the formulation. Immediately after
stirring, the formation is poured onto a transparent polyester film fixed
to a glass panel inclined at a 25° angle. After drying, the coating film
can be assessed visually. Application Test Another type of test is the
assessment of a coated adhesive film after application. The presence of
foam or microfoam is judged using a microscope or magnifier. Gloss,
haze, and color of the applied film may also be an indication of foam
formation. Shelf-Life Test It is essential to do repeat testing after
storage of the modified formulation. As stated earlier, defoamers are
chosen to have limited compatibility. Consequently, some risk of
separation or adsorption may occur during storage.

Typically, the modified formulation is aged for several weeks at a

slightly elevated temperature (about 50°C) and then retested for
defoaming efficiency. How to destabilize the Foam. When form is
formed, due to gravity, the liquid on the bubble will withdraw from, the
bubble towards the bulk liquid. When the wall thickness of this bubble
reaches its critically, low thickness a simple moment of a molecule on
that thin layer will result in busting of that bubble. Please see exactly
what happens in a diagram shown below.

Surface tension is an energy that flows from lower surface tension to

high surface tension. The liquid on the bubble will flow from low
surface tension area, lower area of the bubble towards the higher
surface tension area that is towards the top area of the bubble and this
will create another opposite force that causes the process of the liquid
flow back to the top part of the Bubble .When these two forces achieve
an equilibrium before the critical thickness of the foam. The whole
process is explained in the diagram shown below.

How the Defoamer works the de foamer should be based on properties

to see that it performs as required. Both the properties are necessary to
work side by side, to ensure correct performance. The two main
properties required are as below the de foamer must have a
compatibility with the system and it I should remain like that even after
a long-term storage. This will ensure de foamer will be wetting the
bubble layer liquid to be stabilized. The De foamer must be able to
reduce surface tension of the system , should be able to penetrate and
spread on the foam resulting in lowering surface tension This is
explained in diagram below Compromise in using Defoamer The
effectiveness and the Side effects of a Defoamer , depend upon the
Compatibility Now Let us understand some Terminologies Defoaming
If the Defoamer has good Computability than there is No De foaming
Effect NO Cratering If the Defoamer is In Computability than there is a
possibility of Defoaming Effect Cratering will be consistent This is
ideal situation. Once a balance between Compatibility and
Incompatibility is achieved you find. Good Defoaming Effect. There is
no Cratering Problem

Defoaming is determined by how fast a defoamer can destroy foam in

the liquid system. Faster defoaming ability is mostly desired.
Deareation is a process of moving foam from the inner layer of
adhesive to the surface. foam can be destroyed only on the surface of
the liquid , and faster depreciation is a desired property Anti Foam
Antifoam is nothing but the ability to prevent foam formation , or
suppress the bubble formation after the liquid is agitated/ mixed at a
high speed. Lower foam formation is the most desired property of a anti
foaming agent Foam Generation during Compounding or Mixing of
Adhesive Reason : The limitations of many manufacturers : Open barrel
+ high speed Mixer Corrective Action : Closed head mixer , with slow
RPM mixing , and addition of a minimum quantity of Defoamer + anti
foam combination Foam Generation during charging / putting adhesive
in the coating tray Foam Generated in an acrylic water based adhesive
drum

I have visited several BOPP Tape manufacturers in India, UAE,

Srilanka etc. I have observed that, almost 90 % of the manufacturers,
that I have visited, use a simple Plastic Mug, and charge or put the
Water based Acrylic Adhesive, by hand, into the coating tray. The
addition / Charging of Adhesive in this manner is another reason for
Foam generation. This can be e easily avoided by use a, pneumatically
operated double diaphragm pump. Double Diaphragm Pump A more
common type of diaphragm pump is the air-operated double diaphragm
pump. It uses pressurized air to activate the diaphragms instead of a
mechanical device. This is basically two pumps in one – one is on the
suction cycle, while the other is on the discharge cycle. The air valves
alternately pressurize the inside of one diaphragm chamber and exhaust
air from the other one. Inside the Double Diaphragm Pump Air
Chambers Compressed air flows in or out of the air Chambers. The
pump has a right and left air chambers. Fluid Housings The fluid being
pumped flows through the fluid housings. Each pump has a right and
left fluid Housing Diaphragms separate the air chambers and fluid
housings in the pump. The diaphragm is a material that flex with
increasing or decreasing air pressure. A common shaft connects the two
diaphragms.

Inlet manifold Fluid flows from the fluid container through the inlet
manifold either to the right or left fluid housing. Outlet manifold Fluid
flows out of the right or left fluid housing past the check valves, then
through the outlet manifold. Advantages High fluid delivery rates at
low fluid application pressure , less than 120 psi ( 8.5 bar ) Easy to
install on a cover , pail , wall Many diaphragm options for fluid
versatility with extended pump life Air power offers convenience for
many installations , no electrical hazard Excellent portability Handles a
wide variety of fluid viscosities, abrasive, and corrosive qualities Seal
less , leak proof design prevents fluid waste , mess and hazard Can run
dry without damage Air Valve advantages The air valve is the principle
feature that differentiates this pump from the others Not dependent on
the air being clean, dry or containing oil Allows for easy online
maintenance of the pump. Decreased repair time and cost Uses fewer
seals compared to other designs. Operates on extraordinarily little air
pressure, 15 psi (1 bar) or less Creates a gentler pumping action during
high flow rates Limitations Not suitable for high pressure applications
the fluid to air ratio relationship is 1:
1, meaning 100psi of compressed air, theoretically will deliver 100 psi
of fluid output Air consumption in a continuous duty operation may
result in higher energy consumption than other pumps Foaming Can be
controlled by following steps mentioned below.
1. use double diaphragm pump, for pumping and circulating
coating/adhesive from the supply container to the coater and back.
kindly please note that gear pumps are not advised since, the high shear
developed can break down the coating and could be responsible for
further foam generation.
2. the output from the double diaphragm should be controlled, so that
the supply of adhesive, matching the coater demand, and does not
recirculate coating excessively. the return line should not be allowed to
suck and pump air into the coating. The coating level in the supply
fountain/ Xray must never be allowed to drop to low or, rise too high.
3. It should be just sufficient to cover the coating gravure roller, all the
time. the pump should be properly maintained with pump seals and line
connections, to check and avoid air leaks.
4. form a loop in the return line, that will help to slow down the coating
flow speed and allow entrapped air to escape.
5. the return line flow should be through perforated pipe extended near
to the bottom of the drum. this is essential to ensure taht no extra foam
is generated, in recirculation.
6. watch and keep away, the detergent/soap or the wash up solutions,
contamination, with the adhesive or coating. the contamination will
cause foam even if traces are not thoroughly rinsed away after use. The
amount of adhesive in the tray should be just sufficient, so that the
gravure / coating roller is well all the time.

The Double diaphragm pump can be put on and off only when required.
The adhesive quantity can be easily metered or controlled, so that the
foam generation is minimized to a great extent. Too much a quantity of
adhesive in the tray is highly responsible for a large quantity of Foam
generation. The adhesive that is pumped into the tray should be as
shown in the diagram. The adhesive should enter then coating tray from
the bottom, in other words, the adhesive carrying pipe should be
immersed in the balance adhesive in the tray. This will help a lot in
reducing new generation of Foam. Foam generation during adhesive
coating on film , by two roll gravure coating method These are the
actual photographs of , Foam generation , on a regular BOPP Tape
coating machine Just see the pictures of adhesive charged in tray and
the coating begins .

