Engineering: 1 Fundamentals

uk JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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1 FUNDAMENTALS
1.1 FORCE AND MOTION
1.1.1 FORCE
Force may be defined as a push or a pull upon an object. In the English system the
pound (lb) is used to express the value of a force. For example, we say that a force
of 30 lb is acting upon a hydraulic piston.
A unit of force in the metric system is the newton (N). The newton is the force
required to accelerate a mass of 1 kilogram (kg) 1 metre per second per second
(m/s2).
The dyne (dyn) is also employed in the metric system as a unit of force. One dyne is
the force required to accelerate a mass of 1g 1 centimetre per second per second
(cm/s2). One newton is equal to 100,000 dynes (0.225 lb).
1.1.2 VELOCITY
It is common to find people confusing the terms velocity and speed when describing
how fast an object is moving. The difference is that speed is a scalar quantity, whilst
the term velocity refers to both speed and direction of an object. The full definition of
velocity is that it is the rate at which its position changes, over time, and the direction
of the change.
The simple diagram below shows how an aircraft, which flies the irregular path from
'A' to 'B' in an hour, (a speed of 350 mph), has an actual velocity of 200 mph in an
East-Northeast direction.
Path of Aircraft
B
350 Ml (563 Km)
200 Ml (322 Km)

N
A C
Diagram Showing Difference Between Velocity and Speed

Figure 1.1.
Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 1

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1.1.3 ACCELERATION
This term describes the rate at which velocity changes. If an object increases in
speed, it has positive acceleration; if it decreases in speed, it has negative
acceleration. A reference to Newton's Second law of Motion will explain the
principles of acceleration. Acceleration can be in a straight line, which is referred to a
linear acceleration and it can apply to rotating objects whose speed of rotation is
increasing, (or decreasing), when it is called angular acceleration.
1.2 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

Work, power, and energy are all interrelated. Work is the amount of movement a
given force causes; energy is the ability to do work, and power is the rate of doing
work.
1.2.1 WORK
In its technical sense, work is the product of force and distance, and work is done
only when a force causes movement. We can see this by the formula:
Work  Force  Dis tan ce
We normally measure distance in feet or inches, and force in pounds or ounces.

This allows us to measure work in foot-pounds or inch-ounces.
Example:
To find the amount of work done when a 500 pound load is lifted for a distance of 6
feet, we can use the formula:
Work  Force  Dis tan ce  500  6  3,000 ft lbs
1.2.2 POWER
The rate of doing work is called power, and it is defined as the work done in unit time.
As a formula, this would be:
work done
power 
time taken
Power is expressed in several different units, such as the watt, ergs per second, and
foot-pounds per second. The most common unit of power in general use in the
United States is the horsepower. One horsepower (hp) is equal to 550 ft-lbf/sec or
33000 ft-lbf/min. In the metric system the unit of power is the watt (W) or the kilowatt
(kW). One hp is equal to 746 watts; and 1 kW = 1.34 hp.

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Example:
To compute the power necessary to raise an elevator containing 10 persons a
distance of 100 ft in 5 s (assuming the loaded elevator weighs 2500 lb), proceed as
follows:
work done 2500  100

power    50,000 ft lbf / sec
time taken 5
50,000
Since1hp  550 ft lbf / sec then requiredhp   90.9 hp
550
Since1hp  746 watts 90.9 hp  67811 .4 watts  67.81kw
1.2.3 ENERGY
The term energy may be defined as the capacity for doing work. There are two forms
of energy: potential energy and kinetic energy.
1.2.3.1 POTENTIAL ENERGY
Potential energy is the stored energy possessed by a system, because of the relative
positions of the components of that system. If work done raises an object to a certain
height, energy will be stored in that object in the form of the gravitational force. This
energy, waiting to be released is called potential energy. The amount of potential
energy a system possesses is equal to the work done on the system previously.
Example :
A weight of 50 pounds is raised 5 feet. Using the formula:
PotentialE nergy  Force  Dis tan ce  50  5  250 ft lbs
Note: Energy is expressed in the same units as those used for work and in all cases
energy is the product of force x distance.
Potential energy can be found in forms other than weights and height. Electrically
charged components contain potential (electrical) energy because of their position
within an electric field. An explosive substance has chemical potential energy that is
released in the form of light, heat and kinetic energy, when detonated. A gas can
have potential energy in the form of pressure energy. This is when work has been
done on the gas by raising the pressure above ambient.
1.2.3.2 KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object, resulting from the motion of that
object.
Kinetic Energy  1
2 mv 2
where m = mass, v = velocity.
It may be difficult to appreciate how this relates to the previous formula (Force x
Distance) but this can be derived from the basic formulae of velocity and
acceleration.

