Jordan Engineers Association

Engineers Training Center

Structural Steel Design

Lecture 1

Basic Knowledge of Structural Steel

By

Thaer Eid
1. Related standards, specifications and associations: (Not limited to):

1.1. ANSI:
The American National Standards Institute is a private non-profit organization that
oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services,
processes, systems, and personnel in the United States. The organization also
coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can
be used worldwide.

1.2. AISC: (See Annex 1.1 (AISC 360 – 2010))

The American Institute of Steel Construction, often abbreviated AISC, is a not-for-
profit technical institute for the use of structural steel in the construction industry of
the United States. It is headquartered in Chicago. Their mission is to make structural
steel the material of choice for new structures. They supply specifications, codes,
technical assistance, quality certification, standardization, and market development
for its members.
AISC publishes the AISC 360 Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, an
authoritative reference in the USA for steel building structure design

1.3. ASTM:
ASTM International, known until 2001 as the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM), is an international standards organization that develops and
publishes voluntary consensus technical standards for a wide range of materials,
products, systems, and services. The organization's headquarters is in West
Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, about 5 miles (8 km) northwest of Philadelphia.
ASTM, founded in 1898 as the American Section of the International Association for
Testing and Materials, predates other standards organizations such
as BSI (1901), DIN (1917), ANSI (1918) and AFNOR (1926). ASTM has a dominant role
among standards developers in the USA, and claims to be the world's largest
developer of standards. Using a consensus process, ASTM supports thousands of
volunteer technical committees, which draw their members from around the world
and collectively develop and maintain more than 12,000 standards.
ASTM International publishes the Annual Book of ASTM Standards each year in
print, Compact Disc(CD) and online versions.
In 2001, ASTM changed its name to ASTM International to reflect global participation
in ASTM and worldwide use of its standards.

1.4. BSI:
British Standards Institution is a multinational business services provider whose
principal activity is the production of standards and the supply of standards-related
services. BSI produces British Standards, and, as the UK’s National Standards Body, is
 also responsible for the UK publication, in English, of international and European
standards. BSI is obliged to adopt and publish all European Standards as identical
British Standards (prefixed BS EN) and to withdraw pre-existing British Standards that
are in conflict. However, it has the option to adopt and publish international standards
(prefixed BS ISO or BS IEC).

1.5. DIN:
Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. (DIN); in English, the German Institute for
Standardization is the German national organization for standardization and is that
country's ISO member body. DIN is a Registered German Association headquartered
in Berlin. There are currently around thirty thousand DIN Standards, covering nearly
every field of technology.

1.6. JIS:
Japanese Industrial Standards specifies the standards used for industrial activities
in Japan. The standardization process is coordinated by Japanese Industrial Standards
Committee and published through Japanese Standards Association.

1.7. AFNOR:
Association Française de Normalisation is the French national organization
for standardization and it’s International Organization for Standardization member
body.
The AFNOR Group develops its international standardization activities, information
provision, certification and training through a network of key partners in France who
are members of the association.

1.8. AISI:
The American Iron and Steel Institute is an association of North American steel
producers. Its predecessor organizations date back to 1855 making it one of the
oldest trade associations in the United States. AISI assumed its present form in 1908,
with Elbert H. Gary, chairman of the United States Steel Corporation, as its first
president.
Its development was in response to the need for a cooperative agency in the iron and
steel industry for collecting and disseminating statistics and information, carrying on
investigations, providing a forum for the discussion of problems and generally
advancing the interests of the industry.

1.9. ASCE: (See Annex 1.2 ASCE minimum design loads for steel buildings)
The American Society of Civil Engineers is a tax-exempt professional body founded in
1852 to represent members of the civil engineering profession worldwide. Based
 in Reston, Virginia, it is the oldest national engineering society in the United States.
ASCE is the world's largest publisher of civil engineering information producing more
than 55,000 pages of technical content each year. The ASCE Publications Division
produces 31 professional journals (available both in print and online editions),
conference proceedings, standards, manuals of practice, committee reports,
and monographs. A 200,000-entry civil engineering database is available at their
website, along with many other resources for practicing civil engineers, including a
complete publications catalog and the ASCE Online Research Library, which provides
access to more than 600,000 pages of journal articles and proceedings. ASCE also
publishes Civil Engineering, the official magazine of the Society; ASCE News; and Geo-
Strata.