There is NO Foam at the beginning

Just imagine the situation just after 30 minutes of production. Just see
the amount of Foam generated Now k let us understand the situation,
why there is so much of Foam generation. The Gravure roller that
continuously rotates in the adhesive filled tray, at an, minimum RPM
160 to a maximum, RPM of 450-500, is largely responsible for Foam
generation. So, imagine, what is the solution for this?
We have choose the Closed Gravure coating system Foam Control in
WB PSA’s Basic wetting and defoaming due to the high surface tension
water waterborne coatings , typically require surfactants to reduce
surface tension and improving wetting and leveling of coating ,
especially on low surface energy surfaces such as plastic films .
surfactants reduce surface tension by diffusing to concentrating and
aligning at an interface such as coating / substrate and the coating / air
interface an additional consideration is that related processes adhesive
manufacturer and application of coating at high speed agitation process
.these processes disrupt the surfactant concentration and alignment at
the surface there by causing higher surface tension during and after
agitation known as dynamic surface tension ( DST ).

Surfactants that quickly diffuses back to the interface and align and
lower surface tension have low DST. that is, they provide lower surface
tension during and shortly after these dynamic agitating processes. They
are effective and efficient at providing good wedding and leveling and
avoid problems such as creators and fisheyes, and other defects. Twin
surfactants have proven their efficiency and effectiveness at reducing
surface tension in water borne coating formulations and applications to
obtain superior film formation and performance. They obtain this low
DST due to their unique chemical structure which contains hydrophobic
and hydrophilic groups in a single molecule effective thus being more
efficient than typical surfactants that contain a single hydrophobic or
hydrophilic structure .Waterborne coatings also have a tendency to
foam when agitated , which occurs during every manufacturing mixing ,
coating process .

Foam can be very tenacious and last for hours or even days and it can
cause numerous problems in coating, production and film formation and
throughout the coating ‘s service life. Foam also can create problems
during application by reducing the efficiency of transferring the product
to the substrate and by creating defects in the dry film and that reduce
the protective and aesthetic quality of the finished product.

To avoid these problems deformers are commonly used in water borne

coatings they can be amazingly effective, but they need to be carefully
selected. In general, defoamers work by disrupting the Surfactant
bilayer around the air bubble, destabilizing the bubble wall so that the
bubble can break, and release trapped Air. Water based adhesives are
subject to commonly faced problems of Foaming. The problem is savior
and expensive considering the facts that We need to produce more in
less time, by faster machine speed and higher production lines. The
recent tread of switching over to water-based formulation from solvent
based, due to environmental regulations.

The continues development of surfactant technology. Foam is generally

generated during Polymerization, compounding, or conversion process.
The other stages of foam generation are Packing / Filling,
Transportation, and coating/ application. Foam can lead to problems
like Instability of Adhesive emulsion Over flow in coating tray / tanks
Process inefficiency The foaming while coating in adhesive leads to
further problems such as Cratering Fish eyes ( Pin Holing ) Dewetting
All these problems result into improper coating and drop in adhesion
properties. That is why it is especially important to choose a suitable
surfactant or add a foam control agent, to avoid excessive foaming
while processing. Fortunately, suitable foam control additives are
available to overcome these problems.

There are additives available to eliminate, pre-existing foam, called as

Defoamers and added before formulation to prevent it from foaming
called as Antifoaming Agents. Effective foam control agents are useful
in preventing Reduced surface defects Not allowing to viscosity
increase , volume increase Reduce incorporation of air Increase in
coating speed The surfactants that are present will attach themselves to
the gas bubbles that are entrained in a liquid adhesive (Figure 1) and
form an oriented interfacial layer around the bubbles. As the bubble
rises to the surface, a liquid lamella form. The lamella is a thin layer of
liquid that is trapped between two opposing surfactant treated surfaces.
(Figure 2) It can be represented as a double surfactant layer lined
balloon. The hydrophilic end of the surfactant extends into the liquid
lamella while the hydrophobic end resides at the surface of the liquid.
The interaction between the charges associated with the hydrophilic
heads, the atmospheric pressure, and the gas pressure within the bubble
result in a stable foam the lamella is a very stable structure.

As more and more of these lamella structures form at the surface

interface layer, they begin to pack together and change from their
natural spherical shape into polyhedrons, as the buoyancy force of the
bubbles actually squeezes the liquid out from between the surfactant
layers of the lamella. The formation of bubbles or foam on a thin
adhesive coating requires special consideration. In a waterborne
adhesive coating applied to a substrate, as the water in the formulation
evaporates at the surface it causes an increase in viscosity.

This viscosity increase prevents the smaller bubbles within the coating
from rising to the surface and inhibits the possibility of the liquid from
flowing back into the space originally occupied by the bubble. This
situation causes craters to form in the coating. The smaller bubbles that
remain in the coating cause pinholes as the film thickness shrinks,
making the bubble create a void between the substrate and the air
interface. Foam control agents can be added to destabilize the foam or
prevent any tendency for foam to occur. These are generally referred to
as defoamers or antifoaming agents. Strictly speaking, defoamers act by
destabilizing already existing foams and antifoaming agents prevent the
formation of the foam in the first place. In practice, the terms are often
used interchangeably and the mechanisms by which they impart foam
control are similar.
Whether a defoamer or an antifoaming agent, the factors that have been
found necessary for efficient foam control characteristics are indicated
below: The liquid phase of a defoamer must have a degree of
incompatibility or insolubility with the media into which it is placed.
The liquid must have a rapid spreading coefficient so that it spreads
across the media. This is generally evident in additives that provide for
a low surface tension.

The hydrophobic particles work on a semi-specific contact angle, so

they must have the correct size and shape. This enables the agent to
penetrate the foam wall. Foam control agents’ function by being more
surface active than the surfactant that is stabilizing the foam. In this
way, they can enter the surface layers of the potentially foaming liquid
and displace it from the gas / liquid interface. The mixed surfactant
layers will prevent close association of molecules in the original liquid.
The thermodynamic factors and surface properties influencing the foam
control mechanism and foam stability have been well covered in the
literature.4,5 When a defoamer is added to a foamed system, it quickly
spreads to a monolayer across the surface. The rapid spreading pulls the
underlying liquid in the direction of the spreading defoamer.

The outer lamella walls then begin to thin until it finally breaks down.
The defoamer then spills through the hole into the liquid lamella and
repeats the action on the inner lamella wall. The composition of foam
control agents is extremely diverse. They can be supplied as solids,
pastes, or liquids. Liquids are the most predominant form. Foam control
agents are typically composed of a hydrophobic material, a carrier
vehicle and, optionally, an emulsifier. Hydrophobic components are
considered the most active ingredients in a foam control agent for
reasons described above. Typical hydrophobic material is treated silica,
synthetic or natural waxes, polyglycol, and silicones or silicone
derivatives. These hydrophobes may either be used alone or in
combination. Carrier vehicles are generally mineral, vegetable and
silicone oils, alcohols, glycols, and water. The long-term stability of the
carrier in the original liquid is important in achieving foam control with
long shelf life products. The purpose of the carrier fluid is to transfer
the hydrophobic active agents with some homogeneity into the
hydrophilic system that is holding the air.

The carrier fluid usually has a lower surface tension than the foaming
liquid. The composition of foam control agents is extremely diverse.
They can be supplied as solids, pastes, or liquids. Liquids are the most
predominant form. Foam control agents are typically composed of a
hydrophobic material, a carrier vehicle and, optionally, an emulsifier.
Hydrophobic components are considered the most active ingredients in
a foam control agent for reasons described above. Typical hydrophobic
material is treated silica, synthetic or natural waxes, polyglycol, and
silicones or silicone derivatives. These hydrophobes may either be used
alone or in combination. Carrier vehicles are generally mineral,
vegetable and silicone oils, alcohols, glycols, and water. The long-term
stability of the carrier in the original liquid is important in achieving
foam control with long shelf life products. The purpose of the carrier
fluid is to transfer the hydrophobic active agents with some
homogeneity into the hydrophilic system that is holding the air.