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Uniform Velocity
distance
velocity 
time
Uniform Acceleration
Increase in velocity = acceleration(a) x time(t)

 distance(s)  velocity(u)  time(t)
Final velocity(v)= initial velocity(u) + increase in velocity(at)
i.e. v  u  at
Distance travelled(s) = Average velocity x time

 v u
s    t
 2 
But v  u  at
 u  at  u   at 
s    t  s  u    t
 2   2
 distance(s )  ut  12 at 2
But v  u  at
v u
t 
a
 v u
But s t
 2 
 v  u   v  u   v  u v  u v  u
2 2
s   
    
 2   a  2a 2a
 2as  v 2  u2
 v 2  u  2as

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Kinetic Energy = Force X Distance
But F = ma
v 2  u2  2as and
If initial velocity is zero

v  2as
2
v2
 dis tan ce(s) 
2a
v2
ma   1
2 mv 2 Kinetic Energy =
2a
W
m But
g
Wv 2
Kinetic Energy =
2g
Example
What is the Kinetic energy of the previous 50

lb weight when it drops, from rest, a distance
of 5 feet?
v 2  u2  2as
v 2  0 2  2  32  5
v 2  320ft/sec
Wv 2 50  320
KE  
2g 2  32
KE  250 ft lbs
It can be seen that all the energy put in to the weight can be released by allowing the
weight to return to its original position. This is a hypothetical case as some of the
energy is converted to other forms ie, heat sound etc.
In Gas Turbines we use both forms of energy. Potential energy is stored in the gas
flow as pressure and in the fuel as heat energy. This potential energy is converted to
kinetic energy (velocity) at various stages of the engine.

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1.3 GAS LAWS

Temperature and pressure affect the volume of a gas. The degree to which
temperature and pressure affect volume is defined in two 'gas laws' named after the
scientists who produced them; Boyle and Charles.
1.3.1 BOYLE'S LAW
In 1660, the British physicist Robert Boyle discovered that when you change the
volume of a confined gas, at a constant temperature, the pressure also changes.
For example, using Boyle's Law, if the temperature is constant and the volume
decreased, the pressure increases. The volume and pressure are said to be
inversely related and this is shown below:
V1 P
Boyles’s Law:  2 OR P1 V1 = P2 V2
V2 P1
Where:
V1 = initial volume P1 = initial pressure
V2 = compressed volume P2 = compressed pressure
1.3.2 CHARLES' LAW
Jacques Charles found that all gasses expand and contract in direct proportion to
any change in absolute temperature. This is Charles' Law, which states that the
volume of a fixed mass of gas, at a constant pressure, is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature. This is written as below:
V1 T
Charles’ Law:  1 V1 T2 = V2 T1
V2 T2
The law also states that if the volume of the gas is held constant, the pressure
increases and decreases in direct proportion to changes in absolute temperature.
This relationship is shown in the equation below:
P1 T
Charles’ Law:  1 P1 T2 = P2 T1
P2 T2
Where:
P1 = initial pressure T1 = initial absolute temperature V1 = initial volume
P2 = final pressure T2 = final absolute temperature V2 = final volume
1.3.3 COMBINED GAS LAW