1.10. UBC:
The Uniform Building Code was a building code used primarily in the western United
States. It was first published in 1927 by the International Council of Building Officials. It
was intended to promote public safety and provided standardized requirements for
safe construction which would not vary from city to city as had previously been the
case.
Updated editions of the code were published approximately every three years until
1997, which was the final version of the code. The UBC was replaced in 2000 by the
new International Building Code (IBC) published by the International Code
Council (ICC). The ICC was a merger of three predecessor organizations which
published three different building codes. These were:
- International Council of Building Officials (ICBO) Uniform Building Code
- Building Officials and Code Administrators International (BOCA) The BOCA National
Building Code
- Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI) Standard Building Code

1.11. IBC: (See Annex 1.3)

The International Building Code is a model building code developed by
the International Code Council (ICC). It has been adopted throughout most of
the United States.

1.12. API:
The American Petroleum Institute is the largest U.S trade association for the oil and
natural gas industry. It claims to represent about 400 corporations involved in
production, refinement, distribution, and many other aspects of the petroleum
industry. The association’s chief functions on behalf of the industry include advocacy
and negotiation with governmental, legal, and regulatory agencies; research into
economic, toxicological, and environmental effects; establishment and certification of
industry standards; and education outreach.
1.13. ASME:
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, is a professional association that, in its
own words, "promotes the art, science, and practice of multidisciplinary engineering
and allied sciences around the globe" via "continuing education, training and
professional development, codes and standards, research, conferences and
publications, government relations, and other forms of outreach.

2. Commonly Used Grades and Sections:

2.1. Hot Rolled Sections:

2.1.1. I-Beams:
Advantages of I sections:
Cross sectional I shape giving many benefits. It is very good for giving stiffness (less
deformation on loading) and to withstand higher bending moments (as a result of
heavy loading) on comparison with other cross-sectional shapes of same area. Also, it
is very easy to manufacture.
It will have more moment of inertia due to the distance of the flange from the
centroidal axis and it has zero eccentricity about one axis and the center of gravity lies
inside the web.

Standard Sections for I beams:

In most developed countries, the shapes available are set out in published standards,
although a number of specialist and proprietary cross sections are also available, the
most common standards for I beams are:
- European Sections: (See Annex 1.4 for European I-beams)
IPE, IPN, HE, HL, HP and HD; IPE and HEA (100-300) are the most common shapes
in Jordan and can be easily purchased from the local market.
- Japanese Sections (JIS) (See Annex 1.5 for Japanese I-beams )
- British Universal Sections (UB and UC) (See Annex 1.6 for British I-beams)
- American Sections (W, S, HP and M), (See Annex 1.7 for American I-beams)
- Jumbo sections:
Jumbo is the name of 19th-century male African Circus Elephant,
The giant elephant's name has spawned the common word, "jumbo", meaning
large in size,
Certain heavy W sections with flange thicknesses exceeding 2 inches are often
referred to as Jumbo sections, they are identified with footnotes in W shape tables.
Standard Grades:
- Substantial mechanical properties of steel:

 Yield Strength:
The yield strength for steel is usually defined as the stress at the point of unloading
which corresponds to residual strain of 0.2% offset strain.

 Ductility
Ductility is the property of steel that enables it to withstand extensive
deformations under high tensile stresses without failure. It allows redistribution of
stresses in continuous members and at points of concentration of stresses, such as
those at holes, notches or other discontinuities, preventing sudden collapse of
structure. The large deflections give visible evidence of impending failure. Ductility
is measured by percent elongation over a given gage length or percent reduction of
cross-sectional area.

