ENGINES

 1  –  BASIC  GAS  LAWS  

BOYLE’S  LAW   TRANSFER  OF  HEAT  

   
• Assumes  constant  temperature   • Conduction  
• Product   of   pressure   and   the   volume   is   • Convection  
constant   providing   temperature   of   the   gas  
• Radiation  
remains  unchanged.  
• P1  V1  =  P2  V2  

CHARLE’S  LAW  
 
• Assumes  temperature  is  varied.  
 
• With   constant   pressure,   if   temperature  
increases  then  volume  must  increase.  
• P1  /  T1  =  P2  /  T2  
 
• With   constant   volume,   if   temperature  
increases  then  pressure  must  increase.  
• V1  /  T1  =  V2  /  T2  

GENERAL  GAS  EQUATION  

 
• All  three  statements  combined  
 
!! !! !! !!
• !!
= !!
 
 ENGINES  2  –  LAWS  OF  MOTION  

NEWTONS  FIRST  LAW   FORCE   THRUST  CALCULATION  

     
• A  body  at  rest  will  remain   at  rest  and  a  body   • Force  =  Mass  x  Acceleration   • F  =  m  x  a  
in   motion   will   continue   in   uniform   • SI  Unit:  N  (Newton)   𝑊
𝐹 =    ×  𝑎  
(direction  and  speed)  motion  unless  it  is   • Imperial  Unit:  lbsf  (Pounds  force)   𝑔
acted  on  by  an  outside  force.    
• Weight   of   airflow   through   propeller   is   800  
lbs/s,   the   inlet   velocity   is   0   ft/s   and   the  
DENSITY   outlet  velocity  is  160  ft/s.  Calculate  thrust?  
NEWTONS  SECOND  LAW     • Thrust  is  a  force  so  equation  above  is  used.  
  • Density  =  Mass  /  Volume    
• The  acceleration   produced  in   a   mass  by  the   • Varies  with  temperature  and  pressure   800
application   of   a   force   is   directly   𝐹 =    ×  160 = 4000  𝑙𝑏𝑠𝑓  
32.20
proportional   to   the   force   and   inversely    
proportional  to  the  mass.  
• F  =  m  x  a   MOMENTUM  
 
• Momentum  =  Mass  x  Velocity  

NEWTONS  THIRD  LAW  

 
INERTIA  
• To   every   action,   there   is   an   equal   and  
 
opposite  reaction.  
• Tendency   of   a   body   to   preserve   its   state  
of  rest  or  uniform  motion.  

WEIGHT  AND  MASS  

 
• Weight  is  the  force  with  which  the  gravity  of  
the  earth  attracts  a  mass.  
• W  =  m  x  g  
• Accel  due  gravity:  32.20  ft/s2  or  9.81  m/s2  
 ENGINES  3  –  PISTON  ENGINE  CONSTRUCTION  

BASIC  PRINCIPLE   VOLUME  &  PRESSURE  RELATIONSHIP   TYPES  OF  ENGINES  

     
• Convert  linear  to  rotary  motion.   • In-­‐Line  Engine  
o Poor  cockpit  visibility  
• Inverted  In-­‐Line  Engine  
4  STROKE  CYCLE  
o Improved  visibility  
 
o Suffers   from   hydraulicing   (turning   over  
• A.K.A  The  Otto  Cycle   before  start  is  required).  
• Radial  Engine  
1.  INDUCTION  (SUCK)   o Even  cylinder  cooling  
  o High  drag  profile  
• The   above   diagram   is   enclosed   by   2   o Hydraulicing  still  an  issue  
• Pressure  decreases  on  the  down  stroke.  
adiabatic  and  2  isochoric  lines.   • Horizontally  Opposed  
• Higher   pressure   outside   induces   the   fuel   /  
o Adiabatic   –   No   heat   transfer   o Saves  space  
air  mixture  into  the  cylinder.    
(compression  &  power)   o Good  visibility  
o Isochoric   –   Constant   volume   (intake   o No  hydraulicing  problems  
2.  COMPRESSION  (SQUEEZE)   and  exhaust)  
  • Ideally  the  maximum  pressure  occurs  when    CONTANT  /  INTERMITTENT  PROCESS  
• Volume   decreases,   so   pressure   and   combustion  is  complete.    
temperature  both  increase.     • Power   output   is   intermittent   (only   on  
  power  stroke)  
• Combustion   is   at   constant   volume   and  
 3.  POWER  (BANG)   varying  pressure.  
 
• Mixture  is  ignited.  
• Temperature   increases   rapidly   for   a   short  
time   then   decreases   for   the   rest   of   the  
stroke.  
• Pressure  increase  pushes  the  piston  down.  

4.  EXHAUST  (BLOW)  
 
• Piston  rises  and  pushes  exhaust  gases  out.  
• A.K.A  Scavenging  
 ENGINES  3  –  PISTON  ENGINE  CONSTRUCTION  

CRANKCASE   CRANKSHAFT   CONNECTING  ROD  

     
• Houses  the  crankshaft   • Converts   reciprocating   linear   motion   to   • Connects  the  piston  to  the  crankshaft.  
• Supports  the  cylinders   rotary   motion   and   transmits   engine   torque   • Connected  to  the  piston  at  the  little  end  via  a  
• Provides  mounting  for  engine  accessories   to  the  propeller.   Gudgeon  Pin  (or  Piston  /  Wrist  Pins)  
• Forms  an  oil  tight  chamber   • Usually  made  of  alloy  steel.   o Fully  floating  to  prevent  uneven  wear  
• Usually  made  of  aluminum  alloy   • Oil   is   passed   into   the   main   journal   and   is  
• A   crankcase   breather   prevents   a   pressure   transferred   to   the   big   end   journals   which  
build  up  inside  the  crankcase.   are  rotating.  
• One  cycle  per  720  degrees  of  crank  rotation  
• Stroke  =  Distance  the  piston  moves  through  
• Throw   =   Distance   from   main   to   big   end  
journal  =  ½  Stroke  

   

PISTON  
 
CRANK  ASSEMBLY  
  • Usually  made  of  aluminum  alloy.  
• Crankshaft   • Top  Compression  Ring  
o Gas  tight  fit  and  reduces  friction.  
• Connecting  Rods  
o Usually  made  of  chromium  steel.  
• Pistons  
o Spring  out  of  the  groves  as  the  cylinder  wears.  
• 2  Compression  Ring  
nd

o Seals  +  scrapes  oils  

• Oil  Control  Ring  
o Distributes   oil   and   helps   scrape   it   back   to   the  
crankcase.  
 ENGINES  3  –  PISTON  ENGINE  CONSTRUCTION  

VALVE  OPERATING  MECHANISM   COMPRESSION  RATIO   BAFFLE  PLATES  

     
• The  camshaft  rotates  at  ½  crankshaft  speed   • Swept  Volume  –   Cylinder  volume  contained   • Used  to  cool  the  cylinder.  
(1  rotation  for  every  2  crankshaft  rotations)   between  TDC  and  BDC.   • Creates  a  venturi  effect.  
• Valve   clearance   is   measured   between   the   • Clearance   Volume   –   Cylinder   volume   • Wider  baffle  plates  on  the  exhaust  side.  
rocker  pad  and  valve  tip.     contained   between   top   of   cylinder   and  
o Excessive   clearance   results   in   valve   piston  crown  at  TDC.  
opening  late  and  closing  early.   • Total  Volume  =  Swept  +  Clearance  Volume   INEFFECTIVE  ANGLE  
o Ensures  complete  valve  closure      
o Allows  valve  to  expand  when  heated   𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙  𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 • The   position   around   TDC   and   BDC   when  
𝐶𝑅 =   there   is   a   small   linear   movement   of   the  
• A  hydraulic  tappet  can  be  fitted  instead.   𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒  𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
o Self  adjusting  (eliminates  adjustment)     piston   compared   with   a   relatively   large  
o Operates  with  zero  clearance   movement  of  the  crankshaft.  
• Valve  springs  are  used  to  hold  valves  shut  
o Two   springs   are   used   for   redundancy  
TIMING  OF  IGNITION  
and  to  prevent  valve  floating.  
 
• The   ignition   is   timed   to   occur   just   before  
TDC.  
• Power   stroke   then  begins   just  after   the   rod  
and  crankshaft  have  passed  the  vertical.  

     

MULTI  ENGINE  CYLINDER  

VALVE  STEMS    
  • One   power   stroke   per   720   degrees   of  
• Sometimes   partly   filled   with   sodium   to   crankshaft  rotation.  
assist  with  cooling.   • Power  stroke  every  720/#  of  cylinders.  
• 4  Cylinders  =  Power  stroke  every  1800  
• 6  Cylinders  =  Power  stroke  every  1200  
 ENGINES  4  –  POWER  

WORK  DONE   INDICATED  HORSE  POWER   MIXTURE  RATIO  

     
• Work  =  Force  x  Distance   • IHP  =  BHP  +  FHP  (Friction  Horse  Power)   • Weight   of  Air  /   Weight  of  Fuel  (entering  the  
• Foot-­‐pounds  (imperial)   • FHP   is   the   power   required   to   drive   the   cylinder)  
• Newton  metres  (SI)   accessories  (mags,  pumps  etc)  and  that   lost   • Chemical  Correct  =  14.7  /  1  
• 1   foot-­‐pound   is   the   work   done   when   1   through  friction.   • <  14.7  /  1  =  Rich  
pound  is  lifted  1  foot.     • >  14.7  /  1  =  Lean  
𝑃𝐿𝐴𝑁𝐾
𝐼𝐻𝑃 =  
33000  (𝑓𝑡  𝑙𝑏𝑠  /  min  ) EXHAUST  BACK  PRESSURE  
POWER      
  𝑃𝐿𝐴𝑁𝐾
𝐼𝐻𝑃 =   • The   pressure   differential   between   cylinder  
• Power  =  Work  /  Time   60000  (𝑁𝑚/  min  ) and   ambient   air   which   prevents   efficient  
• Foot-­‐pounds  per  second  (imperial)     scavenging  of  exhaust  gas.  
• Metre-­‐kilograms  per  second   • P  =  Indicated  Mean  Effective  Pressure   • Back   pressure   reduces   with   altitude  
• 1   horsepower   is   when   550   foot-­‐pounds   of   • L  =  Length  of  stroke  (ft  or  m)   which  improves  scavenging.  
work  is  carried  out  in  1  second.   • A  =  Area  of  Piston  Crown  (m2  –  square  Inch)  
• 1  horsepower  is  when  33000  foot-­‐pounds  of   • N  =  Number  of  power  stroke  per  min  (1  cyl)  
work  is  carried  out  in  1  minute.   MANIFOLD  PRESSURE  
• K  =  Number  of  cyclinders  
 
         
• Pressure   between   the   throttle   valve   and  
• LAK  =  Total  swept  volume  of  engine  
BRAKE  HORSE  POWER   inlet  valve.  
o Fixed  by  manufacture  
  • Engine  Off  =  Ambient  Pressure  
o Gives   total   multi-­‐engine   cylinder  
• The   actual   amount   of   useful   power   • Idle  =  14  In.Hg  
displacement.  
delivered  to  the  propeller  shaft.   ! • Takeoff  =  28  In.Hg  
• The  output  of  the  engine.   o Use  !  𝜋  𝑑 !  if  required  for  area  
• With   every  1,000   ft   increase,   MAP   (Manifold  
• Measured  with  a  friction  brake   • We   can   alter   P   and   N   (rpm)   in   order   to   Absolute  Pressure)  decreases  by  approx  1”  
  achieve  more  power.  
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒  ×  𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ  𝑜𝑓  𝐴𝑟𝑚  ×  2𝜋  ×  𝑅𝑃𝑀
𝐵𝐻𝑃 =   CONTROLLING  POWER  OUTPUT  
33000
  FACTORS  AFFECTING  POWER  OUTPUT    
  • Fixed  Pitch  Prop  –  RPM  +  Mixture  
• Also  BHP  =  Torque  x  RPM  
• Density   • Constant   Speed   Prop   –   RPM  (Prop  Lever)  +  
• Torque   can   be   measured   at   the   gearbox  
between  the  engine  and  propeller.   • Fuel  /  Air  Mixture   Mixture  +  MAP  (Throttle  Lever)  
• Exhaust  Back  Pressure  
• Manifold  Pressure  
 ENGINES  5  –  ENGINE  EFFICIENCY  

MECHANICAL  EFFICIENCY   VOLUMETRIC  EFFICIENCY   VALVE  TIMING  

     
• Efficiency  =  (Output  /  Input)  x  100%   𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡  𝑜𝑓  𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒  𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 • Valves   lead   and   lag   which  help  to  improve  
𝑉𝐸 =  ×  100%  
• ME  =  (BHP/IHP)  x  100%   𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡  𝑜𝑓  𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒  𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ volumetric  efficiency.  
• This   gives   the   percentage   of   power   𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑  𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙  𝑡ℎ𝑒  𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 • Both   valves   are   open   at   the   end   of   the  
developed   in   the   cylinder   that   turns   the     exhaust  stroke.  
propeller  (typically  80-­‐85%)   • Positive  effects  on  mixture  induced:   o Momentum  of  incoming  gases  helps  to  
o Larger  valves   scavenge  any  remaining  gases.  
o More  valves  per  cylinder  head   o During   overlap,   the   outgoing   exhaust  
THERMAL  EFFICIENCY   o Supercharger  /  turbocharger   gas   tends   to   reduce   the   pressure  
    within  the  cylinder.  
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟  𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑  (𝐵𝐻𝑃) • Negative  effects  on  mixture  induced:   • Advance   Ignition   also   occurs   just   before  
𝑇𝐸 =  
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟  𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑  𝐼𝑛  𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 o High  RPM  =  More  FHP  =  Less  VE   TDC.  
  o Bends,   obstructions   etc   in   induction   o On   start,   the   ignition   is   retarded   and  
• An   engine   producing   the   same   power   as   system   occurs  just  after  advanced  ignition  but  
another   but   using   less   fuel   has   a   greater   o Throttle  and  venturi  restrictions   before  TDC.  
thermal  efficiency.      
• Typically  30%   • A   fuel   injected   engine   has   improved    
• Can   be   increased   by   increasing   the   efficiency   as   exhaust   gases   do   not   interfere    
compression  ratio  (less  fuel  required).   with  inlets  by  lower  density.  
• Sources  of  energy  loss:   • VE  improves  with   altitude  due  to  reduced  
o Cooling  of  cylinder  and  cylinder  head   exhaust  back  pressure.  
o Friction  of  piston  inside  cylinder   • Max   VE   with   low   RPM   and   throttle   fully  
o Energy  carried  by  exhaust  gas   open.  
o Improper   inlet   and   exhaust   valve  
operation.  
PISTON  VS  DIESEL  
 
