Control System (EEE-3001)

Submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of technology (B. Tech)

in
Electrical and Electronical Engineering

Topic: Control system in automobile industry, harness

industry and its future with electrical vehicles.

Name: Abhishek Bhardwaj

Registration no.: 17BEE0027
Batch: G1+TG1
Faculty: Prof. Medarametla Praveenkumar
 ACKNOWLEGDEMENT

I find immense pleasure in expressing our profound gratitude and thanks to my

guide Mr. Medarametla Praveenkumar for his invaluable guidance, constant
encouragement and keen interest in the progress and completion of this work.
He has always been most willing to spend his valuable time for discussions
were always enjoyable as well as his comments have been extremely valuable.
I learned a lot from the discussion. He has associated with me as a friend,
philosopher and advisor. He has a very interesting way of approaching about a
topic in theory and lab as well. It was under his guidance and lectures that
made me interested in this particular topic of control systems. I hope you find
my work enlightening and find more about the applications of control system
in the future generations.

Abhishek Bhardwaj
17BEE0027

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 CONTENT TABLE

Serial No. Topic Page no.

1 Introduction 4-5
2 Literature Review 6
3 Control system in 7-11
automobiles
4 Control system in the 12-14
harness of automobile
5 Control system in an 15-22
Electrical Vehicle (EV)
6 Conclusion and 23
References

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 INTRODUCTION
Control system is one of the vast fields in electrical engineering which includes
most of the major components of the subject. In other way rounds we can say
that it is a link where other branches like the mechanical branch can be
compounded with the electrical branch and together, we can figure out how
both of them works together. In this report I have submitted an idea of how
the control system is used in the manufacturing of the automobiles, its
harnesses and how it is further being used in the manufacturing of Electrical
Vehicles (EV). We will initially see of how the other publishers have work on it
in out literature review, but let’s try to understand some fundamentals first.
The basis for control system is the feedback loop shown in the figure below.
The input is the desired behaviour of the system and it is compared with the
actual behaviour to determine the error signal. The error signal is fed into one
or more control elements that move actuators at the plant. The word “plant” is
the name for the object being controlled. The actual value of the controlled
variable from the plant is transmitted via the feedback loop to the summation
loop.

In the figure mentioned below a simple example of ICE control is shown with
its control element and plant. The control element is a general term and
identifies the elements that receives the error signal and change the plant’s
behaviour. In Figure 2b the fuel injector is the control element and the ICE is
the plant. To understand the working of the control system, shown in Figure
2b, let us assume that the desired speed of ICE is 2000 rpm and the actual
speed is 2200 rpm. An error signal of -200 rpm is generated and this negative
error signal is fed to the fuel injector. The fuel injector responds to the

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negative error by decreasing the flow of fuel to the ICE. With less fuel, the
speed of ICE drops.

A modern control system for HEV may use only a few feedback control loop
similar to the one shown in figure given below. The control architecture shown
in the figure uses a single feedback loop and has desired velocity as the
variable being controlled. The driver is one of the control elements and acts on
the error. If the HEV is moving too slowly, the driver steps on the accelerator
pedal and it the vehicle is too fast, the driver steps on the brake pedal. The
hybrid ECU is the master controller and it controls the other subcomponents of
the vehicle such as ICE, EM, power electronics, etc. The detailed discussion on
the complete control architecture is discussed in next section.

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 LITRATURE REVIEW
The major components of an electric vehicle system are the motor, controller,
power supply, charger and drive train (wry, 2003). her the figure in the end of
the review demonstrates a system model for an electric vehicle. Controller is
the heart of an electric vehicle, and it is the key for the realization of a high-
performance electric vehicle with an optimal balance of maximum speed,
acceleration performance, and traveling range per charge. Control of Electric
Vehicle (EV) is not a simple task in that operation of an EV is essentially time-
variant (e.g., the operation parameters of EV and the road condition are always
varying). Therefore, the controller should be designed to make the system
robust and adaptive, improving the system on both dynamic and steady state
performances. Another factor making the control of EV unique is that EV’s are
really "energy-management" machines (Cheng et al., 2006). Currently, the
major limiting factor for wide-spread use of EV’s is the short running distance
per battery charge. Hence, beside controlling the performance of vehicle (e.g.,
smooth driving for comfortable riding), significant efforts have to be paid to
the energy management of the batteries on the vehicle. However, from the
viewpoint of electric and control engineering, EV’s are advantageous over
traditional vehicles with internal combustion engine. Hence, in recent years,
there is quite a lot of researches in the exploring advanced control strategies in
electric vehicles. As the development of the high computing capability
microprocessor, such as DSP (Digital Signal Processor), it is possible to perform
complex control on the electric vehicle to achieve optimal performance (Liu et
al., 2004). These capabilities can be utilized to enhance the performance and
safety of individual vehicles as well as to operate vehicles in formations for
specific purposes (Lin & Kanellakopoulos, 1995).