 Toughness
Toughness is the ability of material to absorb large amounts of energy. This means
that steel members can be deformed, harmed and punched with holes without
fracture. It is represented by the area under the stress-strain diagram. High
strength steel is not necessarily tough steel. The toughness of steel is usually
measured experimentally by the Charpy V Notch Impact Test.
The test consists of fracturing a standard 55×10×10 mm steel bar with a V- notch at
the center, at given temperature. The specimen is brought to the specified
temperature by immersion in a liquid path for at least 5 minutes or in gas medium
for at least 30 minutes. The specimen is then inserted in the impact machine and
fractured by a striking head released from a predetermined height, which impacts
the specimen on the side opposite to the notch. The amount of energy needed to
fracture the specimen is measured from the height to which the striking head rises
after blow. The test may be repeated for different temperatures. The test helps to
identify brittle steels.

 Corrosion
Corrosion is the process of deterioration of steel by chemical or electrochemical
reaction with the surrounding environment. The most familiar form of corrosion is
the formation of rust on the surface of steel, which reduces the resistant area and
increases the stress in the remaining material. Protection of steel against corrosion
is provided by painting and continuous maintenance.
- Major factors affecting the mechanical properties of steel:

 Chemical composition
Steel is an alloy consisting almost entirely of iron. It also contains small quantities
of carbon (0.2% - 0.3%), and other alloying agents such as silicon, manganese,
copper, nickel, sulfer, phosphorous, molybdenum, chromium and vanadium.
The engineering characteristics of most elements make them unsuitable for use in
pure form. In most cases the properties of the materials can be significantly
improve one or more of the following properties: toughness, hardness, strength,
ductility, weldability, and corrosion resistance.
The most important factor affecting mechanical properties of steel is the chemical
composition. Carbon is the element that has the greatest effect on the properties
of steel. The hardness and strength increase as the carbon percentage is increased,
but the resulting steel is more brittle and its weldability is affected.
Maintaining smaller amount of carbon and adding other elements like chromium,
silicon and nickel will produce steels with higher strength and acceptable ductility.
A steel with alloying elements added is called alloy-steel.

 Rolling Process
Another factor affecting the mechanical properties of steel is the rolling process.
Thin plates usually have higher yield stresses than thick plates because they
require more rolling cycles. However, for some steels like A36 steel, the yield stress
is kept constant with the thickness by varying the chemical composition. For the
other steels the chemical composition is kept constant so that the thicker materials
are given the smaller yield stresses.

 Heat Treatment
Mechanical properties of steel can be altered by applying a variety of heat
treatments. The response of steel to heat treatment depends upon its alloy
composition. Common heat treatments employed for steel include annealing,
normalizing, quenching (hardening), and tempering.

Annealing consists of heating a metal to a specific temperature and then cooling at

a rate that will produce a refined microstructure. The rate of cooling is generally
slow. Annealing is most often used to soften a metal for cold working, to improve
machinability, or to enhance properties like electrical conductivity. In some cases
annealing is used to remove the hardness caused by cold working. The metal is
heated to a temperature where recrystallization can occur, thereby repairing the
defects caused by plastic deformation. In these cases, the rate of cooling will
usually have little effect.
 Normalizing is a technique used to provide uniformity in grain size and composition
throughout an alloy. The term is often used for ferrous alloys that have been
heated to a temperature at which the alloy will exist partly as the solution and
partly as a separate crystallizing phase, and then cooled in open air. Gives harder
and stronger steel, but with less ductility for the same composition than full
annealing.

Quenching is a process of cooling a metal very quickly. In ferrous alloys, this will
often produce a harder metal, while non-ferrous alloys will usually become softer
than normal.
Cooling may be done with forced air or other gases, (such as nitrogen). Liquids may
be used, due to their better thermal conductivity, such as oil, water,
a polymer dissolved in water, or brine. Upon being rapidly cooled, alloy (dependent
on alloy composition) will transform to martensite, a hard, brittle crystalline
structure. The quenched hardness of a metal depends on its chemical composition
and quenching method. Cooling speeds, from fastest to slowest, go from polymer
(i.e.silicon), brine, fresh water, oil, and forced air. However, quenching a certain
steel too fast can result in cracking, which is why high-tensile steels such as AISI
4140 should be quenched in oil.