This law is also known as the General Gas Law or Ideal Gas Law and is a
combination of the two previous laws into one formula. This allows you to calculate
pressure, volume or temperature when one, or more of the variables change. The
equation for this law is shown below:
P1V1 P2 V2
 (This is known as the Characteristic Gas Equation)
T1 T2
The two scenarios important for gas turbines are:
 If the volume is reduced the pressure and temperature will increase and vice
versa. (Compression/Expansion)
 If the temperature is increased with the pressure constant there will be an
increase in volume (Combustion)

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1.4 PRINCIPLES OF JET PROPULSION

Newton’s Laws of Motion. To understand the basic principles of jet propulsion it is
necessary to understand the practical application of Sir Isaac Newton's Laws of
Motion. There are three laws.
1. The First Law States. A mass will remain stationary until acted upon by a force. If
the mass is already moving at a constant speed in a straight line, it will continue
to move at that constant speed in a straight line until acted upon by a force.
2. The Second Law States. The force is proportional to the mass and acceleration.
The mass will accelerate in the direction in which the force acts.
3. The Third Law States. To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
The function of any propeller or gas turbine engine is to produce THRUST, (or a
propulsion force), by accelerating a mass of air or gas rearwards. If we apply
Newton's Laws of Motion to aircraft propulsion it can be said that:-
 a FORCE must be applied in order to accelerate the mass of air or gas: First Law
 the acceleration of the mass is proportional to the force applied: Second Law,
 there must be an equal and opposite reaction, in our case this is THRUST, a
forward acting force: Third Law.
1.4.1 THRUST CALCULATION.
The amount of thrust produced depends upon two things:-
 the MASS of air which is moved rearwards in a given time,
 the ACCELERATION imparted to the air.
It can be expressed as:- Thrust = Mass x Acceleration
T=ma
The MASS is defined as “the quantity of matter in a body".
It is expressed as W
g
Where:- W = the weight of the body (in lb or Newtons) and
g = the gravitational constant (taken as 32 ft/sec/sec or 9.81 m/sec 2)
The ACCELERATION imparted to the air is the difference between its inlet and outlet
velocity.
If we let: -
V2 = the air velocity at exit
and
V1 = the air velocity at inlet
It may be expressed as V2 – V1

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Taking these expressions for Mass and Acceleration, the thrust produced by an
engine or propeller can be calculated from the following formula:-
W
THRUST = g  V2 - V1 or THRUST = m(V2-V1)
On some engines there is an area of high pressure behind the engine. This pressure
pushes on the engine and can be included in the formula as follows:-
THRUST = (A x P)W(V2-V1) or (A x P)m(V2-V1)

G
Where A is the area of the nozzle and P is the pressure.
Example 1.
The airflow through a propeller is 256 lbs/sec, Inlet velocity 0 ft/sec, outlet velocity
700 ft/sec.
Thrust developed will be:
W
THRUST = g  V2 - V1
THRUST = 256 x (700 – 0)

32
= 5600 lbs
Example 2.
The mass airflow through a gas turbine engine is 128lbs/sec, inlet velocity is 0 ft/sec,
outlet velocity is 1400 ft/sec. Using the formula :
THRUST = 128 x (1400 – 0)
32
= 5600lbs
By comparing both examples, you can see that the gas turbine produced the same
thrust as the propeller by giving a greater acceleration to a smaller mass. It can be
said that a propeller accelerates a large mass slowly whilst the gas turbine produces
the same thrust by giving a greater acceleration to a smaller mass.
Note that in both of the examples the inlet velocity was zero ft/sec. The aircraft was
stationary so the thrust produced is referred to as STATIC THRUST.

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1.5 GAS TURBINES

A gas turbine engine is essentially a heat engine using a mass of air as a working
fluid to provide thrust. To achieve this, the mass of air passing through the engine
has to be accelerated, which means that the velocity, (or kinetic energy), of the air is
increased. To obtain this increase, the pressure energy is first of all increased,
followed by the addition of heat energy, before final conversion back to kinetic energy
in the form of a high velocity jet efflux.
The simplest form of gas turbine engine is the turbojet engine, which has three
major parts; the compressor, the combustion section and the turbine. A shaft
connects the compressor and the turbine to form a single, rotating unit. These
engines produce thrust in the manner described in the Brayton Cycle.
The simplest turbojet engine is the unit shown below with a single centrifugal (Double
Entry) compressor and a single stage turbine. This type of engine can still be found
in certain special installations but generally, they have been superseded by engines
with axial compressors and multiple stage turbines. The advantages and
disadvantages of the two types of compressor will be discussed in depth later in this
module
Simple Centrifugal Gas Turbine (Derwent)

Figure 1.2.