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 CONTROL SYSTEM IN AUTOMOBILES
Control system is used widely in the automobile industry with a lot of indirect
and the direct variables in it and apart from that there are manipulated
variables as well. These are some basic units in the control system of the
automobile with the sensor and the actuator. For example, in a Fuel injection
system, Air-fuel ratio is the indirectly controlled variable, whereas Exhaust
oxygen content as a directly controlled variable. Quality of injection fuel is the
manipulated variable Zirconia or Titania based electrochemical is the sensor
and Fuel injector is the actuator. Apart from these there are control units and
the drives inside the vehicle which makes the entire control system work.
Now let’s checkout different sensors in the automobile that enables the
working of the control systems.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT SENSORS:

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CHASSIS CONTROL SENSORS

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ELECTRONIC FUEL INJECTOR (EFI)
It allows a precise and fast control of the fuel injected by controlling the ‘on-
time’ period of the solenoid operated injectors and plunger. The pressure is
maintained constant in the delivery pipe fuel by a fuel pressure regulator and
the opening and closing times are kept between 0.5 and 1 ms. Meanwhile the
engine is operating at a speed of 6000 rpm and injector on-time can be
controlled between 1 and 10 ms.

POWER DRIVE APPLICATION

In other words, we can call it as multi-point or sequential fuel injection, with
one fuel injector near the intake valve of each cylinder. It provides the high
solenoid drive current which is required for the engine to work. It also
Incorporates both over-voltages, short-circuit protection and fault reporting
diagnostic routines. Here is a figure representing it.

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There are two types of EFI System
- Speed-density EFI
- Mass air-flow EFI

Speed-density EFI:
It contains the inlet Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) sensor that plays an
important role. The fuel injection opening period or pulse width is related
directly to the mass of air flowing into the engine in order to maintain fuel-air
ratio and it is constant in steady-state operation
Mass air-flow EFI:
in this case the direct measurement of the quantity of air drawn into the
engine using an air-flow sensor (AFS). These are simple flap-type, hot-wire and
Karman vortex devices. However, it is believed that direct measurement is
better than feed-forward control in speed flow EFI.

Both of these forms of EFI may be improved if the exhaust gas oxygen sensor
for closed-loop control of the air–fuel ratio, the engine is to be controlled
precisely air–fuel ratio must be controlled to within 1% and it is only possible
with closed-loop control.

CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL OF AIR-FEUL RATIO:

The exhaust-gas emission levels are kept low in this case because to maintain
the air–fuel ratio at 14.7:1 stoichiometrically / chemically perfect] and three-
way catalytic converters to control emission.
Now what exactly happens in a closed loop system?
In a closed loop, system the fuel injection period computed by air intake
measurement is modified based on measured exhaust gas oxygen (EGO)
content. The injection period modification factor is kept between 0.8 and 1.2.
EGO tells whether (lambda)< 1 or (lambda) > 1. Another I is that it has a limit
cycle frequency between 0.5 to 2Hz

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Now in the closed loop systems of the automobile we have one more control
system Chassis Control system. Now almost all the harness development
companies work on the following chassis control system:
- Anti-Lock Braking system
- Electronic Damping Control system
- Power Assisted Steering System
- Traction Control Systems

Now the reason why we are focusing on this diagram is that the ABS in the
above-mentioned diagram is cause of the help of a proper wire harness
developed in a control system.
During my internship at one of the leading wire harness developers of Maruti-
Suzuki, I found out the importance wire harness and why is it required in a
particular precise way. Now there is and advancement in the technology and
here we can develop the wire harness on a simulation platform with the help
of control system. To develop the control system in a wire harness there are
series of online simulators available, lets discuss about harness development.

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 CONTROL SYSTEM IN WIRE HARNESS
Now to know deeply of what exactly a wire harness is and how it is useful in
automobiles and how did we reduce the issue if generation of the new and
valid design with the help of control system, let clear out the following basics.

What is a wiring harness?

Wiring harness is usually an assembly of low voltage wires connected in form
of series and parallel branches. They need a lot of accuracy and precision to do
so. A wire is sent to the feeding unit which sends it to the machine which cuts
and crimps it. That particular set of wires is used to make harnesses for the
automobile and other machines as well. There basic function is to distribute
power from the battery to the device located all over the car or the machine.
These harnesses are used in automobiles, computers, medical equipment,
generators, home appliances like washing machine, A.C. etc. Now there are
various types of harnesses as well, which majorly includes the following:
1) Main harness
2) Floor harness
3) Injector harness
4) I/P harness
5) Lean harness
6) Engine Harness
Now this report includes a major study of how the engine wiring harness is
constructed in bulk for the companies like Maruti Suzuki and their models like
Alto 800, wagonR etc.