Tempering is a heat treatment technique applied to ferrous alloys, such as steel or

cast iron, to achieve greater toughness by decreasing the hardness of the alloy. The
reduction in hardness is usually accompanied by an increase in ductility, thereby
decreasing the brittleness of the metal. Tempering is usually performed after
quenching, and accomplished by controlled heating of the quenched work-piece to
a temperature below its "lower critical temperature". This is also called the lower
transformation temperature or lower arrest temperature; a temperature at which
the alloy will exist partly as the solution and partly as a separate crystallizing,
Heating above this temperature is avoided, so as not to destroy the very-hard,
quenched microstructure, called martensite

- European Standard (EN): (See Annex 1.8 European grades for I-beams)
Most steels used throughout Europe are specified to comply with the European
standard EN 10025. However, many national standards also remain in force.
Typical grades are described as 'S275J2' or 'S355K2W'. In these examples, 'S'
denotes structural rather than engineering steel; 275 or 355 denotes the yield
strength in newtons per square millimetre or the equivalent megapascals; J2 or K2
denotes the materials toughness by reference to Charpy impact test values; and
the 'W' denotes weathering steel. Further letters can be used to designate fine
grain steel ('N' or 'NL'); quenched and tempered steel ('Q' or 'QL'); and thermo
mechanically rolled steel ('M' or 'ML').
 The normal yield strength grades available are 195, 235, 275, 355, 420, and 460,
although some grades are more commonly used than others e.g. in the UK, almost
all structural steel is grades S275 and S355. Higher grades are available in
quenched and tempered material (500, 550, 620, 690, 890 and 960 - although
grades above 690 receive little if any use in construction at present).

 Non-Alloy Steel Vs Alloy Steel

If the steel contains by weight one or more of the following elements in the
proportion shown, it is an alloy steel;
1.65 % or more of manganese
0.6 % or more of silicon
0.4 % or more of copper
0.4 % or more of lead
0.3% or more of nickel
0.3 % or more of aluminum
0.3 % or more of cobalt
0.3 % or more of tungsten (wolfram)
0.08 % or more of molybdenum
0.06 % or more of niobium
0.05% or more of titanium
0.05 % or more of zirconium
0.0008 % or more of boron
0.1 % or more of other elements (except sulphur, phosphorus, carbon and
nitrogen), taken separately.
Any steel not containing one or more of the above elements in the weight
proportions shown is a non-alloy steel.

- American Standard (ASTM): (See Annex 1.9 American grades for I-beams)
Structural steels have carbon content in the range of 0.15% to 0.3%.
All structural steels are alloyed with a small amount of copper and all contain
manganese except A36 steel.
Each ASTM approved grade is given a letter (A) and a number indicating the
number of its specification.
Steels for structural purposes are classified as: carbon steels, high-strength steels,
high-strength low-alloy steels, quenched and tempered steels.

 Carbon steels
All steels contain carbon, but carbon steels are so called because their properties
are largely controlled by controlling the carbon content. The maximum carbon
content permitted for structural steels is 0.3% or less, depending on the other
 chemical elements present and on the weldability and toughness desired. The
following steels are included:
I. All-purpose carbon steel (A36). This is the principal carbon steel for bridges,
buildings, and many other structural uses. This steel provides a minimum
yield point of 36 ksi in all structural shapes and in plates up to 8 in thick.
II. Structural carbon steel with 42 ksi minimum yield point (A529).

