HDMIV\REPORTS\SIDEFRIC

Bandung 23 July 1995/KLB

HDM4 project report

IMPACT OF SIDE FRICTION ON SPEED-FLOW RELATIONSHIPS

FOR RURAL AND URBAN HIGHWAYS
by
Dr. Karl-L. Bang, SWEROAD Indonesia

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
1.2 OBJECTIVES
1.3 SCOPE
2. DEFINITIONS
3. GENERAL SPEED-FLOW MODEL
3-1 Free -flow speed
3-2 Capacity
3 -3 Traffic flow
3-4 Actual speed
4. SIDE FRICTION
4.1 General
4-2 Identification of side frictional items
4.2.1 Basic issues
4.2.2 Selection of frictional items
4.2.3 Field data collection
4.3 Analysis of the impact of side friction
4.3.1 Weighing of side friction events
4.3.2 Definition of side friction classes
4.4 Impact of side friction on traffic performance
4.4.1 General model
4.4.2 Impact of side friction on free-flow speed
4.4.3 Impact of side friction on capacity
5. MODELLING OF CONGESTION AND SIDE FRICTION EFFECTS IN BDM-Q
5.1 Description of the model
5.2 Comparison between the HDM-Q and IHCM speed prediction
models.

6. CONCLUSIONS

APPEND1CES
A: Illustration of side friction conditions on interurban and urban
roads.
B: Indonesian Highway Capacity Manual, Chapter 6 INTERURBAN ROADS
(revised draft 23 July 1995) .
1. INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
In rapidly developing, densely populated countries in Asia and
elsewhere considerable resources are invested in road transport which
is seen as a sector which is crucial to the development effort. In de-
signing new roads and when maintaining and upgrading existing ones,
procedures are needed for the estimation of traffic performance if best
use is to be made of the resources spent for construction and
maintenance. Two different tools have been developed internationally
over the years to meet these demands:
a) Highway capacity manuals (HCM), which emanate from the traffic
engineering profession and are used for prediction of traffic
performance measures (speed,delay etc) as a function of traffic
interaction, geometric design and traffic control features.
b) Highway design and maintenance models (HDM), which originate from
the highway engineering profession and are primarily used for
selection of pavement management strategybymeans of comparisons
of road user costs and highway costs for different pavement types
and treatments. Free-flow speed is predicted as a basis for these
calculations, which normally doe not include "congestion
effects".
In HCM-models the analysis normally assumes flexible pavement in good
condition, i.e. the effect of roughness is not included in the
modelling. In HDM analysis on the contrary pavement condition is a
major variable influencing free-flow speed, but congestion effects are
normally not modelled .
The effect on speed of events happening along the road, commonly
described as side friction, is normally not included in HCM-models,
which traditionally have originated from developed countries with a
high level of motorization and low amount of road side activities.
Although HDM-models often are based on field surveys in developing
countries, they also fail to include this effect. Attempts to tackle
both the congestion and the side friction effects have however been
done in Indonesia (Bang et a1 1995) and by the World Bank (Hoban et a1
1994) as described below.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
SWEROAD has been contracted by the SwedishNational Road Administration
(SNRA) to support the development of a new Highway Development and
Management Tool (HDM-4,jointly sponsored by IBRD, ADB, ODA and SNRA)
concerning modification of vehicle speeds by congestion. This
assistance is to a large part based on experiences gained in the
ongoing project to develop an Indonesian Highway Capacity Manual (IHCM)
with SWEROAD as Lead Consultant. The objective of this report is to
review and discuss these results with special focus on the modelling
of side friction impacts on speed and capacity for interurban road
links. This includes the following parts:
a) Summary of analysis results of side friction impacts and speed-
flow prediction modelling in IHCM.
b) Discussion of speed-flow and side friction modelling in HDM-Q,
and recommendations for application in HDM-4.
 C) Discussion regarding the implementation of the results in HDM-4
in the form of the HDM-Q model.

1.3 SCOPE
The IHCM speed-flow prediction model assumes that the traffic
performance of a road link is a function of the conditions on the road
link itself, i.e. the impact of bottlenecks such as major intersections
are not included. Minor road junctions and exits/entries to roadside
properties are however considered.
Two slightly different models have been developed in IHCM for urban and
interurban conditions. The latter is used for analysis of a range of
conditions from rural, with basically undeveloped roadside land use,
to almost continuous roadside (strip) residential and/or commercial
development typical for interurban roads in densely populated areas.