INEFFECTIVE  CRANK  ANGLE   • Piston  =  Mixture  Compriming  Engine  
  • Diesel  =  Air  Compriming  Engine            
• Between  ±  100  of  TDC  and  BDC.  
• Virtually  no   piston   head  movement  within  
this  period  and  volume  is  almost  constant.  
• Used  for  ignition  and  valve  timing.  
• Combustion  takes  place  within  this  angle.  
 ENGINES  5  –  ENGINE  EFFICIENCY  

SPECIFIC  FUEL  CONSUMPTION   POWER  OUTPUT   DIESEL  ENGINES  

     
• Mass   of   fuel   used,   per   horsepower   • In  a   normally   aspirate  engine,  power   output   • Clearance   volume   much   smaller   giving   a  
produced,  per  unit  of  time.   is  controlled  by  fuel  flow  only.   higher  compression  ratio.  
• Will  increase  with  an  increase  in  OAT   • Uses  AVTUR  (Kerosene)  rather  than  AVGAS  
• Lbs  (or  kgs)  /  HP  /  Hour   • Always  direct  fuel  injected  
           
o Air   inducted   straight  into   cylinder  on  
intake  stroke.  
o Higher   compression   ratio   produces  
higher  pressure  and  temperature.  
o Fuel  auto-­‐ignites  when  introduced.  
o Assisted  by  glow  plugs.  
o Intake  system  never  needs  heating  
• There  is  no  throttle  valve.  
o An   engine   control   unit   decides   how  
much  fuel  to  inject.  
• Diesel  fuel  is  less  inflammable  than  petrol.  
o Note   flammable   and   inflammable  
mean  exactly  the  same  thing.  
• Power  is  set  by  the  fuel  flow.  
• Diesel   engines   will   always  produce   a  certain  
amount  of  soot  
o Fuel   droplets   coming   from   atomiser  
do  not  burn  completely.  
• Non   turbocharged   diesel   engines   have   a  
poorer   power   to   weight   ratio   than   a   petrol  
engine.  
o Heavier   parts   required   due   to   the  
higher  compression  ration.  
o Therefore,   produce   less   maximum  
power   output   when   compared   to   a  
piston   engine   with   the   same   swept  
volume.  
 ENGINES  6  –  ENGINE  CONTROLS  

COWL  FLAPS                
 
• Regulate   the   amount   of   cooling  air  passing  
over  cylinders.  
• Open  for  takeoff  and  climb  
• Closed   for   descent   to   prevent   thermal  
shock  
• Varies  during  climb  according  to  CHT.  

ELECTRIC  PRIMING  PUMP  

 
• Maintains   a   head   of   fuel   to   the   engine  
driven  pump  during  critical  stages  of  flight.  
• Maintains   fuel   pressure   should   engine  
driven  pump  fail.  
• Prime   induction   system   during   engine  
start.  
 ENGINES  7  –  FUELS  

AVGAS   AVTUR   DETONATION  

     
• Blue  =  100  LL   • Diesel  (-­‐220C)   • Most  likely  with  high  CHTs  
• Green  =  100   • Jet  A  (  -­‐400C)   • Use   of   a   too   lean   mixture   can   increase  
• Red  =  80  /  87   • Jet  A1  (-­‐470C)   likelihood  of  detonation  
• AVGAS   +   Jet   B   are   flammable   and   have   a   • Jet   fuels   are   combustible   and   have   a   high   • Fuel   /   air   mixtures   auto-­‐ignites   and   very  
low  flash  point.   flash  point.   high   temperatures   and  pressure  are   created  
in  the  cylinder.  
               
• Occurs  after  sparks  plugs  have  fired.  
OCTANE  RATING   DIESEL  KNOCK   • Most  likely  at  high  MAP  and  low  RPM.  
    • Reduce   throttle   and   increase   cooling  
• AVGAS  fuel  classified  by  octane  number.   • Cetane  Number   (rich  mixture)  if  detonation  occurs.  
• Measure  of  resistance  to  detonation.   • Measure  of  how  well  it  combusts  
• “Anti-­‐knock  value”   • High  cetane  number  =  better  combustion  
• Higher  value  =  More  resistance   PRE-­‐IGNITION  
• Normal  Heptane  =  0    
• Iso  Octane  =  100   FUEL  TANK   • Detonation   leaves   high   temperatures   in  
• A   higher   compression   ratio   requires   a     cyclinder.  
higher  octane  fuel.   • Vented   to   prevent   tank   deformation   and   • If  mixture  ignites  before   sparks  plugs  have  
• Use   of   a   too   low   octane   rating   may   cause   fuel  starvation.   fired  this  is  pre-­‐ignition.  
CHTs  and  oil  temp  to  exceed  normal  ranges.   • Atmospheric  air  can  enter  through  the  vent   • Caused   by   overheated   hot-­‐spots   within   the  
o Can  lead  to  detonation   and   condense   due  to  the   cold  temperature   cylinder.  
• Lower   octane   will   evaporate   more   easily   in  the  tank.  
leading  to  carb  icing.   o Drain  holes  fitted  to  allow  inspection  
• A   fuel   of   a   different   grade   to   that   o Inspection   should   be   done   at   least  
recommended  can  be  used  providing  it  is  of   before  the  first  flight  of  each  day.  
a  higher  octane  rating.   o Filling   tank   at   end   of   day   helps   to  
minimise  condensation.  
 ENGINES  8  –  CARBURETTOR  

FLOAT  CHAMBER   AIR  BLEED  /  DIFFUSER  

   
• Float   lowers   when   fuel   supply   needs   • Due   to   different   flow   characteristics,   the  
topping  up.   mixture   can   become   too   rich   when   RPM   is  
increased.  
• The  diffuser  mixes  fuel  with  air  to  ensure   a  
PRESSURE  DIFFERENTIAL   constant   mixture   ratio   over   the   operating  
  range.  
• Induction  stroke  draws  air  into  the  cylinder.   • Also  improves  the  atomization  of  the  fuel.  
• Air   flows   through   venturi   and   static   • One   also   fitted   to   idle   jet.
pressure  decreases.  
• Pressure   differential   due   to   venturi   draws   ECONOMISER  
fuel  from  float  chamber  and  out  of  the  main    
jet.   • At  full   throttle,  a  slightly  enriched  mixture  
is  required.  
                  CARBURETOR  FIRE  
• Prevents   detonation   (high   power   can  
cause  high  temperatures)    
IDLING  JET   • Result  of  overpriming  
  • Active  when  TV  >  85%  open.  
• Provides  additional  fuel.   • LP   in   carburetor   draws   excess   fuel   back  
• At   low   rpm,   airflow   through   venturi   is   into  the  carburetor  causing  a  fire.  
insufficient   to   produce   pressure   differential   • Compensates   for   the   air   bleed   system   that  
normally   ensures   a   weak   (economical)   • Actions  in  event  of  carburetor  fire:  
required  to  draw  fuel  from  main  jet.  
mixture  at  most  power  settings.   o ICO  
• The   closed   TV   creates   a   drop   in   static   o Throttle  Open  
pressure   so   an   idling   jet   injects   fuel   at   this   o Crank  
location  instead.   MIXTURE  CONTROL  
 
• Allows   changes   to   weight   of   fuel   with  
changes  in  weight  of  air  (altitude  changes).   CARB  HEAT  CONTROL  
ACCELERATOR  PUMP  
• Can   be   of   the   variable   orifice   type   which    
 
uses  a  needle  valve.   • Cold   air   is   heated   by   conduction   with   hot  
• Injects   fuel   into   the   induction   system  
• Another  option  is  the  back   suction   mixture   exhaust.  
during  rapid  opening  of  the  throttle.  
control.   • Warm  air  is  less  dense  and  mixture  becomes  
• Prevents  a  too  lean  mixture.  
o Varies   the   pressure   in   the   float   too  rich  when  carb  heat  used.  
• Piston  is  at  TDC  when  throttle  closed  and   at  
chamber   between   atmospheric   and   • Carb  heat  air  is  unfiltered.  
BDC  when  throttle  opened.  
that  near  the  venturi.  
• Barometric  correction  /  altitude  mixture  
control  =  Auto  Mixture  
 ENGINES  8  –  CARBURETTOR  

CURBURETTOR  ICING   CARB  ICING  INDICATIONS  (FPP)   PRIMING  

     
• Impact  Ice   • Lower  EGT  (Due  rich  mixture)   • Injection   of   fuel   in   the   cylinder   intake  
o Water   in   atmosphere   coming   into   • Gradual  drop  in  RPM   ports  to  assist  with  starting.  
contact   with   surfaces   (particularly   the   • Rough  running  engine  
intake)  which  are  below  00C                      
• Throttle  Ice  
o Pressure   drop   around  the  TV  can  cause   CARB  ICING  INDICATIONS  (CSP)  
freezing  of  condensed  water  vapour.    
o Most   likely   at   low   power   settings   due   to  
• Drop  in  MAP  (3”  –  5”)  
venturi  effect.  
• RPM  stays  constant  
• Fuel  Ice  (Venturi)  
o Cooling   effect   of   fuel   vaporization   and  
expansion  of  air.   CARBURETTOR  FUEL  STRAINER  
   
• Conditions   of  high  relative  humidity  make   • Essentially  a  fuel  filter  
carb  icing  more  likely.   • Located  upstream  of  needle  valve  
• Most  likely  to  occur  with:  
o OAT  between  -­‐5  and  +180C  
o Visible  moisture  present  OR   VAPOUR  LOCK  
o RH  >  80%    
• Carb  icing  can  occur  even  at  OATs  >  100C   • Fuel  is  heated  and  evaporation  occurs  
  • Vapour   Pressure   >   Fuel   Pressure   leads   to   a  
vapour  lock  
• Occurs  in   the   fuel  feed   line   before   reaching  
the  engine.    

EFFECTS  OF  APPLYING  CARB  HEAT  

 
• Engine  performance  decreases  by  up  to  15%  
• Increases  fuel  burn  
• If   icing   present,   rpm   will   decrease   then  
return  to  a  higher  rpm.  
• Density   of   air   entering   induction   system  
decreases  
o Mixture  becomes  richer  
 ENGINES  9  –  FUEL  INJECTION  

CURBURETTOR  DISADVANTAGES   INDIRECT  FUEL  INJECTION  SYSTEM   ICING  

     
• Icing   • Fuel  injected  just  ahead  of  inlet  valve.   • No  throttle  or  fuel  ice  
• Carburetor  Fire   • Mixture  Compriming   • Impact  ice  can  cause  poppet  valve  closure  
• No  Inverted  Flight     o Result  of  pressure  diff  between  A  &  B  
• Unequal  distribution  of  fuel  to  cylinders   • Poppet  Valve  opened  due  pressure  diff.   o Results   in   leaner   mixture   and   rise   in  
o Weight   of   mixture   entering   cylinder   o Impact  pressure  (HP)  delivered  to  A   temperature.  
is   less   (due   exhaust   forward   o Venturi  pressure  (LP)  delivered  to  B   • Alternate  air  used  instead  of  carb  heat.  
mounting).   • Fuel  flows  into  D.   o Spring   loaded   door   which   will  
o Travels  to  FCU   automatically   open   when   lower  
FUEL  INJECTION  DISADVANTAGES   o Unmetered  fuel  returned  to  C   pressure  occurs  at  the  air  intake.  
  • Nozzle   Diaphragm   allows   for   constant   o Also  can  be  manually  activated  
• Difficulty  hot  starting   metered  fuel  injection.  
• Vapour  locks  on  hot  days  (ground    ops)   o Opens   when   the  metered  fuel  pressure  
is  greater  than  the  spring  tension.   ELECTRIC  FUEL  PUMP  
• Problems  restarting  after  fuel  starvation    
 
• A  +  B  =  Air  Regulating   • Fuel   Tank   -­‐-­‐-­‐>  Elec   Fuel   Pump  -­‐-­‐-­‐>  Engine  
• C  +  D  =  Fuel  Regulating   Driven  Fuel  Pump  -­‐-­‐-­‐>  FCU  
FUEL  INJECTION  COMPONENTS  
  • Priming  during  start  
 
  • Back-­‐up  for  engine  driven  pump  
• Throttle  Valve  
• Vapour  suppression  at  high  OATs  
• Venturi  dependent  on  manufacturer  
o Fuel  may  evaporate  in  fuel  lines  
• Electric  Fuel  Pump  
o Vapour  pressure  >  fuel  pressure  =  Lock  
• Engine  Driven  Fuel  Pump  
o Elec  pump  pre-­‐pressurises  fuel  
• Fuel  Control  Unit  

DIRECT  FUEL  INJECTION  SYSTEM   ENGINE  CONTROL  UNIT  (ECU)  

   
• Fuel   injected   directly   into   cylinder   at   end   • Inputs   received   from   throttle   position,  
of  compression  stroke.   mixture  lever  and  engine  RPM.  
• Air  Compriming   • Excess  fuel  returned  to  inlet  side.  
• Has   a   higher   fuel   pressure   compared   to   o Pump   always   produces   more   fuel  
the  i    ndirect   than  engine  requires.  
                  type.  
o Fuel   pressure   gauge  measures  from  the   o Least  return  at  full  throttle.  
metered  fuel  pressure  line.  
 ENGINES  10  –  FUEL  DELIVERY  SYSTEMS  

