Electricity and The Electron: Which Way Does Electricity Flow?

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Electricity and the Electron

Next Page: Series and Parallel Connections
What is electricity?
Electricity is the flow of charge around a circuit carrying energy from the
battery (or power supply) to components such as lamps and motors.
Electricity can flow only if there is a complete circuit from the battery through
wires to components and back to the battery again.
The diagram shows a simple circuit of a battery, wires, a switch and a lamp.
The switch works by breaking the circuit.
With the switch open the circuit is broken - so electricity cannot flow and the
lamp is off.
With the switch closed the circuit is complete - allowing electricity to flow and
the lamp is on. The electricity is carrying energy from the battery to the lamp.
We can see, hear or feel the effects of electricity flowing such as a lamp
lighting, a bell ringing, or a motor turning - but we cannot see the electricity
itself, so which way is it flowing?
Which way does electricity flow?
We say that electricity flows from the positive (+) terminal of a battery to the
negative (-) terminal of the battery. We can imagine particles with positive
electric charge flowing in this direction around the circuit, like the red dots in
the diagram.
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This flow of electric charge is called conventional

current.
This direction of flow is used throughout electronics

Imaginary positive particles
and it is the one you should remember and use to moving in the direction of
understand the operation of circuits. the conventional current
However this is not the whole answer because the particles that move in fact
have negative charge! And they flow in the opposite direction! Please read
on...
The electron
When electricity was discovered scientists tried many experiments to find out
which way the electricity was flowing around circuits, but in those early days
they found it was impossible to find the direction of flow.
hey knew there were two types of electric charge,

positive (+) and negative (-), and they decided to say
that electricity was a flow of positive charge from + to -.
They knew this was a guess, but a decision had to be
made! Everything known at that time could also be
explained if electricity was negative charge flowing the
other way, from - to +.
The electron was discovered in 1897 and it was found

to have a negative charge. The guess made in the early
days of electricity was wrong! Electricity in almost all
conductors is really the flow of electrons (negative charge) from - to +.
By the time the electron was discovered the idea of electricity flowing from +
to - (conventional current) was firmly established. Luckily it is not a problem to
think of electricity in this way because positive charge flowing forwards is
equivalent to negative charge flowing backwards.
To prevent confusion you should always use conventional current when

trying to understand how circuits work, imagine positively charged particles
flowing from + to -.
Voltage and Current

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Next Page: Meters
Voltage and Current are vital to understanding electronics, but they are quite
hard to grasp because we can't see them directly.
Voltage is the Cause, Current is the Effect
Voltage attempts to make a current flow, and current will flow if the circuit is
complete. Voltage is sometimes described as the 'push' or 'force' of the
electricity, it isn't really a force but this may help you to imagine what is
happening. It is possible to have voltage without current, but current cannot
flow without voltage.
Voltage and Current Voltage but No Current No Voltage and No

The switch is closed making a The switch is open so the Current
complete circuit so current can circuit is broken and current Without the cell there is no
flow. cannot flow. source of voltage so current
cannot flow.
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Voltage, V
 Voltage is a measure of the energy

carried by the charge.
Strictly: voltage is the "energy per unit
charge".
 The proper name for voltage is
potential difference or p.d. for short, Connecting a voltmeter in parallel
but this term is rarely used in electronics.
 Voltage is supplied by the battery (or power supply).
 Voltage is used up in components, but not in wires.
 We say voltage across a component.
 Voltage is measured in volts, V.
 Voltage is measured with a voltmeter, connected in parallel.
 The symbol V is used for voltage in equations.
Voltage at a point and 0V (zero volts)
Voltage is a difference between two points, but

in electronics we often refer to voltage at a point
meaning the voltage difference between that point
and a reference point of 0V (zero volts).
Zero volts could be any point in the circuit, but to

be consistent it is normally the negative terminal
of the battery or power supply. You will often see
circuit diagrams lapelled with 0V as a reminder.
You may find it helpful to think of voltage like height in geography. The reference point of zero
height is the mean (average) sea level and all heights are measured from that point. The zero
volts in an electronic circuit is like the mean sea level in geography.
Zero volts for circuits with a dual supply
Some circuits require a dual supply with three supply connections as shown
in the diagram. For these circuits the zero volts
reference point is the middle terminal between
the two parts of the supply.
On complex circuit diagrams using a dual supply

the earth symbol is often used to indicate a
connection to 0V, this helps to reduce the
number of wires drawn on the diagram.
The diagram shows a ±9V dual supply, the

positive terminal is +9V, the negative terminal is
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-9V and the middle terminal is 0V.
Connecting an ammeter in series
Current, I
 Current is the rate of flow of charge.

 Current is not used up, what flows into a component must flow out.
 We say current through a component.
 Current is measured in amps (amperes), A.
 Current is measured with an ammeter, connected in series.
To connect in series you must break the circuit and put the ammeter acoss the gap,
as shown in the diagram.
 The symbol I is used for current in equations.
1A (1 amp) is quite a large current for electronics, so mA (milliamps) are often

used. m (milli) means "thousandth":
1mA = 0.001A, or 1000mA = 1A
The need to break the circuit to connect in series means that ammeters are difficult to use on
soldered circuits. Most testing in electronics is done with voltmeters, which can be easily
connected without disturbing circuits.
Voltage and Current for components in Series
Voltages add up for components connected in series.

Currents are the same through all components connected
in series.
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In this circuit the 4V across the resistor and the 2V across the LED add up to
the battery voltage: 2V + 4V = 6V.
The current through all parts (battery, resistor and LED) is 20mA.
Voltage and Current for components in Parallel
Voltages are the same across all components connected in parallel.

Currents add up for components connected in parallel.
In this circuit the battery, resistor and lamp all

have 6V across them.
The 30mA current through the

resistor and the 60mA current
through the lamp add up to the
90mA current through the battery.
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Ohm's Law
To make a current flow through a resistance there must be a voltage across
that resistance. Ohm's Law shows the relationship between the voltage (V),
current (I) and resistance (R). It can be written in three ways:
V V
V=I×R or I= or R=
R I
where: V = voltage in volts (V) or: V = voltage in volts (V)

I = current in amps (A) I = current in milliamps (mA)
R = resistance in ohms ( ) R = resistance in kilohms (k )
For most electronic circuits the amp is too large and the ohm is too small, so
we often measure current in milliamps (mA) and resistance in kilohms (k ). 1
mA = 0.001 A and 1 k = 1000 .
The Ohm's Law equations work if you use V, A and , or if you use V, mA
and k . You must not mix these sets of units in the equations so you may
need to convert between mA and A or k and .
The VIR triangle V

You can use the VIR triangle to help you remember the three
I R
versions of Ohm's Law.
Write down V, I and R in a triangle like the one in the yellow box
on the right. Ohm's Law
 To calculate voltage, V: put your finger over V, triangle
this leaves you with I R, so the equation is V = I × R
 To calculate current, I: put your finger over I,
this leaves you with V over R, so the equation is I = V/R
 To calculate resistance, R: put your finger over R,
this leaves you with V over I, so the equation is R = V/I
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Ohm's Law Calculations
Use this method to guide you through calculations: V

1. Write down the Values, converting units if necessary.
2. Select the Equation you need (use the VIR triangle). I R
3. Put the Numbers into the equation and calculate the
answer.
It should be Very Easy Now!
 3 V is applied across a 6 resistor, what is the current?

o Values: V = 3 V, I = ?, R = 6
o Equation: I = V/R
o Numbers: Current, I = 3/6 A= 0.5 A
 A lamp connected to a 6 V battery passes a current of 60 mA, what is
the lamp's resistance?
o Values: V = 6 V, I = 60 mA, R = ?
o Equation: R = V/I
o Numbers: Resistance, R = 6/60 = 0.1 k = 100
(using mA for current means the calculation gives the resistance
in k )
 A 1.2 k resistor passes a current of 0.2 A, what is the voltage across
it?
o Values: V = ?, I = 0.2 A, R = 1.2 k = 1200
(1.2 k is converted to 1200 because A and k must not be
used together)
o Equation: V = I × R
o Numbers: V = 0.2 × 1200 V= 240V
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Power and Energy
Next Page: AC, DC and Electrical Signals
What is power?
Power is the rate of using or supplying energy:

Energy Power is measured in watts (W)
Power = Time Energy is measured in joules (J)
Time is measured in seconds (s)
Electronics is mostly concerned with small quantities of power, so the power

is often measured in milliwatts (mW), 1mW = 0.001W. For example an LED
uses about 40mW and a bleeper uses about 100mW, even a lamp such as a
torch bulb only uses about 1W.
The typical power used in mains electrical circuits is much larger, so this
power may be measured in kilowatts (kW), 1kW = 1000W. For example a
typical mains lamp uses 60W and a kettle uses about 3kW.
Calculating power using current and voltage
There are three ways of writing an equation for power, current and voltage:
P P
Power = Current × Voltage so P = I × V or I = or V =
V I
where: P = power in watts (W) or: P = power in milliwatts (mW)
V = voltage in volts (V) V = voltage in volts (V)
I = current in amps (A) I = current in milliamps (mA)
You can use the PIV triangle to help you remember the three
versions of the power equations. Use it in the same way as the
P
Ohm's Law triangle. For most electronic circuits the amp is too
large, so we often measure current in milliamps (mA) and power in
milliwatts (mW). 1mA = 0.001A and 1mW = 0.001W. I V
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Calculating power using resistance and current or voltage
Using Ohm's Law V = I × R we can convert P = I × V to:

P = I² × R where: P = power in watts (W)
or I = current in amps (A)
P = V² / R R = resistance in ohms ( )
V = voltage in volts (V)
Wasted power and overheating
Normally electric power is useful, making a lamp light or a motor turn for
example. However, electrical energy is converted to heat whenever a current
flows through a resistance and this can be a problem if it makes a device or
wire overheat. In electronics the effect is usually negligible, but if the
resistance is low (a wire or low value resistor for example) the current can be
sufficiently large to cause a problem.
You can see from the equation P = I² × R that for a given resistance the power
depends on the current squared, so doubling the current will give 4 times the
power.
Resistors are rated by the maximum power they can have developed in
them without damage, but power ratings are rarely quoted in parts lists
because the standard ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable for most circuits.
Further information is available on the Resistors page.
Wires and cables are rated by the maximum current they can pass without
overheating. They have a very low resistance so the maximum current is
relatively large.
Energy
The amount of energy used (or supplied) depends on the power and the time
for which it is used:
Energy = Power × Time
A low power device operating for a long time can use more energy than a high
power device operating for a short time. For example:
 A 60W lamp switched on for 8 hours uses 60W × 8 × 3600s = 1728kJ.