DEFINITIONS

The terminology used in this paper has been developed in the IHCM
project (see Appendix B). A number of key terms are listed below:

C CAPACITY Maximum sustainable (stable) traffic

(pcu/h) flow over a road section under given
conditions (e.g. geometric design,
environment, traffic etc.) .
Q TRAFFIC FLOW Number of motorized vehicles passing a
point on a road per unit of time,
expressed in veh/h (Q,,,, , pcu/h (Qpcu)
or
AADT (Annual Average Daily Traffic).
pce PASSENGER CAR Factor describing different vehicle types
EQUIVALENT with regard to their impact on average
light vehicle speed when added to a mixed
flow as compared to that of a light
vehicle (i.e for passenger cars and other
light vehicles with similar chassis pce =
1-01.

pcu PASSENGER CAR UNIT Unit for traffic flow, where the flow of
different vehicle types have been
converted to the corresponding flow of
light vehicles using pce.
DS DEGREE OF Ratio of flow to capacity.
SATURATION DS = Qpcu/Cpcu
FV, BASE FREE-FLOW Free-flow speed for a road segment for a
SPEED predetermined set of ideal conditions
(geometry,traffic flow pattern and envi-
ronmental factors) .
FV FREE FLOW SPEED (1) The theoretical average speed of
traffic when density is zero, i - e , there
are no other vehicles present.
 (2) Speed of a vehicle which is not
restrained by any other vehicles (i.e.
speed at which drivers feel comfortable
travelling under the geometric, environ-
mental, and traffic control conditions
existing on a road segment with no other
traffic) .
V SPEED Actual space-mean speed during prevailing
geometric, environmental and traffic
conditions.
W,, EFFECTIVE Carriageway width available for
CARRIAGEWAY traffic movement, after any reduction
WIDTH due to parking. (Note: Paved shoulders are
considered to be a part of the effective
carriageway width in certain cases) .
SF SIDE FRICTION Events causing an impact on traffic per-
formance on the road segment.
LV LIGHT VEHICLE Two-axle motor vehicle on four wheels with
an axle spacing of 2.0 - 3.0 m used for
passenger and/or goods transportation.
MHV MEDIUM HEAVY Two-axle motor vehicle with an axle
VEHICLE spacing of 3.5 - 5.0 m (including small
buses, 2-axle trucks with six wheels).
LT LARGE TRUCK . Three-axle trucks and truck combinations
with axle spacing c 3 - 5 m (first to
second axle).
LB LARGE BUS Two- or three-axle buses with an axle
spacing of 5.0 - 6.0 m.
UM UNMOTORISED Unmotorised vehicle on wheels (including
VEHICLE tricycles, bicycles, animal drawn
carriages, pushcarts etc) . Note: In IHCM
unmotorised vehicles are not considered as
a part of the traffic flow but as an el-
ement of side friction.

3. GENERAL SPEED-FLOW MODEL

The single-regime model can be calibrated to mode1 speed-flow
relationships on most road types:
v = wx[l - (D/D~)
(t-ll] l/(l-ml ; Do/Dj= / ( P -m)I
[ (1-m) l/"-l)

where :
D = Density (pcu/km) (calculated as Q/V)
Dj = Density at completely "jammed" road
DO = Density at capacity
P, m = Constants
for two-laneundividedroads the speed-flow relationship is often close
to linear. Figure 3:l illustrates Indonesian field data from a number
of sites normalized for a standard two-lane,two-way undivided (2/2UD)
urban road with carriageway 7 m. The observations are divided into two
categories representing stable (marked with circles) and unstable
(marked with stars) flow conditions, where the latter are defined by
having density higher than Do.

VALL vs FLOW for 212 URBAN ROADS (CLASS=P)

Flow (pculh)

Figure 3 : 1 Field observations for 2/2 UD urban roads ( I H a )

Figure 3 :2 illustrates a schematical speed-flow model for 2/2 UD roads
based on these observations.

Traffic flow Q pcu/h

Figure 3:2 General speed-flow model for 2/2 UD roads (IHCM).