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1.6 THE BRAYTON CYCLE

The working cycle of the gas turbine engine is similar to that of the four-stroke piston
engine. There is induction, compression, ignition and exhaust in both cases, In four
stroke piston engines this process is called the Otto cycle. In Gas turbines however
the process is called the Brayton cycle. In the Otto cycle the four stages happen in
The Working Cycle.

Figure 1.3.
separate stages. In the Brayton cycle they form a continuous process. The
combustion during the Otto cycle is done with constant volume while in the Brayton
cycle it is done in constant pressure.

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The cycle, upon which the gas

turbine engine functions, in its
simplest form, is the Brayton
cycle, which is represented by
the pressure/volume diagram,
shown in figure 1.4.
The Brayton Cycle.

Figure 1.4.
• AB The air entering the engine is compressed

• BC Heat is added to the air by burning fuel at a constant pressure, thereby
considerably increasing the volume of the resulting gas.
• CD The gases resulting from combustion expand through the turbine, which
converts some of the energy in the expanding gases into mechanical energy to
drive the compressor.
• DA The remainder of the expanding gases are propelled through the turbine and
jet pipe back to the atmosphere where they provide the propulsive jet.
There are three main stages in the engine working cycle during which the changes
discussed occur:
• During compression. Work is done on the air. This increases the pressure and
temperature and decreases the volume of air.
• During combustion. Fuel is added to the air and then burnt. This increases the
temperature and volume of the gas, whilst the pressure remains almost constant
(the latter being arranged by design in a gas turbine engine).
• During expansion. Energy is taken from the gas stream to drive the compressor
via the turbine; this decreases the temperature and pressure, whilst the volume
increases. The rapidly expanding gases are propelled through the turbine and jet
pipe to give a final momentum that is much greater than the initial momentum; it
is this change in momentum, which produces the propulsive jet.

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1.7 CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND VELOCITY .

1.7.1 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE
The changes in temperature and pressure of the gases through a gas turbine engine
are illustrated in Figure 1.5 The efficiency with which these changes are made will
determine to what extent the desired relations between pressure, temperature and
velocity are obtained. The more efficient the compressor, the higher is the pressure
generated for a given work input - i.e. for a given temperature rise of the gas.
Conversely, the more efficiently the turbine uses the expanding gas, the greater is
the output of work for a given temperature drop in gas.
Gas Flow Through an Engine

Figure 1.5
1.7.2 VELOCITY AND PRESSURE
During the passage of the air (gas) through the engine, aerodynamic and energy
requirements demand changes in its velocity and pressure. For example, during
compression a rise in the pressure of the air is required with no increase in its
velocity. After the air has been heated and its internal energy increased by
combustion, an increase in the velocity of the gases is necessary to cause the
turbine to rotate. Also at the propelling nozzle, a high velocity is required, for it is the
change in momentum of the air that provides the thrust on the aircraft. Local
decelerations of gas flow are also required - for example, in the combustion
chambers to provide a low velocity zone for the flame.

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1.7.3 HOW THE CHANGES ARE OBTAINED.