 A 3kW kettle switched on for 5 minutes uses 3000W × 5 × 60s = 900kJ.
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The standard unit for energy is the joule (J), but 1J is a very small amount of
energy for mains electricity so kilojoule (kJ) or megajoule (MJ) are sometimes
used in scientific work. In the home we measure electrical energy in kilowatt-
hours (kWh). 1kWh is the energy used by a 1kW power appliance when it is
switched on for 1 hour:
1kWh = 1kW × 1 hour = 1000W × 3600s = 3.6MJ
For example:
 A 60W lamp switched on for 8 hours uses 0.06kW × 8 = 0.48kWh.

 A 3kW kettle switched on for 5 minutes uses 3kW × 5/60 = 0.25kWh.
AC, DC and Electrical Signals

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Next Page: Oscilloscopes (CROs)
AC means Alternating Current

and DC means Direct Current. AC
and DC are also used when
referring to voltages and electrical
signals, which are not currents!
For example: a 12V AC power
supply has an alternating voltage
(which will make an alternating AC from a power supply
current flow). An electrical signal This shape is called a sine wave.

is a voltage or current, which
conveys information, usually it
means a voltage. The term can be
used for any voltage or current in
a circuit.
This triangular signal is AC because it changes

between positive (+) and negative (-).
Alternating Current (AC)
Alternating Current (AC) flows one way, then the other way, continually
reversing direction.
An AC voltage is continually changing between positive (+) and negative (-).
The rate of changing direction is called the frequency of the AC and it is

measured in Hertz (Hz), which is the number of forwards-backwards cycles
per second.
Mains electricity in the UK has a frequency of 50Hz.
An AC supply is suitable for powering some devices such as lamps and

heaters but almost all electronic circuits require a steady DC supply (see
below).
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Direct Current (DC) Steady DC

from a battery or regulated power supply,
this is ideal for electronic circuits.
Direct Current (DC) always flows
in the same direction, but it may
increase and decrease.
A DC voltage is always positive

(or always negative), but it may
increase and decrease.
Electronic circuits normally require

Smooth DC
a steady DC supply, which is from a smoothed power supply,
constant at one value, or a this is suitable for some electronics.
smooth DC supply, which has a
small variation, called ripple.
Cells, batteries and regulated

power supplies provide steady
DC, which is ideal for electronic
circuits.
Power supplies contain a Varying DC

transformer, which converts the from a power supply without smoothing,
mains AC supply to a safe low this is not suitable for electronics.
voltage AC. Then a bridge rectifier converts the AC to DC but the output is
varying DC, which is unsuitable for electronic circuits.
Some power supplies include a capacitor to provide smooth DC which is

suitable for less-sensitive electronic circuits, including most of the projects on
this website.
Lamps, heaters and motors will work with any DC supply.
Properties of electrical signals

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An electrical signal is a voltage or

current which conveys information,
usually it means a voltage. The term
can be used for any voltage or current
in a circuit.
The voltage-time graph on the right

shows various properties of an
electrical signal. In addition to the
properties labeled on the graph, there
is frequency, which is the number of cycles per second.
The diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any signal with
a constant shape.
 Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal.

It is measured in volts, V.
 Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.
 Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When
reading an oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.
 Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle.
It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so
milliseconds (ms) and microseconds (µs) are often used.
1ms = 0.001s and 1µs = 0.000001s.
 Frequency is the number of cycles per second.
It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies tend to be high so
kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used. 1kHz = 1000Hz
and 1MHz = 1000000Hz.
1 1
frequency = and time period =
time period frequency
 Mains electricity in the UK has a frequency of 50Hz,

so it has a time period of 1/50 = 0.02s = 20ms.
Root Mean Square (RMS) Values

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The value of an AC voltage is continually changing from zero up to the

positive peak, through zero to the negative peak and back to zero again.
Clearly for most of the time it is less than the peak voltage, so this is not a
good measure of its real effect.
Instead we use the root mean square voltage (VRMS), which is 0.7 of the
peak voltage (Vpeak):
VRMS = 0.7 × Vpeak and Vpeak = 1.4 × VRMS
These equations also apply to current.

They are only true for sine waves (the most common type of AC) because the
0.7 and 1.4 are different values for other shapes.
The RMS value is the effective value of a varying voltage or current. It is the
equivalent steady DC (constant) value, which gives the same effect.
For example a lamp connected to a 6V RMS AC supply will light with the
same brightness when connected to a steady 6V DC supply. However, the
lamp will be dimmer if connected to a 6V peak AC supply because the RMS
value of this is only 4.2V (it is equivalent to a steady 4.2V DC).
You may find it helps to think of the RMS value as a sort of average, but
please remember that it is NOT really the average! In fact the average voltage
(or current) of an AC signal is zero because the positive and negative parts
exactly cancel out!
What do AC meters show, is it the RMS or peak voltage?
AC voltmeters and ammeters show the RMS value of the voltage or current.
DC meters also show the RMS value when connected to varying DC providing
the DC is varying quickly, if the frequency is less than about 10Hz you will see
the meter reading fluctuating instead.
What does '6V AC' really mean, is it the RMS or peak voltage?
If the peak value is meant it should be clearly stated, otherwise assume it is

the RMS value. In everyday use AC voltages (and currents) are always given
as RMS values because this allows a sensible comparison to be made with
steady DC voltages (and currents), such as from a battery.
For example a '6V AC supply' means 6V RMS, the peak voltage is 8.6V. If the
main supply is 230V AC, this means 230V RMS, then the peak voltage of the
mains is about 320V!
So what does root mean square (RMS) really mean?
First square all the values, then find the average (mean) of these square
values over a complete cycle, and find the square root of this average. That is
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the RMS value. Confused? Ignore the maths (it looks more complicated than
it really is), just accept that RMS values for voltage and current are a much
more useful quantity than peak values
Power Supplies
Next Page: Transducers
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Types of Power Supply
There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high
voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics
circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series
of blocks, each of which performs a particular function.
For example a 5V regulated supply:
Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:
 Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

 Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing - smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
 Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.
Dual Supplies
Some electronic circuits require a

power supply with positive and
negative outputs as well as zero volts
(0V). This is called a 'dual supply'
because it is like two ordinary
supplies connected together as
shown in the diagram.
Dual supplies have three outputs, for example a ±9V supply has +9V, 0V and
-9V outputs.
Transformer only
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The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC
motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier
and a smoothing capacitor.
Transformer + Rectifier
The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It
is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing
capacitor.
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing

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The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic
circuits.
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator
The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all
electronic circuits.
Transformer
circuit symbol
Transformer
Transformers convert AC electricity from

one voltage to another with little loss of
power. Transformers work only with AC and
this is one of the reasons why mains
electricity is AC.
Step-up transformers increase voltage,

step-down transformers reduce voltage.
Most power supplies use a step-down
Transformer

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transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage (230V in UK) to a

safer low voltage.
The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the
secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils; instead
they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of
the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the
core.
Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the
power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio,
determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large
number of turns on its primary (input) coil, which is connected to the high
voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output)
coil to give a low output voltage.
Vp Np power out = power in
turns ratio = = and
Vs Ns Vs × Is = Vp × Ip
Vp = primary (input) voltage Vs = secondary (output) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Ip = primary (input) current Is = secondary (output) current
Rectifier
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC

to DC. The bridge rectifier is the most important and it produces full-wave
varying DC. A full-wave rectifier can also be made from just two diodes if a
centre-tap transformer is used, but this method is rarely used now that diodes
are cheaper. A single diode can be used as a rectifier but it only uses the
positive (+) parts of the AC wave to produce half-wave varying DC.
Bridge rectifier
A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in
special packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier
because it uses all the AC wave (both positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up
in the bridge rectifier because each diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are
always two diodes conducting, as shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are
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rated by the maximum current they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they
can withstand (this must be at least three times the supply RMS voltage so the
rectifier can withstand the peak voltages). Please see the Diodes page for more details,
including pictures of bridge rectifiers.
Bridge rectifier Output: full-wave varying DC

Alternate pairs of diodes conduct, changing over (using all the AC wave)
the connections so the alternating directions of
AC are converted to the one direction of DC.
Single diode rectifier
A single diode can be used as a rectifier but this produces half-wave varying
DC which has gaps when the AC is negative. It is hard to smooth this sufficiently well
to supply electronic circuits unless they require a very small current so the smoothing
capacitor does not significantly discharge during the gaps. Please see the Diodes page
for some examples of rectifier diodes.
Single diode rectifier Output: half-wave varying DC

(using only half the AC wave)
Smoothing
Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected

across the DC supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output
when the varying DC voltage from the rectifier is falling. The diagram shows
the unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line) and the smoothed DC (solid line).
The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and then
discharges as it supplies current to the output.
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Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to almost

the peak value (1.4 × RMS value). For example 6V RMS AC is rectified to full
wave DC of about 4.6V RMS (1.4V is lost in the bridge rectifier), with
smoothing this increases to almost the peak value giving 1.4 × 4.6 = 6.4V
smooth DC.
Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it

discharges, giving a small ripple voltage. For many circuits a ripple, which is
10% of the supply voltage, is satisfactory and the equation below gives the
required value for the smoothing capacitor. A larger capacitor will give less
ripple. The capacitor value must be doubled when smoothing half-wave DC.
5 × Io
Smoothing capacitor for 10% ripple, C =
Vs × f
o = output current from the supply

Vs = supply voltage (peak value of unsmoothed DC)
f = frequency of the AC supply (50Hz in UK)
Voltage regulator

Regulator
Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or
variable output voltages. They are also rated by the maximum current they
can pass. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual
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supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection from excessive

current ('overload protection') and overheating ('thermal protection').
Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs have 3

leads and look like power transistors, such as
the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the right.
They include a hole for attaching a heatsink if zener diode
necessary. a = anode, k = cathode
Zener diode regulator
For low current power supplies a simple

voltage regulator can be made with a resistor
and a zener diode connected in reverse as
shown in the diagram. Zener diodes are rated
by their breakdown voltage Vz and maximum power Pz (typically 400mW
or 1.3W).
The resistor limits the current (like an LED resistor). The current through the
resistor is constant, so when there is no output current all the current flows
through the zener diode and its power rating Pz must be large enough to
withstand this.
Choosing a zener diode and resistor:
1. The zener voltage Vz is the output voltage required

2. The input voltage Vs must be a few volts greater than Vz
(this is to allow for small fluctuations in Vs due to ripple)
3. The maximum current Imax is the output current required plus 10%
4. The zener power Pz is determined by the maximum current:
Pz > Vz × Imax
5. The resistor resistance: R = (Vs - Vz) / Imax
6. The resistor power rating: P > (Vs - Vz) × Imax
Example: output voltage required is 5V, output current required is 60mA .