GRAVITY  FEED  FUEL  SYSTEM   LOW  WING  SYSTEMS   WATER  DRAIN  

     
• Vents   fitted   to   tanks   as   the   pressure   in   • Requires  engine  driven  and  electric  pump   • AVGAS  uses  water  finding  paste.  
tanks  decreases  as  fuel  is  consumed.   • Electric  pump  is  DC   powered   (battery)  and   • AVTUR  uses  water  detector.  
o Prevents  fuel  starvation   prevents  vapour  lock.  
o Prevents  structural  damage  to  tanks   • There  is  no  BOTH  selection  
  REFUELLING  
 
• Always   use   a   higher   fuel   grade   –   never  
lower.  (100  instead  of  100LL  is  ok)  
• AVGAS  Nozzle  Diameter  =  40  mm  
• AVTUR  Nozzle  Diameter  =  30  nm  
• Triple  point  grounding  required:  
o Aircraft  
o Nozzle  
o Fuel  truck  

TWIN  ENGINED  SYSTEMS                          

  FUEL  GAUGE  
• Contains  outboard  and  inboard  tanks.    
OVERPRIMING  
  • Fuel  crossfeed  is  used   • Lower  ¼  marked  with  a  red  line.  
o RH  Tank  -­‐-­‐-­‐>  LH  Engine   • Should  never  be  relied  on  as  sole  measure  of  
• Flush  lubricating  oil  from  cylinders  
o LH  Tank  -­‐-­‐-­‐>  RH  Engine   remaining.  
• Increased  risk  of  carburetor  fire  
o Prevent   imbalance   in   case   of   engine  
• Increased  risk  of  flooded  engine  
failure.  
• Fouls  the  spark  plugs     ELECTRIC  PUMP  USES  (LOW-­‐WING)  
• Fuel  transfer  only  on  much  larger  aircraft  
o RH  Tank  -­‐-­‐-­‐>  LH  Tank    
• Take-­‐off  
• Landing  
• During  emergencies  
• In  case  of  suspected  vapour  lock  
• In  case  of  failure  of  engine  driven  fuel  pump  
 ENGINES  11  –  LUBRICATION  AND  COOLING  

FUNCTION  OF  OIL   ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^   REQUIRED  OIL  PROPERTIES  

  • Synthetic  Oil    
• Lubricates  (reduces  friction)   o Used  in  gas  turbine  engine  (not  AVGAS)     • Optimal   Viscosity   –   High   enough   to  
• Reduces  wear  of  metallic  surfaces.   o Semi-­‐synthetic  used  in  DA42   lubricate  but  low  enough  to  flow.  
• Dissipates  heat  (internal  cooling)   • High  Viscosity  Index    
                          High   Flash   Point   –   Temperature   at   which  
• Seals   •
• Cushions  hammering  shocks.   SMOKE  COLOURS   oil  gives  off  flammable  vapours.  
• CSP  adjustments  (hydraulic  fluid)     • Low  carbon  forming  tendancies.  
• Dissipates  dirt   • Blue  =  High  Oil  Consumption  
• Protects  against  corrosion   • Black  =  Too  Rich  
• White  =  Moisture  in  combustion  chamber   LUBRICATION  METHODS  
• Adjustment   of   waste   gate   (turbo   /  
o Most   likely   with   intermittent    
supercharger)  
operation  in  cold  weather   • Pressure  
• Splash  
OIL  TYPES   • Combination  
  OIL  GRADES  
• Straight  Oil    
o Tendency   to   oxidise   at   high   temps   • Oil  is  graded  according  to  viscosity   WET  SUMP  SYSTEM  
which   causes   it   to  become   more   viscous   • Higher  Temperature  =  Lower  Viscosity    
(more  resistance  to  flow).     • Graded   according   to   either   Saybolt   or   SAE   • All  of  the  oil  is  carried  in  a  sump  within  the  
o Reduces   lubrication   properties   and   (Society  of  Automotive  Engineers)   crankcase.  
causes   sludge   to   form   which   can   block   o SAE  =  ½  Saybolt   • Drawn  from  sump  by  a  suction  filter.  
filters.   • W  =  Suitable  for  winter  use   • A   thermostatic   valve   decides   whether   oil  
o Used  for  first  50  hrs  in  a  new  engine  due   needs  cooling  by  the  oil  cooler.  
to   ability   to   withstand   high   friction   • Utilises  a  gravity  return  system.  
forces.   MULTI  GRADE  OIL   • High  oil  temp  means  viscosity  is  too  low  and  
• Ashless  Dispersant  Mineral  Oil     the  lubricating  layer  is  too  thin.  
o No   carbon   forming   problems   like   • Has  a  high  viscosity  index   • Cooler   located   after   pump   but   before   oil  
straight  oil.   o Gives   a   more   constant   viscosity   over   a   passes  through  the  engine.  
o Universally  approved  for  piston  engines   range  of  temperatures.  
• Detergent  Oil   • 20W  /  40  
o High  cleaning   effect   resulting   in   blocked   o At  -­‐180C  viscosity  is  SAE  20W  
filters     o At    990C  viscosity  is  SAE  40  
o Not  normally  approved  in  aviation.  
 
vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv  
 ENGINES  11  –  LUBRICATION  AND  COOLING  

OIL  PRESSURE  ON  STARTUP   DRY  SUMP  TANK   OIL  COOLER  

     
• Must  register  within  30  seconds   • Vent  Fitted   • Between  OSP  and  tank.  
• Initially  high  (Low  temp  -­‐-­‐>  high  viscosity)   o Prevents  excessive  pressure  building   • Thermostatic   valve   decides   whether   oil  
o AKA  Coring   • Air  Expansion  Space  required   needs  cooling  before  returning  to  tank.  
• Less   dissipation   of   heat   causes   a   rise   in   o Allows  for  expansion  and  foaming   • Oil  temp  sensor  is  located  after  the  cooler  
temperature   so   you   could   get   a   high   o Allows   air   to   be   separated   from   oil  
pressure   and   temperature   reading   (due  to  aeration)  
temporarily.     • Tank  Never  Full  
o There   will   always   some   oil   in   the   OIL  FILTER  
engine.    
WET  SUMP  DISADVANTAGES  
  • Feathering  Oil   • Between  OPP  and  engine.  
• Limited  amount  of  oil   o ‘Protected’   from   the   main   outlet   to   • Removes  contaminants.  
• High  oil  temperatures  and  shorter  oil  life   ensure   there   is   always   an   emergency   • Bypass   valve   required   to   ensure   a  
supply.   continuous  flow  if  filter  becomes  blocked.  
• Not  suited  for  radial  and  aerobatic  a/c  
• Is  simple  and  cheap  however.  
MAGNETIC  DRAIN  PLUGS  
 
DRY  SUMP  (4  PUMPS)   • Fitted  to  tank  to  pickup  ferrous  particles.  
  • Warn  of  impending  mechanical  failure.  
• OPP  (Oil  Pressure  Pump)   • Inspected  manually  after  landing.  
o Draws  oil  from  sump   • Chip   detector   can   be   installed   to   provide  
• OSP  (Oil  Scavenge  Pump)   cockpit  indication.  
o Located  in  supply  line    
o Capacity  =  OPP  x3   RELIEF  VALVE   • Spectrometric   Oil   Analysis   Program   can  
o Supply   oil   has   larger   volume   as   it     also  be  used  where  sample  is  sent  to  lab.  
aerates  (mixes  with  air)  and  froths.   • Since  the  pump  is  engine  driven,  a  constant  
• Governor  Pump   flow  of  oil  is  output.  
o Engine   lubricating   oil   used   to   change   • A   relief   valve   is   located   after   the   OPP   and   CHT  GAUGE  
pitch  of  CSP.   return  oil  to  pump  inlet  if  pressure  too  high.    
• Feathering  Pump   • Measures  temperate  of  the  hottest  cylinder  
o Electrically  driven  
OIL  PRESSURE  GAUGE  
o        Used  
                   to  feather  prop  when  engine  fails   COOLANT  MIXTURE  
 
o An   accumulator   can   be   installed   to    
• Reads   the  pressure  of   oil  on  the   outlet   side  
auto-­‐feather   • 70%  water,  30%  ethylene  glycol  
of  the  pressure  pump.  
 ENGINES  11  –  LUBRICATION  AND  COOLING  

MALFUNCTIONS   COOLING   ACTIONS  ON  HIGH  CHT  

     
• Fluctuating  Oil  Pressure   • High  CHTs  must  be  avoided   • Reduce  power  and  level  off  
o Oil  level  too  low  (pump  drawing  air)   o Risk  of  detonation   • Increase  speed  if  possible  (more  airflow)  
• Low  Oil  Pressure   o Reduction  in  VE  (weight  of  air  less)   • Set  mixture  fully  rich  
o Leak  /  Block   o Risk   of   vapour   lock   (radiation   causes   • Open  cowl  flaps  
o Faulty  PRVs   vaporisation  before  carburetor)   • Carb  OFF  
• High  Oil  Pressure   • Piston  engines  can  be  air  or  liquid  cooled.  
o Aeration  
o Faulty  PRVs   PRO’S  &  CONS  OF  AIR  COOLING  
• Low  Oil  Temperature   CYLINDER  FINS    
o Expected  on  start     • Advantages  
• High  Oil  Temperature   • Provide  cooling  by  using  ram  air   o Lighter  
o Bearing  friction   • Baffle   plates   surround   fins   to   increase   o No  risk  of  leakage  
o Low  oil  supply   velocity  of  ram  air,  improving  cooling.   • Disadvantages  
o Gauge   malfunction   if   no   change   in   oil   • Increase   the   cylinder   and   head   surface   o Uneven  cooling  of  cylinders  
pressure   areas.   o Cooling  aids  required  
• Low  Oil  Pressure  +  High  Oil  Temperature   o Thermal  Shock  
o Oil  Leakage  
o Land  ASAP   COWL  FLAPS  
ICE  ACCRETION  &  EGT  
 
 
• Control   airflow   through   the   engine,   thus  
• Float  Type  
OIL  PRESSURE  &  TEMPERATURE   helping  to  control  the  CHTs.  
o Less  Air  =>  Richer  Mixture  
  • Open  for  max  cooling  during  start-­‐up  /  idle   o EGT  Decreases  
• Low   Oil   Temp   =   More   Viscous   =   Higher   /  takeoff  /  climb  
• Fuel  Injection  
Pressure   • Partially  closed  during  cruise   o Poppet  Closes  =>  Leaner  Mixture  
• High   Oil   Temp   =   Less   Viscous   =   Lower   • Closed  during  descent   o EGT  Increases  
Pressure  
THERMOCOUPLE  
  HIGH  CHT  
                             OIL  LEVEL  CHECK    
• Used  to  measure  CHTs  
  • The   voltage   induced   is   proportional   to   the   • Inadequate  cooling  
• Wet  Sump  –  15  to  20  mins  after  shutdown   temperature   difference   between   the   two   • Poor  baffle  plate  installation  
• Dry  Sump  –  Check  immediately  after  flight   ends.   • Improper  ignition  timing  
• Gasket  used  at  spark  plug   • Wrong  fuel  grade  (detonation)  
 ENGINES  11  –  LUBRICATION  AND  COOLING  

LIQUID  COOLING   VAPOUR  LOCK                                  

   
• Cylinders   and   cylinder   areas   have   a   double   • Higher  Altitude  =  Lower  Temperature  =  Fuel  
jacket   and   coolant   circulates   under   boils   at   lower   temperature   =   Increased  
pressure  within  the  jacket.   chance  of  vapour  lock.  
• Components  Required:  
o Coolant  Reservoir  
o Pump  
o Radiator  (Cooler)  
o Hoses  
• A  fan   can  also  be  installed  to  provide  aid  in  
cooling   on   the   ground   when   ram   air   is   not  
present.  
 
• Advantages  
o Uniform  cooling  
o Second  heat   exchanged   for  use   in   cabin  
heat  /  window  demisting  
o Consistent  regulation  of  engine  temps  
 
• Disadvantages  
o More  expensive  
o Heavier  
o More  complex  and  require  more  mx  
o Leakage  can  lead  to  overheat  
 ENGINES  12  –  IGNITION  SYSTEM  

BASICS                                     CONTACT  BREAKER  

   
• Operate   independently   of   the   aircraft   • 4  Cylinders  =  4  Points  (Square)  
electrical  system  once  started.   • 6  Cylinders  =  6  Points  (Hexagon)  
• It  is  a  high  tension  system  
• Each  engine  has  two  magnetos.  
o One   magneto   for   upper   spark   plugs   ADVNACED  IGNITION  
and  one  for  the  lower  spark  plugs.    
• A  magneto  is  essentially  a:   • Combustion   takes   place   between   advanced  
o Self-­‐contained  generator   ignition   and   the   point   of   highest   pressure  
o Step-­‐up   transformer   (Low   volts   in,   just  after  TDC  (+100)  
high  volts  out)   • In   this   region,   volume  is   relatively   constant  
so   it   is   termed   ‘constant   volume’  
IGNITION  SWITCH   combustion.  
  • Spark  normally  occurs  300  before  TDC.  
MAGNETO  OPERATION   • When  OFF,  the  switch  is  closed  and  the  primary  
  o Higher   RPMs   require   a   more   advance  
current  flows  to  earth  (grounded)  
Primary   Winding   –   Few   turns   of   coil   but   ignition  to   be   most  efficient  although  in  
• •  When   ON,   the   switch   is   open   and   the   primary  
thick  wiring.   current   is   allowed   to   flow   via   the   contact   reality  the  timing  is  fixed.  
• Secondary   Winding   –   Many   turns   of   coil   breaker.  
but  very  thin  wiring.   • If  the  ground  wire  is  broken  then  a  live  mag  can   IMPULSE  COUPLING  
• The  magnetic   rotor,   contact   breaker   and   be  present  (ungrounded)    
distributor   are   all   driven   by   the   camshaft   o If   a   broken   ground   wire   touches   the  
• Ignition   is   retarded   on   start   due   to   the  
engine   /   airframe   body,   it   effectively  
so  rotate  at  ½  crankshaft  speed.     very  low  RPMs.  
grounds   the   magneto   and   turns   off   the  
• The   magnetic   rotor   induces   an   EMF   within   MAG.   o Also  prevents  kickback.  
the  primary  winding.   • A   spring   within   an   impulse   coupling   is  
• When   a   spark   is   required,   the   contact   wound  up  as  the  starter  rotates  the  engine.  
breaker   opens   to   breaks   the   primary   CAPACITOR  /  CONDENSER   o When   released,   an   extra   strong  
circuit   causing   the  magnetic  field   to  rapidly     retarded  spark  is  provided  for  start.  
collapse.   • Prevents   arcing   between   the   points   on   the   o As   engine   rpm   increases,   flyweights  
contact   breaker   by   providing   a   path   of   least  
• The   collapsing  induces  a  much   higher  EMF   close   in   due   to   centrifugal   force   and  
resistance  to  the  current.  
(low   current)   within   the   secondary   ignition  operates  normally  
• Enhances  collapsing  of  the  magnetic  field,  thus  
winding  which  is  sent  to  the  distributor.   intensifying  the  current  in  secondary  winding.  
• Distributor   sends   the   secondary   current   to   • A  shorted   capacitor   will  not  permit  the  engine  
the  spark  plugs  in  the  correct  sequence.   to  be  started.  
• It  is  an  AC  current  which  is  generated.  
 ENGINES  12  –  IGNITION  SYSTEM  

STARTER  MOTOR   SPARK  PLUGS   DUAL  IGNITION  

     
• Used  to  turn  the  crank  assembly  on  start.   • Categorised   by   temperature   range   they   are   • Allows   for   reliability   and   improved  
expected  to  operate  within.   combustion  efficiency.  
 
