Christian Initiation: From Baptism to Multiple Sacraments

ON CHRISTIAN INITIATION
On Christian Initiation
James McDonald, M.A. (Oxon.), MSc. (Sussex)
24th February, 2018
Dissertation submitted in partial requirement

for the degree of Master of Arts in Church History
at the University of Nottingham.
Page 1 of 55 On Christian Initiation - Final.Docx 27 July 2018

Table of Contents
Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... 3
Abstract ............................................................................................................................. 4
Initiation in the First Century ........................................................................................... 5
Baptism by Water ......................................................................................................... 5
Baptism by Fire and the Holy Spirit ............................................................................. 6
Baptism by the Laying on of Hands ............................................................................. 6
Which is the real Baptism? ........................................................................................... 7
Initiation from the Second Century .................................................................................. 8
Baptism with Chrism .................................................................................................... 8
Significance of Baptism .............................................................................................. 10
Baptism In Whose Name? .......................................................................................... 24
Who can be Baptised? ................................................................................................. 24
Who can baptise? ........................................................................................................ 27
When? ......................................................................................................................... 28
Initiation from the Fourth Century ................................................................................. 29
The Baptism Ceremony .............................................................................................. 29
Chrismation/Confirmation .......................................................................................... 31
Extreme Unction / Euchelaion .................................................................................... 32
Priestly Initiation......................................................................................................... 32
Monastic Initiation ...................................................................................................... 33
Modern Christian Initiation. ....................................................................................... 34
Echoes in Catharism ....................................................................................................... 36
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 42
Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 45
Primary Sources .......................................................................................................... 45
Secondary Sources ...................................................................................................... 48

Abbreviations
BGui Bernard Gui, Practica inquisitionis heretice pravitatis, 1323-4, Part V,
Chapter1. English translations from “The Conduct of the Inquisition of
Heretical Depravity”, Section 55 in HotHMA, (pp.375-386).
CCC Catechism of the Catholic Church for the United States of America, New
York, United States Catholic Conference, Inc., 1997,
www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/~INDEX.HTM, retrieved 15th December,
2017.
Gosp.Thom. The Gospel of Thomas, NHL, II,2.
Gosp.Phil. The Gospel of Philip, NHL, II,3.
HotHMA Walter L. Wakefield & Austin P. Evans, Heresies of the High Middle Ages,
New York: Columbia University Press, 1991.
NHL Nag Hammadi Library, English translations from The Nag Hammadi
Library in English, Ed. James M. Robinson, 3rd Edition, San Francisco:
Harper, 1990.
LR The “Lyons Ritual”, MS. Bibliothèque municipale de Lyon, PA 36,

(formerly A.I.54), 235v-241v. Numbering follows Marvyn Roy Harris,
Cathar Ritual, http://www.rialto.unina.it/prorel/CatharRitual/CathRit.htm
accessed 2nd February, 2018.
PL J.-P. Migne, ed., Patrologiae latinae cursus completus, 221 vols. (Paris,
1844–1864)
PG J.-P. Migne, ed., Patrologia graeca cursus completus, 161 vols. (Paris,
1857–1866).
RCIA Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults, English version of the Ordo

Initiationis Christianae Adultorum (OICA) promulgated by Pope Paul VI
in 1972.
TCE The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the

Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church.
(15 vols.) New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907-1912.