1. Vz = 4.7V (nearest value available)
2. Vs = 8V (it must be a few volts greater than Vz)
3. Imax = 66mA (output current plus 10%)
4. Pz > 4.7V × 66mA = 310mW, choose Pz = 400mW
5. R = (8V - 4.7V) / 66mA = 0.05k = 50 , choose R = 47
6. Resistor power rating P > (8V - 4.7V) × 66mA = 218mW, choose P = 0.5W
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Transducers
Next Page: Voltage Dividers
A transducer is a device, which converts a signal from one form to another.
Most electronics circuits use both input and output transducers:
Input Transducers
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Input Transducers convert a quantity to an electrical signal

(voltage) or to resistance (which can be converted to voltage).
Input transducers are also called sensors.
Examples:
LDR
 LDR converts brightness (of light) to resistance.
 Thermistor converts temperature to resistance.
 Microphone converts sound to voltage.
 Variable resistor converts position (angle) to resistance.
Output Transducers
Output Transducers convert an electrical signal to another

quantity.
Examples:
Loudspeaker
 Lamp converts electricity to light.
 LED converts electricity to light.
 Loudspeaker converts electricity to sound.
 Motor converts electricity to motion.
 Heater converts electricity to heat.
Using input transducers (sensors)

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Most input transducers (sensors) vary their

resistance and this can be used directly in some
circuits but it is usually converted to an electrical
signal in the form of a voltage.
The voltage signal can be fed to other parts of

the circuit, such as the input to a chip or a Voltage divider circuit
transistor switch.
A simple circuit called a voltage divider performs the conversion of varying

resistance to varying voltage.
VoltageDivider
Next Page: Transistor
Circuits
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A voltage divider consists of two resistances R1

and R2 connected in series across a supply
voltage Vs. The supply voltage is divided up
between the two resistances to give an output
voltage Vo which is the voltage across R2. This
depends on the size of R2 relative to R1:
 If R2 is much smaller than R1, Vo is
small (low, almost 0V)
(because most of the voltage is across R1) Vs × R2
 If R2 is about the same as R1, Vo is Vo =
R1 + R2
about half Vs
(because the voltage is shared about equally between R1 and R2)
 If R2 is much larger than R1, Vo is large (high, almost Vs)
(because most of the voltage is across R2)
If you need a precise value for the output voltage Vo you can use Ohm's law and a little
algebra to work out the formula for Vo shown on the right. The formula and the approximate
rules given above assume that negligible current flows from the output. This is true if Vo is
connected to a device with a high resistance such as voltmeter or a chip input. For further
information please see the page on impedance. If the output is connected to a transistor Vo
cannot become much greater than 0.7V because the transistor's base-emitter junction
behaves like a diode.
Voltage dividers are also called potential dividers, a name which comes
from potential difference (the proper name for voltage).
One of the main uses of voltage dividers is to connect input transducers into

circuits...
Using an input transducer (sensor) in a voltage divider
Most input transducers (sensors) vary their resistance and usually a voltage
divider is used to convert this to a varying voltage which is more useful. The
voltage signal can be fed to other parts of the circuit, such as the input to a
chip or a transistor switch.
The sensor is one of the resistances in the voltage divider. It can be at the
top (R1) or at the bottom (R2), the choice is determined by when you want a
large value for the output voltage Vo:
 Put the sensor at the top (R1) if you want a large Vo when the sensor
has a small resistance.
 Put the sensor at the bottom (R2) if you want a large Vo when the
sensor has a large resistance.
Then you need to choose a value for the resistor...

28
OR
Choosing a resistor value
The value of the resistor R will determine the range of the output voltage Vo.
For best results you need a large 'swing' (range) for Vo and this is achieved if
the resistor is much larger than the sensor's minimum resistance Rmin, but
much smaller than the sensor's maximum resistance Rmax.
You can use a multimeter to help you find the minimum and maximum values
of the sensor's resistance (Rmin and Rmax). There is no need to be precise,
approximate values will do.
Then choose resistor value: R = square root of (Rmin × Rmax)

Choose a standard value which is close to this calculated value.
For example:
An LDR: Rmin = 100 , Rmax = 1M , so R = square root of (100 × 1M) = 10k .
Swopping over the resistor and sensor
The resistor and sensor can be swopped over to invert the action of the
voltage divider. For example an LDR has a high resistance when dark and a
low resistance when brightly lit, so:
 If the LDR is at the top (near +Vs),
Vo will be low in the dark and high in bright light.
 If the LDR is at the bottom (near 0V),
Vo will be high in the dark and low in bright light.
29
Using a variable resistor
A variable resistor may be used in place of the

fixed resistor R. It will enable you to adjust the
output voltage Vo for a given resistance of the
sensor. For example you can use a variable
resistor to set the exact brightness level which
makes a chip change state.
The sensor and variable
The variable resistor value should be larger than resistor can be swopped
the fixed resistor value. For finer control you can over if necessary
use a fixed resistor in series with the variable resistor. For example if a 10k
fixed resistor is suitable you could replace it with a fixed 4.7k resistor in
series with a 10k variable resistor, allowing you to adjust the resistance from
4.7k to 14.7k .
If you are planning to use a variable resistor connected between the +Vs
supply and the base of a transistor you must include a resistor in series with
the variable resistor. This is to prevent excessive base current destroying the
transistor when the variable resistor is reduced to zero.
30
Transistor Circuit
Next Page: Analogue and Digital Systems
Types of transistor
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN

and PNP, with different circuit symbols. The letters
refer to the layers of semiconductor material used
to make the transistor. Most transistors used today
are NPN because this is the easiest type to make
from silicon. This page is mostly about NPN Transistor circuit symbols
transistors and if you are new to electronics it is
best to start by learning how to use these first.
The leads are labeled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in
understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!
In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect

transistors, which are usually referred to as FETs. They have different circuit
symbols and properties and they are not (yet) covered by this page.
Transistor currents
The diagram shows the two current paths

through a transistor. You can build this circuit
with two standard 5mm red LEDs and any
general purpose low power NPN transistor
(BC108, BC182 or BC548 for example).
The small base current controls the larger

collector current.
When the switch is closed a small current

flows into the base (B) of the transistor. It is just
enough to make LED B glow dimly. The
transistor amplifies this small current to allow a
larger current to flow through from its collector
31
(C) to its emitter (E). This collector current is large enough to make LED C
light brightly.
When the switch is open no base current flows, so the transistor switches
off the collector current. Both LEDs are off.
A transistor amplifies current and can be used as a switch.
This arrangement where the emitter (E) is in the controlling circuit (base current) and in the
controlled circuit (collector current) is called common emitter mode. It is the most widely
used arrangement for transistors so it is the one to learn first.
Functional model of an NPN transistor
The operation of a transistor is difficult to explain

and understand in terms of its internal structure. It is
more helpful to use this functional model:
 The base-emitter junction behaves like a
diode.
 A base current IB flows only when the voltage
VBE across the base-emitter junction is 0.7V
or more.
 The small base current IB controls the large
collector current IC.
 IC = hFE × IB (unless the transistor is full on and
saturated)
hFE is the current gain (strictly the DC current
gain), a typical value for hFE is 100 (it has no
units because it is a ratio)
 The collector-emitter resistance RCE is
controlled by the base current IB:
o IB = 0 RCE = infinity transistor off
o IB small RCE reduced transistor partly
on
o IB increased RCE = 0 transistor full on
('saturated')
Additional notes:
 A resistor is often needed in series with the base connection to limit the
base current IB and prevent the transistor being damaged.
 Transistors have a maximum collector current I C rating.
 The current gain hFE can vary widely, even for transistors of the
same type!
 A transistor that is full on (with RCE = 0) is said to be 'saturated'.
 When a transistor is saturated the collector-emitter voltage V CE is
reduced to almost 0V.
32
 When a transistor is saturated the

collector current IC is determined by the
supply voltage and the external
resistance in the collector circuit, not by
the transistor's current gain. As a result
the ratio IC/IB for a saturated transistor is
less than the current gain hFE.
 The emitter current IE = IC + IB, but IC is
much larger than IB, so roughly IE = IC.
There is a table showing technical data for

some popular transistors on the transistors
page.
Touch switch circuit
Darlington pair
This is two transistors connected together so that the current amplified by the
first is amplified further by the second transistor. The overall current gain is
equal to the two individual gains multiplied together:
Darlington pair current gain, hFE = hFE1 × hFE2

(hFE1 and hFE2 are the gains of the individual transistors)
This gives the Darlington pair a very high current gain, such as 10000, so that
only a tiny base current is required to make the pair switch on.
A Darlington pair behaves like a single transistor with a very high

current gain. It has three leads (B, C and E), which are equivalent to the
leads of a standard individual transistor. To turn on there must be 0.7V across
both the base-emitter junctions, which are connected in series inside the
Darlington pair, therefore it requires 1.4V to turn on.
Darlington pairs are available as complete packages but you can make up
your own from two transistors; TR1 can be a low power type, but normally
TR2 will need to be high power. The maximum collector current I C(max) for
the pair is the same as IC(max) for TR2.
33
A Darlington pair is sufficiently sensitive to respond to the small current

passed by your skin and it can be used to make a touch-switch as shown in
the diagram. For this circuit, which just lights an LED, the two transistors can
be any general purpose low power transistors. The 100k resistor protects
the transistors if the contacts are linked with a piece of wire.
Using a transistor as a switch
When a transistor is used as a switch it must be

either OFF or fully ON. In the fully ON state the
voltage VCE across the transistor is almost zero
and the transistor is said to be saturated
because it cannot pass any more collector
current IC. The output device switched by the
transistor is usually called the 'load'.
The power developed in a switching transistor is

very small:
 In the OFF state: power = IC × VCE, but IC = 0, so the power is zero.