The carrier fluid usually has a lower surface tension than the foaming
liquid. The choice of the foam control agent and its concentration level
is a delicate balance between the technical requirements inherent to the
product and process parameters that will be employed and economic
constraints. Silicone foam control agents are extremely popular in
waterborne adhesive formulation because of their significant
hydrophobic nature and water incompatibility.

They also have an exceptionally low surface tension (20 mN/m), which
makes them highly surface active. The simplest silicone polymer is
polydimethylsiloxane, an oil. By appropriate modification of the
silicone content in the molecule, the inherent hydrophobic nature can
also be changed. Good results can be achieved with a relatively low Si-
containing organomodified siloxane. The main disadvantage of PDMS
is that it is so insoluble that it is exceedingly difficult to disperse in
water-based systems and almost inevitably causes surface defects. To
correct this problem PDMS is modified in the form of silicone-
polyether copolymers. The copolymers are synthesized from reactive
siloxanes and polyethylene/polypropylene glycol ethers.1,7 A range of
modified PDMS structures is available. Filling with particles also
influences defoaming. Inorganic fillers are well known silicas, fumed or
precipitated. However, finely divided organic substances such as waxes
can also be used. Silicon- containing agents are usually boosted by
filling (organic or inorganic). With other organic foam control agents
filling with inorganics does not improve the defoaming properties, but
organic fillers will lead to an improvement. This gives two possible
pathways for foam control agents, one based on silicone and another
without any silicone. It is possible to formulate completely silicone free
foam control agent, only based on organic substances, with an activity
as good as a silicone-based product. 8 Several of the other major
pathways for the development of commercial foam control agents are
shown in Figure 3. Popular non-silicone additives that can be used as
nonfoaming surfactants are acetylenic diol-based surfactants (e.g.,
Surfynol from Air Products and Chemicals). These offer low molecular
size and branching geometry that provides the low dynamic surface
tension required for good wetting and also for a foam control product.9
They are claimed not to interfere with peel, tack, shear, and other
properties of the adhesive, and they are available in an assortment of
grades to meet a broad range of requirements for direct and indirect
food contact. .

It should also be noted that new procedures have also been developed to
produce foam control agents. An ultra-dispersion process (UDP), for
example, has been developed to effectively disperse the hydrophobic
component into the carriers.10 This results in extremely stable
antifoaming agents whereas any oil based foam control agent will show
some form of phase separation on storage. The UDP process also
optimizes the efficiency of the antifoaming formulation. It is critical for
adhesive formulators to choose a foam control compound that provides
the required antifoaming properties without adversely affecting the
adhesive characterizes. Major suppliers of foam control agents for
waterborne adhesive systems (Table 2) along with technical information
regarding their products can be easily found in the
SpecialChem4Adhesives additives database. Try and Reduce Foaming
and Air Entrapment during Mixing, which is quite common while
addition of wetting agent, rheology modifier, defoamer etc., and taht too
if the mixer / stirrer RPM is high. Higher the speed of the mixer, better
is the quality of mixing, at the same time the larger is the amount of
foam generation and air entrapment. Like a mixer, the same conditions
are observed / occurred while coating, on Gravure coating machine,
with an open tray. Higher the coating speed, higher is the rotation of
Gravure roller, and higher the shear force applied on the liquid adhesive
in the tray. The foam generated or the Air entrapped must be managed,
as you cannot avoid the same, the chemical defoamers and the
deaerators are added to prevent and destroy the foam and air
entrapment. There are few steps to be taken to manage the Foam and
Air Entrapment. 1. In case if the mixing is done in a top entry agitator,
to add the, other additive in the adhesive batch, than the mixer blade
should be, set off center. The agitator, blades create a sort of a pressure,
called vortex drag. This reduces the air pressure along the entire rear
edge of the agitator, which increases the pressure drag on the liquid
inside. By setting the blade off center the vortex is minimised and so is
the foaming and air entrapment. 2. Many a times the agitator speed is
reduced while mixing is on. But lower speed, increases the batch
mixing time. Hence it is advisable to carry out mixing under vacuum.
This allows mixing at full speed without any air entrapment. once
mixing cycle is complete, reintroduce air in the agitator before draining
out the Mixed batch. 3. It is also advisable to fix up a return pipeline as
shown in the sketch / drawing. This also helps a lot to reduce foam
generation. the return line should be below the liquid surface to avoid or
prevent foam generation.

USE DOUBLE DIAPHRAGM PUMP

Never use Gear Pump, gear pumps are not advised since, the high shear
developed can break down the coating and could be responsible for
further foam generation. A gear pump uses the meshing of gears to
pump fluid by displacement. They are one of the most common types of
pumps for hydraulic fluid power applications. Gear pumps are also
widely used in chemical installations to pump fluid with a certain
viscosity. There are two main variations, external gear pumps which use
two external spur gears, and internal gear pumps which use an external
and an internal spur gear. Gear pumps are positive displacement (or
fixed displacement), meaning they pump a constant amount of fluid for
each revolution. Some gear pumps are designed to function as either a
motor or a pump. External gear pump design for hydraulic power
applications.
Gear pumps are Generally used in Petrochemicals Pure or filled
bitumen, pitch, diesel oil, crude oil, lube oil etc., Chemicals Sodium
silicate, acids, plastics, mixed chemicals, iso cyanates etc., Paint and
ink., Resins and adhesives.

There is a wide choice for the selection of Defoamers / Anti Foams, and
deaeration
ANTI FOAM FROM DOW CORNING XIAMETER® ACP-0100
Antifoam Compound Dow Corning XIAMETER® ACP-0100
Antifoam Compound is a 100% active filled polydimethyl siloxane
fluid. Acts as an antifoaming agent and defoamer. Offers outstanding
acid/alkali performance. Shows high efficiency...

XIAMETER® PMX-200 10,000 cSt Dow Corning Linear

polydimethylsiloxane polymers. Acts as defoamer, release agent,
antibacterial agent. It is thermally stable and essentially inert. Has high
compressibility, high gloss intensity, high damping...

XIAMETER® PMX-200 12,500 cSt Dow Corning Linear

polydimethylsiloxane polymers. Acts as defoamer, release agent,
antibacterial agent. It is thermally stable and essentially inert. Has high
compressibility, high gloss intensity, high damping...

XIAMETER® PMX-200 30,000 cSt Dow Corning Linear

polydimethylsiloxane polymers. Acts as defoamer, release agent,
antibacterial agent. It is thermally stable and essentially inert. Has high
compressibility, high gloss intensity, high damping...

XIAMETER® PMX-200 5,000 cSt Dow Corning Linear

polydimethylsiloxane polymers. Acts as defoamer, release agent,
antibacterial agent. It is thermally stable and essentially inert. Has high
compressibility, high gloss intensity, high damping...

XIAMETER® PMX-200 60,000 cSt Dow Corning

Linear polydimethylsiloxane polymer. Acts as defoamer, release agent,

antibacterial agent. It is thermally stable and essentially inert. Has high
compressibility, high gloss intensity, high damping...

ANTI FOAM FROM BYK.