5
The speed at zero flow (point A) represents the free-flow speed (Fv)
as determined by existing conditions. If there is no speed limit (or
no enforcement of existing limit) the speed drops continuously as the
flow increases. An almost flat portion of the speed-flowrelationship
at low flow (represented by the dashed line B-C in the figure) can be
observed in cases when the speed resulting from an en£orced speed-limit
is lower than the free-flow speed as determined by geometric and
environmental conditions only.
When Q increases to a value (Q,) close to capacity C at point D in the
graph flow conditions change from "laminar" to "turbulentM with
frequent speed changes. This results in a steeper speed drop until
capacity (C) is reached at point E at the speed V,,,. When the traffic
demand is near to or higher than capacity, the density will continue
to increase which results in congested stop-and-go conditions with
reduced flow and speed which stabilizes at Vja,.
Prediction of actual speed thus requires the following steps as
described in Sections 3.1 - 3 . 4 below.
1. Prediction of free-flow speed FV;
2. Prediction of capacity C;
3. Conversion of the traffic flow into passenger car units;
4. Calculation of actual speed using the calibrated speed-flow
model.

3.1 FREE-FLOW SPEED

The basic equation for prediction of FV developed in IHCM is as
follows :
FV = (FVo+FV,) x F W s Fx F W R C
where :
FV -- Free-flow speed for light vehicles at actual
conditions (km/h)
N o - Base free-flow speed for light vehicles at pre-
determined standard (ideal) conditions (km/h)
Fv, - Adjustment for effective carriageway width (km/h)
F%F
- Adjustment factor for side friction conditions
FWRC - Adjustment factor for road function class
Base free-flowspeeds for different roadandvehicle types obtained for
Indonesian conditions are shown in Appendix B, page 4 7 Table B-1:1 . For
flat terrain the vary between 81 - 58 km/h, for hilly terrain between
60 - 38 km/h. IHCM also includes procedures for determination of FV for
specific horizontal and vertical alignment conditions, e.g. for
specific grades.

CAPACITY
The basic equation for determination of capacity in IHCM is as follows:
C = C, x FC, x FC,, x FC,,
where :
C = actual capacity (pcu/h)
C, = base (ideal) capacity for predefined (ideal) conditions
(pcu/h)
FC, = road width adjustment
 FC,, = directional split adjustment factor for undivided roads
FC,, = side friction and shoulder width adjustment factor
Base capacity values for different road and terrain types obtained for
Indonesian conditions are summarized in Table 3:l below.

Road type/ Base Comment

Terrain type capacity
(pcu/h)
Four-lane divided Per lane
- Flat terrain 1900
- Rolling terrain 1850
- Hilly terrain 1800
Four-lane undivided Per lane
- Flat terrain 1700
- Rolling terrain 1650
- Hilly terrain 1600
Two-lane undivided Total in both
- Flat terrain 3100 directions
- Rolling terrain 3000
- Hilly terrain 2900
-
Table 3:l Base capacity C, for Indonesian interurban roads ( I H C M ) .

3 -3 TRAFFIC FLOW
The speed-flow relationship requires the flow to be expressed in
passenger carunits (pcu) throughmultiplicationofthe different parts
of a mixed flow with the passenger car equivalent (pce) for each
vehicle type and condition.
A set of passenger car equivalents (pce) for Medium heavy vehicles
(MHV), Large buses (LB), Large trucks (LT) (including truck
combinations) and Motorcycles are given in IHCM as a function of road
type, terrain type and traffic flow (veh/h). For 2/2 UD roads the pce
for Motorcycles (MC) also depend on the carriageway width. For Light
Vehicles (LV) pce is always 1.0. Unmotorised vehicles (UM) are not
included in the traffic flow in IHCM, but are treated as a side
friction events (slow-movingvehicles)as describedin Section 3 below.
Table 3 :2 below records pce for two-lane two-way undivided roads as a
function of total traffic flow (veh/h). The pce values are determined
by means of interpolation.

3.4 ACTUAL SPEED

When the capacity (C) and the hourly traffic flow (Q) have been
determined, the degree of saturation (DS) can be calculated by division
of the demand flow Q with C (both expressed in pcu):

The actual speed at given traffic, side friction and geometric

conditions is then determined as a function DS and free-flow speed (FV)
using Figure 3:3 (two-lane undivided roads 2/2 UD) and Figure 3:4
(four-lane roads and one-way roads 4/21.
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Figure 3 : 4 . Speed as a function of free-flow speed and degree of
saturation for four-lane and one-way interurban roads
(IHCM).