 In the full ON state: power = IC × VCE, but VCE = 0 (almost), so the
power is very small.
This means that the transistor should not become hot in use and you do not
need to consider its maximum power rating. The important ratings in switching
circuits are the maximum collector current IC(max) and the minimum
current gain hFE(min). The transistor's voltage ratings may be ignored unless
you are using a supply voltage of more than about 15V. There is a table
showing technical data for some popular transistors on the transistors page.
For information about the operation of a transistor please see the functional
model above.
Protection diode
If the load is a motor, relay or solenoid

(or any other device with a coil) a diode
must be connected across the load to
protect the transistor (and chip) from
damage when the load is switched off.
34
The diagram shows how this is connected 'backwards' so that it will normally
NOT conduct. Conduction only occurs when the load is switched off, at this
moment current tries to continue flowing through the coil and it is harmlessly
diverted through the diode. Without the diode no current
could flow and the coil would produce a damaging high
voltage 'spike' in its attempt to keep the current flowing.
When to use a relay
Transistors cannot switch AC or high voltages (such as

mains electricity) and they are not usually a good choice
for switching large currents (> 5A). In these cases a
relay will be needed, but note that a low power
transistor may still be needed to switch the current for
the relay's coil!
Advantages of relays:
Relays
 Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch
DC.
 Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
 Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
 Relays can switch many contacts at once.
Disadvantages of relays:
 Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.
 Relays cannot switch rapidly, transistors can switch many times per second.
 Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
 Relays require more current than many chips can provide, so a low power
transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.
Connecting a transistor to the output from a chip
Most chips cannot supply large output currents so it may be necessary to use
a transistor to switch the larger current required for output devices such as
lamps, motors and relays. The 555 timer chip is unusual because it can
supply a relatively large current of up to 200mA which is sufficient for some
output devices such as low current lamps, buzzers and many relay coils
without needing to use a transistor.
A resistor RB is required to limit the current flowing into the base of the
transistor and prevent it being damaged. However, R B must be sufficiently low
to ensure that the transistor is thoroughly saturated to prevent it overheating,
this is particularly important if the transistor is switching a large current (>
35
100mA). A safe rule is to make the base current I B about five times larger than
the value which should just saturate the transistor.
Choosing a suitable NPN transistor
The circuit diagram shows how to

connect an NPN transistor, this will
switch on the load when the chip output is
high (+Vs). If you need the opposite
action, with the load switched on when
the chip output is low (0V) please see the
circuit for a PNP transistor below.
The procedure below explains how to

choose a suitable switching transistor.
NPN transistor switch
(load is on when chip output is high)
1. The transistor's maximum collector
current IC(max) must be greater

than the load current IC.
supply voltage Vs
Using units in calculations
load current IC = Remember to use V, A and or
load resistance RL V, mA and k . For more details
2. The transistor's minimum current please see the Ohm's Law page.
gain hFE(min) must be at least five
times the load current IC divided by the maximum output current from
the chip.
load current IC
hFE(min) > 5 ×
max. chip current
3. Choose a transistor which meets these requirements and make a note
of its properties: IC(max) and hFE(min).
There is a table showing technical data for some popular transistors on the transistors
page.
4. Calculate an approximate value for the base resistor:

Vs × hFE
RB = 0.2 × RL × hFE or RB =
5 × IC
5. and choose the nearest standard value.
6. Finally, remember that if the load is a motor or relay coil a protection
diode is required.
Example
The output from a 4000 series CMOS chip is required to operate a relay with a 100 coil.
The supply voltage is 6V and the chip can supply a maximum current of 5mA.
1. Load current = Vs/RL = 6/100 = 0.06A = 60mA, so transistor must have IC(max) >
60mA.
2. The maximum current from the chip is 5mA, so transistor must have hFE(min) > 60
(5 × 60mA/5mA).
3. Choose general purpose low power transistor BC182 with IC(max) = 100mA and
hFE(min) = 100.
4. RB = 0.2 × RL × hFE = 0.2 × 100 × 100 = 2000 . so choose RB = 1k8 or 2k2.
36
5. The relay coil requires a protection diode.
Choosing a suitable PNP transistor
The circuit diagram shows how to

connect a PNP transistor, this will switch
on the load when the chip output is low PNP transistor switch
(0V). If you need the opposite action, with (load is on when chip output is low)
the load switched on when the chip
output is high (+Vs) please see the circuit for an NPN transistor above.
The procedure for choosing a suitable PNP transistor is exactly the same as
that for an NPN transistor described above.
Using a transistor switch with sensors

37
The top circuit diagram shows an LDR

(light sensor) connected so that the LED
lights when the LDR is in darkness. The
variable resistor adjusts the brightness at
which the transistor switches on and off.
Any general purpose low power transistor
can be used in this circuit.
LED lights when the LDR is dark
The 10k fixed resistor protects the
transistor from excessive base current
(which will destroy it) when the variable
resistor is reduced to zero. To make this
circuit switch at a suitable brightness you
may need to experiment with different
values for the fixed resistor, but it must not
be less than 1k .
If the transistor is switching a load with a

coil, such as a motor or relay, remember to
add a protection diode across the load.
LED lights when the LDR is bright
The switching action can be inverted, so
the LED lights when the LDR is brightly lit,
by swopping the LDR and variable resistor. In this case the fixed resistor can
be omitted because the LDR resistance cannot be reduced to zero.
Note that the switching action of this circuit is not particularly good because
there will be an intermediate brightness when the transistor will be partly on
(not saturated). In this state the transistor is in danger of overheating unless it
is switching a small current. There is no problem with the small LED current,
but the larger current for a lamp, motor or relay is likely to cause overheating.
Other sensors, such as a thermistor, can be used with this circuit, but they
may require a different variable resistor. You can calculate an approximate
value for the variable resistor (Rv) by using a multimeter to find the minimum
and maximum values of the sensor's resistance (Rmin and Rmax):
Variable resistor, Rv = square root of (Rmin × Rmax)
For example an LDR: Rmin = 100 , Rmax = 1M , so Rv = square root of (100 × 1M) = 10k

.
You can make a much better switching circuit with sensors connected to a
suitable IC (chip). The switching action will be much sharper with no partly on
38
state.
A transistor inverter (NOT gate)
Inverters (NOT gates) are available on logic chips but if you only require one
inverter it is usually better to use this circuit. The output signal (voltage) is the
inverse of the input signal:
 When the input is high (+Vs) the output
is low (0V).
 When the input is low (0V) the output
is high (+Vs).
Any general purpose low power NPN

transistor can be used. For general use
RB = 10k and RC = 1k , then the inverter
output can be connected to a device with an
input impedance (resistance) of at least 10k
such as a logic chip or a 555 timer (trigger and reset inputs).
If you are connecting the inverter to a CMOS logic chip input (very high
impedance) you can increase RB to 100k and RC to 10k , this will reduce
the current used by the inverter.
Analogue and Digital Systems

39
Next Page: Logic Gates
Analogue systems Analogue signal
Analogue systems process analogue

signals which can take any value within a
range, for example the output from an LDR
(light sensor) or a microphone.
Analogue meter display
An audio amplifier is an example of an
analogue system. The amplifier produces an output voltage, which can be any
value within the range of its power supply.
An analogue meter can display any value within the range available on its
scale. However, the precision of readings is limited by our ability to read them.
For example the meter on the right shows 1.25V because the pointer is
estimated to be half way between 1.2 and 1.3. The analogue meter can show
any value between 1.2 and 1.3 but we are unable to read the scale more
precisely than about half a division.
All electronic circuits suffer from 'noise' which is unwanted signal mixed in with
the desired signal, for example an audio amplifier may pick up some mains
'hum' (the 50Hz frequency of the UK mains electricity supply). Noise can be
difficult to eliminate from analogue signals
because it may be hard to distinguish from
the desired signal.
Digital (logic) signal
Digital meter display
Digital systems
Digital systems process digital signals which can take only a limited number of
values (discrete steps), usually just two values are used: the positive supply
voltage (+Vs) and zero volts (0V).
Digital systems contain devices such as logic gates, flip-flops, shift registers

and counters. A computer is an example of a digital system.
A digital meter can display many values, but not every value within its range.
For example the display on the right can show 6.25 and 6.26 but not a value
between them. This is not a problem because digital meters normally have
40
sufficient digits to show values more precisely than it is possible to read an

analogue display.
Logic signals Logic states

Most digital systems use the simplest possible type of signal True False
which has just two values. This type of signal is called a logic 1 0
signal because the two values (or states) can be called true
and false. Normally the positive supply voltage +Vs represents High Low
true and 0V represents false. Other labels for the true and false +Vs 0V
states are shown in the table on the right.
On Off
Noise is relatively easy to eliminate from digital signals because it is easy to
distinguish from the desired signal which can only have particular values. For
example: if the signal is meant to be +5V (true) or 0V (false), noise of up to
2.5V can be eliminated by treating all voltages greater than 2.5V as true and
all voltages less than 2.5V as false.
Logic Gates
41
Next Page: Capacitance and Uses of Capacitors
Introduction Logic states
True False
Logic gates process signals which represent true or false.
Normally the positive supply voltage +Vs represents true and 1 0
0V represents false. Other terms which are used for the true High Low
and false states are shown in the table on the right. It is best to
be familiar with them all. +Vs 0V
On Off
Gates are identified by their function: NOT, AND, NAND, OR,
NOR, EX-OR and EX-NOR. Capital letters are normally used to make it clear
that the term refers to a logic gate.
Logic gate symbols
There are two series of symbols for logic gates:

 The traditional symbols have distinctive shapes making them easy to
recognise so they are widely used in industry and education.
 The IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) symbols are

rectangles with a symbol inside to show the gate function. They are used in
most of the countries.
Inputs and outputs
Gates have two or more inputs, except a NOT

gate which has only one input. All gates have
only one output. Usually the letters A, B, C and
so on are used to label inputs, and Q is used to
label the output. On this page the inputs are
shown on the left and the output on the right.
42
The inverting circle (o)
Some gate symbols have a circle on their output which

means that their function includes inverting of the
output. It is equivalent to feeding the output through a
NOT gate. For example the NAND (Not AND) gate
symbol shown on the right is the same as an AND
gate symbol but with the addition of an inverting circle on the output.
Truth tables
Input A Input B Output Q
A truth table is a good way to show the function of 0 0 0
a logic gate. It shows the output states for every
0 1 0
possible combination of input states. The symbols
0 (false) and 1 (true) are usually used in truth 1 0 0
tables. The example truth table on the right shows 1 1 1
the inputs and output of an AND gate.
Logic ICs
Logic gates are available on special ICs

(chips) which usually contain several
gates of the same type, for example the
4001 IC contains four 2-input NOR gates.
There are several families of logic ICs and
they can be split into two groups:
 4000 Series
 74 Series
The 4000 and 74HC families are the best

for battery powered projects because they
will work with a good range of supply
voltages and they use very little power. However, if you are using them to
design circuits and investigate logic gates please remember that all unused
inputs MUST be connected to the power supply (either +Vs or 0V), this
applies even if that part of the chip is not being used in the circuit!
43
NOT gate (inverter)
The output Q is true when the input A is NOT true, the output is the inverse of
the input: Q = NOT A
A NOT gate can only have one input. A NOT gate is also called an inverter.
Input A Output Q
0 1
1 0
Traditional symbol IEC symbol Truth Table
AND gate
The output Q is true if input A AND input B are both true: Q = A AND B
An AND gate can have two or more inputs, its output is true if all inputs are true.