BYK® -016 Byk (Altana Group) BYK -016 by BYK Altana Group is a
compound of foam-destroying polymers and hydrophobic solids. Acts
as a VOC and silicone-free, polymer-based defoamer. It is chemically
stable and incompatible with...
BYK® A 501 Byk (Altana Group) Solution of foam destroying
polymers. Recommended usage level is 0.1% bis 0.5% based on total
formulation weight. Recommended to stir air release additive into the
resin prior to the addition of...

BYK® A 515 Byk (Altana Group) Solution of foam destroying

polymers. Recommended usage level is 0.1% bis 0.5% based on total
formulation weight. Recommended to stir air release additive into the
resin prior to the addition of...

BYK® A 550 Byk (Altana Group) Solution of foam destroying

polymers. Recommended usage level is 0.1% bis 0.5% based on total
formulation weight. Recommended to stir air release additive into the
resin prior to the addition of...

BYK® A 555 Byk (Altana Group) Solution of foam destroying

polymers. Possesses the highest efficiency. Recommended usage level
is 0.1% - 0.5% Based on total formulation weight. Recommended to stir
air release additive into the...

ANTI FOAM FROM N CONCENTROL EMULTROL DFM AFO-3

Concentrol EMULTROL DFM AFO-3 by Concentrol is an emulsion of
hydrophobic components in paraffin-based mineral oil. Acts as a
defoamer. It is a stable product, compatible with most chemical
products over a...

EMULTROL DFM AFO-5 Concentrol EMULTROL DFM AFO-5 by

Concentrol is an emulsion of hydrophobic substances in vegetable oils.
Acts as a defoamer. Offers excellent dispersion in foaming systems.
Highly stable product, compatible...

EMULTROL DFM AFO-6 Concentrol EMULTROL DFM AFO-6 by

Concentrol is an emulsion of hydrophobic components in paraffin-
based mineral oil. Acts as a defoamer. Offers excellent dispersion in
foaming systems. It is a stable product...

EMULTROL DFM AFO-7 Concentrol

26. Page26 EMULTROL DFM AFO-7 by Concentrol is a mineral oil-
free emulsion of hydrocarbon fluids and surfactants. Acts as a
defoamer. Offers excellent dispersion in foaming systems. It is a stable
product...

EMULTROL DFM CP-1 Concentrol EMULTROL DFM CP-1 by

Concentrol is a polydimethylsiloxanes and dispersed silicas. Acts as an
anti-foaming agent. Exhibits good shear stability and can be used to
prepare long term foam inhibition...

ANTI FOAM FROM EVONIK TEGO® Antifoam 1488 Evonik

TEGO® Antifoam 1488 by Evonik is an organo-modified siloxane
emulsion. Acts as an anti-foaming agent. Combines excellent foam
suppression and long-term efficiency with maximum compatibility at
the...

TEGO® Antifoam 2-57 Evonik TEGO® Antifoam 2-57 by Evonik is

an organo-modified siloxane emulsion. Acts as an anti-foaming agent.
Shows no negative effects in downstream applications (no surface
defects, fisheyes). Offers...

TEGO® Antifoam 2-80 Evonik TEGO® Antifoam 2-80 by Evonik is

an organo-modified siloxane emulsion. Acts as an anti-foaming agent.
Provides a unique product profile that combines excellent efficiency
with maximum compatibility...

TEGO® Antifoam 2-89 Evonik TEGO® Antifoam 2-89 by Evonik is

an organo-modified siloxane emulsion. Acts as an anti-foaming agent.
Provides a unique product profile that combines excellent efficiency
with maximum compatibility...

TEGO® Antifoam 204 Evonik TEGO® Antifoam 204 by Evonik is an

organo-modified siloxane emulsion (non-ionic). Acts as an anti-
foaming agent. Exhibits medium viscosity and provides reliable foam
control in aqueous media. Used...
TEGO® Antifoam 2280 Evonik TEGO® Antifoam 2280 by Evonik is a
polyether emulsion. Acts as an anti-foaming agent. It destroys foam or
prevents foam formation reliably in formulations produced with
dispersing agents including...

TEGO® Antifoam 2290 Evonik TEGO® Antifoam 2290 by Evonik is a

self-emulsifying APEO-free organic concentrate. Acts as an anti-
foaming agent and processing aid. It is absolute free of silicone and
does not contain any silica...

TEGO® Antifoam 2291 Evonik TEGO® Antifoam 2291 by Evonik is a

self-emulsifying APEO-free organic concentrate. Acts as an anti-
foaming agent and processing aid. It is absolute free of silicone and
does not contain any silica...

TEGO® Antifoam 2450 Evonik

TEGO® Antifoam 2450 by Evonik is an APEO-free organic
concentrate based on vegetable oil. Acts as an anti-foaming agent and
processing aid. It destroys foam or prevents foam formation. It is...

TEGO® Antifoam 4-94 Evonik TEGO® Antifoam 4-94 by Evonik is

an organo-modified siloxane emulsion. Acts as an anti-foaming agent.
Provides a unique product profile that combines excellent efficiency
with maximum compatibility...

TEGO® Antifoam KE 600 Evonik TEGO® Antifoam KE 600 by

Evonik is an APEO-free organic emulsion based on polyether
containing small amounts of organo-modified siloxanes. Acts as an
anti-foaming agent. It destroys foam or prevents...

TEGO® Antifoam KS 53 Evonik TEGO® Antifoam KS 53 by Evonik

is a self-emulsifying, APEO-free organic concentrate based on a food
grade vegetable oil, containing small amounts of organo-modified
siloxanes. Acts as an...

ANTI FOAM FROM GALATA Mark® I 489 Galata Chemicals

(Artech) Mark® I 489 by Galata Chemicals is a benzotriazole derived
inhibitor. It is used for inhibition process to suppress the formation of
foam locally. Mark® I 489 is recommended for use in printing inks...
view more Sololá 144 Georgia Gulf Partial ester of glycerol. Acts as
lubricant, defoamer and dispersing agent. Possesses synergistic effect
with tin stabilizers containing sulphur. It may affect the light stability of
compounds that...

ANTI FOAM FROM GIRNAR CASFA -CS Garner Industries Ricin

oleic acid. Acts as emulsifier, stabilizer and defoamer for emulsion
polymerization of resins. It provides polarity, surface wetting and
lubricity. The sodium and potassium soaps of ricin oleic...

CASFA -PS Girnar Industries Ricinoleic acid. Acts as emulsifier,

stabilizer and defoamer for emulsion polymerization of resins. It
provides polarity, surface wetting and lubricity. The sodium and
potassium soaps of ricinoleic...

HALLCO® C-451 Hallstar Glycol ester. Used as antifoam or

defoamer... view more ANTI FOAM FROM HiTECH HITELOX 236
air-es Hi Tech Solution of anti-foaming polymers. Acts as an air release
agent and silicon-free defoamer. Improves de- aeration and gloss levels,
inhibits, and destroys foam formation and imparts smooth finish. It...

HITELOX 237 air-es Hi Tech Solution of anti-foaming polymers. Acts

as an air release agent and silicon-free defoamer. Improves de- aeration
and gloss levels, inhibits, and destroys foam formation and imparts
smooth finish. It...

HITELOX 239 air-es Hi Tech Polymeric material. Acts as an air release

agent and silicon-free defoamer. Improves de-aeration and gloss levels,
inhibits, and destroys foam formation and imparts smooth finish. It
forms a uniform...