S I D E FRICTION

In densely populated, developing countries there is often a great deal

of activity at the edge of the road, both on the carriageway and on
shoulders and sidewalks, which interacts with the flow of traffic,
causing it to be more turbulent and adversely affecting performance as
well as capacity. This effect occurs on both urban and rural roads,
although the amount of activity 'and its effect is generally much
greater on the former.
Roadside activities in Asian cities giving rise to side friction
include :
- pedestrian movements, often taking place on the carriageway due
to sidewalks being blocked by street trading and other
activities;
- undisciplined stopping by small motorised public transport
vehicles and human-powered pedal trishaws, which may stop
anywhere to pick up and set down passengers;
- on-street parking, including parking and unparking activities,
often assisted by parking attendants;
- vehicles entering and leaving roadside premises, via gates and
driveways, as there is generally no control of access.
These activities either do not occur in Western countries, or their
intensity is generally so small that their effects have not been
directly takeninto account in any western speed-flowmodels andproce-
dures for the estimation of highway capacity and performance.
Side friction may be taken account of indirectly however, for example
in the U. S . Highway Capacity Manual (TRB,rev 1994 in which adjustment
factors for capacity and service flow of multilane highways are
specified according to whether a highway segment is "rural" or
vsuburbanu.The "suburban" classification is intended to reflect the
greater density of roadside development and the frequency of minor
junctions and driveways on suburban as compared with rural roads.
Though an indirect approach of this type was initially considered for
Indonesian urban and suburban roads, it was found that with the greater
extent and intensity of frictional activities in Indonesia, the
indirect approach was inadequate to reflect the importance of side
friction in capacity and traffic performance analysis.

4.2 IDENTIFICATION OF SIDE FRICTIONAL ITEMS

4.2.1 Basic issues
Consideration was given in IHCM to incorporate side friction effects
indirectly in the analysis, by classify%nghighway segments in relation
to
a) Location:
- CBD
- Collar (the remainder of the urban area)
- Edge (suburban highways linking with the regional highway
network) .
b) Road function
- Arterial
- Collector
- Local
C) Roadside landuse
- urban: Percentage of road segment frontage with
commercial, educational, residential etc.
deve1opment .
- interurban: Percentage of road segment frontage which had
any built development.
d) Population (only for urban areas)
Although some of these factors were found to have a significant impact
on free-flow speed, and were subsequently incorporated in the
Indonesian manual, they were not sufficiently correlated with the
frequency of side friction events to be able to ignore that variable
in the speed-flow model.
A further issue was whether some potential frictional items should be
treated separately or considered to be part of the flow of traffic. One
such item was minibuses, which form a large proportion of traffic in
some cities, but which stop at any point to pick up and to set down
passengers they may also cruise slowly in the hunt for passengers. Many
Asian cities also have pedal trishaws which may form a large part of
vehicle flow, but which also stop to serve passengers.
4.2.2 Selection of frictional items
In deciding which side-frictional items to measure, as having the
potential significantly to affect capacity and performance, general
observation of the characteristics of Indonesian traffic was
supplemented by prior research on the effects of side friction on three
urban/suburban roads in Bandung (Negara, 1991 unpublished) . This work
confirmed the prior expectation that pedestrian movements, stopping
publictransportvehicles,parking activities andvehicles enteringand
leaving roadside premises all had significant capacity effects. Ini-
tially, these items were measured in a disaggregated way, but later
were combined into fewer, broader classes as described below.
The side frictional items which were finally to be included in data
collection were as follows, for urban roads:
1. Pedestrian movements:
- Total flow of pedestrians along the highway (ped/h)
- Total numbers of pedestrians crossing the highway
(ped/h/km)
2. Vehjcles stopping, differentiated according to whether the stop
was on the shoulder or the carriageway. (veh/h/km):
- Public transport minibuses ("angkutan kota")
- Large buses
- Unmotorised public transport ("trishaws")
- Non-public transport vehicles
3. Parking (veh/h/km):
- No. of parked vehicles (on carriageway or on shoulder)
- No. of unparking maneuvers
4. Access to roadside premises:
- No. of vehicles entering and leaving roadside premises
(veh/h/km)

For interurban roads, the following items were selected:

1. Number of pedestrians, whether walking along or crossing
(ped/h/km);
2. Number of stopping and parking maneuvers (veh/h/km);
3. Number of motor vehicle entries and exits into and out of
roadside properties and side roads (veh/h/km);
4. Flow of slow-moving vehicles (bicycles, trishaws, horsecarts,
oxcarts,.etc) (veh/h)

4.2.3 Field data collection

Overall, data were collected from 35 urban/suburban road segments in
1991-1992, and 115 interurban road segments in 1993-1994. For urban
sites the data collection was based on video observation (flow and
speed) and manual observation (friction) over a long base, as shown in
Figure 4 - 3:l. Each half of the long base had a separate team of
friction surveyors who recorded friction events manually.
 Study section 2 0 0 m to 300 rn

Figure 4.2:1 Layout of the long base study section (IHCM)

For interurban roads, friction was collected in conjunction with spot

speed data collection by means of pairs of pneumatics tubes. Friction
data was manually collected over a long base extending about 100 m each
side of the spot-speed measurement station. The side friction survey
results weremanually transcribedinto computer files directlyfromthe
field data sheets.