 High-strength low-alloy steels:

These steels obtain their strengths and other properties by the addition of small
quantities of columbium, vanadium, chromium, silicon, copper and nickel in
addition to carbon and manganese. The term low-alloy is used to describe steels
for which the total of all the alloying elements does not exceed 5% of the total
composition of the steel. The following steels are included:
I. High-strength low-alloy structural Manganese Vanadium steel (A441).
II. High-strength low-alloy Columbium-Vanadium structural steel (A572). It is
used to produce all structural shapes when the yield point is of 50 ksi.
III. A992 steel, introduced in 1998, is now the main specification for rolled
wide flange shapes for building framing. All other hot-rolled shapes, such as
channels and angles, can be furnished to A992.
It provides a minimum yield point of 50 ksi, a maximum yield point of 65
ksi, and a maximum yield to tensile ratio of 0.85. These maximum limits are
desirable attributes, particularly for seismic design because member
strength can be better predicted. To enhance weldability, a maximum
carbon equivalent is also included, equal to 0.47% or 0.45%, depending on
thickness. A supplemental requirement can be specified for an average
Charpy V-notch toughness of 40 ft.lb at 70F.

 Corrosion-resistant high-strength low-alloy steels:

The following steels are included:
I. High-strength, low-alloy, atmospheric corrosion-resistant structural steel
(A242). This steel is used where resistance to atmospheric corrosion is of
primary importance. It usually provides a resistance to atmospheric
corrosion at least four times that of carbon steels, but this resistance can be
increased to eight times that of carbon steels.
II. Atmospheric corrosion-resistant, high-strength, low-alloy structural steel
with 50 ksi yield point to 4 in thickness (A588). This steel provides about
four times the resistance to atmospheric corrosion of carbon steels. It is
used to produce all structural shapes when the yield point is of 50 ksi.
  Quenched and tempered alloy steels: These steels have more alloying elements
than carbon steels, and they are quenched and tempered to obtain high strength
and toughness. Quenching consists of heating the steel to a temperature of 700°C
and then cooling it in oil to about 100°C. Tempering consists of reheating the steel
to about 600°C and cooling it in the air. These steels are used only for plates. The
following types of steels are included:
I. Quenched and tempered low-alloy steel plate with 70 ksi minimum yield
stress to 4 in. thickness (A852). This steel is intended for welded bridges
and buildings where weight savings, durability and good notch toughness
are important. The resistance to atmospheric corrosion is typically four
times that of carbon steels.
II. High-yield strength, Quenched and Tempered Alloy-steel plate (A514). This
type of steel has a resistance to atmospheric corrosion up to four times that
of carbon steels. It is also frequently selected for its ability to resist
abrasion. In fact, it has nearly twice the resistance to abrasion provided by
carbon steels.

- German Standard (DIN): (See Annex 1.10 German grades for I-beams)
- Japanese Standard (JIS): (See Annex 1.11 Japanese grades for I-beams)
- Russian Standard (GOST): (See Annex 1.12 Russian grades for I-beams)

2.1.2. Structural Hollow Sections SHS: (Square , Rectangular and Circular):

Structural Advantages of Using Hollow Sections:
In bending, most of the load is transmitted through the top and bottom of the beam,
therefore material in the center is practically redundant. So the advantage is a great
reduction in weight with only a very small reduction in strength. With high torsional
rigidity and compressive strength, hollow sections are comparably more efficient than
conventional steel sections. The excellent distribution of material around the axis of
the square and rectangular steel hollow sections allows for remarkable strength
qualities and thus offers decisive advantages in its applications. The smooth and
uniform profile of the sections minimizes corrosion and facilitates easy, onsite
fabrication to significantly enhance the aesthetics of structures. A higher strength to
weight ratio credits these sections with nearly 20% reduction in the use of steel.

Seamless and Welded Pipes:

Seamless (SMLS) pipe is formed by drawing a solid billet over a piercing rod to create
the hollow shell. Seamless pipe withstands pressure better than other types, and is
often more easily available than welded pipe.
Welded pipe is formed by rolling plate and welding the seam. The weld flash can be
removed from the outside or inside surfaces using a scarfing blade. The weld zone can
also be heat treated to make the seam less visible.

Welded pipe often has tighter dimensional tolerances than seamless, and can be
cheaper if manufactured in the same quantities. Large-diameter pipe (25 centimetres
(10 in) or greater) may be ERW, EFW or Submerged Arc Welded pipe.

The difference in the basic manufacturing method is obvious from the names.
Seamless pipe is extruded and drawn from a billet while welded pipe is produced from
a strip that is roll formed and welded to produce a pipe. Welded pipe is considerably
less expensive than seamless pipe and is readily available in long continuous lengths.