The various changes in temperature, pressure and velocity are effected by means of
the ducts through which the air (gas) passes on its way through the engine. When a
conversion from kinetic energy to pressure energy is required, the ducts are
divergent in shape. Conversely, when it is required to convert the energy stored in
the combustion gases to velocity, a convergent nozzle is used. The efficiency with
which the energy changes are effected depends upon their good design. Any
interference with the smooth flow of gases creates a loss in efficiency and could
result in component failure because of vibration caused by eddies or turbulence of
the gas flow.
1.8 DUCTS AND NOZZLES
1.8.1 MASS FLOW THROUGH A DUCTED SYSTEM.
If we investigate what happens when a steady stream of air passes through a steady
flow machine, such as a gas turbine engine which is operating at a fixed rpm and air
inlet density, we find that the mass flow at any point in the system is of a constant
value.
1.8.2 CONTINUITY EQUATION.
If we consider the machine to be an open-ended duct (Fig 1.6.), we find that the
mass flow per second will depend on the density of the fluid and the volume flowing
per sec:
Open Ended Duct to Illustrate Continuity Equation

Figure 1.6.
distance travelled(L)
Now : volume flow  area 
Time(sec)
distance travelled(L) mass mass
But:  Velocity and as Density   Volume 
time (sec) volume density
 Mass 
 flow  Area  velocity
 Density 
Therefore, Mass flow = density x area x velocity.
This is known as the ‘CONTINUITY EQUATION’ and it is true for any steady flow
system regardless of changes in the cross-sectional area of the duct.

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Within our gas turbine engine the mass flow is constant at a fixed rpm and inlet
density
Therefore density 1 x area 1 x velocity 1 = density 2 x area 2 x velocity 2
1.8.3 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW.
By considering incompressible fluid flow we can assume that density will remain
constant. Now consider an incompressible fluid as it flows through the duct system
shown in the fig. 1.7. We know that the mass flow is constant and as the fluid is
incompressible we can treat the density as constant. Naturally, as the fluid enters
the larger cross sectional area it will take up the new shape and the initial volume will
now occupy less length in the duct. Therefore, in a given time, less distance is
travelled and therefore the velocity is reduced.
Thus we conclude that if the mass flow is to remain constant, as it must, an increase
in duct area must be accompanied by a reduction in flow velocity. A decrease in duct
area must bring about an increase in velocity; we can express this action as –
velocity varies inversely with changes in duct area.
Duct System
Figure 1.7.
1.8.4 BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

This theorem can be related to the relationship between pressure and velocity
existing in the air flowing through a duct, such as a jet engine. The theorem states
that the total energy per unit mass is constant for a fluid moving inside a duct and
that total energy consists mainly of pressure energy and kinetic energy:
 Pressure energy.
In gas or fluid flow the pressure energy is more often called ‘static pressure’ and it
can be defined as the pressure that would be felt by a body which was submerged in
the medium (gas or fluid) and moving at the same velocity as the medium. When we
refer to pressure in a gas turbine it is Static Pressure we are referring to.
 Kinetic energy.
This kind of energy is more often called ‘dynamic pressure’ and this term is used to
define the extra pressure created by the movement of the medium. For gas turbine
theory we can state that dynamic pressure is proportional to ½ mass x velocity 2 (ie.
½mv2).

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When the medium (gas or fluid) is moving, the total energy = static pressure +
dynamic pressure.
Consider a duct which is filled with an incompressible fluid and pressurised from one
end by an external force (Fig 1.8.). The other end of the duct is sealed by a valve,
which can be opened or closed, and a pressure gauge is fitted into the wall of the
duct to indicate the static pressure (PS). With the valve closed, static pressure and
total energy are the same. However, when the valve is opened to allow a fluid flow,
the circumstances change and, although the total energy must remain the same, it
now consists of static pressure + dynamic pressure. As the velocity V increases, so
dynamic pressure increases and the static pressure is reduced.
Duct with Flow Control Valve

Figure 1.8.
1.8.5 TOTAL ENERGY.

Total energy can be measured as a ram pressure and is usually called the ‘total
head’ or pitot pressure (PT). It is measured by placing a ram tube in the fluid flow.
The ram tube must be parallel to the flow with its open end facing the flow. A gauge
connected into such a tube always records the total head (pitot) pressure regardless
of the rate of flow, refer to Fig 1.9.