4.3 ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF SIDE FRICTION

4.3.1 Weighing of side friction events
A number of factors were identified, initially by correlation and
regression analysis for individual sites, variations in which were
considered to be likely to affect the speed-flowrelationships. These
were as follows:
- Carriageway width
- Presence of shoulder or curb
- Shoulder width and usability for traffic and parking
- Presence or absence of a mediah/divider
- Directional split
- Side friction events (see above)
- City size (a proxy for driver behavior variation)
- Road function class
- Road side land use
The next step in the analysis was to combine the data from all sites
in each road class in one data base, and to make multiple regression
analysis with space mean speed as the dependent variable. The results
from this analysis were then used to adjust (normalise) the speed
observation for eachindividual site to reflect the differences between
each actual site and a pre-defined base case for all variables except
side friction. The adjustments during the normalisation process were
made to flow, thus moving the speed-flow curve to the right or to the
left if the studied casewas sub-standardorover-standard respectively
The normalised data was then used for multiple regression analysis of
the impact of the different side friction events on light vehicle free-
flow speed as a b a s i s f o r c a l c u l a t i o n of r e l a t i v e impact o f e a c h t y p e
o f e v e n t , see T a b l e 4 . 3 : 1 b e l o w .

Event type Code Relative weight

Urban Interurban
roads roads
Pedestrian flow PED 0.5 0.6
(Walking ped/h +
c r o s s i n g pedIh,200m)
Vehicle s t o p s and p a r k i n g PSV 1.0 0.8
manuevres
(events/h1200m)
Vehicle entering and EEV 0.7 1.0
e x i t i n g roadside premises
( v e h / h , 2 00m)
Slow-moving vehicles SMV 0.4 0.4
(veh/h)

Table 4.3:l Relative impact of side friction events on light

vehicle speed

4.3.2 D e f i n i t i o n o f s i d e f r i c t i o n classes

The r e l a t i v e w e i g h t s r e c o r d e d i n T a b l e 4 . 3 : l w e r e u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e a
weighted t o t a l o f s i d e f r i c t i o n e v e n t s (FRIC) a s e x e m p l i f i e d f o r
i n t e r u r b a n r o a d s below:

FRIC = PEDx0.6 + PSVx0.8 + EEVxl.0 + SMVx0.4

To s i m p l i f y c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f s i d e f r i c t i o n i n t h e s p e e d - f l o w a n a l y s i s
a n u m b e r o f s i d e f r i c t i o n classes w e r e d e f i n e d a s s h o w n i n T a b l e s 4 . 3 :2
a n d 4.3:3 b e l o w f o r i n t e r u r b a n a n d u r b a n r o a d s . T h e d i f f e r e n t s i d e
f r i c t i o n classes a r e a l s o e x e m p l i f i e d b y m e a n s o f p h o t o g r a p h s made f r o m
sites d u r i n g m a n u a l s i d e f r i c t i o n r e c o r d i n g . From t h i s material
p h o t o g r a p h s h a v e been s e l e c t e d w h i c h r e p r e s e n t e a c h s i d e f r i c t i o n class
f o r u r b a n a s w e l l a s i n t e r u r b a n c o n d i t i o n s a s shown i n A p p e n d i x A.