The basis for much of today’s bias regarding seamless vs. welded piping probably
stems from early manufacturing processes when the weld area was not reworked to
provide a homogeneous pipe wall. Even today the standard for working the weld area
is very open allowing great variance in the final product. Seamless piping simply avoids
the potential for any defect in the corrosion resistance of the weld area.

Difference between Pipe and Circular Hollow Section:

Pipe and tube is ever so simple. Pipes are used to transport something, and tubes to
construct something; hence, tubes are defined by the od "outside diamater" and wt
"wall thickness" (for construction stability), and pipes id inside diamater to allow a
calculation for transportation viz., speed, volumes etc.

Standard Sections:
(See Annex 1.13 For American Sections)
(See Annex 1.14 For European Sections)

Standard Grades:
- European Standard (EN): (See Annex 1.15 for European SHS sections)
Similar to I beams grades with extra (H) letter Indicating hollow section
- American Standard (ASTM) for SHS sections
The American structural steel specifications for approved grades of hollow
structural sections (HSS) are ASTM A500, A501, A618 and A847; for steel pipes it is
ASTM A53.

 ASΤΜ A53
A53 is available as Types Ε and S, where Ε designates a resistance welded and S a
seamless pipe. Only Grade Β is suitable for structural purposes; it has yield and
tensile strengths of 35 and 50 ksi.

 ASΤΜ A500
A500 is available for cold-formed round HSS in grades A, Β and C (yield strengths of
33, 42 and 46 ksi, respectively). It is available in grades A, Β and C for square and
rectangular cold-formed HSS, but the properties are different from those of the
round HSS. Specifically, A500 for HSS has yield strengths of 39, 46 and 50 ksi;
tensile strengths for these grades are 45, 58 and 62 ksi, respectively.

 ASΤΜ A501
For all practical purposes, A501 is identical to A36; it is used for round as well as
square and rectangular HSS.

 ASΤΜA618
A618 is an HSLA steel that is produced in grades I, II and III, and is used for round as
well as rectangular hot-formed HSS. The specified minimum yield strength is 50 ksi
for all of the grades; grade ΙΙ has enhanced corrosion resistance, and grades ΙΙ and
III both have specified contents of silicon. Round HSS in A618 can only be obtained
in mill quantities; square and rectangular HSS are not currently produced in A618.

 ASΤΜ A847
A847 is an HSLA steel that is used for round as well as rectangular welded and
seamless HSS, although seamless tubes are not currently made in the US. It has
enhanced corrosion resistance. The specified minimum yield strength is 50 ksi, the
tensile strength is 70 ksi. Any cross section with a maximum periphery of 64 inches
and a maximum nominal wall thickness of 5/8 inch can be made. Products of this
type are only available in mill quantities.
2.1.3. Steel Angles(L-Shape):
Uses of using steel angles:
 Reinforcement
Steel angles can be used as braces to help reinforce structures. The structures can
be as large and wide as ceilings in a skyscraper, or as small as the corners of a desk
or table. Bolting steel angles to the corners of any construct will hold pieces in
place and increase the structure's stress-bearing capability and longevity.

 Support
Steel angles can be used as brackets to provide support. Their most prevalent use
is to provide platforms for shelving, from a simple bookshelf, to extra space in your
garage to heavy-duty storage in a large warehouse. Whereas corner braces can be
installed in almost any position, brackets tend to be perpendicular to the wall to
provide a level mount.

 Framework
A framework is vital to any structure. Not only do steel angles hold such structures
together, but large angles can form the frame itself. A36 steel is a popular alloy
used to create the "skeleton" for many construction projects. Steel angles make up
the framework for many common things, including buildings, beds and factory
machines.

 Decorative
Steel angles can be just as effective in the foreground as they are behind the
scenes. They can be used as decorative trim on furniture edges and building
interiors, including doorways, counters and floors. Many people also find steel
angles useful in creating attractive brick lintels for internal fireplaces and external
window sills.