ILCO PHOS 208 ILCO Chemikalien Oleyalkohol-phosphoric acid

ester. Acts as a defoamer. Is a liquid at room temperature and is
insoluble in water...
ANTI FOAM FROM ICHEMCO Antischiuma FL3 Ichemco Antifoam
based on organomodified siloxanes? Used in water based
polimerization of thermoplastics and elastomers...view more Inovol
AF12 Inovyl Permits greater efficiency in the stripper by reducing foam
formation and enhancing thermal transfer from stream to polymer
slurry. Developed to effectively reduce foaming that could occur
during... view more KP 1300 Kolon Industries Foaming retardant...
view more Plastic Defoamer Laicai Plastic Masterbatch Factory Plastic
defoamer is a new function master batch that is specially developed for
solving the problem of bubble. It also acts as a dessicant that absorbs
water with weight of 20% of the agent itself...

ANTI FOAM FROM LANXESS Addovate® DD 1092 Lanxess

Addovate® DD 1092 is a mixture of emulsifiers based on fatty acid
ester. Acts as an emulsifier and defoamer. Used in the manufacture of
cellular vulkollan... view more Cadmium Stearate Mittal Pigments
(Mittal Group) Cadmium stearate. Acts as heat and light stabilizer for
polymers, especially for PVC. These stabilizers allow high temperature
processes. Forbidden for food packaging...

ANTI FOAM FROM MOMENTIVE Baysilone Antifoam® TP3861

Momentive 100% active silicone antifoam compound primarily
designed for foam control at low addition levels in aggressive foaming
environments. Exhibits chemical inertness. Does not reacts with the
medium to... view more Baysilone® Antifoam 3099
Momentive 30% emulsion of modified polydimethylsiloxane. Designed
as antifoam and defoamer in aqueous or polar organic media. Exhibits
particularly good foam destruction and control under high temperature
and a very... view more Baysilone® Antifoam TP 3757 Momentive
30% silicone antifoam of modified polydimethylsiloxane useful for
defoaming aqueous systems. Particularly suited for high alkaline
environments such as those found in pulp mills and for acidic...

ANTI FOAM FROM MUNZING AGITAN® 108 Munzing AGITAN®

108 by Munzing is an APEO (alkylphenol ethoxylates)-free, silicone-
based aqueous emulsion of vegetable oils, polyethers and non-ionic
emulsifiers. Acts as a defoamer with excellent stability...
ANTI FOAM FROM FEW OTHERS NEWOTEC® 010 is a mixture
containing modified polymeric glycol ethers. Acts as a deaerating agent
for PVC pastes. It is low volatile, low VOC and free of APEO and
phthalates. It is biodegradable and...

NEWOTEC® 013 NEWOS NEWOTEC® 013 is a mixture containing

modified polymeric glycol ethers. Acts as a deaerating agent for PVC
pastes. It is low VOC and free of APEO and phthalates. It improves
heat stability. It has...

NEWOTEC® 020 NEWOS NEWOTEC® 020 is a mixture containing

modified glycol ethers. Acts as a deaerating agent for PVC plastisols.
It is low volatile and free of APEO and phthalates. It has its best effect
when it is...

Actmix® CaO-80GE F200 Ningbo Actmix Polymer Actmix® CaO-

80GE F200 is a calcium oxide. Acts as a defoaming agent. It contains
20 wt% polymer binder and dispersing agent. It avoids spongy defect in
the presence of vapor when rubber products are...

Kemamide® W-40 DF Discontinued PMC Group Fatty bisamide...

view more PAT-ADD AF 75 Patcham (FZC) PAT-ADD AF 75 by
Patcham FZC is organic polymer compound in hydrocarbon solvent. It
is a silicone-free polymeric de-aerator and defoamer for use in
unsaturated polyester systems. It demonstrates... view more Tallicin®
Grinding Vehicle 1510 Pflaumer Brothers Tallicin® Grinding Vehicle
1510 is a specialty acrylic resin. It acts as an anti-settling agent.
Produces very high-quality pigment dispersions in a wide variety of
plastic systems. Lowers viscosity...

Aluminium stearate Polytrans

Monoaluminum stearate. Acts as a lubricant, water repellent agent,
hydro-phobic agent and defoaming agent. It is soluble in oils and
insoluble in water as well as alcohol. Used in the production of...
RIMPRO OP 10 Rimpro India RIMPRO OP 10 by Rimpro India is an
octylphenol ethoxylate. Acts as a defoaming agent, dispersant and
stabilizer. It is a pale yellow to colorless clear liquid. RIMPRO OP 10 is
a type of...

ANTI FOAM FROM RIMPRO. RIMPRO OP 15 Rimpro India

RIMPRO OP 15 by Rimpro India is an octylphenol ethoxylate. Acts as
a defoaming agent, dispersant and stabilizer. It is a pale yellow to
colorless clear liquid. It is a type of alkylphenol...

RIMPRO OP 20 Rimpro India RIMPRO OP 20 by Rimpro India is an

octylphenol ethoxylate. Acts as a defoaming agent, dispersant and
stabilizer. It is a pale yellow to semi waxy solid. It is a type of
alkylphenol ethoxylate...

RIMPRO OP 30 Rimpro India RIMPRO OP 30 by Rimpro India is an

octylphenol ethoxylate. Acts as a defoaming agent, dispersant and
stabilizer. It is a pale yellow to waxy solid. It is a type of alkylphenol
ethoxylate, composed...

RIMPRO OP 40 Rimpro India RIMPRO OP 40 by Rimpro India is an

octylphenol ethoxylate. Acts as a defoaming agent, dispersant and
stabilizer. It is a pale yellow to waxy solid. It is a type of alkylphenol
ethoxylate, composed...

ZINC STEARATE (ZS) S V Plastochem ZINC STEARATE (ZS) by S

V Plastochem is a white fine zinc stearate powder. Acts as a heat and
light stabilizer in PVC compounds, lubricants, mold release agent,
fillers and antifoamers. ZINC...

COLORIN 302 Sanyo Chemical Industries Derivative of polyalkylene

glycol. Acts as a defoaming agent. It exhibits high defoaming
properties, improves product yield and working efficiency. Suitable for
manufacture of acrylonitrile...
COLORIN EM-104 Sanyo Chemical Industries It acts as a defoaming
agent. It exhibits high defoaming properties, improves product yield
and working efficiency. Suitable for manufacture of latex...

2-EH Shazand Petrochemical complex 2-Ethylhexanol. Acts as a

plasticizer and defoaming agent. Manufactured using the OXO process
involving hydroformylation of propylene to N-butyraldehyde followed
by an aldol condensation and...

Antifoam SAF-105 Silchem Based on dimethylsiloxane fluid.

Emulsified with non-ionic grade emulsifiers... view more Antifoam
SAF-110 Silchem Based on dimethylsiloxane fluid. Emulsified with
non-ionic grade emulsifiers...

Antifoam SAF-119FG
Silchem Based on dimethylsiloxane fluid. Emulsified with non-ionic
grade emulsifiers... view more Antifoam SAF-120 Silchem Based on
dimethylsiloxane fluid. Emulsified with non-ionic grade emulsifiers...
Antifoam SAF-121 Silchem Based on dimethylsiloxane fluid.
Emulsified with non-ionic grade emulsifiers...

ANTI FOAM FROM SOLVAY Colloid™ 581B Solvay Silicone free.

Quick foam knock-down in high-surfactant polymerization recipes.
Low carryover into compounding. Excellent compatibility... view more
Colloid™ 635 Solvay Silicone-free antifoam for general stripping and
polymer compounding. Excellent high shear, pH, and temperature
stability...
Colloid™ 675 Solvay Easily dispersible, multi-component defoamer for
stripping, foam knock-down and latex handling. Extremly effective
with ethylene copolymers and compounds...

Colloid™ 681F Solvay Excellent for vinyl-acrylics. Disperses easily.