• Hot  Plugs  
o Smaller   STOPPING  A  LIVE  MAG  
o Transfer  very  little  heat  to  cylinder    
o Usually   used   on   engines   with   low   • Shut  off  fuel  supply  
operating  temperatures.  
 
• Cold  Plugs   CARBON  FORMATION  
DEAD  CUT  CHECKS   o Bigger    
  o Transfer  a  lot  of  heat  to  cylinder   • Excessive   carbon   formation   in   the  
• Looking   for   a   drop   but   no   stop   on   each   o Usually   used   on   engines   with   high   cylinder   head   may   cause   the   engine   to  
mag.   operating  temperatures   fail  to  stop.  
• Ensures   there   is   control   over   the   magnetos  
before  doing  the  run  up  checks.                                      
• Carried  out  at  low  rpm   HIGH  TENSION  (HT)  BOOSTER  COIL  
o Prevents   too   great   a   torque   force   if    
there  is  a  failed  mag  and  a  pilot  quickly   • Battery  is  used   to   boost  voltage  within  the  
reselects  BOTH.   primary  winding.  
• When  field  collapses  an  even  greater  voltage  
occurs  within  secondary  winding.  
RUN  UP  CHECKS  
• Used  on  larger  engines.  
 
• Typically  carried  out  at  75%  of  max  rpm.  
• Looking   for   a   fall   on   each   mag   within   SWITCHING  OFF  MAG  
tolerances.    
• Grounding  the   primary   circuit  and   therefore  
the  secondary  circuit.  
 ENGINES  13  –  ENGINE  INSTRUMENTS  

MAP   FUEL  FLOW  GAUGES                                        

   
• Pressure  between  throttle  valve  and  inlet.   • Essential  a  pressure  guage.  
• Two   capsules   used,   one   sealed   and   other   • Works   on   principle   that   pressure   drop  
open  to  manifold  pressure.   through   a  fixed   orifice   is  proportional   to   the  
• As  MAP   increases,  the  density  of  the  air   the   fuel  flow  through  it.  
cylinder  increases.  
• Will   always   be   less   than   ambient   in   a  
normally  aspirated  engine.  
• Prop   level   should   always   be   ahead   of  
throttle.  
o Avoid   a   high   MAP,   low   RPM   situation  
as   it   will   result   in   high   cylinder  
pressures  causing  detonation.  

EGT  
 
• Used  to  make  adjustments  to  mixture  ratio.  
o Lean  =  Higher  EGT  
o Rich  =  Lower  EGT  

INDUCTION  SYSTEM  TEMP  GAUGE  

 
• Yellow  arc  indicates  icing  most  likely.  
• Carb   heat  will  bring  it   to  green  arc  although  
continued   application   could   lead   to  
overheating.  
 ENGINES  15  –  ENGINE  PERFORMANCE  

RPM  +  MAP  RELATIONSHIP   FUEL  /  AIR  RATIO   MIXTURE  USAGE  

     
• RPM  +  MAP  =  BHP  (Power)   • AKA  Stochiometric  Mixture   • If   the   mixture   is   not   leaned   as   altitude  
• On   a   fixed   pitch   prop,   the   throttle   controls   • Highest  CHT  occurs  at  chemically  correct   increases:  
both  the  amount  of  power  and  rpm.   14.7/1     o Density   of   air   entering   the   carburetor  
• On  a  CSP:   o High   risk   of   detonation   at   this   decreases  
o Prop  Level  =  RPM  (Tachometer)   temperature   means   we   normally   o Fuel  flow  increases  
o Throttle  =  MAP  (MAP  Gauge)   operate  slightly  lean  or  rich  of  14.7   o Amount   of   fuel   entering   remains  
  o Assume  highest  EGT  as  well  for  EASA   constant  however  
• As  RPM  increases,  MAP  decreases   • Best  Economy  occurs  at  16/1    
o Pistons  suck  more  air   o Lower  risk  of  detonation   • In   a   NAE  at  a  constant   RPM,  if   the  mixture  is  
o Greater   suction   results   in   lower   o Best  specific  fuel  consumption   not  leaned,  as  altitude  increases:  
pressure     • Best  Power  occurs  at  12/1   o Density   of   air   entering   the   carburetor  
  o Allows   the   most   power   to   be   obtained   decreases  
for  any  given  throttle  setting.   o Amount   of   fuel   entering   decreases  
  (since   throttle   would   have   been  
• Note  operation  lean  of  peak  EGT  results  in   increased)  
a  wide  range  of  percent  power.    
o Different   CHTs   due   to   unequal   cooling   • Climbing   requires   leaning   and   descending  
in   a   horizontally   opposed   engine   can   requires  richening.  
result   in   uneven   power   outputs   from   • Caution   when   leaning   to   avoid   high   CHTs  
each  cylinder.   and  EGTs  
• The  EGT  gauge  is  used  to  assist  with  setting  
the  mixture.  
TAKEOFF  &  DETONATION   • High  CHTs  result  from  a  lean  mixture.  
  • Richness   of   the   mixture   is   the   real   mixture  
                                        • Carb  heat  cold  and  rich  mixture  used  to  aid   ratio  relative  for  the  theoretical  ratio.  
in  cooling  to  prevent  detonation.  

SPARK  PLUG  FOULING  

TANK  VENT  BLOCKAGE    
  • Most   likely   during   the   climb   with   an  
• Consider   if   engine   stops   shortly   after   excessively  rich  mixture.  
starting.   • Can  also  occur  due   to   prolonged  running  at  
low  RPM  (when  on  ground  and  in  descent)  
 ENGINES  17  –  POWER  AUGMENTATION  DEVICES  

PURPOSE   COMPRESSION  RATIO   TURBOCHARGER  OPERATION  

     
• Prevent  a  power  decrease  with  changes  in   • A  lower   CR   is  required  when  engine  is  fitted   • Waste   gate   is   used   to   divert   exhaust   gas  
height,  pressure,  temperature  and  RH.   with  a  power  augmentation  device.   over  a  turbine.  
• Artificially  raises  the  MAP   • Prevents  engine  damage   • Fitted  in  parallel  with  the  turbine.  
• Turbine  rpm  is  increased  with  more  exhaust  
gas  which   in   turn  drives   a   compressor  on   a  
TYPES   SUPERCHARGER  OPERATION   common  shaft.  
    • The   waste   gate   is   controlled   by   a   density  
• Supercharger   • Crankshaft   is   used   to   drive   a   centrifugal   /   controller  and  evacuated  bellow.  
o Internally  driven  by  crankshaft   radial  compressor.   o Open  at  low  ALT  
o Compresses  Mixture   o Close  at  high  ALT  (more  deflection)  
• The   compressor   draws   air   in   and   is  
o Downstream  of  carburetor  
accelerated  radially.  
 
• Air   enters  at   the   eye   of   the   impeller   and  
• Turbocharger  
leaves   it   almost   at   a   tangent   to   the  
o Externally  driven  by  exhaust  gas  
periphery.  
o Compresses  Air  
• A   diffuser   with   a   divergent   passage  
o Upstream  of  carburetor  
causes   pressure   to   increase   as   it   leaves   the  
diffuser.  
OUTPUTS  
 
• The  supercharger  is  limited  by  engine  rpm.  
• Turbocharger   provides   augmentation   to   a  
greater  altitude.  
VALVE  TIMING  (TURBOCHARGER)  
 
• Increased  back  pressure  requires  valve  
timing  be  altered.  
                                          • Longer  overlap  required  to  help  improve  
scavenging.  
GEARING  (SUPERCHARGER)  
 
• Low  gearing  at  low  altitude   ENGINE  TYPE  
• High  gearing  at  high  altitude.    
• Both  types  of  augmentation  are  used  on  fuel  
injected  engines  (direct  /  indirect)  
 ENGINES  17  –  POWER  AUGMENTATION  DEVICES  

INTERCOOLER  (TURBOCHARGER)   ADVANTAGES  OF  BOTH  SYSTEMS   RATED  POWER  

     
• The   divergent   passage   creates   a   rise   in   • Higher  takeoff  mass  possible   • Maximum   power   at   which   continuous  
temperature.   • Shorter  runway  operation   operation  is  permitted.  
• On   high   performance   engines,   air   must   be   • Flying  at  higher  altitude  possible  
cooled  before  entering  the  carburetor.   FUL  THROTTLE  HEIGHT  
• Intercooler  fitted.    
TURBOCHARGERS  =  MORE  EFFICIENT  
• Prevents  detonation.   • At   a   given   rpm,   the   altitude   up   to   which   a  
 
• Not   required   on   supercharger   as  mixture  is   given  MAP  can  be  maintained.  
• Harness  exhaust  energy  
already   cooled   from   evaporation   (fitted  
downstream  of  carburetor)   • Deliver  more  oxygen  to  engine  
• Lower  fuel  flow  at  higher  altitude   RATED  /  CRITICAL  ALTITUDE  
• Climbing  higher  is  possible    
TURBO  LAG  (TURBOCHARGER)   • Full  throttle   height   for   a  rated   MAP  and   it’s  
  associated  RPM.  
PART  THROTTLE  
• When   throttle   is   changed,   there   is   a   lag   • Therefore  the  height  at  which  max  power  is  
 
before   the   exhaust   system   effects   the   produced.  
• Part  throttle   must   be   used   on   both   types   for  
turbine.  
takeoff  at  sea  level  to  prevent  overboosting.  
• Newer  engines  automatically  adjust  for  this.   RATED  ALTITUDE  
BOOST  INDICATOR    
  • Full  throttle   height   for   a  rated   MAP  and   it’s  
• Centred  on  zero  and  indicates  right  if  MAP  is   WASTE  GATE  SEIZURE  
  associated  RPM.  
above  seal  level  pressure  and  left  if  below.   • Therefore  the  height  at  which  max  power  is  
• Alterative  display  of  the  MAP  gauge.   • MAP   will   decrease   as   you   near   the   critical  
altitude.   produced.  
• Either  can  be  used  to  prevent  over  boosting  
of  the  engine.  
EXHAUST  BACK  PRESSURE   TAKEOFF  POWER  
   
SUPERCHARGED  VS  NAE  AT  MSL   • Max  allowable  power  for  takeoff.  
• Climbing   with   constant   MAP,   RPM   and  
  • Time,  rpm  and  temperature  limited.  
mixture  settings  will  cause  power  output  to  
• Power   is   required   to   drive   the   impeller  
increase  due  to  reduced  EBP.  
(compressor   blades)   so   power   output   is  
                                            • The  air  density  behind  the  throttle  valve  will   CRITICIAL  RPM  
slightly  less  than  a  NAE  at  sea  level.  
increase  in  this  instance.    
o MAP  constant  =>  Pressure  constant   • An  RPM  range   in   which  severe  vibration  can  
o Temp  decreases  =>  Density  Increases   occur.  
 ENGINES  17  –  POWER  AUGMENTATION  DEVICES  

BEST  POWER  CONDITIONS                                                

 
• Cold  
• Dry  Air  
• High  Pressure  
 ENGINES  1  –  GAS  TURBINE  ENGINES  

BASIC  CONSTRUCTION                                                   BYPASS  RATIO  (BPR)  

Piston  Engine   Gas  Turbine  
   
  Intermittent   Continuous   • On   a   turbo   fan,   an   aerodynamic   splitter  
divides   incoming   air   into  a   hot   stream   and   a  
Constant  Volume   Constant  Pressure   cold  stream.  
• The   cold   stream   does   not   take   part   in  
  combustion   but   accounts   for   approx   85%  
TURBINE  TYPES   thrust.  
  • The   hot   stream   is   used   for   combustion   as  
• Thrust  Producing   accounts  for  about  15%  thrust.  
o Turbo  Jet   • So,   it   can   be   seen   the   majority   of   thrust  
o Turbo  Fan   comes   from   accelerating   air.   The  
  combustion   is   merely   used   to   drive   the  
• Torque  Producing  (Connected  to  gearbox)   turbine  and  hence  the  compressors  required  
BASIC  OPERATION   o Turbo  Prop   to  accelerate  the  air.  
  o Turbo  Shaft   • BPR  =  Cold  Stream  /  Hot  Stream  
• By   expelling   air   rearwards,   an   equal   and   • A   low   BPR   would   be   2:1   (For   every   1   kg  
opposite  reaction  forward  will  occur.   passing   through  combustion  chamber,  2   kgs  
• F  =  m  x  (VEXIT  -­‐  VENTRANCE)   TURBO  PROP  /  TRUBO  SHAFT   passes  around  the  combustion  chamber.  
  • A  high  BPR  would  be  10:1  
• Can  be  direct  drive  or  free  turbine  type.    
BRAYTON  CYCLE   • Direct   drive   is   where  a   common   shaft  drives  
  the  compressor,  turbine  and  propeller.  
• Most   commonly   however,   the   free   turbine  
design  is  used:  
o An   additional   turbine,   not   connected  
to  any  compressor  is  installed.  
o This  drives  a  reduction  gearbox  which  
is  used  to  turn  the  propeller.  
o More   power   can   then   be   delivered   to  
the   prop   as   it   is   not   lost   as   kinetic  
energy  whilst  driving  the  compressor.  
COMPRESSOR  TYPES  
 