* AISC recent editions add equations for the behavior of single steel angles as beams.

Standard Sections:
(See Annex 1.16 for American Angles)
(See Annex 1.17 for European Angles)

Double Angle:
Back to back-connected double angle are commonly used in trusses due to the ease of
installation.
2.1.4. Steel Channels (C or U-Shape):
(See Annex 1.18 for American Channel)
(See Annex 1.19 for European Channels)
(See Annex 1.20 for British Channels)

2.1.5. Steel Plates and bars:

Deference between plates and flat bars:
The only difference bars and plates are their sizes and production procedure,
historically, flat pieces have been called bars if they are 8 in or less in width.
Actually, the term plate is almost universally used today, whether a member is
fabricated is fabricated from plate or bar stock, sheets and strips are usually thinner
than bars and plates.

Standards Sections for Steel Bars: (See Annex 1.21 for steel bars sections)

2.1.6. Built Up Sections:

These are members made up by a fabricator from two or more standard sections.
Built-up members are specified by the designer when the desired properties or
configuration cannot be obtained in the available hot rolled sections. Built-up sections
can be bolted or welded. Welded members, in general, are less expensive because
much less handling is required in the shop and because of more efficient utilization of
material. The clean lines of welded members also produce a better appearance.

2.1.7. Castellated beam:

A rolled metal beam the web of which is first divided by a lengthwise zigzag
cut, then welded together so as to join the peaks of both halves, thus
increasing its depth and strength.
2.2. Cold formed (light – guage ) Sections:
In addition to the hot-rolled steel shapes, there are some cold-formed steel shapes.
These are made by bending thin sheets of carbon or low-alloy steels into almost any
desired cross section, such as angle, channel, zee, hat, etc. These shapes – which may
be used for light members in roofs, floors, and walls - vary in thickness from about 0.01
in up to about 0.25 in. The thinner shapes are most often used for some structural
panels.
Though cold-working does reduce ductility somewhat, it causes some strength
increases. Under certain conditions, design specifications will permit the use of these
higher strengths.

2.3. Bolts, Nuts and Washers.

3. Responsibilities of the Structural Engineer

3.1. Safety and serviceability:

Not only must the frame of a structure safely support the loads to which it is
subjected, but it must support them in such a manner that deflections and vibrations
are not so great as to frighten the occupants or to cause unsightly cracks.

3.2. Constructability:
Another objective is the design of structures that can be fabricated and erected
without great problems arising. Designers need to understand fabrication methods
and should try to fit their work to the fabrication facilities available.
Designers should learn everything possible about the detailing, fabrication, and field
erection of steel. The more the designer knows about the problems, tolerances, and
clearances in shop and field, the more probable it is that reasonable, practical, and
economical designs will be produced. This knowledge should include information
concerning the transportation of the materials to the job site (such as the largest
pieces that can be transported practically by rail or truck), labor conditions, and the
equipment available for erection. Perhaps the designer should ask, "Could I get this
thing together if I were sent out to do it?"
Coordination with other aspects:
The structural designer must learn to arrange and proportion the parts of structures so
that they will not unduly interfere with the electrical or mechanical features of the
structure (pipes, ducts, etc.) or the architectural effects.
3.3. Economical design:
The design of steel member involves much more than a calculation of the properties
required to support the loads and the selection of the lightest section providing these
properties. Although at first glance this procedure would seem to give the most
economical designs, many other factors need to be considered.
Today, the labor costs involved in the fabrication and erection of structural steel are
thought to run close to 60% of the total costs of steel structures. On the other hand,
material costs represent only about 25% of total costs. Thus, we can see that any
efforts we make to improve the economy of our work in structural steel should be
primarily concentrated in the labor area.
When designers are considering costs, they have a tendency to think only of quantities
of materials. As a result, they will sometimes carefully design a structure with the
lightest possible members and end up with some very expensive labor situations with
only minor material savings. Among the many factors that need to be considered in
providing economical steel structures are the following:

I. One of the best ways to achieve economy is to have open communications

between designers, fabricators, erectors, and other involved in particular
project. If this is done during the design process, the abilities and experience of
each of the parties may be utilized at a time when it is still possible to
implement good economical ideas.