Remains homogeneous... view more Colloid™ 685 Solvay Readily
dispersible. Strong defoamer for stripping and processing carboxylated
SBR and PVC emulsions. More efficient than high silica defoamers in
some aeras...
Colloid™ 961 Solvay Extremly dispersible, spreads rapidly. Excellent
foam knock-down, long-term persistence. Compatible with most
emulsions, PVA, starches and cellulosics...

Colloid™ 985 Solvay Silicone free. Easily dispersible. Useful in vinyl

acrylic latices, sealants. Non-setting in drum. Effective with starches,
gums and cellulosics... view more Colloid™ 994 Solvay Dispersible.
High silicone-silica levels with other active defoamers. Effective in
stripping highly viscous emulsions and dispersions...

Colloid™ 999 Solvay Silicone-free and mineral oil-free. Easily

dispersible. Excellent for compounded systems containing PVA,
gelatin, protein, starch and cellulosics...

ANTI FOAM FROM WACKER HDK® H2000 Wacker

32. Page32 Synthetic, hydrophobic amorphous silica, produced via
flame hydrolysis. Appears as a white colloidal powder of high purity. It
acts as an antifoam agent and used as a reinforcing filler in...

Wacker® AK 100 Silicone Fluid Wacker Polydimethylsiloxane. Acts as

a release agent, lubricant, water-repellent agent, and antifoaming agent.
Offers particularly good water-repellent properties. Exhibits good
dielectric properties. Possesses low...

Wacker® AK 1000 Silicone Fluid Wacker Polydimethylsiloxane. Used

as release agent, lubricant, and water-repellent agent. Offers particularly
good water-repellent properties. Exhibits good dielectric properties.
Possesses low surface tension and...

Wacker® AK 12500 Silicone Fluid Wacker Polydimethylsiloxane.

Used as release agent, lubricant, and water-repellent agent. Offers
particularly good water-repellent properties. Exhibits good dielectric
properties. Possesses low surface tension and...

Wacker® AK 35 Silicone Fluid Wacker Linear, non-reactive

polydimethylsiloxane. Used as release agent, lubricant, and antifoam
agent. Offers particularly good water-repellent properties. Provides
good dielectric properties. Possesses low...

Wacker® Fluid AK 500000 Wacker Linear, non-reactive

polydimethylsiloxane. Used as antifoam agent. Offers particularly good
water-repellent properties. Provides good dielectric properties.
Possesses low surface tension and thus high...

ANTI FOAM FROM RIMPRO INDIA RIMPRO OP 10 Rimpro India

RIMPRO OP 10 by Rimpro India is an octylphenol ethoxylate. Acts as
a defoaming agent, dispersant and stabilizer. It is a pale yellow to
colorless clear liquid. RIMPRO OP 10 is a type of...

RIMPRO OP 15 Rimpro India RIMPRO OP 15 by Rimpro India is an

octylphenol ethoxylate. Acts as a defoaming agent, dispersant and
stabilizer. It is a pale yellow to colorless clear liquid. It is a type of
alkylphenol...

RIMPRO OP 20 Rimpro India RIMPRO OP 20 by Rimpro India is an

octylphenol ethoxylate. Acts as a defoaming agent, dispersant and
stabilizer. It is a pale yellow to semi waxy solid. It is a type of
alkylphenol ethoxylate...

RIMPRO OP 30 Rimpro India RIMPRO OP 30 by Rimpro India is an

octylphenol ethoxylate. Acts as a defoaming agent, dispersant and
stabilizer. It is a pale yellow to waxy solid. It is a type of alkylphenol
ethoxylate, composed...
RIMPRO OP 40 Rimpro India RIMPRO OP 40 by Rimpro India is an
octylphenol ethoxylate. Acts as a defoaming agent, dispersant and
stabilizer. It is a pale yellow to waxy solid. It is a type of alkylphenol
ethoxylate, composed...

RIMPRO OP 5 Rimpro India

RIMPRO OP 5 by Rimpro India is an octylphenol ethoxylate. Acts as a
defoaming agent, dispersant and stabilizer. It is pale yellow to colorless
hazy liquid. It is a type of alkylphenol ethoxylate...
RIMPRO OP 50 Rimpro India RIMPRO OP 50 by Rimpro India is an
octylphenol ethoxylate. Acts as a defoaming agent, dispersant and
stabilizer. It is a pale yellow to waxy solid. It is a type of alkylphenol
ethoxylate, composed...

RIMPRO OP 9.5 Rimpro India RIMPRO OP 9.5 by Rimpro India is an

octylphenol ethoxylate. Acts as a defoaming agent, dispersant and
stabilizer. It is a pale yellow to colorless clear liquid. It is a type of
alkylphenol...

Removing Air Adhesives and Other coating Liquids Degassing

(deaeration) is a process of removing dissolved / entrapped air bubbles
from a liquid. It is one of the most common applications of ISM's
ultrasonic technology, which provides the means of removing the
gasses/air from a variety of liquids, including water, adhesives,
coatings, emulsion. Degassing can significantly contribute to the quality
of the final product (fewer defects, improved aesthetics, etc.), making it
a very desirable process for many companies. Continuous processing
configuration in a production environment, the degassing/deaeration
process is most carried out continuously, which makes it possible to
treat large volumes of liquid and ensure reliable and uniform results.
The most common arrangement for this process is presented in the
schematic on the left. The liquid is drawn from the bottom of the
storage tank and pumped through the ultrasonic reactor
chamber/Barbell horn assembly, where ultrasonic cavitation
continuously transfers any dissolved gasses and/or suspended micro-
bubbles into large bubbles with high buoyancy. The large bubbles are
then carried with the flow of the liquid either back to the same storage
tank (recirculating configuration) or to another tank (single-pass
configuration), where they can surface and release the gasses to the
environment. If the recirculating configuration is used, care must be
taken not to draw any of the large bubbles back into the line. Special
tank features may be incorporated, such as a barrier with a narrow gap
at the bottom positioned between the inlet and the outlet, a sealed lid
with a vacuum connection, a surface at the inlet to force the breaking of
the bubbles, etc.
REFERENCES
https://polymer-additives.specialchem.com/selectors/s-rimpro-india/c-
additives-anti-foaming-agents- defoamers
4.3.2. Dispersion Chemicals for Latex
4.4.1. Process of Thickening on NR Latex
US patent No. 2326956
4.5.1. Latex Additives

Reliable Products for stretchable Application Conditions

Latex, whether made from natural or synthetic rubber, is a versatile
compound able to service a wide set of applications. It is surface can be
endlessly modified so to allow virtually unlimited bonding with a wide
range of materials.
Schill + Seilacher's superb latex processing additives have been
developed to guarantee that our customers can fulfil their manufacturing
needs and individual requirements. Our additives enable our customers
to adapt latex to a vast and varied range of applications and enable a
more environmentally conscious manufacturing process. Struktol
products dependably improve durability and robustness, while
enhancing quality and stability.

As recognized partner in the development of new and innovative latex

processing solutions, our products are used in a broad spectrum of
applications worldwide, e.g. in the paper, carpet, paint, and tyre
industries as well as in the manufacture of mattresses and textiles.
Known forth efficient and effective incorporation of the latest
technology, Schill + Seilacher is dedicated to the development of new
products and the discovery of new applications for our customers.

Common uses for Latex in general:

• rubber treads
• foam articles
• carpet backing
• dipped rubber goods
• paper coatings
• adhesives

Antifoams and Dewebbing Agents

Anti-foam agents are used in dipping mixes or other similar latex
compounds to either prevent foam formation or to destroy existing
foam.
Dewebbing agents are materials used to hinder the unwanted formation
of membranes between adjacent parts of a drip former once the mould
has been removed from the latex (e.g. latex gloves).