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In a situation where there is a no fluid flow, the static pressure (PS) gauge, and the
total head pressure (PT) gauge will show the same value, but when there is a fluid
flow, the total pressure reading remains the same although the static pressure drops.
As the total pressure must be constant, a reduction in static pressure must be
accompanied with an increase in dynamic pressure
Illustration of Pitot and Static Pressures

Figure 1.9.
1.9 CONTINUITY EQUATION AND BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

1.9.1 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID.
The combined effect of the continuity equation and Bernoulli’s theorem produces the
effects shown, when a steady flow of incompressible fluid flows through a duct of
varying cross sectional area (Fig 1.10.).
Duct of Varying Cross Sectional Area

Figure 1.10.

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The effects of a steady flow of incompressible fluid flows through a duct of varying
cross sectional area shows:
 Mass flow remains constant as cross-sectional area of duct (and velocity) change.
 Total pressure remains constant, but static pressure (PS) increases as the area
increases and decreases as area decreases. (Bernoulli's Theorem)
 Velocity decreases as the area increases and vice versa. (Continuity Equation)
1.9.1.1 Compressibility Fluid (Atmosphere).

Compressible fluid flow refers to the air flow through a gas turbine engine and,
because the air is compressible, flow at subsonic speeds causes a change in the
density of the air as it progresses through the engine.
The air entering the duct at section A (Fig 1.11), consists of air at pressure (P1) and
velocity (V1); then as the air enters the increased area of the duct at B it will spread
out to fill the increased area and this will cause the air flow to slow down (continuity
equation) and give a change in velocity to V2. The static pressure of the air will
increase (Bernoulli’s theorem) to become P2 in the wider section of the duct and,
because air is compressible, the air density will increase as it is compresses by the
rise in pressure in section B of the duct.
Airflow Through a Duct Section

Figure 1.11.

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1.9.1.2 Diffuser action.

The flare, which increases the area of the duct, is known as a diffuser (Fig 1.12.)and
its shape determines the rate of compression and the amount by which the air is
compressed. For best results, the airflow must remain smooth and, because of this,
a most important design feature is the angle of divergence. When air is compressed
by this process it is called subsonic diffusion and it is a principle that is used
extensively in jet engine design.
Diffuser Section
Figure 1.12.
1.10 SUBSONIC AIRFLOW THROUGH DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT DUCTS

1.10.1 DIVERGENT DUCT
A divergent duct widens out as the airflow progresses through it. At subsonic speeds
the effect of this kind of duct is to decrease the velocity and increase the pressure
and temperature of the air passing through it.
Divergent Duct.
Figure 1.13.

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1.10.2 CONVERGENT DUCT

A convergent duct is such that the space inside reduces as the airflow progresses
through it. At subsonic speeds the effect of this kind of duct is to increase the
velocity and decreases the pressure and temperature of the air passing through it.
Convergent Duct.
Figure 1.14.
1.11 SONIC AIRFLOW THOUGH DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT DUCTS

When a flow of fluid (i.e. gas) flows at sonic speed the relationship between the
shape of the duct and pressure/velocity reverses across the shock wave i.e.
convergent - pressure increases, velocity decreases: divergent - pressure decreases
velocity increases.
The airflow in the exhaust duct is normally subsonic but is accelerated by a

convergent nozzle. As the velocity increases to the local speed of sound a shock
wave forms at the exit area of the duct. The exit area is said to be choked. Behind
the shock wave the pressure will increase and velocity decrease. The increase in
pressure will act on the nozzle area and effectively push the engine forward. This
force (area x pressure) must then be added to the basic thrust formula.
Thrust when operating with a choked nozzle;
Thrust  m VJ  VI    a  p 

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To make more efficient use of the choked nozzle principle a convergent divergent
nozzle may be used. In the convergent section the subsonic airflow is increased to
sonic velocity at the narrowest part. A divergent section is added to the nozzle
which, as the airflow is now supersonic will cause the pressure to decrease and
velocity to increase. Although this will reduce the pressure thrust it will increase the
reaction thrust.
Airflow Through a Con-Di Nozzle or Venturi.

Figure 1.15.