0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

44
NAND gate (NAND = Not AND)
This is an AND gate with the output inverted, as shown by the 'o' on the
output.
The output is true if input A AND input B are NOT both true:
Q = NOT (A AND B)
A NAND gate can have two or more inputs, its output is true if NOT all inputs are
true.

0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
OR gate
The output Q is true if input A OR input B is true (or both of them are true):
Q = A OR B
An OR gate can have two or more inputs, its output is true if at least one input is true.

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
45
NOR gate (NOR = Not OR)
This is an OR gate with the output inverted, as shown by the 'o' on the output.
The output Q is true if NOT inputs A OR B are true: Q = NOT (A OR B)
A NOR gate can have two or more inputs, its output is true if no inputs are true.

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
EX-OR (EXclusive-OR) gate
The output Q is true if either input A is true OR input B is true, but not when
both of them are true: Q = (A AND NOT B) OR (B AND NOT A)
This is like an OR gate but excluding both inputs being true.
The output is true if inputs A and B are DIFFERENT.
EX-OR gates can only have 2 inputs.

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

46
EX-NOR (EXclusive-NOR) gate
This is an EX-OR gate with the output inverted, as shown by the 'o' on the
output.
The output Q is true if inputs A and B are the SAME (both true or both false):
Q = (A AND B) OR (NOT A AND NOT B)
EX-NOR gates can only have 2 inputs.

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Summary truth tables
The summary truth tables below show the output states for all types of 2-input and 3-
input gates.
47
Summary for all 2-input gates
Inputs
OR N
OREX Summary for all 3-input gates
-
OREX Inputs Output of each gate
- B A B C AND NAND OR NOR
NORO 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
utput of
each 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
gate A 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
0A 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
ND
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
NA
ND 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
Note that EX-OR and EX-NOR

gates can only have 2 inputs.
Combinations of logic gates
Logic gates can be combined to produce more

complex functions. They can also be combined to Input A Input B Output Q
substitute one type of gate for another. 0 0 0
0 1 0
For example to produce an output Q which is true
only when input A is true and input B is false, as 1 0 1
shown in the truth table on the right, we can 1 1 0
combine a NOT gate and an AND gate like this:
Q = A AND NOT B
Working out the function of a combination of gates
Truth tables can be used to work out the function of a combination of gates.
Inputs Outputs
A B C D E Q
48 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 1
For example the truth table on the right show the 0 1 0 0 0 0
intermediate outputs D and E as well as the final output
Q for the system shown below. 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 1
D = NOT (A OR B)
E = B AND C
Q = D OR E = (NOT (A OR B)) OR (B AND C)
Substituting one type of gate for another
Logic gates are available on ICs which usually contain several gates of the
same type, for example four 2-input NAND gates or three 3-input NAND
gates. This can be wasteful if only a few gates are required unless they are all
the same type. To avoid using too many ICs you can reduce the number of
gate inputs or substitute one type of gate for another.
Reducing the number of inputs
The number of inputs to a gate can be reduced by connecting two (or more)
inputs together. The diagram shows a 3-input AND gate
operating as a 2-input AND gate.
Making a NOT gate from a NAND or NOR gate
Reducing a NAND or NOR gate to just one input creates a NOT gate. The
diagram shows this for a 2-input NAND gate.
Any gate can be built from NAND or NOR gates
As well as making a NOT gate, NAND or NOR gates can be combined to

create any type of gate! This enables a circuit to be built from just one type of
gate, either NAND or NOR. For example an AND gate is a NAND gate then a
NOT gate (to undo the inverting function). Note that AND and OR gates
cannot be used to create other gates because they lack the inverting (NOT)
function.
49
To change the type of gate, such as changing OR to AND, you must do

three things:
 Invert (NOT) each input.

 Change the gate type (OR to AND, or AND to OR)
 Invert (NOT) the output.
For example an OR gate can be built from NOTed inputs fed into a NAND
(AND + NOT) gate.
NAND gate equivalents
The table below shows the NAND gate equivalents of NOT, AND, OR and
NOR gates:
Gate Equivalent in NAND gates
NOT
AND
OR
NOR
Substituting gates in an example logic system

50
The original system has 3 different

gates: NOR, AND and OR. This
requires three ICs (one for each
type of gate).
To re-design this system using

NAND gates only begin by
replacing each gate with its NAND
gate equivalent, as shown in
the diagram below.
Then simplify the system by deleting adjacent pairs of NOT gates (marked X
above). This can be done because the second NOT gate cancels the action of
the first.
The final system is shown on the right. It has five NAND gates and requires
two ICs (with four gates on each IC). This is better than the original system,
which required three ICs (one for each type of gate).
Substituting NAND (or NOR) gates does not always increase the number of
gates, but when it does (as in this example) the increase is usually only one or
51
two gates. The real benefit is reducing the number of ICs required by using
just one type of gate.
Capacitance and Uses of Capacitors
Next Page: Impedance and Reactance
unpolarised capacitor symbol

Capacitance
Capacitance (symbol C) is a measure of a

capacitor's ability to store charge. A large
polarised capacitor symbol
capacitance means that more charge can be
stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is very
large, so prefixes (multipliers) are used to show the smaller values:
52
 µ (micro) means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F

 n (nano) means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF
 p (pico) means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
Charge and Energy Stored
The amount of charge (symbol Q) stored by a capacitor is given by:

Q = charge in coulombs (C)
Charge, Q = C × V where: C = capacitance in farads (F)
V = voltage in volts (V)
When they store charge, capacitors are also storing energy:
Energy E = ½QV = ½CV² where E = energy in joules (J).
Note that capacitors return their stored energy to the circuit. They do not 'use
up' electrical energy by converting it to heat as a resistor does. The energy
stored by a capacitor is much smaller than the energy stored by a battery so
they cannot be used as a practical source of energy for most purposes.
Capacitive Reactance Xc
Capacitive reactance (symbol Xc) is a measure of a capacitor's opposition to

AC (alternating current). Like resistance it is measured in ohms, , but
reactance is more complex than resistance because its value depends on the
frequency (f) of the electrical signal passing through the capacitor as well as
on the capacitance, C.
1 Xc = reactance in ohms ( )
Capacitive reactance, Xc = 2 fC where: f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
C = capacitance in farads (F)
The reactance Xc is large at low frequencies and small at high frequencies.

For steady DC, which is zero frequency, Xc is infinite (total opposition), hence
the rule that capacitors pass AC but block DC.
For example a 1µF capacitor has a reactance of 3.2k for a 50Hz signal, but
when the frequency is higher at 10kHz its reactance is only 16 .
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Note: the symbol Xc is used to distinguish capacitative reactance from

inductive reactance XL which is a property of inductors. The distinction is
important because XL increases with frequency (the opposite of Xc) and if
both XL and Xc are present in a circuit the combined reactance (X) is the
difference between them.
Capacitors in Series and Parallel

54
Combined capacitance (C) of 1 1 1 1

= + + + ...
capacitors connected in series: C C1 C2 C3
Combined capacitance (C) of
C = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...
capacitors connected in parallel:
Two or more capacitors are rarely deliberately connected in series in real

circuits, but it can be useful to connect capacitors in parallel to obtain a very
large capacitance, for example to smooth a power supply.
Note that these equations are the opposite way round for resistors in series
and parallel.
Charging a capacitor
The capacitor (C) in the circuit diagram is

being charged from a supply voltage (Vs) with
the current passing through a resistor (R).
The voltage across the capacitor (Vc) is
initially zero but it increases as the
capacitor charges. The capacitor is fully
charged when Vc = Vs. The charging
current (I) is determined by the voltage

across the resistor (Vs - Vc):
Charging current, I = (Vs - Vc) / R (note that Vc is increasing)
At first Vc = 0V so the initial current, Io = Vs / R
Vc increases as soon as charge (Q) starts to build up (Vc = Q/C), this reduces

the voltage across the resistor and therefore reduces the charging current.
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This means that the rate of charging becomes progressively slower.
time constant is
in seconds (s)
time consta wh R = resistance Graphs showing the current and
nt = R × C ere: in ohms ( ) voltage for a capacitor charging
C = capacitance time constant = RC
in farads (F)
For example:
If R = 47k and C = 22µF, then the
time constant, RC = 47k × 22µF =
1.0s.
If R = 33k and C = 1µF, then the time
constant, RC = 33k × 1µF = 33ms.
A large time constant means the

capacitor charges slowly. Note that
the time constant is a property of the
circuit containing the capacitance and
resistance; it is not a property of a
capacitor alone.
The time constant is the time taken for

the charging (or discharging) current
(I) to fall to 1/e of its initial value (Io). 'e'
is the base of natural logarithms, an
important number in mathematics (like
). e = 2.71828 (to 6 significant
figures) so we can roughly say that the
time constant is the time taken for the
current to fall to 1/3 of its initial value.
After each time constant the current falls by 1/e (about 1/3). After 5 time
constants (5RC) the current has fallen to less than 1% of its initial value and
we can reasonably say that the capacitor is fully charged, but in fact the
capacitor takes for ever to charge fully!
The bottom graph shows how the voltage (V) increases as the capacitor
charges. At first the voltage changes rapidly because the current is large;
but as the current decreases, the charge builds up more slowly and the
voltage increases more slowly.
After 5 time constants (5RC) the capacitor is almost fully charged with its voltage
almost equal to the supply voltage. We can reasonably say that the capacitor is fully
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charged after 5RC, although really charging continues for ever (or until the circuit is
changed).
Time Voltage Charge