• Compressor  and  turbine  are  axial  types.  
 ENGINES  1  –  GAS  TURBINE  ENGINES  

PSUEDO  -­‐  BYPASS  RATIO   PROPULSIVE  EFFICIENCY   ENGINE  STATIONS  

     
• A  turbo-­‐jet  can   be  considered   to  have  zero  BPR   • At   low   airspeeds,   the   turbo-­‐prop   is   most  
since   all   the   air   is   used   in   the   combustion   efficient.  
process.   • At  high  airspeeds,  the  turbo-­‐jet  is  most  efficient.  
• A  turbo-­‐prop  /  turbo-­‐shaft  can  be  considered  to   • In   the   mid-­‐speed   range   where   most   transport  
have  an   almost  100:1  BPR  since   none  of  the   air   aircraft   operate,   the   by-­‐pass   engine   is   most  
that   passes   through   the   combustion   chamber   efficient.  
provides  thrust.   • It   can   be   either   of   the   low   BPR   type   (usually  
• This   is   just   a   comparison   however.   In   reality,   used   by   military   aircraft)   or   the   high   BPR   type  
these  types  do  not  rely  on  the  BPR  principle  like   (used  by  commercial  aircraft)  
a  turbo-­‐fan  does.   • Note   that   the   turbo-­‐prop   has   a   limited  
efficiency  whilst  the  other  types  do  not.  

HOT  STREAM  DIVISION  

 
• The  hot  stream  is  further  divided.  
• Approximately  25%  used  for  combustion  
• Approximately  75%  used  for  cooling  

TURBO  JET  VS  TURBO  FAN  

 
• A  Turbo  Jet  takes  a  small  massflow  and  imparts   TERMINOLOGY  
a  large  acceleration.    
SPOOLS  
• A   Turbo   Fan   takes   a   large   massflow   and   • EPR  (Engine  Pressure  Ratio):  P7  /  P2  
 
imparts  a  small  acceleration.  
• Describes  the  number  o f  shafts  present.   • ITT  (Intermediate  Turbine  Pressure):  T5  
• Due   to   the   high   fuel   consumption   and   noise   • TIT  (Turbine  Inlet  Pressure):  T4  
• Each   shaft   will   have   its   own   compressor   and  
generated   by   turbojets,   they   are   no   longer   in   • CIT  (Compressor  Inlet  Temp):  T2  
turbine.  
use.  
• They   operate   separately   so   each   has   it’s   own   • CDP  (Compressor  Discharge  Pressure):  P3  
RPM  designated  by  N 1,  N2,  N3  etc.   • CPR  (Compressor  Pressure  Ratio):  P3  /  P2  
• More   spools   provide   a   higher   compression   • IEPR  (Integrated  Engine  Pressure  Ratio)  
                                                  ratio  thus  reducing  fuel  consumption.  
 
• N1  =  Low  Spool  =  Fan  +  LPC  +  LPT  
• N2  =  High  Spool  =  HPC  +  HPT  
 ENGINES  1  –  GAS  TURBINE  ENGINES  

FAN                                                      
 
• The   fan   is   used   to   accelerate   the   cold   stream  
which  produces  85%  thrust.  
• It  is  connected  to  the  same  shaft  as  the  LPC  and  
LPT.  

THRUST  SETTING  PARAMETERS  

 
• EPR  /  IEPR  /  N1  can  be  used  as  a  thrust  setting  
parameter.  
• Primary   indication   varies   depending   on   engine  
manufacturer.  
• If   one   method   fails   then   the   other   can   be   used  
instead.   A   single   indicator  failure   is   not   a   no-­‐go  
item.  

OAT  INCREASE  
 
• At   a   given   rpm,   if   OAT   increases   the   volume   of  
air   entering   will  remain   constant  but   density  of  
air  will  reduce.  
• Mass  flow  therefore  reduces.  
• This  is  sensed  by  the  CPR  
• Computers  will  automatically  adjust  as  required  
to  ensure  a  constant  mass  flow.  

GAS  GENERATOR  /  CORE  ENGINE  

 
• Consists  of  the  N2  spool  +  combustion  chamber  
 ENGINES  2  –  ENGINE  CONSTRUCTION  

AIR  INTAKE   ANTI-­‐ICE   RESULTANT  THRUST  VS  VELOCITY  

   
                                                      • Fitted  to  the  leading  edge  lip  of  the  intake   • Consider  F  =  m  x  (VEXIT  -­‐  VENTRANCE)  
CONSTRUCTION   • Prevents  turbulent  airflow  from  forming   • As   the   velocity   increases,   VENTRANCE   increases  
  • Can   utilize   hot   air   /   electrical   heating   /   hot   thus  producing  less  thrust.  
• Forms   part   of   the   aircraft   structure   and   is   exhaust  as  the  method  of  anti-­‐ice.   • However,   ram   rise   causes   the   mass   flow   to  
separate  from  the  engine.   increase.  
• The   net   result   is   that  thrust   is   almost   constant  
RAM  RECOVERY   with  changes  in  velocity.  
 
• A  subsonic  intake  is  divergent  
• When  stationary  with  engine  running,  there  is  a  
high  velocity  of  air  through  the  intake.  
o Ambient  Pressure  >  Intake  Pressure  
• As  the  aircraft  speed  increases  during  flight,  the  
dynamic   pressure   increases   and   eventually  
ambient  pressure  and  intake  pressure  are  equal.  
• The  point  at  which  this  occurs  is  known  as  ram  
recovery.  
• As   aircraft   speed   increases   further,   the  
increased   pressure   at   the   intake   causes   the  
PURPOSE  
compression  ratio  of  the  engine  to  increase.  
 
o More   thrust   is   now   produced   without   an  
• Provide   turbulent   free   air   which   is   evenly   increase  in  fuel  flow.  
distributed  to  the  face  of  the  compressor.  
• Must  do  this  with  minimum  drag.   BLOW  IN  DOORS  
 
COMPRESSOR  STALL   • At  low  velocities  and  high  thrust  settings  they  
  are  opened  to  increase  mass  flow  of  air.  
• Should   airflow   become   turbulent   in   the   intake,    
the  axial  velocity  of  air  into  the  compressor  will   • They   are   spring   loaded  
be  reduced.   and   when   the   pressure  
  is   sufficiently   high  
• If  this  reduction  is  too  great,  a   within   the   intake   they  
high   AoA     can   occur   at   the   are   forced   to   close   due  
rotor   blades   and   a   to   the   pressure  
compressor  stall  results.   differential.  
 ENGINES  3  –  COMPRESSORS  

CENTRIFUGAL  FLOW  COMPRESSOR   ADVANTAGES  

 
• Simple  
INTRODUCTION   • Robust  
  • Short  Length  
• AKA  Radial  Flow  Compressor   • Less  prone  to  stalls  and  surges  
• Used  mainly  for  the  following:  
o Turbo-­‐prop  
o Air  Cycle  Machines   DISADVANTAGES  
 
o Turbo-­‐Chargers  
• Broad  frontal  area  
• Low  mass  flow  (cannot  cope  with  high  MF)  
OPERATION   • Poor  compression  ratio  
  • High  specific  fuel  consumption  
• Turbine   is   used   to   rotate   the   impeller   at   high   CONVERGENT  DUCT  
speed.    
• Air  enters  via  the  eye  of  the  impeller.   AXIAL  FLOW  COMPRESSOR   • Since   pressure   is   lower   at   the   inlet   compared  
• Air   is   then   accelerated   radially  so   it’s   velocity   with   inside   the   compressor   due   to   rise   in  
increases.   pressure,  there  is  a  tendency  for  airflow  to  want  
• The   impeller   vanes   are   divergent   in   order   to   OPERATION   to  reverse  direction  (flow  from  high  to  low).  
raise  the  pressure  of  the  air.     • Convergent  duct  maintains  the  axial  velocity.  
• Air   leaves   the   impeller   and   enters   a   divergent   • Multiple  stages,  each  consisting  of  a   rotor  then   • The   slightly   reduction   in   pressure   that   results  
duct.   stator  are  present.   from  this  is  more  than  offset  by  the  rise  through  
• Here,  the  kinetic  energy  added  to  the  air  flow  is   • Rotors   accelerate   the   air   in   the   direction   of   each  stage.  
now  converted  into  pressure  energy.   rotation  and  add  kinetic  energy  to  the  airflow.    
o 50%  of  pressure  rise  occurs  across  impeller   • The  divergent  rotor  blades  result  in  a  pressure   • So,   rotors   and   stators   are   divergent   but   the  
section  and  50%  in  the  diffuser  section.     increase.   duct  is  convergent.  
• Rotating   guide   vanes   deliver   air   smoothly   to   • Air   is   passed   to  stators   which   are  slightly   more  
the  impeller.   divergent  than  the  rotors.   INLET  GUIDE  VANES  
• Kinetic   energy   converted   to   pressure   energy    
and  temperature  also  increases.   • Direct  airflow  onto  the  first  set  of  rotor  blades.  
• The   stators   are   fixed   however   so   there   is   a  
decrease  in  velocity.  
                                                          ADVANTAGES  
• The  net  effect  through  each  stage  is  that  velocity    
stays  virtually  constant  and  pressure  increases.   • Small  frontal  area  
o  10  –  20%  pressure  rise  through  each  stage   • High  mass  flow  
o  250C  temperature  rise  through  each  stage   • High  CPR  +  Low  SFC  
 ENGINES  3  –  COMPRESSORS  

DISADVANTAGES   ACTIVE  CLEARANCE  CONTROL   LOW  RPM  

     
• Expensive  and  complex   • Used  on  the  LPT  &  HPT.   • Can  give  rise  to  compressor  stall.  
• Prone  to  stalls  and  surges   • Prevent  radial  growth  of  turbine  casing  due  to   • CPR  falls  as  RPM  decreases.  
• Easily  damaged   increased  temperatures.   • Volume  increases  as  pressure  decreases.  
• Cooling   air  is  metered  round  the  outside  of  the   • Axial  velocity  decreases.  
casing.  
SFC  VS  CPR  
  HIGH  OAT  
• The   higher   compression   ratios   offered   by   the    
axial   compressor   results   in   a   lower   specific   • Can  give  rise  to  compressor  stall.  
fuel  consumption.   • Poisson’s   Law   shows   how   an   increase   in  
• This   is   because   less   fuel   is   required   at   the   ambient   temperature   causes   the   CPR   to  
combustion   stage   assuming   the   temperature   is   decrease:  
not  increased.    
• Since   only   a   small   pressure   rise   occurs   across   𝑻𝟑 𝟑.𝟓 𝑷𝟑
each   stage,   more   stages   and   multiple   spools   AXIAL  /  RADIAL  FLOW  COMPRESSOR   ! ! =    
𝑻𝟐 𝑷𝟐
allow  for  higher  CPRs.    
                                                         
• Volume  increases  as  pressure  decreases.  
DESIGN   • Axial  velocity  decreases.  
 
• Air  passes  through  an  axial  compressor  before  
entering   a   radial   compressor  which  gives  it  a  
‘boost’   COMPRESSOR  STALL  CAUSES  
 
• Mainly  used  on  turbo-­‐prop  /  turbo-­‐shaft  
• Operation  below  design  RPM  
• Excessive  Fuel  Flow  (Slam  Acceleration)  
o Too   high   temperature   leading   to   volume  
BLADE  TIP  CLEARANCE  CONTROL   AXIAL  AIRFLOW  CONTROL   increase.  
  • Turbulent  Airflow  
• Abradable   seals   are  located  between  the  rotor   • Contaminated   /   Damaged   compressor  
blades  and  the  compressor  casing.   COMPRESSOR  STALL   components  
    • Excessively  Lean  Mixture  
• When   blades   are   installed,   • Occurs   when   the   axial   velocity   is   too   low   o Less  fuel  but  RPM  still  high  due  to  lag  
zero  clearance  is  provided.   resulting  in  a  large  angle  of  attack.  
• Engine   is   run   and   the   rotor   • A   low   velocity   results   when   the   volume   of   air  
blades   wear   the   seals   so   increases   as  this  effectively  blocks  the  forward  
minimal   clearance   is   progress  of  the  air.  
obtained.  
 ENGINES  2  –  ENGINE  CONSTRUCTION  