Weighted frequency Typical conditions Side friction

of events (both sides of class
road) FRIC
< 50 Rural, agriculture or undeveloped; Very low VL
almost no activities
50 - 149 Rural, some roadside buildings & Low L
activities
150 - 249 Village, local transport & activi- Medium M
ties
2 5 0 - 350 Village, some market activities High H
> 350 Almost urban, market/business Very VH
activities high

T a b l e 4.3:2 Classification of s i d e friction f o r interurban roads

(IHCM)
Weighted frequency Typical conditions S i d e friction
of events (both s i d e s of class
road) FRIC
< 100 Residential area, almost n o V e r y low VL
activities
100 - 299 Residential area, some public Low L
transport etc
300 - 4 9 9 Industrial area with some roadside Medium M
shops etc
500 - 899 Commercial area with high roadside High H
activity
> 900 Commercial area with very high Very VH
roadside market activity high

Table 4.3:3 Classification of side friction forurban roads (IHCM)

4.4 IMPACT OF SIDE FRICTION ON TRAFFIC PERFORMANCE

4.4.1 General model
Side friction events have a negative impact on traffic performance over
the whole flow range as discussed below:
a) Im~acton free-flow sweed
The desired speed at free-flow conditions is a function of road
alignment, cross section and road type as well as environmental
conditions regarding type of area and roadside activities. Side
friction events such as stopping vehicles, pedestrians etc.
reduce the desired speed in order for the driver to maintain a
safe speed with consideration tothe risk for unexpected roadway
blockage and conflicts with other traffic elements which may
suddenly appear. This effect is illustrated with a free-flow
speed reduction from FV, to FV when the speed-flow curve
intercept with the Y-axis moves from A, to A in Figure 4 - 4:1
below.

Imwact on cawacitv
As the speed is reduced due to traffic interaction when the flow
increases, the impact of side friction events on speed for
reasons of traffic safety is gradually reduced. The side friction
however reduces the capacity of the road due to factors such as:
- temporary reduction of carriageway width at parking and
stopping manuevres
- change from un-interrupted to partially interrupted flow
conditions due to crossing conflicts with pedestrians,
entry of vehicles from minor roads and roadside premises
etc.
This effect is illustrated in Figure 4.4:l by a reduction in
capacity from C, to C, and a corresponding drop of the speed at
capacity from V,~,,, to V,,, .
The side friction impacts on free-flow speed and capacity thus cause
a reduction of speed over the entire flow range as well as a reduction
of capacity. This is illustrated in Figure 4.4:1 by a shift of the
speed-flow curve from A,- Do - E, to A - D - E. Since the generalized
speed curves in IHCM as shown in Figures 3:3-4 above show the
relationship between free-flow speed, degree of saturation (DS = Q/C) ,
and actual speed, they are able to cope with both these effects without
changing the shape of the generalized model.

Speed Kmlh
t

C Co
Traffic flow pculh
Legend : Curve A, - D, - E, : No side friction
Curve A - D - E: High side friction
Figure 4.4:1 Impact of side friction on speed and capacity

4.4.2 Impact of side friction on free-flow speed

The normalised data base described in Sections 3 and 4.1-3 above was
used to analyze the impact of side friction events on free-flow speed.
Since it was found that the impact was correlated with effective
shoulder width, this variable was also included in the resulting Table
4.4:l for interurban roads below.
The impact of side friction in the most severe case for 2/2 UD
interurban roads shown in the table reduces free-flow speed with a
factor 0.76, e.g. a free-flow speed at 65 km/h at no side friction is
reduced by 16 km/h to 49 km/h at very high side friction and narrow
shoulders.
Similar analysis for 2/2 UDurban roads showedthatthe free-flow speed
was reduced from 44 km/h at no friction to 26 km/h at very high side
friction as defined for urban conditions, i .e. by 18 km/h or a factor
0.59. For four-lane roads the observed side friction impact was
slightly less, with a small further reduction also observed due to the
existence of a median.

4.4.3 Impact of side friction on capacity

Speed-flowdensityregressionsusing the single-regimemodel described
in Section 3 above was applied for analysis of the impact of side
friction on capacity. Table 4.4:2 shows the resulting side friction
adjustment factor for different side friction classes for interurban
roads. For urban roads the capacity reduction generally was 30% higher
in each friction class (i.e. a reduction factor 0.90 for interurban
roads becomes 0.87 for urban roads).

Road type Side fric- Adjustment factor for side

tion class friction and shoulder width
(SFC) (km/h)
------------------------
Effective average shoulder
width Ws (m)
<1.0 m 1-2 m >2 m
Four-lane divided Very low 1.00 1-00 1.00
4/2 D Low 0.96 0.97 0.98
Medium 0.92 0.95 0.97
High 0.89 0.91 0.96
Very high 0.82 0.86 0.95
Four-lane Very low 1.00 1-00 1.00
undivided Low 0.96 0.97 0.98
4/2 UD Medium 0.92 0.95 0.97
High 0.88 0.90 0.96
Very high 0.81 0.85 0.95
Two-lane undivid- Very low 1.00 1.00 1.00
ed Low 0.96 0.97 0.98
2/2 UD Medium 0.91 0.93 0.97
High 0.85 0.88 0.95
Very high 0.76 0.82 0.93

Table 4.4 : 1 Adjustment factor FFV,, for the influence of side

friction and shoulder width on the free-flow speed of
light vehicles, interurban roads (IHCM).