Antitack Agents
The surface of films made from rubber, especially natural rubber, have
tendency to stick together due to its naturally high surface tack.
Unfortunately, this trait can result in problems storing and transporting
latex products. Anti-tack agents are materials designed to eliminate the
self-adhesive quality of rubber products and are applied to products to
form a thin protective anti-tacky layer on the surface.

Antioxidants
The ageing of latex products is affected by many interacting factors,
e.g. exposure to oxygen, heat, light, and ozone. Antioxidants included
in latex and latex products reduce the rate of polymer's degradation. The
effectiveness of an antioxidant in latex depends not only on the
chemical structure but also on its particle size and surface area.

Schill+Seilacher's aqueous antioxidant dispersions:

• Easy to use
• Highly concentrated and effective at low dosages
• Dramatically improved ageing behaviour
• Not discolouring and non -staining
Our state-of-the-art production processes produce emulsions that
exhibit a very narrow fine particle size distribution.
More than 90 % of the particles in a typical Struktol emulsion are less
than 1 μm in size, leading to a significantly increased particle surface
area that is five times greater than that of dispersions produced in
conventional grinding machines, and up to 500 times more particles per
gram of antioxidant. The result is a more uniform distribution of
antioxidant particles throughout the latex product, quicker dissolution
of the antioxidant into the rubber phase, and better antioxidant
performance at low dosage levels.

Products
• Struktol® LA 190
• Struktol® LA 329

Stabilisers
In most colloidal latex dispersions, the particles acquire a negative
electrical charge by adsorption of surfactant anions and are maintained
in the colloidal state by electrical repulsion between the particles.
Schill+Seilacher has a range of water based; anionic stabilisers
developed to meet these special requirements.

Products
• Struktol® LS 100
• Struktol® LS 101
• Struktol® LS 109
• Struktol® LS 401
• Struktol® LS 412

Tackifier
Tackifiers are materials added to rubber mixes to increase the surface
tack of the rubber. Traditional tackifiers are usually made of resinous
materials but for latex processing most are either emulsions or
dispersions.
Struktol LT 159 is a resin dispersion that has been specially developed
and optimized for use with natural and synthetic lattices in a wide array
of applications. Unfortunately, a classical emulsion does not always
suffice as particle size and quantity in combination with the type of
surfactants present each influence the tack. Struktol LT 356 and
Struktol LT 357 are part of a new generation of tackifier dispersions
with an exceptionally fine particle size and are well suited for high
performance applications, e.g. water-based adhesive systems.

Products
• Struktol® LT 357
Processing methods for rubber materials -
Latex processes – Mixing

Conservation and concentration of the latex is done by the supplier and

when delivered it normally has a solid content of 50 to 60 %. It is an
alkaline substance with pH 10 - 10.5.

The formulation is very much like a common solid rubber formulation

containing:
• Vulcanizing system, normally based on sulphur and ultrafast
accelerators activated by zinc oxide
• Stabilizers as fatty acid soaps
• Ant degradants
• Fillers, only not reinforcing like calcium carbonate
• Pigments
• Processing additives, i.e. for viscosity control

Dry chemicals cannot be directly added to latex as by doing so the latex

will coagulate around the particles. The chemicals must therefore be
dispersed in water with the addition of a dispersion agent. In a mill, a
ball mill or a colloidal mill, the chemicals are finely ground to an
aqueous dispersion.

Likewise, processing aids i.e. soap stabilisers and defoaming agents are
added after being dissolved in water.
The latex compound is normally mixed in an open receptacle under
stirring. The various ingredients must be mixed with great caution and it
can take up to three days to complete the mixing process.
The latex compound often requires a maturing period of a week before
the further processing process can take place.
4.5.2. Magnesium content in latex Pinholes in
gloves
In your professional opinion can you advise how flavours and pigments
additives affect the mechanical/physical
properties of condoms?
We already have tested some of our coloured/flavoured condoms for
bio compatibility tests by NamSA, mc, and we are now facing this
question.
Through many years of our production experience, these mate
rials do not critically affect the quality of condoms. We were
asked to establish a professional opinion, and that is why we are
seeking your expertise. General Manager
Dongicuk Techno Rubber Malaysia.

I have not heard of either mechanical or physical property problems

with the addition of flavours, pigments colourants, or fragrances to the
latex compounds used for condoms. There have been some
biocompatibility problems. However, I have no specific information.
About two years ago, I did a colourant evaluation project for a major
U.S. toy balloon manufacturer. Much to my surprise, we found that
vulcanization times and temperatures had to be changed to get good
physical properties when balloons with some colourants were being
produced. In all cases, good physical properties were obtained by
making the changes.
I don’t believe that would be a problem with condoms because the
colour intensity would be 1999 much less. With balloons, the
colour must be retained after the balloon is inflated. The quantity
of colourant is high compared with that used to produce
condom tints. We are having the classic debate about the differences
between Thai and Malaysian latices with one of our customers.
The point of contention is the magnesium content and the addition of
TMTD:
* How would an Mg content of, say, 30 ppm on TSC affect a compound
for surgical gloves?
* Would that compound be greatly affected if, say, the Mg content was
5 ppm on TSC?
* What is current legislation by the US FDA regarding TMTD content
in latices used for exams and surgical gloves?
* What developments do you expect to see regarding this legislation in
the future?
* Our customer finds that they have absolutely no problem with Thai
origin LATZ latices, but with HA latex they are experiencing small,
rough lumps on their gloves. Any idea how that might be corrected?
We request you to shed some light on the matter.
General Manager Metal Co. Ltd. Thailand
Answer in the same order as questions received.
* A 30-ppm magnesium content would likely reduce both the
mechanical and chemical stability of a latex compound.
* 5 ppm of Mg in a compound should not be a problem.
* TMTD as an accelerator must be 1.5% or less as a % of latex
compound. However, residual accelerators must be much less. Actual
allowable amount will be known in may be six months.
The allowable amount will likely be in the 50 Rag/dm2 range.
* Protein limits, powder limits, and residual accelerator limits, will
likely be regulated by the end of 1999 There may be more than one
limit for each of the three. A change in the amount of allowable TMTD
in the compound is not likely.
* You did not explain the nature of the lumps. However, if they are bits
of coagulum, they are probably due to low mechanical and chemical
stability - Excess Mg could be the reason. As you are aware, phosphate
stabilizers will reduce the coagulum problem. Also, excessive mixing
time should be avoided.
please be advised that we are a gloves manufacturing company.
Attached, please find the formulations of nitrile latex compounding and
coagulant mixing, respectively, that are currently being used.
Based on the aforementioned formulations, please give some comments
on them in order to upgrade the quality of our product, as we recently
received some complaints from our customers due to the poor quality.
For instance, pinholes and shrinkage.
The defects were only referred to powder free nitrite gloves and there
was nothing wrong with the pre-powdered type. Furthermore, the
defects were only detected once the goods reached the destination,
which initially were found in good condition and passed all the QA
inspections before shipment took place.
As far as we are concerned, we have no idea whether the defects were
due to either our product failures or environmental stress cracking
failures, but one thing we are sure to is that chlorination plays a key role
in the mentioned defects.
Ng Chang Keong Pamitex Industries Malaysia.
Formulations were received. For purposes of confidentiality, these are
not being published. Shrinkage of nitrile usually happens if the forms
are too hot when entering the latex. The gelled latex shrinks down
immediately after the forms leave the latex tank. If this is the type of
shrinkage you are experiencing, reduce form temperatures.
I have not experienced shrink age of a cured nitrile film either
with or without chlorination. Pinholes frequently begin to leak
after chlorination. This condition becomes worse after several weeks’
storage. In my experience, this has been due to the thin film over small
air bubbles in the glove becoming brittle due to chlorination. This
brittleness increases during storage. When the glove is stretched, the
thin brittle film over the air bubble breaks and leakage occurs.
Chlorinated rubber is a brittle material. If bubbles are present in the
gloves, the problem you describe will occur the problem can be reduced
by reducing the Cl2 concentration or the time of chlorination. The
problem can be eliminated by getting rid of the air bubbles.
* Chlorinated gloves do not age well, particularly if they are
over chlorinated. It is possible that instead of the pinhole problem I
described above, you are actually getting small cracks in the film which
are leaking. Microscopic examination of the leak will reveal if it was a
crack or if it was a broken air bubble.
*Your formulas are satisfactory. Be sure all powders are ground
to less than 5 microns and that additions of all materials are made
slowly. Materials such as surfactants, which are sometimes very
viscous, should be diluted before being added.
4.5.3. Hidden Cost in the Manufacture of your
own Filler Dispersions