STALL  INDICATIONS   INTERSTAGE  BLEED  VALVES   VARIABLE  BY-­‐PASS  VALVES  

     
• Increase  in  EGT   • Located  within  the  HPC   • During  a  deceleration,  the  LP  spool  lags  behind  
• Increase  in  vibration  level   • At   low   rpm   (on   start)   the   pressure   increase   the  HP  spool  and  remains  at  a  higher  RPM.  
• Erratic  RPM   across   the   stages   is   too   low   and   a   high   volume   • VBVs   momentarily   opened   during  
• Banging  sound   results.   deceleration.  
• RPM  loss   • IBVs  vent  excess  air  to  atmosphere.    
• Yawing  of  aircraft   • They   are   open   on   start   and   close   with   • During  thrust  reverse,  VBVs  are  fully  open  to  
increasing  RPM.   prevent  a  re-­‐ingestion  stall.  
• Blocker  Doors  AKA  Cascade  Vanes  
STALL  VS  SURGE    
  VARIABLE  INLET  GUIDE  /  STATOR  VANES  
• Stall  limited  to  2/3  stages.    
• Surge  is  a  stall  across  all  stages.   • The  inlet  guide  vanes  plus  the  first  5/6  stator  
o Produces  flames  in  both  inlet  and  exhaust.   vanes  within  the  HPC  are  variable.  
• At   high   OATs   they   can   be   closed   in   order   to  
decrease   the   volume,   thus   preventing   the  
STALL  RECOVERY   velocity  decrease  and  associated  stall.  
  • They  are  also  closed  at  low  RPMs  to  reduce  the  
• Close  throttle  gradually  to  restore  RPM  /  axial   volume  and  a  fully  open  at  high  RPMs.  
velocity  combination.   o Can   also   think   of   them   being   closed   in  
• Consider  shutdown  if  problem  persists.   order   to   maintain   optimal   AoA   with   FLOW  &  POWER  MATCHING  (MUTLI-­‐SPOOL)  
decreasing  velocity.    
  • Flow   Matching   –   HPC  can  cope  with  volume  of  
• Connected  via  a  unison  ring   air  being  delivered  by  the  LPC.  
PREVENTING  STALL  /  SURGE  
• Controlled   via   an   actuator   with   fuel   as   the   • Power   Matching   –   Power   required   by  
hydraulic  fluid.   compressor   is   equal   to   power   delivered   by  
                                                           
turbine.  
• Both  are  matched  whenever  RPM  is  stable.  
VARIABLE  BY-­‐PASS  VALVES  
 
• Fitted  between  the  LPC  and  HPC  
• Prevent  stalls  within  the  LPC  
• Vent  excess  air  to  the  cold  stream  
 
• On  start,  the  LPC  takes  a  while  to  get  up  to  speed  
so  the  pressure  is  low  and  volume  high.  
• VBVs   open   on   start   to   prevent   axial   velocity  
decreasing  and  stalling  the  LPC.  
 ENGINES  3  -­‐  COMPRESSORS  

                                                               
BLEED  AIR  EXTRACTION  
 
• Taken  from  an  IP  and  HP  stage  of  the  HPC.  
• Results  In  
o Reduced  Thrust  
o Increased  EGT  
o Increased  SFC  

DIFFUSER  
 
• Located   between   the   compressor   and  
combustion  chamber.  
• Decreases   velocity   in   order   to   prevent   flame  
extinction.  
• Further  increases  pressure  of  the  airflow.  
• Is   the   point   of   highest   pressure   within   an  
engine.  
 ENGINES  4  -­‐  COMBUSTION  

GAS  BEHAVIOUR   SWIRL   CAN-­‐ANNULAR  /  TURBO-­‐ANNULAR  

     
• Highest   temperature   occurs   during   • Swirl  vanes  decrease  velocity  of  air  entering  the   • Used  in  axial  flow  compressors  
combustion.   chamber   and   impart   a   whirling   motion   to   the   • Now  in   line   with   compressor   and   diffuser   so  
• Takes  place  at  an  almost  constant  pressure   air.   no  deflection  losses.  
o Ensures   turbine   receives   an   almost   • Swirl   chamber   in   fuel   nozzle   also   imparts   a   • Cans  are  closer  together    
constant  stream  of  gas.   whirling   motion   on   fuel   but   in   the   opposite   • Cans  are  surrounded  by  a  single  o uter  casing  
o Never   increases   pressure   or   this   could   direction.  
cause   compressor   stall,   thus   damaging   • Improves  mixing  and  combustion.  
compressor   as   well   as   combustion  
chamber  due  high  temp.  

                                                              COMBUSTION  CHAMBER  TYPES  

PRIMARY  &  SECONDARY  AIRFLOW  
 
• The  hot  stream  is  divided  into  a  primary  airflow   MULTIPLE  CAN  
and  secondary  airflow.    
• The  primary  airflow  is  20%  of  the  hot  stream   • Used  in  radial  compressors  
o Used  for  actual  combustion   • It   is   angled   to   the   diffuser,   thus   resulting   in  
ANNULAR  CHAMBER  
• The   secondary   airflow   is   80%   of   the   hot   deflection  losses.  
 
stream.    
• Main  type  in  axial  flow  compressors  
o Used  to  provide  cooling  (60%)   • Multiple   cans   are   connected   together   with  
interconnectors.   • Single  flame  tube  
o Used   to   stabilise   the   flame   and   keep   it  
horizontal  (20%)   • One  fuel  nozzle  in  each  can.   • 2  igniters  and  lots  of  fuel  nozzels  
o Thermal  shock  can  occur  across  turbine  if   o Prevents  thermal  shock  
o Enters  the  combustion  section  via  slots  and  
holes  in  the  liner.   fuel  nozzels  go  u/s   • Considerable   weight   saving   and   less   cooling  
  • Ignition  only  present  in  two  cans.   air  required.  
o Ignition   only   used   on   start   /   TO   &   LND   /  
anti-­‐ice  conditions.  
 ENGINES  4  -­‐  COMBUSTION  

REVERSE  FLOW  TYPE   AIR  /  FUEL  RATIO   WET  START  

     
• Used  in  turbo-­‐prop  /  turbo-­‐shaft   • Within   the   primary   combustion   zone,   a   ratio   of   • EGT  –  No  Increase  
• Occupies  a  very  small  space   15:1  must  be  ensured.   • Fuel  Flow  -­‐  Positive  
• Lots  of  deflection  losses   • The   overall   ratio   within   the   combustion    
  chamber  can  be  as  high  as  130:1  however.   • Suggests  a  failed  igniter.  
• Close  HP  fuel  cock.  
• Allow  fuel  drains  to  operate  (30  seconds)  
FUEL  NOZZLE’S   • Begin  b low  out  procedure  
  o Start  without  fuel  and  ignition  
• Simplex  nozzles  have  a  single  delivery  orifice.   o Allows  compressors  to  blow  out  fuel  within  
o Optimised   for   high   fuel   flows   so   provide   the  engine.  
poor  atomization  at  low  fuel  flows.   • After   2   -­‐3   minutes,   attempt   normal   start   on  
•  Duplex  nozzles  have  a  single  delivery  orifice.   second  igniter.  
o A   primary   orifice   (small   opening)   is   used  
at  lower  pressures.  
o A   main   orifice   is   also   used   at   high   HOT  START  
pressures.    
• Annular   chamber   has   2   simplex   nozzles   near   • Occurs  due  to  excessive   EGTs  following   a   wet  
the  igniters  and  the  rest  of  the  duplex  type.   start   when   fuel   has   not   been   drained  
  sufficiently.    
 
OTHER  
DRY  START  
                                                                 
• EGT  –  No  Increase  
POWER  CHANGES  
• Fuel  Flow  –  No  Increase  
 
 
• Power   changes   are   achieved   by   altering   the  
• Suggests  a  closed  HP  cock  
amount   of   fuel   injected   into   the   combustion  
• Shut  down  and  await  mx  action.  
chamber.  
• More   fuel   injected   leads   to   increase   in   turbine  
rpm.   NET  THRUST  
• Turbine  rpm  increase  causes  compressor  rpm  to   FUEL  DRAINS  
 
increase  and  more  air  is  accelerated.     Net  Thrust  =  Gross  Thrust   –  Ram  Drag  
• Located  at  the  lowest  point  within  the  chamber.  
• Normally  held  shut  by  combustion  pressure  
• Automatically  opens  when  compressor  stops  
• Take  approx.  30  seconds  to  drain  fuel  
 ENGINES  5  -­‐  TURBINES  

PURPOSE   IMPULSE  /  REACTION  TYPE  TURBINE   TURBINE  BLADE  COOLING  (1st  STAGE  HPT)  
     
• Converts   pressure   and   kinetic   energy   into   • Stators  =  Convergent   • Convection  –  Air  from  the  last  stage  of  the  HPC  
mechanical  energy  for  driving  the  compressor.   • Rotors  =  Convergent   passes  inside  the  blade  from  root  to  tip.  
• In  free  turbine  engines,  a  turbine  is  also  used  to   • Rotor  blades  are  now  twisted  from  root-­‐tip.   o Last   stage   is   used   as   the   temperature   is  
drive  a  reduction  gearbox.   o At  the  root  they  are  of  the  impulse  type   highest  =>  prevents  thermal  shock.  
o At  the  m id  section  they  are  50%  reaction   • Impingement   –  Air  passes  through  holes  in  the  
o At  the  tip  they  are  100%  reaction   leading  and  trailing  edges.  
STATORS  &  ROTORS  
  • Due  to  the  convergent  rotors,  there  is  a  less  of  a   • Film  –  Air  flows  around  edges  of  blade.  
velocity  drop  through  the  rotors.    
• A  turbine  stage  is  a  stator  followed  by  a  rotor.  
• Multiple  stages  can  be  used.   • Thermal   Barrier   Coating   –   Used   to   increase  
• The   stator   converts   pressure   to   kinetic  
  the   resistance   of   the   turbine   blade   to   the   high  
energy  and  directs  the  airflow.  
temperatures.  
• The   rotor   coverts   kinetic   to   mechanical  
 
energy.  
• These   methods   allow   blades   to   operate   in  
• The  stators   are   fixed   and   not   adjustable   like  
temperatures   exceeding   their   melting   point  
in  the  HPC.  
since   the   hot   air   is   prevented   from   contacting  
the  blade  surface  by  film  cooling  etc.  
 
IMPULSE  /  ACTION  TYPE  TURBINE                                                                    
  ROTOR  BLADE  FITTING  
• Stators  =  Convergent    
• Rotors  =  Uniform   • Fitted  with  a  loose  fit  to  prevent  sonic  fatigue.  
• Used   for   turbine   starter   motors  rather  than   the   • Fir  tree  connection  used.  
engine  itself.   • Blades   are   flexible   and   change   shape   slightly  
• Only  1  stage  is  used.   due  to  the  high  velocities.  
• Shrouding  is  used  to  prevent  tip  looses.  

TURBINE  BLADE  COOLING  (REST  OF  HPT)  

 
• Since   the   temperature   is   much   lower   in   the  
subsequent  stages  of  the  HPT,  only   convection  
cooling  is  utilised.  
• Air   is   now   extracted   from   an   earlier   stage  
within  the  HPC.  
 ENGINES  5  -­‐  TURBINES  

ACTIVE  CLEARANCE  CONTROL   BLADE  SPEED  &  TEMPERATURES                                                                      

   
• Turbine   casing   will   expand   quicker   than   the   • High   temperatures   in   the   turbine   increase   the  
blades  due  to  different  materials.   local   speed   of   sound.   It   is   therefore   possible  
• Cooling   the   turbine   casing   prevents   pressure   for   the   blades   to   rotate   at   speeds   higher   than  
looses  when  clearance  becomes  too  great.   330  m/s  but  remain  sub-­‐sonic.  
• Ultimately  improves  SFC.   • Blade   lengths   are   kept   as   short   as   possible   to  
• Not   utilised   to   full   extent   on   start   /   shut-­‐ reduce  the  rotational  tip  velocity.  
down  to  prevent  too  rapid  shrinking.  

BLADE  CREEP  
DIVERGING  ANNULUS    
  • Creep   is   the   elongation   of   the   blade   beyond  
• Larger  blades  requires  at  the  aft  stages  to  obtain   it’s  elastic  limit.  
maximum   mechanical   energy   from   the   • This  occurs  due  to  the  high   temperatures   and  
decreasing  pressures.     centrifugal  loads  they  are  subjected  to.  
• The  blade  is  removed  prior  to  the  tertiary  creep  
stage.  
MAX  TEMPERATURE  
• Exceeding   the   max   EGT   causes   the   stresses   to  
 
increase,   considerably   reducing   the   lifetime   of  
• The   maximum   temperature   the   turbine   can  
the  blades.  
handle  is  what  determines   the   thrust   limit   of  
the  engine.  
• Temperature  is  measured  by  thermocouples  
 
• On   startup,   internal   cooling   is   not   yet   effective  
since  pressure  is  not  sufficient  across  the  HPC.  
• EGT  must  be  carefully  monitored  on  start.  
• If  EGT  exceeds  the  limit,  start  should  b e  aborted  
and  the  recovery  time  noted.  
• FCOM  consulted  for  next  actions  (restart  /  mx)    
• Abradable   shroud   maintains   optimum  
clearance  as  the  blades  elongate  over  time.  
 ENGINES  5  –  EXHAUST  SYSTEM  

AIRCRAFT  STRUCTURE   CONVERGENT  EXHAUST  N OZZLE   NOISE  

   
• The  exhaust,  like  the  air  intake,  forms  part  of  the   • The  exhaust  nozzle  is  convergent  to  increase  
aircraft  structure.   velocity  of  the  air.   NOISE  
• The   highest   velocity   within   the   turbojet   occurs    
at  the  exhaust  nozzle.   • The  high  velocity  of  exhaust  air  impacts  ambient  
TURBO  JET  EXHAUST  SYSTEM   air  and  noise  is  generated.  

                                                                      CHOKED  NOZZLE  
  IGV  LOCATION  
EXHAUST  CONE   • The  air  will  attain  sonic   velocity  but  be  unable    
  to  increase  any  further  within  a  convergent  duct   • IGVs  were  moved   from   the   LPC   to   the   HPC  to  
• Exhaust   cone   +   support   struts   +   divergency   • In   cruise   conditions,   when   velocity   is   max,   a   reduce  noise.  
between   cone   and   casing   reduce   turbulence   choked  nozzle  will  occur.  
and  back-­‐flow.  
• This   creates   a   build   up   of   static  pressure   at   the  
  MIXING  OF  GAS  STREAMS  
exhaust   nozzle   and   the   pressure   differential  
• A   hole   on   the   exhaust    
between  exhaust  and  ambient  is  increased.  
cone   allows   air   for   • In   bypass   ratio   engines,   mixing   the   slow   cold  
bearing   sealing   to   enter   stream   with   the   fast   hot   stream   helps   to   slow  
the  exhaust.     the  exhaust  velocity  and  reduce  noise.  
  • Internal  mixing  is  better  than  external  m ixing  as  
the  mass  flow  is  increased  thus  improving  SFC.  
• One  method  of  internal  mixing  is  via  the  use  of  a  
corrugated  exhaust.  