Road type Side fric- Adjustment factor for side fric-

t ion tion FC,,
class
Shoulder width W,
-< 0.5 1.0 1.5 > 2.0

4/2 D VL 0.99 1-00 1.01 1.03

L 0.95 0.97 0.99 1-01
M 0.91 0 :94 0.97 1.00
H 0.87 0.91 0.95 0.99
VH 0.83 0.88 0.93 0.97
VL 0.97 0.99 1-00 1.02
2/2 UD L 0.93 0.95 0.97 1-00
4/2 UD M 0.88 0.91 0.94 0.98
H 0.84 0.87 0.91 0.95
VH 0.80 0.83 0.88 0.93 -
Table 4.4 :2 Adjustment factor FC,, for the influence of side
friction on capacity, interurban roads (IHCM).
 5. MODELLING OF CONGESTION AND SIDE FRICTION EFFECTS IN HDM-Q
5.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL
The World Bank Highway Design and Maintenance Model is widely used for
the evaluation of road maintenance and improvement options. A
significant limitation of the current standard model (HDM-111)is that
it does not take account of speed reduction caused by traffic
interactions as the flowincreases. Additional features have therefore
been suggested (Hoban et a1 1994) to allow these types of analysis. The
expanded model is known as HDM-Q, which is designed primarily for
analysis of interurban roads.
The generalised speed-flow model used in HDM-Q is shown in Figure 5.1:1
below.

Speed

t
SI
S2 .
s3 -

Smin --

I I I I

Q1 42 QCAP Flow
(Q 1 = XQ1 x QCAP) (42 = XQ2 x QCAP)

Figure 5.1:l Speed-flow model used in HDM-Q (Hoban et a1 1994)

The main parameters used in HDM-Q are as follows:

- QCAP:
- XQ1 & XQ2
- S1, S2, S3:
- SMIN :
- CV:
- SJAM:
- XFRI:
Road capacity 2-way (pcu/h)
Default values see Table 5.1:l below
Free speed (function of desired speed, road
width, grades, curves & roughness determined
for each vehicle type using the HDM-I11 model.
Speed of a typical slow vehicle (15thpercentile
speed for the slowest vehicle class)
Coeff. of variation of speeds for the above
vehicle class (standard deviation divided by
mean) . Default : 0.15.
Absolute minimum average speed under heavy
traffic condition. Default see Table 5.1:l.
Side friction effect: 0 - 1 (from high to low
level), regarding impact on s ~ e e d (i.e not
capacity) .
Road Type Width xQ1 XQ2 QCAP SJAM
(of traveled way) k-
mh
-
Single Lane Road upto4m 0.0 0.7 600 10

Intermediate Road 4 to 5.5 m 0.0 0.7 1800 20

Two Lane Road 5.5 to 9 m 0.1 0.9 2800 25

Wide Two Lane Road 9to 12m 0.2 0.9 3200 30

Four Lane Road 12 m or wider 0.4 0.95 8000 40

XQl = No volume effect on speed (proportion of capacity)

XQ2 = Speeds converge (proportion of capacity)
QCAP = Road capacity, 2-way (pch)
SJAM = Jam speed at capacity (kmlh)

Table 5.1:l Speed-flow-capacityparameters in HDM-Q (Hoban et a1

1994)

5.2 COMPARISON OF THE HDM-Q AND IHCM SPEED PREDICTION MODELS

In principal the speed-flow models proposed for 2/2 UD roads in IHCM
and HDM-Q are very similar. Some modifications to the HDM-Q model are
discussed below which would lead Co better compatibility between the
two models and improve the speed-prediction model in HDM-Q.

a) Free-flow sweed
- HDM-111 uses a mechanistic model for the determination of free-
flow speed as a function of alignment, cross section and
roughness. This method is best suited for analysis of specific
segments for which these data is available. For longer road
segments the IHCM approach based on general terrain types might
be more suitable for estimation of base free-flow speed, except
that the impact of roughness has to be added.
- IHCM also considers road function class and landuse as adjustment
factors.
- In IHCM the side friction adjustment factor is a function of
shoulder width, in HDM-Q not. Furthermore it is related to actual
 event frequency, which even if it is not measured can be
estimated with the help of standard photographs (Appendix A) and
descriptions for different friction classes as shown above.