0RC 0.0V 0%
1RC 5.7V 63%
2RC 7.8V 86%
3RC 8.6V 95%
Graphs showing the current and
4RC 8.8V 98% voltage for a capacitor discharging
time constant = RC
5RC 8.9V 99%
Discharging a capacitor
The top graph shows how the current

(I) decreases as the capacitor
discharges. The initial current (Io) is
determined by the initial voltage
across the capacitor (Vo) and
resistance (R):
Initial current, Io = Vo / R.
Note that the current graphs are the

same shape for both charging and
discharging a capacitor. This type of
graph is an example of exponential
decay.
The bottom graph shows how the

voltage (V) decreases as the capacitor discharges.
At first the current is large because the voltage is large, so charge is lost
quickly and the voltage decreases rapidly. As charge is lost the voltage is
reduced making the current smaller so the rate of discharging becomes
progressively slower.
After 5 time constants (5RC) the voltage across the capacitor is almost zero and we
can reasonably say that the capacitor is fully discharged, although really discharging
continues for ever (or until the circuit is changed).
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Time Voltage Charge

0RC 9.0V 100%
1RC 3.3V 37%
2RC 1.2V 14%
3RC 0.4V 5%
4RC 0.2V 2%
5RC 0.1V 1%
Uses of Capacitors
Capacitors are used for several purposes:

 Timing - for example with a 555 timer IC controlling the charging and
discharging.
 Smoothing - for example in a power supply.
 Coupling - for example between stages of an audio system and to
connect a loudspeaker.
 Filtering - for example in the tone control of an audio system.
 Tuning - for example in a radio system.
 Storing energy - for example in a camera flash circuit.
Capacitor Coupling (CR-

coupling)
Sections of electronic circuits may be

linked with a capacitor because
capacitors pass AC (changing)
signals but block DC (steady)
signals. This is called capacitor
coupling or CR-coupling. It is used
between the stages of an audio
system to pass on the audio signal
(AC) without any steady voltage (DC)
which may be present, for example
to connect a loudspeaker. It is also
used for the 'AC' switch setting on an
oscilloscope.
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The precise behavior of a capacitor coupling is determined by its time

constant (RC). Note that the resistance (R) may be inside the next circuit
section rather than a separate resistor.
For successful capacitor coupling in an audio system the signals must pass
through with little or no distortion. This is achieved if the time constant (RC) is
larger than the time period (T) of the lowest frequency audio signals required
(typically 20Hz, T = 50ms).
Output when RC >> T

When the time constant is much larger than the time period of the input signal
the capacitor does not have sufficient time to significantly charge or
discharge, so the signal passes through with negligible distortion.
Output when RC = T
When the time constant is equal to the time period you can see that the
capacitor has time to partly charge and discharge before the signal changes.
As a result there is significant distortion
of the signal as it passes through the
CR-coupling. Notice how the sudden
changes of the input signal pass
straight through the capacitor to the
output.
Output when RC << T

When the time constant is much
smaller than the time period the
capacitor has time to fully charge or
discharge after each sudden change in Example circuit symbol (above)
the input signal. Effectively only the
sudden changes pass through to the Actual pin arrangements (below)
output and they appear as 'spikes',
alternately positive and negative. This
can be useful in a system, which must
detect when a signal changes
suddenly, but must ignore slow
changes.
555 and 556 Timer Circuits

The 8-pin 555 timer must be one of the
most useful chips ever made and it is
used in many projects. With just a few
external components it can be used to
build many circuits, not all of them
involve timing!
A popular version is the NE555 and

this is suitable in most cases where a
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'555 timer' is specified. The 556 is a dual version of the 555 housed in a 14-
pin package, the two timers (A and B) share the same power supply pins. The
circuit diagrams on this page show a 555, but they could all be adapted to use
one half of a 556.
Low power versions of the 555 are made, such as the ICM7555, but these
should only be used when specified (to increase battery life) because their
maximum output current of about 20mA (with a 9V supply) is too low for many
standard 555 circuits. The ICM7555 has the same pin arrangement as a
standard 555.
The circuit symbol for a 555 (and 556) is a box with the pins arranged to suit
the circuit diagram: for example 555 pin 8 at the top for the +Vs supply, 555
pin 3 output on the right. Usually just the pin numbers are used and they are
not labeled with their function.
The 555 and 556 can be used with a supply voltage (Vs) in the range 4.5 to
15V (18V absolute maximum).
Standard 555 and 556 chips create a significant 'glitch' on the supply when
their output changes state. This is rarely a problem in simple circuits with no
other ICs, but in more complex circuits a smoothing capacitor (e.g. 100µF)
should be connected across the +Vs and 0V supply near the 555 or 556.
The input and output pin functions are described briefly below and there are
fuller explanations covering the various circuits:
 Astable - producing a square wave

 Monostable - producing a single pulse when triggered
 Bistable - a simple memory which can be set and reset
 Buffer - an inverting buffer (Schmitt trigger)
Datasheets are available from: DatasheetCatalog.com
Inputs of 555/556
Trigger input: when < 1/3 Vs ('active low') this makes the output high (+Vs). It
monitors the discharging of the timing capacitor in an astable circuit. It has a
high input impedance > 2M .
Threshold input: when > 2/3 Vs ('active high')

this makes the output low (0V)*. It monitors the
charging of the timing capacitor in astable and
monostable circuits. It has a high input
60
impedance > 10M .
* providing the trigger input is < 1/3 Vs (the trigger input overrides the threshold input).
Reset input: when less than about 0.7V ('active

low') this makes the output low (0V), overriding
other inputs. When not required it should be
connected to +Vs. It has an input impedance of
about 10k .
Control input: this can be used to adjust the

threshold voltage which is set internally to be
2
/3 Vs. Usually this function is not required and the
control input is connected to 0V with a 0.01µF
capacitor to eliminate electrical noise. It can be left
unconnected if noise is not a problem.
The discharge pin is not an input, but it is listed

here for convenience. It is connected to 0V when
the timer output is low and is used to discharge the
timing capacitor in astable and monostable circuits.
Output of 555/556
The output of a standard 555 or 556 can sink and source up to 200mA. This is
more than most chips and it is sufficient to supply many output transducers
directly, including LEDs (with a resistor in series), low current lamps, piezo
transducers, loudspeakers (with a capacitor in series), relay coils (with diode
protection) and some motors (with diode protection). The output voltage does
not quite reach 0V and +Vs, especially if a large current is flowing.
To switch larger currents you can connect a transistor.
The ability to both sink and source current means that two devices can be
connected to the output so that one is on when the output is low and the other
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is on when the output is high. The top diagram shows two LEDs connected in
this way.
Loudspeakers
A loudspeaker (minimum resistance 64 ) may be connected to the output of a

555 or 556 astable circuit but a capacitor (about 100µF) must be connected in
series. The output is equivalent to a steady DC of about ½Vs combined with a
square wave AC (audio) signal. The capacitor blocks the DC, but allows the
AC to pass as explained in capacitor coupling.
Piezo transducers may be connected directly to the output and do not require
a capacitor in series.
Relay coils and other inductive loads
Like all ICs, the 555 and 556 must be protected from the brief high voltage
'spike' produced when an inductive load such as a relay coil is switched off.
The standard protection diode must be connected 'backwards' across the the
relay coil as shown in the diagram.
However, the 555 and 556 require an extra diode connected in series with
the coil to ensure that a small current cannot be fed back into the IC. Without
this extra diode monostable circuits may re-trigger themselves as the coil is
switched off! The coil current passes through the extra diode so it must be a
1N4001 or similar rectifier diode
capable of passing the current, a
signal diode such as a 1N4148 is
usually not suitable.
555 astable output, a square wave
(Tm and Ts may be different)

555/556 Astable
An astable circuit produces a 'square

wave', this is a digital waveform with
sharp transitions between low (0V)
and high (+Vs). Note that the
durations of the low and high states
may be different. The circuit is called
an astable because it is not stable in
any state: the output is continually
changing between 'low' and 'high'.
555 astable circuit

The time period (T) of the square wave
is the time for one complete cycle, but it is usually better to consider frequency (f),
which is the number of cycles per second.
T = 0.7 × (R1 + 2R2) × C1 and f = 1.4

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(R1 + 2R2) × C1
T = time period in seconds (s)

f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
R1 = resistance in ohms ( )
C1 = capacitance in farads (F)
The time period can be split into two parts: T = Tm + Ts

Mark time (output high): Tm = 0.7 × (R1 + R2) × C1
Space time (output low): Ts = 0.7 × R2 × C1
Many circuits require Tm and Ts to be almost equal; this is achieved if R2 is

much larger than R1.
For a standard astable circuit Tm cannot be less than Ts, but this is not too
restricting because the output can both sink and source current. For example
an LED can be made to flash briefly with long gaps by connecting it (with its
resistor) between +Vs and the output. This way the LED is on during Ts, so
brief flashes are achieved with R1 larger than R2, making Ts short and Tm
long. If Tm must be less than Ts a diode can be added to the circuit as
explained under duty cycle
below. 555 astable frequencies
R2 = 10k R2 = 100k R2 = 1M
C1
R1 = 1k R1 = 10k R1 = 100k
Choosing R1, R2 and C1 0.001µF 68kHz 6.8kHz 680Hz
R1 and R2 should be in the 0.01µF 6.8kHz 680Hz 68Hz
range 1k to 1M . It is best to 0.1µF 680Hz 68Hz 6.8Hz
choose C1 first because 1µF 68Hz 6.8Hz 0.68Hz
capacitors are available in just
a few values. 10µF 6.8Hz 0.68Hz 0.068Hz
(41 per min.) (4 per min.)
 Choose C1 to suit the
frequency range you require (use the table as a guide).
 Choose R2 to give the frequency (f) you require. Assume that R1 is much
smaller than R2 (so that Tm and Ts are almost equal), then you can use:
0.7
R2 =
f × C1
 Choose R1 to be about a tenth of R2 (1k min.) unless you want the
mark time Tm to be significantly longer than the space time Ts.
 If you wish to use a variable resistor it is best to make it R2.
 If R1 is variable it must have a fixed resistor of at least 1k in series
(this is not required for R2 if it is variable).
Astable operation
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With the output high (+Vs) the capacitor C1 is charged by current flowing
through R1 and R2. The threshold and trigger inputs monitor the capacitor
voltage and when it reaches 2/3Vs (threshold voltage) the output becomes low
and the discharge pin is connected to 0V.
The capacitor now

discharges with current
flowing through R2 into
the discharge pin.
When the voltage falls
to 1/3Vs (trigger voltage)
the output becomes
high again and the
discharge pin is
disconnected, allowing
the capacitor to start
charging again.
This cycle repeats continuously unless the reset input is connected to 0V

which forces the output low while reset is 0V.
An astable can be used to provide the clock signal for circuits such as
counters.
A low frequency astable (< 10Hz) can be used to flash an LED on and off,
higher frequency flashes are too fast to be seen clearly. Driving a loudspeaker
or piezo transducer with a low frequency of less than 20Hz will produce a
series of 'clicks' (one for each low/high transition) and this can be used to
make a simple metronome.
An audio frequency astable (20Hz to 20kHz) can be used to produce a

sound from a loudspeaker or piezo transducer. The sound is suitable for
buzzes and beeps. The natural (resonant) frequency of most piezo
transducers is about 3kHz and this will make them produce a particularly loud
sound.
Duty cycle
The duty cycle of an astable circuit is the

proportion of the complete cycle for which the
output is high (the mark time). It is usually given
as a percentage.
For a standard 555/556-astable circuit the mark

time (Tm) must be greater than the space time
(Ts), so the duty cycle must be at least 50%:
Duty cycle = Tm = R1 + R2