 
• Total   trust   is   a   product   of   air   acceleration,   fuel  
acceleration  and  pressure  thrust  (PSJ  –  Pamb)  
• In   the   cruise,   pressure   thrust   results   from   a  
choked  nozzle  and  increases  the  total  thrust.  
 ENGINES  5  –  EXHAUST  SYSTEM  

ACOUSTIC  PANELS   PURPOSE                                                                          

   
• Tiny   holes  in   the   engine   nacelles  create   a   film   • Each  engine  has  it’s  own  AGB.  
of  air  that  acts  a  lubricant.   • The   AGB   is   driven   by   the   HPC   shaft   via   an  
• Air  flowing  through  the  engine  does  not  contact   internal  gearbox.  
the   surface   material,   therefore   reducing   impact   • Provides  power  for:  
noise.     o Hydraulic  Pumps  
o Pneumatic  Pumps  (Roots  Blower)  
o Electrical  Generators  
TURBO-­‐FAN  VS  TURBO-­‐JET  N OISE   o Fuel  Pumps  
  o Oil  Pumps  
• Turbo-­‐fan   imparts   a   small   acceleration   to   a   o Tachometers  
larger  m ass  of  air  thus  reducing  the  exit  velocity  
of  air.    
• Furthermore,   the   kinetic   energy   extracted   to   STARTER  MOTOR  
drive  the  fan  is  substantial  and  the  exit  velocity    
is  further  reduced.   • Starter  m otor  is  connected  to  the  AGB.  
• APU  is  started  via  28V  DC    
• Bleed   air   from   APU   is   provided   to   impulse  
type  turbine  within  the  starter  motor.  
ACCESSORY  GEARBOX   • Turbine  drives  the  HP  spool  for  engine  start.  

ADDITIONAL  AGB  
 
• A  second  AGB  can  also  be  powered  from  the  IPC  
on  some  engines.  

QUILL  DRIVE  
 
• Accessories  are  connected  to  the  AGB  via  a  quill  
drive  to  prevent  failure  of  the  whole  AGB.  
 ENGINES  6  –  OIL  SYSTEM  

OIL  SYSTEM  LAYOUT                                                                             FILTRATION   OIL  GULPING  

     
  • Primary   filtration   is   the   combined   scavenge   • It   is   usual   for   oil   quantity   indications   to  
  line  which  uses  a  fine  filter.   fluctuate.    
  • Secondary  filtration  is  after  the  pressure  pump   • QTY  will  decrease  with  increasing  RPM  
  and  is  a  coarse  filter.   • Low   oil   pressure   can   temporarily   illuminate   in  
o  Prevents  blockage  in  case  the  fine  filter  is   transient  accelerations  /  decelerations.  
by-­‐passed.    

OIL  MAKING  
BEARING  COMPARTMENTS    
  • An  abnormally  high  oil  QTY  can  be  indicative  of  
• EDPP  –  Engine  Driven  P ressure  Pump   • Bearings   are   contained   in   bearing   a  leak  within  the  fuel  /  oil  heat  exchanger.  
• EDSP  –  Engine  Driven  Scavenge  Pump   compartments.   • Fuel  enters  the  oil  return  lines.    
• MP  –  Magnetic  Plug   • Compartment  is  sealed  by  air  using  a  labyrinth  
• FCOC  –  Fuel  Cooled  Oil  Cooler   seal.  
• A  small  leakage  is  permitted.   BEARING  TYPES  
• CB  –  Centrifugal  Breather  
 
• Ball  Bearing  =  Radial  +  Axial  Loads  
OIL  CONSUMPTION   • Roller  Bearing  =  Radial  Loads  
 
• Synthetic  Oil  is  used  in  the  system.  
• Oil   consumption  is  lower  in  a  gas  turbine   as  oil  
does  not  enter  the  combustion  chamber.  
• Oil   is   used   for   lubrication   only   rather   than  
sealing  (air  does  the  sealing.)  

NOTES   CARBON  SEALING  

   
EDSP  >  EDPP  due  to  aeration.   • Carbon   seals   can   also   be   used   where   sealing   is  
• Centrifugal   breather   extracts   air   from   the   oil   provided  using  a  pressure  plate  and  springs.  
that   enters   whilst   in   the   bearing   compartment.   • No  leakage  is  allowed  with  this  method.  
Air  is  dumped  overboard.  
• Oil   temp   and   oil   pressure   lights   are  
connected  so  both  illuminate  at  the  same  time.  
 ENGINES  6  –  OIL  SYSTEM  

OIL  SYSTEM  LAYOUT                                                                               FILTRATION   OIL  GULPING  

     
  • Primary   filtration   is   the   combined   scavenge   • It   is   usual   for   oil   quantity   indications   to  
  line  which  uses  a  fine  filter.   fluctuate.    
  • Secondary  filtration  is  after  the  pressure  pump   • QTY  will  decrease  with  increasing  RPM  
  and  is  a  coarse  filter.   • Low   oil   pressure   can   temporarily   illuminate   in  
o  Prevents  blockage  in  case  the  fine  filter  is   transient  accelerations  /  decelerations.  
by-­‐passed.    

OIL  MAKING  
BEARING  COMPARTMENTS    
  • An  abnormally  high  oil  QTY  can  be  indicative  of  
• EDPP  –  Engine  Driven  P ressure  Pump   • Bearings   are   contained   in   bearing   a  leak  within  the  fuel  /  oil  heat  exchanger.  
• EDSP  –  Engine  Driven  Scavenge  Pump   compartments.   • Fuel  enters  the  oil  return  lines.    
• MP  –  Magnetic  Plug   • Compartment  is  sealed  by  air  using  a  labyrinth  
• FCOC  –  Fuel  Cooled  Oil  Cooler   seal.  
• A  small  leakage  is  permitted.   BEARING  TYPES  
• CB  –  Centrifugal  Breather  
 
• Ball  Bearing  =  Radial  +  Axial  Loads  
OIL  CONSUMPTION   • Roller  Bearing  =  Radial  Loads  
 
• Synthetic  Oil  is  used  in  the  system.  
• Oil   consumption  is  lower  in  a  gas  turbine  as   oil  
does  not  enter  the  combustion  chamber.  
• Oil   is   used   for   lubrication   only   rather   than  
sealing  (air  does  the  sealing.)  

NOTES   CARBON  SEALING  

   
EDSP  >  EDPP  due  to  aeration.   • Carbon   seals   can   also   be   used   where   sealing   is  
• Centrifugal   breather   extracts   air   from   the   oil   provided  using  a  pressure  plate  and  springs.  
that   enters   whilst   in   the   bearing   compartment.   • No  leakage  is  allowed  with  this  method.  
Air  is  dumped  overboard.  
• Oil   temp   and   oil   pressure   lights   are  
connected  so  both  illuminate  at  the  same  time.  
 ENGINES  7  –  INTERNAL  AIR  SYSTEM  

PURPOSE                                                                                
 
• Bleed  Air  (Customer  Services)  
• Internal  Air  Flows  
• Turbine  Blade  Cooling  
• Active  Clearance  Control  

ENGINE  OVERHEAT  
 
• If   the   EGT   drops   when   the   throttle   is   retarded,  
an  overheat  is  present.  
• If   the   EGT   remains   high   when   the   throttle   is  
retarded,  a  fire  is  likely  present.  
 ENGINES  8  &  9  –  FUEL  SYSTEM  

HYDRO-­‐MECHANICAL  FUEL  SYSTEM  (FCU)   ELECTRONIC  ENGINE  CONTROL  SYSTEM  (EEC)   OPERATION  
     
• The  HP  fuel  pump  output  depends  on  the  speed   • This   is   the   next   ‘step   up’   from   a   purely   hydro-­‐ • Position   of   throttle   lever   sets   the   desired  
of  rotation  and  swash  plate  angle.     mechanical  system.   EPR.  
• Swash   plate   angle   depends   on   the   servo   fuel   • A   supervisory   EEC   uses   a   computer   to   receive   • EPR   is   a   measure   of   the   mass   flow   through   the  
pressure   which   is   controlled   via   the   FCU   the   various   inputs   and   commands   the   hydro-­‐ engine  and  therefore  the  power  produced.  
(Fuel  Control  Unit)   mechanical  FCU  as  required.    
• Fuel   flow   is   measured   downstream   of   the   FCU   • The  biggest  advantage  of  the  supervisory  EEC  is   • The   FCU   works   out   based   on   all   it’s   inputs   the  
and  HP  cock.   limit  protection.   N1  Request.  
• Various   devices   within   the   FCU   adjust   the   fuel   • In  the  event  of  EEC  failure,  the  pilot  can  revert  to   • This   is   the   N1   speed   required   to   obtain   the  
flow   for   a   given   thrust   setting   in   response   to   hydro-­‐mechanical  control  at  any  time.   desired  EPR.  
changes  in:    
o CIT   • The   fuel   flow   is   altered   as   required   to   achieve  
o Ambient  Pressure   FADEC   the   N1   request   and   hence   the   set   EPR   (thrust  
o TAT   setting)  
o CDP                                                                                  
o etc   FADEC   N1  TARGET  
   
• FADEC  =  Full  Authority  Digital  Engine  Control   • The   FCU   computes   the   maximum   thrust  
• This  is  the  best  and  most  modern  system  in  use.   available  at  any  one  time.  
• The   hydro-­‐mechanical   FCU   is   no   longer   • This  is  known  as  the  N1  Target.  
required.  
PMA  
ENGINE  CONTROL  UNIT    
  • A  Permanent  Magnetic  Alternator  powers  the  
• Within   the   FADEC   system   is   an   ECU   (Engine   FADEC  system  and  is  separate  from  main  AC.  
Control  Unit).  
• Two  ECUs  (A  &  B)  are  installed  for  redundancy.  
• In  the  event  of  both  ECUs  failing,  the  FADEC  will  
revert  to  a  safe  condition  where:  
o Fuel  flow  to  minimum  
o VSVs  fully  open  
o Oil  cooler  wide  open  
o Active  Clearance  Control  Cut-­‐Off  
 ENGINES  10  -­‐  STARTING  

STARTING   START  SEQUENCE   HOT  START  

   
• Ignition  selected  to  either  A  /  B   • When  max  EGT  is  exceeded  
TYPES  OF  STARTERS   • Starter  switch  engaged  to  open  starter  valve   • Common  causes:  
  • Starter   amber   light   illuminates   (if   not   then   o Following  a  wet  start  
• Electrical  –  EG/  APU   shut  down)   o Low  air  pressure  to  air  starter  
• Starter  /  Generator  –  EG/  787   • At  approx  15%  N2  HP  fuel  cock  is  opened  which   o Strong   tailwind   causing   LPT   and   hence   the  
• Air  Turbine  Starter  –  Most  Common   also  activates  the  igniters   LPC   to   rotate   resulting   in   a   disturbed  
• Time  to  light  is  observed   airflow.  
• Engine   accelerates   to   self-­‐sustaining   RPM   o Early  opening  of  the  HP  fuel  cock  
AIR  TURBINE  STARTER   (approx.  35%  N2)  
  • At   approx.  45%  N2,   the   starter  and  ignition   are  
• A  source   of   pneumatic   air   is   required  to   drive   deactivated  and  the  start  light  should  go  out.   HUNG  START  
the  turbine  in  the  starter  motor.   • Starter   and  ignition   selected   to  off  once  ground    
• The  air  can  come  from:   idle  RPM  is  obtained.   • RPM   stagnates   below   self-­‐sustaining   rpm  
o APU   with  high  EGT  
o GPU   • Could  develop  into  a  hot  start  so  a  shutdown  is  
o Engine  Cross  Bleed   START  MALFUNCTIONS   required.  
 
• The   starter   will   disengage   when   the   N2   RPM   >  
Starter  Motor  RPM   MULTIPLE  START  ATTEMPTS   TORCHING  
   
• Max  of  3  start  attempts  usually  allowed   • Excessive  fuel  b urnt  in  jet  pipe  
IGNITION  SELECTOR   • A   cooling   off   period   is   required   between   each   • Usually  follows  a  wet  start  
  attempt  to  allow  the  starter  to  cool  down.   • Start  continued  to  burn  off  excess  fuel  
• Igniters  A  &  B  are  available  for  use.  
• Normally,   one  is  used  for  the   outbound  and   the   IN  FLIGHT  RESTART  
other  for  the  return  sector  to  m inimise  wear.   WET  START  
 
• An  override  is  provided  to  allow  for  use  of  both    
• If  airspeed  is  fast  enough,  windmilling  RPM  will  
igniters   for   in-­‐flight   restart   or   none   in   the   case   • Fuel  and  no  ignition  
be   sufficient   to   start   without   the   pneumatic  
of  a  blow  out  procedure.   • Fuel  flow  but  no  EGT  increase  
starter.  
 
                                                                                  • If   too   fast   however   flame  
DRY  START  
  extinction  can  occur.  
• Ignition  but  no  fuel    
• No  fuel  flow  or  EGT  increase   • Relight   envelope   should   be  
consulted.  
 ENGINES  11  –  REVERSE  THRUST  

                                                                                   
TURBO  JET  VS  TURBO  FAN   TURBO  P ROP  
   
• Turbo-­‐Jet  deflects  the  hot  exhaust  gases   • Plane  of  Rotation  00  -­‐>  Flight  Fine  180  =  Taxi  
• Turbo-­‐fan  deflects  the  cold  stream   • Flight  Fine  180  -­‐>  Flight  Coarse  450  =  Flight  RNG  
• Reverse  (-­‐ve)  -­‐>  Plane  of  Rotation  00  =  Reverse  
 
DELFECTION   • Flight  Range  =  Alpha  Range  
  o Prop  acts  as  a  CSP  
• It  is  not  possible  to  fully  reverse  the  airflow  due    
to  aerodynamic  constraints  but   typically   a   450   • Taxi  +  Reverse  =  Beta  Range  
deflection  is  achieved.   o Prop  acts  as  a  variable  pitch  propellor  
• Therefore,   the   effective   power   in   reverse    
thrust  is  proportionally  less  than  the  power  in   • Reverse  (-­‐ve)  -­‐>  Plane  of  Rotation  00  =  Reverse  
forward  thrust  for  the  same  throttle  angle.    