1. Non-active ingredients cost

2. Capital cost of plant & equipment for dispersion manufacture

3. Cost of maintenance and up-keep of plant & equipment

including keeping an inventory of essential spare parts

4. Capital and running costs of laboratory and laboratory

equipment required to control the quality of inhouse dispersions

5. Cost of keeping and controlling raw materials inventories for

multiple materials (outsourced dispersion can be a ‘composite’
containing several ingredients) including staff costs, factory space and
financial outlay.

6. Cost of the factory space utilized for the in-house dispersion

making activities. This is not the actual cost of rental/purchase but an
additional ‘opportunity cost’ if the space can be more profitably used
for production of the mainline product (eg. gloves)

7. Cost of the labor/staff to carry out and control the production

and QC

8. Cost of energy (usually electricity) for the mix preparation,

milling and packaging operations

9. Costs of treating effluent and disposing of wastes arising from

dispersion manufacture

10. Cost of raw materials packaging waste (may require disposal in

same category as chemical wastes)
11. Cost of potential downtime on mainline production which is
relying on the in-house dispersion

12. Cost of wasted or down-graded final product if the quality

consistency of the in-house dispersion is not maintained

13. Compared to a specialized dispersion manufacturer, the user

making in-house will have a smaller scale of operation which will result
in:

14. Bigger impact from fixed and capital costs

15. Higher percentage of materials wasted. Lower purchasing power

on raw materials

16. More costs of regulatory compliance per ton of dispersion

17. Higher labor/staff cost her ton of dispersion

4.5.4. Avoiding Over Curing to Boost the Tear
Resistance of Latex Film
How can you improve the tear resistance of latex ruins?
Anonymous International Latex Conference, Akron

A general answer is to avoid over-curing of the film.

Both tensile and tear strength will deteriorate when your product
has been over-cured. An additive which will greatly
improve resistance to tear propagation Trouser Tear is Tylac 68060, a
nitrile latex produced by Dow Reictthold. An 8-12 pan addition is
generally sufficient to increase Trouser Tear properties.
A word of caution. Flex resistance will decrease with this addition.
Reducing viscosity
We are a rubberised coir manufacturing company. We
want to reduce viscosity in our compounding latex CL. Total
solid contents in CL is about 54% without changing TS,
filler, chemicals since we are spraying latex on coconut fibre.
If viscosity is l, penetration of Spray will increase our pro
duction. So kindly suggest a suitable Ingredient or method.
If solids content is critical, the addition of inorganic e.g. sodium
hydroxide or sodium silicate and organic alkaline materials ethylene
diamine, urea, mono ethylamine, diethanolamine or morpholine will
reduce viscosity moderately. The most effective material is ethylene di-
amine. One to three parts are suggested and are usually added as a
25% solution in water. Urea 1 to 3 phr. may be added as dry crystals or
as a concentrated 50% solution. Sodium silicate 0.25 phr is particularly
effective if high amounts of zinc oxide are present.
As always, try this on a laboratory basis to ensure the viscosity
depressant does not cause unforeseen stability problems.
Fillers to reduce cost We produce dipped products, mainly bladders.
Please let us know if we can incorporate any ruler to reduce cost e.g.
what ratio is suitable without much affecting the original proper
ties? as the tensile strength TS and elongation properties are
very critical in our product. TS up to 250 kg/cin.sq. and elongation up
to 850 are required.
A soft clay such as McNamee clay, supplied by RT Vanderbilt, is
commonly used for the purpose you have outlined, it will reduce cost
and it will reduce tensile strength and elongation.
How much reduction of physical properties should be established in
your laboratory?

I suggest an addition of 10-20 PHDR as a 50% slurry as a start for

checking changes in physical properties.
Lower Latex protein limit What is the estimated lower limit for
reducing latex protein related issues through combinations of powder
free and reduction technologies?

"Powder-free" technology 1. does not reduce latex protein. The absence

of powder prevents the protein in the latex film from being ‘picked up"
by the powder and thus spreading throughout the area where the
gloves are being used.
The lower limit which should be considered acceptable is "below the
lower detection limit" of the test methods of ASTM D 5712 or ASTM
D 6499.
Residual accelerators ‘What are the typical levels of residual
accelerators in medical gloves?

Unfortunately, there is no generally accepted test method to

determine the level of residual accelerators which can be extracted
from a natural or synthetic latex glove by human perspiration.
One method being used is extraction with DI. water or PBS with an
HPLC analysis of the extract. Zero identified accelerator residues are
considered acceptable.
Tackling crystallisation Can the compounder affect the degree to which
a polychloroprene product will exhibit crystallinity during low-
temperature exposure?

A delegate - International Latex Conference.

The vulcanisation temperature and the resulting "state of

cure" have a major effect on crystallisation of polychloroprene
products. Check with your chloroprene supplier to find out what
cure temperature and time, you should use with his polymer to prevent
or at least minimise crystallisation. Sulphur in the compound can
reduce crystallisation as can the use of some accelerators. Here again,
contact the chloroprene supplier for recommendations.
A 3rd factor is the choice of the chloroprene polymer. Some polymers
have much greater resistance to crystallisation. For complete
information about the several polymers on the market, check
with your chloroprene supplier and also with his competitors. All
Chloroprenes are not the same; Refer, if possible, to John Carl’s
Neoprene Latex pages 65-67.

Will blending help?

Can I reduce the effect of cold temperature crystallinity in my
polychloroprene product by blending in some nitrile latex?
Anonymous – International Latex Conference.

possibly. However, that depends on the nitrile polymer and the

chloroprene polymer as well as the cure system, vulcanisation
temperature, and the compound recipe. It would be better
to address the problem as outlined in the reply to the query above.
Also, it would probably be better to tackle the problem by opting for a
chloroprene polymer with a lower crystallisation rate.
A major difference Is there any difference in maturing polyisoprene
latex and natural rubber latex?

A major difference is that the chloroform precure system doesn’t work

with polyisoprene. Therefore, a switch to a swollen diameter system
which works for both polymers is a likely choice. It is possible to use N
Butyl alcohol for polyisoprene and chloroform for NB., But the results
are somewhat different in appearance.
Keep in mind that these "quick mix" tests are subjective.
The timing of the addition of the ‘solvent’ and the reading must
always be the same, the latex and solvent temperatures must be the
same and, most important, the person making the judgement call
must always be the same.
*