II. The designer needs to select steel sections of sizes that are usually rolled. Steel
beams and bars and plates of unusual sizes will be difficult to obtain during
boom periods and will be expensive during any period. A little study on the
designer's part will enable him or her to avoid these expensive shapes. Steel
fabricators are constantly supplied with information from the steel companies
and the steel warehousers as to the sizes and lengths of sections available.

III. A blind assumption that the lightest section is the cheapest one may be in
considerable error. A building frame designed by the "lightest-section"
procedure will consist of a large number of different shapes and sizes of
members. Trying to connect these many-sized members and fit them in the
building will be quite complicated, and the pound price of the steel will, in all
probability, be rather high. A more reasonable approach would be to smooth
out the sizes by selecting many members of the same sizes, although some of
them may be slightly overdesigned.

IV. The beams usually selected for the floors in buildings will normally be the
deeper sections, because these sections for the same weights have the largest
moments of inertia and the greatest resisting moments. As building heights
 increase, however, it may be economical to modify this practice. As an
illustration, consider the erection of a 20-story building, for which each floor
has a minimum clearance. It is assumed that the depths of the floor beams may
be reduced by 6 in without an unreasonable increase in beam weights. The
beams will cost more, but the building height will be reduced by 20×6 in = 120
in, or 10 ft, with resulting savings in walls, elevator shafts, column heights,
plumbing, wiring, and footings.

V. The costs of erection and fabrication for structural steel beams are
approximately the same for light and heavy members. Thus, beams should be
spaced as far apart as possible to reduce the number of members that have to
be fabricated and erected.

VI. Structural steel members should be painted only if so required by the

applicable specification. You should realize that steel should not be painted if it
is to be in contact with concrete. Furthermore, the various fireproofing
materials used for protecting steel members adhere better if the surfaces are
unpainted.

VII. It is very desirable to keep repeating the same section over and over again.
Such a practice will reduce the detailing, fabrication, and erection costs.

VIII. For large sections, particularly the built-up ones, the designer needs to have
information pertaining to transportation problems. The desired information
includes the greatest lengths and depths that can be shipped by truck or rail,
clearances available under bridges and power lines leading to the project, and
allowable loads on bridges. It may be possible to fabricate a steel roof truss in
one piece, but is it possible to transport it to the job site and erect it in one
piece?

IX. Sections should be selected that are reasonably easy to erect and which have
no conditions that will make them difficult to maintain. As an example, it is
necessary to have access to all exposed surfaces of steel bridge members so
that they may be periodically painted (unless one of the special corrosion-
resistant steel is used).

The question is often asked, "How do we achieve economy in structural steel design?"
The answer is simple: It lies in what the steel fabricator does not have to do. ( In other
words, economy can be realized when fabrication is minimized.)
4. Computers and Structural Steel Design

The availability of personal computers has drastically changed the way steel
structures are analyzed and designed. In nearly every engineering school and design
office, computers are used to perform structural analysis problems. Many of the
structural analysis programs commercially available also can perform structural design.
Many calculations are involved in structural steel design, and many of these
calculations are quite time-consuming. With the use of computer, the design engineer
can greatly reduce the time required to perform these calculations, and likely increase
the accuracy of the calculations. In turn, this will then provide the engineer with more
time to consider the implications of the design and the resulting performance of the
structure, and more time to try changes that may improve economy or behavior.
Although computers do increase design productivity, they also tend to reduce the
engineer's "feel" for the structure. This can be a particular problem for young
engineers with very little design experience. Unless design engineers have this feel for
system behavior, the use of computers can result in large, costly mistakes. Such
situations may arise where anomalies and inconsistencies are not immediately
apparent to the inexperienced engineer. Theoretically, the computer design of
alternative systems for a few projects should substantially improve the engineer's
judgment in a short span of time. Without computers, the development of this same
judgment would likely require the engineer to work his or her way through numerous
projects.