JET  ENGINE  CONTROLS  

DEFLECTION  METHODS  
 
 
• Amber   light   shows   whilst   in   transit   from  
• Clamshell  
stowed  to  deployed.  
o  Pneumatically  operated  
• Green   light   shows   when   blocker   doors   are  
• Bucket  
deployed  and  reverse  thrust  is  available.  
o Pneumatically  operated  
• Blocker  Doors  (Cold  Stream  Reverse)  
o Actuated  by  an  air  motor  
 
 ENGINES  12  –  GAS  TURBINE  OPS  

THRUST  SETTINGS   RPM  INDICATIONS                                                                                        

   
• Takeoff  Thrust  –  Max  thrust  from  engine.  Time   • N1  Spool  is   measured  at  the  LPC  by  means  of  a  
(5  min),  rpm  and  temperature  limited  to  reduce   pulse  generator.  
blade  creep.   • N2   Spool   is   measured   at   the   AGB   by   a  
• Go-­‐Around  Thrust  –  Normally  slightly  less  than   tachogenerator   (also   serves   as   PMA   for  
takeoff  thrust  but  can  be  the  same.   FADEC).  
• Max  Continuous  Thrust  –  Thrust  setting  can  be  
used  continuously.  
ENGINE  DISPLAYS  
• Max   Climb   Thrust   –   Max   Cont.   Thrust   giving  
 
the  best  climb  angle.  
• Primary  –  EPR,  N1  &  EGT  
• Max   Cruise   Thrust   –   Less   than   Max   Cont.  
Thrust  to  prolong  engine  life   • Secondary  –  N2,  N3  &  FF  

TURBOPROP  INDICATIONS  
FLAT  RATED  POWER    
  • N1  (LPC  +  LPT)  
• Allows   engines   to   achieve   a   constant   • N2  (Free  Turbine  =>  Prop)  
performance  in  non  standard  temperatures.   • EGT  
  • Torque  
• In   ISA   conditions,   the   power   of   the   engine   is  
‘held  back’.  
• With   increasing   temperatures,   fuel   flow   VIBRATION  INDICATIONS  
gradually  increases  to   maintain  a  constant  rated    
thrust.   • Measured  in  mills  (1  mill  =  0.001”)  
• Once  the  flat  rated  temperature  is  reached,  EGT  
limitations  prevent  further  increase  in  fuel  flow  
and  thrust  decreases.  
 ENGINES  13  –  PERFORMANCE  

THRUST  FORMULA   THRUST  &  ALTITUDE                                                                                        

   
𝑁𝑒𝑡  𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚  !𝑉! −   𝑉! ! +   𝐴!  (𝑃! − 𝑃!"# )   • Pressure   decreases   with   increasing   altitude,  
  which  causes  density  to  decrease.  
• m  =  Mass  flow  of  air   • Temperature  decreases  with  increasing  altitude  
• Vj  =  Exhaust  gas  velocity   which  causes  density  to  increase.  
• Vi  =  Inlet  gas  velocity   • Overall,  density  decreases  as  the  pressure  has  a  
• Aj  =  Area  of  jet  pipe   greater  effect  than  temperature  on  density.  
• Pj  =  Static  pressure  in  jet  nozzle   • Once   above   the   tropopause,   temperature   is  
• Pamb  =  Ambient  pressure   constant   so   no   longer   acts   against   density  
decreasing.  
 
NET  THRUST  VS  GROSS  THRUST    
 
• When  stationary  with  max  power,  Vi  is  zero  
=>  𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠  𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚  !𝑉! ! +   𝐴!  (𝑃! − 𝑃!"# )  
 
• When   the   aircraft   begins   to   move,   Vi   begins   to  
increase  and  thrust  is  reduced  due  to  ram  drag.  
• Net  Thrust  =  Gross  Thrust   –  Ram  Drag  

RESULTANT  THRUST  (VELOCITY  INCREASE)  

 
• Ram   Drag   causes  net  thrust  to  decrease  due  to  
the  increase  in  Vi  
• Ram  Rise  causes  net  thrust  to  increase  due:  
o Increase  in  mass  flow  (m)  
o Increase   in   inlet   pressure   which   with   the  
same   compression   ratio   causes   Pj   to  
increase  as  well.  
• Resultant  of  the  two  shows  that  thrust  remains  
nearly  constant  with  increase  in  velocity.    
 
 
 
 
 ENGINES  14  –  APU  

COMPRESSORS                                                                                          
 
• Single  Spool  
• 2  Centrifugal  Compressors  
o One  used  by  the  engine  
o One  used  for  APU  b leed  

AC  GENERATOR  
 
• Since  the  APU  runs  at  a  constant  RPM,   no  CSU  /  
IDG  is  required.  

VARYING  LOADS  
 
• Increased   loads   are   catered   for   by   the   FCU  
increasing  the  fuel  flow.  
• With   increased   loads,   RPM   increases   and   VSVs  
are  opened.  

FIRE  DETECTION  SYSTEM  

 
• Manning   of   flight   deck   not   required   whilst   the  
APU  is  in  operation.  
 
• APU  will  auto  shutdown  in  event  of  malfunction  
and   can   also   automatically   deploy   fire  
extinguisher.  
• Emergency  shut  off  button  installed  on  NLG  
 ENGINES  15  -­‐  PROPELLORS  

PROP  GOVERNOR   SINGLE  ACTING  P ROPELLOR   PITCH  LOCK  SOLENOID  

     
• The   balance   between   the   speeder   spring   • Used  in  new  systems   • Prevents   blade   angle   decreasing   below   flight  
(tension   set   by   prop   lever   position)   and   the   • The  CTM  is  balanced  by  a  counterweight   fine  pitch  whilst  in  flight.  
centrifugal   force   of   the   flyweights   is   used   to   • Oil   pressure   only   on   one   side   of   the   actuator.   • When  weight  on  wheels,  a  solenoid  removes  the  
govern  propeller  blade  angle.   The  other  side  includes  a  spring.   lock  and  beta  range  is  now  available.  
• On  Speed  =  Equilibrium   • Fine  Pitch  achieved  by:  
• Over  Speed  (RPM  too  high)   o High   oil   pressure   (overcome   spring   &  
o Blade   angle   increased   =>   more   drag   in   POR   counterweight)   PROPELLOR  BRAKE  
and  rpm  decreased  as  required   • Coarse  Pitch  achieved  by:    
• Under  Speed  (RPM  too  low)   o Spring  and  counterweight   • On   aircraft   with   large   propellers,   they   could  
o Blade   angle   decreased   =>   less   drag   in   POR     rotate  in  the  wrong  direction  when  feathered.  
and  rpm  increased  as  required   • The  natural  tendency  of  this  system  in  an  engine   • Prop  brake  holds  it  in  a  fixed  position.  
failure   is   to   turn   to   coarse   pitch   as   desired   due  
to  the  spring  force  and  counterweight.  
DOUBLE  ACTING  PROPELLOR   PROPELLOR  SYNC  
   
                                                                                         
• Used  in  old  systems   • Reduces   sonic   fatigue   and   enchances   pax  
FEATHERING  SYSTEMS   comfort  
• The  natural  tendency  of  the  centrifugal  turning  
  • The   governor   of   the   slave   engine   is   trimmed   to  
moment  is  to  decrease  the  blade  angle.  
• Manual  Feathering   achieve  the  same  rpm  as  the  master  engine.  
• Oil   pressure   is   delivered   to   both   sides   of   the  
o Used  in-­‐flight   • When   difference   is   greater   than   1%,   system   is  
actuator.  
o Achieved  by  use  of  the  prop  lever   deactivated   to   ensure   slave   does   not   follow  
• Fine  Pitch  achieved  by:  
• Auto  Feathering   master  in  event  of  engine  failure.  
o Reduced  oil  pressure  &  CTM  
o Used  for  takeoff  and  landing  
• Coarse  Pitch  achieved  by:   o Single   Acting   –   Dump   valve   opens   and  
o High  oil  pressure  to  overcome  CTM   bleeds   oil   pressure   when   torque   is   sensed  
  SYNCROPHASING  
to  be  too  low.  
• The  natural  tendency  of  this  system  in  an  engine    
o Double  Acting  –  Electric  feathering  pump  is  
failure  is  to  turn  to  fine  pitch  (due  to  CTM).   energised   • Further   refinement   once   props   are   in   sync   by  
• An  electric   feathering   pump   ensures  the  CTM   achieving   the   optimal   phase   difference  
is  overcome  and  the  prop  is  set  to  the  feathered   between  left  and  right  propellors.  
position  in  event  of  engine  failure.  
 ENGINES  15  -­‐  PROPELLORS  

REDUCTION  GEARING                                                                                              
 
• Reduces   drive   speed   to   ensure   the   top   of   the  
prop  does  not  exceed  the  local  speed  of  sound.  

TORQUE  MEASUREMENTS  
 
• Electronic  Measurement  
o  Twist   of   shaft   is   proportional   to   the   torque  
produced  by  the  engine.  
• Mechanical  Measurement  
o  Small   axial   movement   of   reduction   gearbox  
causes   oil   pressure   to   change   and   indicate  
torque.  
 
• Torque   measurements   are   used   to   feed   the  
autofeather  and  autoignition  system  logic.  
 ENGINE  INSTRUMENTS  

PRESSURE  SENSING   RATIOMETER   FUEL  FLOW  MEASUREMENT  

 
• Based  on  the  predictable  change  in  the  electrical  
PRESSURE  MEASUREMENT   resistivity  of  materials.   PADDLE  WHEEL  
  • Utilises  a  wheatstone  b ridge  principle.    
• Aneroid  –  Low  Pressure  Measurements   • Below   6000C   they   provide   better   accuracy   than   • Paddle   wheel   is   placed   in   the   fuel   flow   and   the  
o Manifold  Pressure   thermocouples.   number  of  impulses  generated  is  measured.  
o Fuel  Booster  Pump   • Their   main   advantage   is   they   are   independent   • Volumetric  flow  is  normally  measured.  
o Air  Intake   of  the  supply  voltage.   • Mass   flow   can   be   measured   on   more   advance  
• Bellows  –  Medium  Pressure  Measurements   systems  by  taking  density  into  account.  
• Bourdon  –  High  Pressure  Measurements  
FUEL  QUANTITY  SENSING  

TACHOMETER  
TEMPERATURE  SENSING  
FLOAT  TYPE  
 
• Simplest  Design   MECHANICAL  TACHOMETER  
BI-­‐METALLIC  THERMOMETER  
• Measures  volume    
 
• Requires  DC  Power   • On  the  end  of  the  input  shaft  from  the  engine,  a  
• Based  on  the  different   coefficient  of  expansion  
• Affected   by   attitude,   acceleration   and   permanent   magnet   is   housed   within   a   non-­‐
between  two  materials.  
temperature  however.   magnetic  drag  cup.  
• Pressure   does   not   affect   volume   since   fuel   is   • As   the   magnetic   rotates,   a   magnetic   torque  
THERMOCOUPLES   incompressible.   causes  the  drag  cup  to  rotate.  
  • Drag   cup   is   connected   to   a   flexible   drive   shaft  
• Two  dissimilar  metals  are  joined  together.   that  attached  to  the  RPM  indicator.  
CAPACITANCE  TYPE  
• There  is  a  cold  end  and  hot  end.     • Compensation   device   typically   adjusts   for  
• With  a  change  in  temperature  at  the  hot  end,  an   variations  in  temperature.  
• Measures  mass  
EMF  is  induced  
• Requires  AC  Power  
• The   EMF   is   measured   at   the   cold   end   which   • The  capacitance  of  the  fuel  and  air  in  the  tank  is  
stays  at  a  constant  temperature.  
measured.  
• No  power  source  is  required  except  for  internal   • Fuel   has   a   dielectric   strength   more   than   twice  
gauge  lighting.  
         x        T                                                                                   than   that   of   air   so   the   capacitance   is  
• E  =  K proportional  to  the  fuel  level.  
• Temperate   compensation   achieved   by  
measuring  density.  
• Capacitance  =  EA/D  
• Measured  in  Farads  
 ENGINE  INSTRUMENTS  

ELECTRICAL  TACHO-­‐GENERATOR   ELECTRONIC  IMPULSE  COUNTING                                                                                                      

   
• Input  shaft  drives  a  3  Phase  AC  Generator   • No  connection  to  the  input  shaft  
• Frequency   of   the   AC   current   is   proportional   to   • A   phonic   wheel   /   fan   blade   rotates   above   a  
the  RPM.   permanent  magnet  sensor.  
• AC  current  is  fed  to  an  AC   motor  which  turns  a   • A   magnetic   flux   is   induced   which   generates  
permanent  m agnet.   square  pulse  signals.  
• Principle   is   now   the   same   as   the   mechanical   • Frequency  of  signals  is  proportional  to  rpm  
tachometer  from  this  point  onwards.   • AC  power  supply  required  

VIBRATION  MONITORING  

VIBRATION  MONITORING  
 
• Operates  similar  to  an  accelerometer  
• A  permanent  magnet  remains  fixed  and  a  coil  is  
attached  to  the  interior  casing.  
  • Vibration  of  the  coil  induces  an  EMF  
• Single  phase  AC  can  be  used  instead  of  3  phase   • Voltage   is   amplified   then   rectified   to   filter  
• DC  can  also  be  used  instead  of  AC   unwanted  frequencies  
o Simpler  transmission  of  information   • Indication  is  displayed  in  cockpit  in  the  form  of  a  
o Spurious   currents   possible   due   to   direct  continuous  readout  
commutator  installation   • Vibration   amplitude   at   a   given   frequency   is  
  indication.  
• System  Advantages  
o Independent  of  aircraft  electrical  system  
o Independent   of   line   resistance   when   3  
phase  AC  is  used  
o Multiple  indicators  can  be  used  in  the  same  
unit