- HDM-Q only considers the effect of roadwidth, IHCM also considers

the effect of side friction/shoulder width and directional split
on capacity.
- IHCM uses pce regarding the impact on speed which are determined
as function of traffic flow level expressed in veh/h.

- IHCM uses a relationship between speed and degree of saturation,

which has advantages in terms of generalisation of the model.
- HDM-Q uses a set of linear models to describe the speed-flow
relationship. In IHCM a linear model is used for two-lane roads,
with the breakpoint 92 and the corresponding speed SJAM
determined as function of free-flow speed. For multi-lane roads
IHCM uses the single-regime model with parameters determined as
a function of free-flow speed and capacity.
- HDM-Q applies a constant speed-adjustment factor due to side-
friction over the entire speed-flowrange. In IHCM the adjustment
is made to free-flow speed and to capacity, which also leads to
a side friction impact over the whole range degree of saturation.

6. CONCLUSIONS
Activities at the roadside can always be expected to affect the
capacity of a highway and the speed at which it operates. However, in
many developing Asian countries, the range and intensity of such side
friction is so great that these activities need to be incorporated
explicitly into procedures for calculation of speed and capacity of
road links. Empirical studies carried out in the Indonesian HCM project
(IHCM)have shown that side friction may reduce free-flow speed on two-
lane two-way interurban roads with up to 16 km/h, and capacity with up
to 20 per cent in comparison with very low friction conditions. It is
therefore evident that the impacts of side friction need to be taken
into account in geometric design analysis as well as in pavement
management analysis for many countries in Asia and elsewhere.
The experience from Indonesia (IHCM) has shown how side friction
effects can be incorporated in general speed-flowmodels for different
road types in urban as well as interurban areas. The HDM-Q model also
has this capability, and can already in its present version be
calibrated to model most of the factors identified in IHCM with a
certain amount of "manipulation".A number of suggestions have however
been made for revision of the HDM-Q model, which would improve its
speed prediction capability and make it easier to calibrate for local
conditions. The HDM-Q model should therefore be a workable base for the
ISOHDM project .
REFERENCES

1. Bang, K-L; Bergh T. and Marler N.W. Highway Capacity Manual Part
I Urban Roads. Directorate General of Highways Indonesia NO.
09/T/BNKT/1993, Indonesia, January 1993.
2. Bang, K-L; Carlsson A. Interim Manual for Interurban Roads and
Motorways. Indonesian Highway Capacity Manual Project, Bandung.
Directorate General of Highways Indonesia August 1994 (revised
July 1995).
3. TRB, Highway Capacity Manual (Revision of 1985 edition).
Transportation Research Board; Washington D.C. 1994.
4. Hoban, C.J.; William Reilly, Archondo-Callao. Economic Analysis
of Road Projects with Congested Traffic. Infrastructure & Urban
Development Department, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. USA
December 1994.
5. Bang, Karl-L.; Carlsson, Arne; Palgunadi. Development of speed-
flow relationships for Indonesian rural roads using empirical
data and simulation. Paper 950397 presented at TRE3 Annual
Meeting, Washington D.C. January 1995 (under publication).
6. Bang, Karl-L.; Harahap, Gandhi; Speed and congestion effect
modelling in Indonesia. Proceedings ofthe ISOHDM Workshop, Kuala
Lumpur November 1994.
7. Easa, S .M;May A.D; Generalized Procedure for Estimating Single-
and Two-Regime Traffic-Flow Models. Transportation Research
Records 772; Washington D.C. USA 1980.
Figure A-4:3 Medium side friction on an interurban road

Figure A-4:4 High side friction on an interurban road

46
F i g u r e 6 . V e r y Low S i d e F r i c t i o n o n An U r b a n R o a d

Figure 7. Low S i d e ~ r i c t i o no n An U r b a n R o a d
 69
peox ueqxn uv uo UOT~ZJTIJ apTs q b - ~6 a ~1 n 6 ~ ~
peox ueqxn uv uo UOTWTIJ a p T s unTpaH - 8 a x - 1 6 ~ ~
F i g u r e 1 0 . V e r y H i g h S i d e F r i c t i o n o n An U r b a n Road