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1.11.1 THE WORKING CYCLE ON A PRESSURE VOLUME DIAGRAM

Air is drawn from the atmosphere (Ambient Air) into the compressor. The compressor
raises the pressure of the air (A to B) on diagram. If the pressure of the air is
increased the volume is decreased. The air passes to the combustion system and
heat is added by burning fuel with a proportion of the air. From the diagram (B to C)
it is seen that combustion takes place at constant pressure so the gas turbine
working cycle is known as the constant pressure cycle. In the combustion system
the air expands rearwards and the volume of the gas increases and the gas kinetic
energy increases. The gas flow passes to the turbine section to drive the turbine(s),
energy is extracted and the pressure decreases. The gas passes via an exhaust unit
to the propelling nozzle which forms a convergent duct. The velocity of the gas
increases. The reaction to the high velocity jet produces thrust (C to D on diagram).
1.12
ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS.
Changes in Temperature, Pressure and Velocity and the Brayton Cycle
There are two main types of gas turbine engines:
Figure 1.16.
 Reaction engines, which derive their thrust by jet reaction. Jet reaction is defined
as an internal reaction to a mass of air accelerated through the engine. As they
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require the energy in the airflow to provide thrust a minimum amount of energy is
withdrawn by the turbines for engine operation.
 Power engines, which provide a mechanical output to drive another device.
These engines do not rely on jet reaction and indeed jet reaction may cause
handling problems. Maximum energy is withdrawn by the turbines for engine
operation and to power the mechanical output.
1.12.1 REACTION ENGINES

These engines can be divided into several categories.
a. Turbojet engines. The turbojet was the first type of jet engine developed. In this
engine all the air passes through the core engine (i.e. the compressor, combustor
and turbine). The engine may be single shaft as in the Avon engine, or twin
shafted as in the Olympus 593 fitted to Concorde. The shaft transmits the drive
from the turbine to the compressor. The Turbine, shaft and compressor assembly
is generally referred to as the spool or rotor.
These engines are noisy and are not the most fuel efficient for normal use,
however for high altitude high speed flight they are in a class of their own.
Turbo jet Engines.

Figure 1.17.

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b. Low and Medium By-pass or turbofan engines. These engines will have two or
three shafts. The Low Pressure (LP) shaft drives a larger diameter compressor.
Some of the air produced bypasses the core engine (hence the name) and is
used to provide thrust. The core airflow provides power for the compressors and
thrust. These engines are quieter than turbojets and more fuel-efficient. The
Spey and Tay engines fall into this category.
The by-pass ratio is determined by the ratio of the air in flowing through the by-
pass to the air passing through the core of the engine. Low by-pass less than 2:1,
medium by-pass 2:1 to 4:1, high by pass greater than 5:1.
Low By-pass Twin Spool Engine (Spey)

Figure 1.17.
c. High by-pass turbofan engines. These engines have very large fans driven by a
relatively small core engine. Often the fan is geared to run at a lower speed than
the LP turbine, which gives the turbine mechanical advantage and also allows it to
run at higher speed where it is more efficient. The ALF 502, RB211 and the Trent
engines are all high by-pass
High by-pass
engines are very fuel
efficient, powerful
and quiet. These
engines have a very
large diameter which
does give drag
problems, and are
not suitable for high
speed flight as the
blade tips will suffer
compressibility
A Three Spool High By-pass Engine (RB211)
Figure 1.18. problems as they
approach the speed
of sound.

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1.12.2 POWER ENGINES

Power producing engines come in two main forms Turboprop and turboshaft.
a. Turboprop Engines. Turboprop engines extract most of the energy from the gas
stream and convert it into rotational energy to drive a propeller. The engines are
either single or twin shaft and may be direct drive where the LP or main shaft
drive the propeller through a gearbox, or they may have a separate power turbine
to drive the propeller. Turboprop engines differ from high by-pass turbofans in
that the propeller does not have an intake to slow and prepare the air before
passing through it. The propeller therefore has to meet the demands of airspeed
etc. Examples of turboprops are the Dart, PW125 and Tyne engines.
Turboprop Engines
Figure 1.19.