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Tm + Ts R1 + 2R2
To achieve a duty cycle of less

than 50% a diode can be added in
parallel with R2 as shown in the
diagram. This bypasses R2 during
the charging (mark) part of the cycle
so that Tm depends only on R1 and
C1:
555 astable circuit with diode across R2
Tm = 0.7 × R1 × C1 (ignoring 0.7V across diode)
Ts = 0.7 × R2 × C1 (unchanged)
Tm R1
Duty cycle with diode = =
Tm + Ts R1 + R2
Use a signal diode such as

1N4148.
555 monostable output, a single pulse

555/556 Monostable
A monostable circuit produces a

single output pulse when
triggered. It is called a
monostable because it is stable
in just one state: 'output low'.
The 'output high' state is
temporary.
555 monostable circuit with manual trigger

The duration of the pulse is called the time period (T) and resistor R1 and
capacitor C1 determine this:
time period, T = 1.1 × R1 × C1
T = time period in seconds (s)

65
C1 = capacitance in farads (F)

The maximum reliable time period is about 10 minutes.
Why 1.1? The capacitor charges to 2/3 = 67% so it is a bit longer than the time constant
(R1 × C1) which is the time taken to charge to 63%.
 Choose C1 first (there are relatively few values available).

 Choose R1 to give the time period you need. R1 should be in the
range 1k to 1M , so use a fixed resistor of at least 1k in series if R1
is variable.
 Beware that electrolytic capacitor values are not accurate, errors of at
least 20% are common.
 Beware that electrolytic capacitors leak charge which substantially
increases the time period if you are using a high value resistor - use
the formula as only a very rough guide!
For example the Timer Project should have a maximum time period of 266s (about
4½ minutes), but many electrolytic capacitors extend this to about 10 minutes!
Monostable operation
The timing period is triggered (started) when the trigger input (555 pin 2) is
less than 1/3 Vs, this makes the output high (+Vs) and the capacitor C1 starts
to charge through resistor R1. Once the time period has started further trigger
pulses are ignored.
The threshold input (555

pin 6) monitors the
voltage across C1 and
when this reaches 2/3 Vs
the time period is over
and the output becomes
low. At the same time
discharge (555 pin 7) is
connected to 0V,
discharging the capacitor
ready for the next trigger.
The reset input (555 pin

4) overrides all other
inputs and the timing
may be cancelled at any time by connecting reset to 0V, this instantly makes
the output low and discharges the capacitor. If the reset function is not
required the reset pin should be connected to +Vs.
66
Power-on reset or trigger
It may be useful to ensure that a monostable circuit is

reset or triggered automatically when the power supply is Power-on reset or
connected or switched on. This is achieved by using a trigger circuit
capacitor instead of (or in addition to) a push switch as
shown in the diagram.
The capacitor takes a short time to charge, briefly holding the input close to
0V when the circuit is switched on. A switch may be connected in parallel with
the capacitor if manual operation is also required.
Edge-triggering
If the trigger input is still less than 1/3 Vs at the end of

the time period the output will remain high until the
trigger is greater than 1/3 Vs. This situation can occur
if the input signal is from an on-off switch or sensor.
The monostable can be made edge triggered, edge-triggering circuit

responding only to changes of an input signal, by
connecting the trigger signal through a capacitor to the trigger input. The
capacitor passes sudden changes (AC) but blocks a constant (DC) signal.
The circuit is 'negative edge triggered' because it responds to a sudden fall in
the input signal.
The resistor between the trigger (555 pin 2) and +Vs ensures that the trigger
is normally high (+Vs).
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555/556 Bistable (flip-flop) -

a memory circuit
The circuit is called a bistable

because it is stable in two
states: output high and output
low. It is also known as a 'flip-
flop'.
555 bistable circuit
It has two inputs:
 Trigger (555 pin 2) makes the output high.

Trigger is 'active low', it functions when < 1/3 Vs.
 Reset (555 pin 4) makes the output low.
Reset is 'active low', it resets when
< 0.7V.
The power-on reset, power-on trigger and

edge-triggering circuits can all be used as
described above for the monostable.
555/556 Inverting Buffer (Schmitt

trigger) or NOT gate
The buffer circuit's input has a very high

555 inverting buffer circuit
impedance (about 1M ) so it requires only (a NOT gate)
a few µA, but the output can sink or source
up to 200mA. This enables a high
impedance signal source (such as an
LDR) to switch a low impedance output
transducer (such as a lamp).
NOT gate symbol
It is an inverting buffer or NOT gate
because the output logic state (low/high) is the inverse of the input state:
 Input low (< 1/3 Vs) makes output high, +Vs

 Input high (> 2/3 Vs) makes output low, 0V
When the input voltage is between 1/3 and 2/3 Vs the output remains in its
present state. This intermediate input region is a deadspace where there is no
response, a property called hysteresis, it is like backlash in a mechanical
linkage. This type of circuit is called a Schmitt trigger.
If high sensitivity is required the hysteresis is a problem, but in many circuits it

is a helpful property. It gives the input a high immunity to noise because once
the circuit output has switched high or low the input must change back by at
least 1/3 Vs to make the output switch back
68
Counting Circuits
Binary numbers
69
Logic states
True False
Electronic circuits count in binary. This is the simplest possible
counting system because it uses just two digits, 0 and 1, 1 0
exactly like logic signals where 0 represents false and 1 High Low
represents true. The terms low and high are also used for 0
and 1 respectively as shown in the table. +Vs 0V
On Off
Counting one, two, three, four, five in binary: 1, 10, 11, 100,
101.
Binary numbers rapidly become very long as the count increases and this
makes them difficult for us to read at a glance. Fortunately it is rarely
necessary to read more than 4 binary digits at a time in counting circuits.
In a binary number each digit represents a multiple of two (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 etc), in the
same way that each digit in decimal represents a multiple of ten (1, 10, 100, 1000 etc).
For example 10110110 in binary equals 182 in decimal:
Digit value: 128 64
32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary number: 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
Decimal value: 128 + 0 + 32 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 0 = 182
Bits, bytes and nibbles
Each binary digit is called a bit, so 10110110 is an 8-bit number.
A block of 8 bits is called a byte and it can hold a maximum number of

11111111 = 255 in decimal. Computers and PIC micro controllers work with
blocks of 8 bits. Two (or more) bytes make a word, for example PICs work
with a 16-bit word (two bytes), which can hold a maximum number of 65535.
A block of 4 bits is called a nibble (half a byte!) and it can hold a maximum
number of 1111 = 15 in decimal. Many counting circuits work with blocks of 4
bits because this number of bits is required to count up to 9 in decimal. (The
maximum number with 3 bits is only 7).
Hexadecimal (base 16)
Hexadecimal (often just called 'hex') is base 16 counting with 16 digits. It

starts with the decimal digits 0-9, then continues with letters A (10), B (11), C
(12), D (13), E (14) and F (15). Each hexadecimal digit is equivalent to 4
binary digits, making conversion between the two systems relatively easy.
You may find hexadecimal used with PICs and computer systems but it is not
generally used in simple counting circuits.
Example: 10110110 binary = B6 hexadecimal = 182 decimal.
4-bit numbers
Binary Decimal Hex
D C B A base 16
70 0000 0 0
0001 1 1
0010 2 2
The table on the right shows the 4-bit numbers and 0 0 1 1 3 3
their decimal values. 0100 4 4
0101 5 5
The labels A, B, C, D are widely used in electronics to 0 1 1 0 6 6
represent the four bits: 0111 7 7
1000 8 8
 A = 1, the 'least significant bit' (LSB) 1001 9 9
 B=2 1010 10 A
 C=4 1011 11 B
 D = 8, the 'most significant bit' (MSB) 1100 12 C
1101 13 D
Binary Coded Decimal, BCD 1110 14 E
1111 15 F
Binary Coded Decimal, BCD, is a special version of
4-bit binary where the count resets to zero (0000) after the ninth count (1001).
It is used by decade counters and is easily converted to display the decimal
digits 0-9 on a 7-segment display.
Several decade counters using BCD can be linked together to separately

count the decimal ones, tens, hundreds, and so on. This is much easier than
attempting to convert large binary numbers (such as 10110110) to display
their decimal value.
Do not confuse BCD, which stands for

Binary Coded Decimal with the labels A, B,
C, D used to represent the four binary digits;
it is an unfortunate coincidence that the
letters BCD occur in both! A square wave clock signal
The bouncing output from a switch