(Wiring harness of automobile)

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Now to make the wiring harness a simple flow can be considered:

After the wires are obtained in the industry, they are sent to the lead
preparation cell where wires are shaped for developing different harnesses
and then in assembly department they are assembled together and finally we
get our wire harness which is used in the automobiles.
Now here we are going to see a modern way of developing a wire harness
control system using Zuken E3 series software and learn more about it.
Zuken E3.series:
E3.series is used for design wiring, harnesses, cable assemblies, control panels,
hydraulics and pneumatics. E³.series is available in different configurations as a
node locked or floating license that can be accessed by mulitple users. In the
configuration E³.enterprise, several users can work simultaneously on large
projects, with all modifications being visible in real time to all users.
E³.enterprise comprises integrated user and access management capabilities.
An object-oriented systems architecture built on a central database for all
applications ensures continuous synchronization across all engineering stages.
E³.series projects contain all views of an electrical and/or fluid system. With
bidirectional interfaces into leading MCAD toolsets, and a large selection of
modules for specific applications, E³.series is a complete design and
anufacturing solution for wiring, cabinet and harness in an industrial
environment.

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Key Features of E3.series:
- Multi-View Project File
- Make a change in one view (e.g. schematic) and it automatically changes
in the other views (e.g. cable, panel, formboard, BOM).
- Online Design Rule Checks (DRC)
- Prevents errors in the design, reducing rework.
- Design Reuse
- Modular design using predefined sub-circuits stored in a library for easy
access.
- Design-Rule-Aware Part Library
- SOLIDWORKS Integration (Routing and PDM)
Routing netlist, library information for wires, cables, and components. Cross-
highlight between electrical and physical domains. Built from Zuken E3.series
Advanced CAD engine designed for electrical schematic, harness, hydraulic and
pneumatic applications. Stable, proven technology with thousands of users.

(design of a wire harness of a engine)

(Multiple ways to simulate the diagram in the series)

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 CONTROL SYSTEM IN ELECTRICAL VEHICHLE
The function of the Control System in Electrical Vehicles is to maximize the fuel
efficiency and to minimize the exhaust emissions. The minor functions of the
control system are component monitoring and protection such as battery state
of charge (SOC) monitoring, battery temperature monitoring, EM overheating
and ICE overheating.
In the figure mentioned below a simple example of ICE control is shown with
its control element and plant. The control element is a general term and
identifies the elements that receives the error signal and change the plant’s
behaviour. In Figure 2b the fuel injector is the control element and the ICE is
the plant. To understand the working of the control system, shown in Figure
2b, let us assume that the desired speed of ICE is 2000 rpm and the actual
speed is 2200 rpm. An error signal of -200 rpm is generated and this negative
error signal is fed to the fuel injector. The fuel injector responds to the
negative error by decreasing the flow of fuel to the ICE. With less fuel, the
speed of ICE drops.

A modern control system for HEV may use only a few feedback controls loops
similar to the one shown in figure given below.

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Now as mentioned above the closed loop control system has ECU (Electronic
Control Unit) as G(S). There are different types of ECUs and the brief about
them is mentioned below.
Hybrid ECU: The Hybrid ECU is in command of all other ECUs and selects the
operational mode based on the driver’s input. The hybrid ECU is responsible
for system wide energy management. Typically, the goal of control is to
minimize the fuel consumption. For each litre of petrol, the hybrid ECU tries to
provide maximum mileage. To do this, the hybrid ECU allows or prohibits ICE
shutoff.
ICE EMU: This controls the various ICE parameters discussed in previous
section
EM ECU: The EM ECU is responsible for switching of the EM from motoring
mode to the generator mode and also controls the motor to deliver the torque
demanded by the hybrid ECU. The EM ECU consists of various control
strategies such as Constant Torque Control, Field Weakening Control, etc.
Transmission ECU: The transmission ECU provides the correct gear ratio to
control the torques and angular speeds of the EM and the ICE.
Power Electronics ECU: Having power from a battery is only the first step. The
power must be delivered to the EM, in the motoring mode, at the voltage and
current needed. For regenerative braking, the power must be accepted from
the EM. The function of the power electronic ECU is to receive commands from
hybrid ECU, to control inverter energy flow both ways, that is, charge and
discharge, to control switching of EM between motor and generator modes
and to control switching of EM between motor and generator modes.
Battery Management System: The battery ECU or the battery management
system (BMS) monitors and measures temperature and assures cooling is
adequate. The BMS avoids the stress of heat and over-temperature and the
effects of excessive charging or discharging are eliminated or lessened. The
BMS is essentially for long battery life and optimum fuel efficiency.
The control variables connect various ECUs with each other and fall in one of
the three categories mechanical, electrical and discrete.