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b. Turboshaft Engines. These engines are used in helicopters. They share many
of the attributes of turboprop engines, but are usually smaller. They do not have
propeller control systems built into the engine and usually do not have many
accessories attached such as generators etc. as these are driven by the main rotor
gearbox. Modern turboshaft and turbo prop engines run at constant speed which
tends to prolong the life of the engine and also means that they are more efficient as
the engine can run at its optimum speed all the time.
Turboshaft Engine with Free power Turbine. (Gem)

Figure 1.20.
There are other types of engine such as ram jets, pulse jets, turbo-ram jet and
turbo - rockets, but currently none of these are used in commercial aircraft.
1.13 ENGINE STATIONS
Engines are divided up into section or stations. These help identify the source of air
pressure or temperature when looking at more complex systems such as the fuel
system.
Station 0 air is air before the intake, this becomes station 1 air in the intake and by
pass casing. Station 2 air is air in the fan and compressor and may be further
divided down by adding a decimal figure after the 2. This is usually indicates the
stage, however some engines do not conform in this area. Station 3 is compressor
discharge air which is the highest pressure air in the engine. After combustion this
becomes station 4 air and remains station 4 air through the turbine, again this may
be modified by adding a decimal figure for each stage. Behind the turbine it
becomes station 5 air, becoming station 6 or 7 air aft of the tail cone. Station 7 air is
just before the propelling nozzle and station 8 air at the narrowest point of the
propelling nozzle. Finally the air behind the nozzle is referred to as station 9.
As can be seen from figure 1.21. there are variations in this notation, also different
manufacturers may have their own interpretation for instance on some of the new
Rolls-Royce engines they have made all the stations whole numbers by adding a 0 to
the single figure numbers and removing the decimal point i.e. stn 3 becomes stn 30.

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Station Numbering
Figure 1.21.

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Stations for Propeller/ Propfan/ Unducted Fan/ Ultra high by pass engines.
Figure 1.22.

Engineering: 1 Fundamentals

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uk JAR 66 CATEGORY B1

350 Ml (563 Km)

200 Ml (322 Km)

Diagram Showing Difference Between Velocity and Speed

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 1

1.2 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

Work  Force  Dis tan ce

We normally measure distance in feet or inches, and force in pounds or ounces.

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 2

work done 2500  100

PotentialE nergy  Force  Dis tan ce  50  5  250 ft lbs

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 3

Increase in velocity = acceleration(a) x time(t)

Final velocity(v)= initial velocity(u) + increase in velocity(at)

Distance travelled(s) = Average velocity x time

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 4

Kinetic Energy = Force X Distance

If initial velocity is zero

What is the Kinetic energy of the previous 50

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 5

1.3 GAS LAWS

1.3.3 COMBINED GAS LAW

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 6

1.4 PRINCIPLES OF JET PROPULSION

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 7

THRUST = (A x P)W(V2-V1) or (A x P)m(V2-V1)

THRUST = 256 x (700 – 0)

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 8

1.5 GAS TURBINES

Simple Centrifugal Gas Turbine (Derwent)

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 9

1.6 THE BRAYTON CYCLE

The Working Cycle.

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 10

The cycle, upon which the gas

The Brayton Cycle.

• AB The air entering the engine is compressed

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 11

1.7 CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND VELOCITY .

Gas Flow Through an Engine

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 12

1.7.3 HOW THE CHANGES ARE OBTAINED.

Open Ended Duct to Illustrate Continuity Equation

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 13

1.8.4 BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 14

Duct with Flow Control Valve

1.8.5 TOTAL ENERGY.

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 15

Illustration of Pitot and Static Pressures

1.9 CONTINUITY EQUATION AND BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

Duct of Varying Cross Sectional Area

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 16

1.9.1.1 Compressibility Fluid (Atmosphere).

Airflow Through a Duct Section

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 17

1.9.1.2 Diffuser action.

1.10 SUBSONIC AIRFLOW THROUGH DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT DUCTS

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 18

1.10.2 CONVERGENT DUCT

1.11 SONIC AIRFLOW THOUGH DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT DUCTS

The airflow in the exhaust duct is normally subsonic but is accelerated by a

Issue 4 – Nov 2004 Page 19