Counters
All counters require a 'square wave'

clock signal to make them count.
This is a digital waveform with sharp
transitions between low (0V) and
high (+Vs), such as the output from a
555 astable circuit.
A 4-bit counter and clock input
Most switches bounce when the In this example counting advances on
contacts close giving a rapid series the falling-edge of the clock signal
of pulses. Connecting a switch LED on = 1 LED off = 0
directly to a clock input will usually give several counts when the switch is
operated once! One way to 'debounce' the switch is to make it trigger a 555-
monostable circuit with a short time period (such as 0.1s) and use the
monostable output to drive the clock input.
71
The animated block diagram shows a clock signal driving a 4-bit (0-15)
counter with LEDs connected to show the state of the clock and counter
outputs QA-QD (Q indicates an output).
The LED on the first output QA flashes at half the frequency of the clock LED.
In fact the frequency of each stage of the counter is half the frequency of the
previous stage. You can see this pattern too in the table above showing the 4-
bit numbers.
Notice how output QA changes state every time the clock input changes from
high to low (that is when the clock LED turns off), this is called the falling-
edge. If you watch the counting closely you can see that QB changes on the
falling-edge of QA, QC on the falling-edge of QB and so on.
You may be surprised to see the diagram drawn with the input on the right and signals flowing
from right to left, the opposite way to the usual convention in electronics! Drawing counter
circuits like this means that the outputs are in the correct binary order for us to read easily and
I think this is more helpful than rigidly sticking to the usual 'left to right' convention.
Ripple and synchronous counters
There are two main types of counter:

ripple and synchronous. In simple
circuits their behaviour appears
almost identical, but their internal The operation of a flip-flop
structure is very different. Notice how the output frequency
is half the input frequency
A ripple counter contains a chain of flip-flops with the output of each one
feeding the input of the next. A flip-flop output changes state every time the
input changes from high to low (on the falling-edge). This simple arrangement
works well, but there is a slight delay as the effect of the clock 'ripples' through
the chain of flip-flops.
In most circuits the ripple delay is not a problem because it is far too short to
be seen on a display. However, a logic system connected to ripple counter
outputs will briefly see false counts, which may produce 'glitches' in the logic
system and may disrupt its operation. For example a ripple counter changing
from 0111 (7) to 1000 (8) will very briefly show 0110, 0100 and 0000 before
1000!
A synchronous counter has a more complex internal structure to ensure

that all its outputs change precisely together on each clock pulse, avoiding the
brief false counts, which occur with ripple counters.
72
Rising-edge and falling-edge clock inputs
Counting occurs when the clock input changes state.

 Most synchronous counters count on
the rising-edge which is the low to high
transition of the clock signal.
 Most ripple counters count on the
falling-edge which is the high to low
transition of the clock signal.
It may seem odd that ripple counters use the falling-edge, but in fact this makes it easy to link
counters because the most significant bit (MSB) of one counter can drive the clock input of
the next. This works because the next bit must change state when the previous bit changes
from high to low - the point at which a carry must occur to the next bit. Synchronous counters
usually have carry out and carry in pins for linking counters without introducing any ripple
delays.
Resetting a counter
Counters can be reset to zero before their maximum count by connecting one
(or more) of their outputs to their reset input,
using an AND gate to combine outputs if
necessary.
If the reset input is 'active-low' a NOT or

NAND gate will be required to produce a low
output at the desired count. If you see a line
drawn above reset it means it is active low, for
example: (say 'reset-bar').
The reset function normally occurs

immediately and you should reset on the next
count above the maximum you require. For
example to count 0-5 (0000-0101) you should
reset on 6 (0110).
Some synchronous counters have a

synchronous reset, which occurs on the next
clock pulse rather than immediately. This is
important because you must reset on the
maximum count you require. For example to
count 0-5 (0000-0101), reset on 5 (0101).
73
Presetting
Some counters can be preset by presenting a number to their inputs A-D and
activating a preset input to load the number into the counter. By making inputs
A-D all low you can also use this to reset the counter to zero.
Frequency division
Counters can be used to reduce the frequency of an input (clock) signal. Each
stage of a counter halves the frequency, so for a 4-bit (0-15) counter QA is 1/2,
QB is 1/4, QC is 1/8 and QD is 1/16 of the clock frequency. Division by numbers
that are not powers of 2 is possible by resetting counters.
Frequency division is one of the main purposes of counters with more than 4
bits and their outputs are usually labeled Q1, Q2 and so on. Qn is the nth
stage of the counter, representing 2n. For example Q4 is 24 = 16 (1/16 of clock
frequency) and Q12 is 212 = 4096 (1/4096 of clock frequency).
Decoders
The most popular type is a 1-of-10 decoder which contains a network of logic
gates to make one of its ten outputs Q0-9
become high (or low) in response to the BCD
(binary coded decimal) inputs A-D. For example
an input of binary 0101 (=5) will activate output
Q5.
Decoders can be used for a simple counting

display and for switching LEDs in sequences.
The outputs must never be directly connected
together, but diodes can be used to combine
them as shown in the diagram.
For example using diodes to combine the 2nd

(Q1) and 4th (Q3) outputs will make an LED flash twice followed by a longer
gap. The top diagram shows this for a decoder where the outputs become
low when activated (such as the 7442), and the bottom diagram for a decoder
where the outputs become high when activated (such as the 4028).
7-segment display drivers

74
The inputs A-D of a display driver are connected

to the BCD (binary coded decimal) outputs QA-D
from a decade counter. A network of logic gates
inside the display driver makes its outputs a-g
become high or low as appropriate to light the
required segments a-g of a 7-segment display. A
resistor is required in series with each segment to
protect the LEDs, 330 is a suitable value for
many displays with a 4.5V to 6V supply. Beware
that these resistors are sometimes omitted from
circuit diagrams!
Decade counter with display
driver and 7-segment display
There are two types of 7-segment displays:
 Common Anode (CA or SA) with all the LED anodes connected
together. These need a display driver with outputs which become low
to light each segment, for example the 7447. Connect the common
anode to +Vs.
 Common Cathode (CC or SC) with all the cathodes connected
together. These need a display driver with outputs which become high
to light each segment, for example the 4511. Connect the common
cathode to 0V.
The common anode/cathode is often available on 2 pins. Displays also have a

decimal point (DP) but this is not controlled by the display driver. The
segments of larger displays have two LEDs in series. For display connections
please see your supplier's catalogue or manufacturer's datasheet.
Multiplexing
If there are many 7-segment display digits multiplexing is usually used. This
is a system of switching so that of all the decade counters share a single
display driver which is connected to all of the displays. The output of each
counter is connected in turn to the inputs of the display driver and at the same
time the common anode/cathode of the corresponding 7-segment display is
connected so that only one display lights at a time.The switching is done very
rapidly (typically 400 - 1000Hz) and the segment current is larger than normal
so the display appears continuous and of normal brightness. Multiplexing
requires ICs to do the switching, but the complete circuit has fewer ICs than
having one display driver for each display.
Linking Counters
Counters may be linked together in a chain to count larger numbers. It may

seem tempting to use a 12-bit or 14-bit counter, but it is not practical to
convert their large binary numbers to decimal. You should use a chain of
decade (0-9) counters which use BCD (binary coded decimal) to make the
75
conversion to decimal very easy: the first counts the units, the second counts
the tens, the third the hundreds and so on.
Some dual counter ICs are available with two separate counters on the same
IC, the two counters must be linked externally if required (there is no internal
link).
The way that counters are linked depends on the nature of the counter. The
diagrams below show the general arrangements for standard ripple and
synchronous counters but it is important to read the detailed information for
particular counters, consulting a datasheet if necessary.
Linking ripple counters
The diagram below shows how to link standard ripple counters. Notice how
the highest output QD of each counter drives the clock (CK) input of the next
counter. This works because ripple counters have clock inputs that are 'active-
low' which means that the count advances as the clock input becomes low, on
the falling-edge.
Remember that with all ripple counters there will be a slight delay before the
later outputs respond to the clock signal, especially with a long counter chain.
This is not a problem in simple circuits driving displays, but it may cause
glitches in logic systems connected to the counter outputs.
Linking synchronous counters
The diagram below shows how to link standard synchronous counters. Notice
how all the clock (CK) inputs are linked, and carry out (CO) is used to feed
the carry in (CI) of the next counter. This ensures that the entire counter
chain is synchronous, with every output changing at the same time.
Carry in (CI) of the first counter should be made low or high to suit the
particular counter IC being used.
76

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1

Electricity and the Electron

Which way does electricity flow?

This flow of electric charge is called conventional

This direction of flow is used throughout electronics

hey knew there were two types of electric charge,

The electron was discovered in 1897 and it was found

To prevent confusion you should always use conventional current when

Voltage and Current

Next Page: Meters

Voltage is the Cause, Current is the Effect

Voltage and Current Voltage but No Current No Voltage and No

 Voltage is a measure of the energy

Voltage at a point and 0V (zero volts)

Voltage is a difference between two points, but

Zero volts could be any point in the circuit, but to

Zero volts for circuits with a dual supply

On complex circuit diagrams using a dual supply

The diagram shows a ±9V dual supply, the

-9V and the middle terminal is 0V.

Connecting an ammeter in series

 Current is the rate of flow of charge.

1A (1 amp) is quite a large current for electronics, so mA (milliamps) are often

1mA = 0.001A, or 1000mA = 1A

Voltage and Current for components in Series

Voltages add up for components connected in series.

Voltage and Current for components in Parallel

Voltages are the same across all components connected in parallel.

In this circuit the battery, resistor and lamp all

The 30mA current through the

where: V = voltage in volts (V) or: V = voltage in volts (V)

The VIR triangle V

Ohm's Law Calculations

Use this method to guide you through calculations: V

It should be Very Easy Now!

 3 V is applied across a 6 resistor, what is the current?

Power and Energy

Next Page: AC, DC and Electrical Signals

Power is the rate of using or supplying energy:

Electronics is mostly concerned with small quantities of power, so the power

Calculating power using current and voltage

Calculating power using resistance and current or voltage

Using Ohm's Law V = I × R we can convert P = I × V to:

Wasted power and overheating

Energy = Power × Time

 A 60W lamp switched on for 8 hours uses 60W × 8 × 3600s = 1728kJ.

1kWh = 1kW × 1 hour = 1000W × 3600s = 3.6MJ

 A 60W lamp switched on for 8 hours uses 0.06kW × 8 = 0.48kWh.

AC, DC and Electrical Signals

Next Page: Oscilloscopes (CROs)

AC means Alternating Current

This triangular signal is AC because it changes

Alternating Current (AC)

An AC voltage is continually changing between positive (+) and negative (-).

The rate of changing direction is called the frequency of the AC and it is

Mains electricity in the UK has a frequency of 50Hz.

An AC supply is suitable for powering some devices such as lamps and

Direct Current (DC) Steady DC

A DC voltage is always positive

Electronic circuits normally require

Cells, batteries and regulated

Power supplies contain a Varying DC