ADDITIONAL LECTURE: ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Electric Current (I):

Δw dw Voltage or Potential Difference (V):
i = lim = Δw dw
Δt →0 Δt dt i = lim =
Δq →0 Δq dq
dq = idt
dw = vdq
q = ∫ idt
w = ∫ vdq
Electron Drift Velocity (or Velocity of Charge):
i J Prefix Symbol Value
v= = Tera T 1012
nAe ne Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Where: i = current in inductor Kilo K 103
n = number of free electrons per m3 Milli m 10-3
(Electron density) Micro µ 10-6
Nano n 10-9
e =electron charge = 1.6 x 10-19c Pico p 10-12
A = area of the conductor
J = current density = i/A
 β = current gain
r = transresistance
g = transconductance
Circuit Components: VX and iy = control variables
 Active Elements
o Independent Voltage Source  Passive Elements
o Independent Current Source o Resistors
o Dependent or Controlled Source o Capacitors (or condensers)
 Voltage – controlled or current – o Inductors (or coils)
controlled voltage source (VCVS
or CCVS) Nature of Resistance:
 Voltage – controlled or current –  Dimensions – area and length
controlled current source (VCCS  Type of material
or CCCS)  Temperature
 Frequency
+ +
Uniform cross – sectional area:
μVx - r iy - - -
g Vx β iy

VCVS CCVS VCCS CCCS

Where: µ = voltage gain

 For the standard conductor (annealed or soft – drawn copper,
l Where:
R∝ Rt = resistance at temperature t (Ω) 99.99% conductivity):
A l = length (m)
A = area (m2)
ρ20°C = 1.724 x 10-8 Ω-m = 0.15328 Ω/meter.gram
2 ρt = Resistivity or specific
l I V resistance at temperature t (Ω.m) To = -234.5°C
Rt = ρt = ρt = ρt 2 V = volume (m3)
A V A Rac = kRdc

Where: Rac = effective or RMS value of the resistance

Rdc = ohmic or DC value of the resistance
k = skin effect ratio
Resistance vs. Temperature Curve:

Where: Conductance (G):

R1 = resistance at temp t1 1 1A A
( ) (
R2 = R1 xx++ tt21 = R1 tt22 -- To
To
) R2 = resistance at temp t2
To = inferred absolute zero
G= =
R ρl
=σ
l
x = To temperature Where: σ = conductivity or specific conductance (S/m)
α1 = temperature coefficient of
R2 = R1[1+ α1( t2 - t1) ] resistance
1 1 % conductivity of a wire:
= =
x + t1 t1- To σwire ρCu
%cond = × 100% = × 100%
σCu ρwire
Ohm’s Law:
 V 1 Joule (J) = 1 Newton meter (Nm)
V=IR or I = = 1 Kg m2 per sec2
R
= 1 coulomb volt (CV)
Resistors:
 Fixed resistors
Power:
o Molded carbon composition resistors
o Vitreous – enameled wire – wound Δw dw
resistor
p(t) = lim =
Δt →0 Δt dt
o Metal – film precision resistors
o Surface mount power resistor w(t)= ∫ p(t)dt
o Precision power wire – wound resistors
o Thick – film chip resistor Power is time – variant or constant:
 Variable resistors: W = Pt
o Rheostats
W QV V2
o Potentiometer P= = = VI= I2 R=
Work, Energy and Power t t R

Work = Energy joules (J) Efficiency:

W out W out Pout Pout
eff = = = =
Work (or Energy) = force x distance W in W out + W loss Pin Pout + Ploss
= weight x height
= charge x voltage Overall efficiency = product of all individual efficiencies
Series Circuits: For a short – circuit branch:
IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = … R = zero
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + … Isc = any value
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + … Vsc = zero
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + …
Practical Voltage Source:
Parallel Circuits:
+
VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = … IL
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + … Rint
RL
VT
1 1 1 1 E
= + + + ... -
RT R1 R2 R3
GT = G1 + G2 + G3 + … Where:
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + … E = open circuit terminal voltage
Rint = internal resistance
ISC =E/Rint = short circuit current

VT = E – internal drop = E - ILRint

For an open – circuit branch:
R = infinitely large Source Parameters:
Ioc = zero
Voc = any value
 RL
VT = E
Rint + RL Voltage Dividers:
E
IL =
Rint + RL RSD

( )
Source RB Load
E 2
PL = IL2 RL = Rint+ RL RL
PL RL
eff = = Where:
PL+ PLOSS Rint + RL RSD = series – dropping resistance
RB = bleeder resistance
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:
E2 VNL- VFL
PLmax = %VR= × 100%
4Rint VFL

Mesh Analysis:
 Identify the meshes and assign mesh currents
 Formulate the mesh (or voltage) equations
 Solve the unknown mesh currents as required to obtain other
desired values
  Norton’s Theorem

Nodal Analysis:
 Identify the major nodes, select one as reference and  Delta – Wye (or Wye – Delta) Transformation
assign node voltages.
 Formulate the node (or current) equations. Delta to wye conversion:
 Solve the unknown node voltages as required to obtain
other desired values. product of adjacent resistances in delta
Rwye =
sumof resistance in delta
Network Theorems:
Delta to wye conversion:
 Superposition Theorem
 Principle of Linearity sumof products of adjacent resistances in wy
Rdelta =
opposite resistance in wye
Linear
VS Passive IS
System For Balanced Delta or Wye:
Rdelta = 3Rwye
+ Vo -
 Millman’s Theorem
 Reciprocity Theorem
 Thevenin’s Theorem  Substitution (Compensation) Theorem