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(Control architecture of an Electrical Vehicle)

Modelling of electric vehicle:

Generally, the modelling of an EV involves the balance among the forces acting
on a running vehicle, as shown in figure. The forces are categorized into road
load and tractive force. The road load consists of the gravitational force, hill-
climbing force, rolling resistance of the tires and the aerodynamic drag force.

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Now observing the above diagram, we can certainly write the following
equation:

Where, m is the mass of the electric vehicle; g is the gravity acceleration; v is

the driving velocity of the vehicle; μrr is the rolling resistance coefficient; ρ is
the air density. A is the frontal area of the vehicle; Cd is the drag coefficient;
and φ is the hill climbing angle. The rolling resistance is produced by the
flattening of the tire at the contact surface of the roadway. The main factors
affecting the rolling resistance coefficient μrr are the type of tyre and the tyre
pressure.
Now to generate the above results different types of electric motors are
required which manly are:
- Brushless DC motor
- Permanent magnet synchronous motor
- Induction motor
We will now see different types of control systems with different feedback
loops in order to obtain the required output.
Driven by brushless DC motor
BLDC motor is a closed loop system in nature. The back EMF introduces a
negative feedback signal proportional to the motor speed, which enhances the
damping of the system. Assume all the initial conditions are zero, the Laplace
transform is:

Above mentioned are the initial conditions for a brushless DC motor.

So with the help of the above mentioned equations we can say that the closed
loop control system may look like as follows:

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The transfer function of the inverter can be given as:

Where, Kpwm is gain of inverter; TS: time constant of PWM controller. The
controller of a BLDC is generally composed of current regulation loop and
speed regulation loop. In practical systems, due to the fact that the
electromagnetic time constant is smaller than electromechanical time
constant, current regulation is faster than speed regulation. Hence, speed
regulation is faster than the variation of back EMF. Therefore, the effect of
back EMF on current regulation loop can be neglected. In order to have small
overshoot and good tracking performance, current regulation should be
designed as type-I system. Since there are two inertia elements, the current
regulator should be designed as PI regulator, whose transfer function is:

Negnecting the effect of back EMF on the current regulation loop, the stator
circuit of the motor can be approximated as a first-order inertia element,
hence:

The speed regulation system should have no steady error at steady state and
good anti-disturbance capability at transient state, the speed regulator should
be designed as type-II system. The speed regulation loop is composed of an
integration element and aninertia element, a PI regulator should be used,
leading to a transfer function:

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The over all closed loop feedback control system for a brushless DC motor can
be shown as follows:

Driven by inductor motor

The basic principle of vector control is that the magnetic force and power are
invariant under normal transform. First transform the model under A-B-C
coordinate to α− β steady coordinate (Clarke transform), then apply Park
transform to the model under α− β steady coordinate to d-q rotating
coordinate. Assume the windings of three phase A, B and C are symmetrical,
and flowing through balanced sinusoidal current. Then the resultant magnetic
force F is rotating with synchronous speed ϖl . Assume balanced three phase,
the projection that modifies the three phase system into the (α,β) two
dimension orthogonal system is:

The (α,β)→(d,q) projection (Park transformation) is the most important

transformation in the vector control. This projection modifies a two phase
orthogonal system (α,β) in the d,q rotating reference frame. If we consider the
d axis aligned with the rotor flux, for the current vector, the relationship from
the two reference frame:

The model of a three-phase induction model under d-q two-axis coordinate

can be expressed as follows.

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Votlage equations:

Flux linkage equations:

Torque equation:

Hence the overall closed loop looks like as mentioned below:

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Driven by PMSM
Current vector decomposition:

Rotation of angles:

Torque equation:

Vector control diagram:

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CONCLUSION:
Her in this research paper I learnt about the application of the control system
in the real life industry. I tried to link all the points which concern about the
usage of control system in the automobile industry, which includes the harness
industry and its usage and the future of the control system with different types
of motors in an Electrical Vehicle. Hence it proved to be an informative
research.
REFRENCES:
- google and Wikipedia for the images and the formulas involved
- Qi Huang, Yong Chen and Jian Li (2010). Control of Electric Vehicle, Urban
Transport and Hybrid Vehicles, Seref Soylu (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-100-
8
- M. Ehsani, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles:
Fundamentals,Theory and Design, CRC Press, 2005
- A. E. Fuhs, Hybrid Vehicles and the Future of Personal Transportation,
CRC Press,2009
- Zuken E3.series official website

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