Abstract
Baptism, the primary rite of Christian initiation, was once the only form of Christian
initiation. This dissertation assesses baptismal theory and practice, and how key elements
of early baptism have been repurposed in the creation of other initiatory rites and
ceremonies.
Baptismal practices evolved rapidly over the first three centuries so it is not always easy
to reconstruct early practice. This dissertation concentrates on some of the less
well-known aspects of baptism. Since the focus is the practice of early Christians, source
information is drawn from early writers representing communities who followed Jesus,
however they later came to be seen (“orthodox”, “Jewish-Christian”, “gnostic”, “dualist”,
“docetic”, “heretical”) and however their writings later came to be categorised
(“canonical”, “parabiblical”, “apocryphal”, “deuteronymous”, “pseudepigraphical”).
Some early practices are poorly witnessed, and it is possible that some are not witnessed
at all. Circumstantial evidence for them might be found in practices that are common
across later traditions – not only Orthodox and Catholic, but Armenian, Coptic, Nestorian,
and others that came to be regarded as heretical; and even those of non-Christian groups
that shared common origins.
This dissertation traces the development and fragmentation of baptism into at least four
“Mysteries” or “Sacraments”, as well as other rites of sanctification within normative
Churches. It also assesses the possible survival of early baptismal practices in one
Christian group into the Middle Ages.
Baptism by Blood and Baptism by Desire are not included in the scope. Neither is the
topic of Jesus’ own baptism, nor the Eucharist, although it is considered a “sacrament of
initiation” by the Catholic Church. For ease of exposition, examples of normative practice
from the second millennium onwards are taken from Roman Catholic sources except
where they differ from Orthodox and other long-established traditions and so cannot be
taken as representative.

Initiation in the First Century

Early Christian baptism was evidently based on two forms of initiation, both described in
the New Testament. The first was baptism by immersion in water; the second, baptism by
fire and the Holy Spirit.
Baptism by Water
In the earliest surviving accounts, the principle element of Christian baptism was total
submersion in water1. Christian baptismal practices were explicitly based on the those of
John the Baptist, which evidently constituted a perfecting act for Judaean ascetics 2.
Accounts of Christian water-baptism are given in the Didache and in all four canonical
gospels3. Christian baptism was apparently based on the Hebrew practice known as
Tvilah, a purification ritual involving total immersion in cold running water (“living
water”)4. This ritual was and still is required for conversion to Judaism5. The verb to
baptise (βαπτίζω) meaning to dip, dunk, plunge, submerge, drown or sink, often with a
suggestion of repeated action, was also used to denote purification through ritual
washing6. Pagan purification rituals involving water were known throughout the ancient
world, including the eastern Mediterranean7. For some, the rite was a mystery (μυστήριον)
which featured fasting; confession and forgiveness of sins; secret instruction; initiation in
an inner sanctuary; washing in or sprinkling with purifying water; illumination;
transformation; changing clothes; carrying torches; figurative death and rebirth; and
salvation, providing an after-life available through a god’s death and resurrection8 – all of
which would later feature in Christian baptism. Initiation permitted admission to a
ceremonial feast in some traditions, including at least two other Judaean religious groups9.
1 Baptizands consistently “go down into” (κατεβαίνω) and “come up from” (ἀναβαίνω) the water, as in
Acts_8:38.
2 Josephus, Antiquities, 18.5.2. Cf._Eusebius of Caesarea,_Ecclesiastical_History,_1.11.
3 Didache 7.1-3, Mark_1:4-11, Matthew_3:1-17; Luke_3:15-22 and John_1:24-34. Cf._Titus_3:5.
4 ‫ בְּ מַ יִ ם חַ יִ ים‬as in Leviticus_15:13.
5 Babylonian Talmud, bYevamoth 47b.
6 Mark_7:4_&_Luke_11:38.
7 For example, the practices of Greek καθαρταί, Mithraean Taurobolium (a “baptism” of bull’s blood),
and Syrian Maioumas rites.
8 All these for example feature in the mysteries of Isis and Osiris. See Apuleius, Metamorphoses, 11.
9 Josephus, Jewish_Wars 2.129, referring to Essenes. The other group are Mandaeans, assuming the
traditional view that they originated in the Jordan Valley.

Mandaean baptismal practice in particular shares features with early Christianities. The
Mandaean maşbūtā involved triple-immersion in “living water”. It was associated with
John the Baptist and radiant light; signing the initiates’ foreheads; touching their heads;
having them don a robe, crown and girdle; and proceeding afterwards to a shared sacred
meal10.
Baptism by Fire and the Holy Spirit

Two baptismal themes are introduced in accounts of the baptism of Jesus: adoption by
the Father and epiclesis. The wording of the gospels suggests that, at his baptism, Jesus
was being adopted as a son of God in the same way that Israelite kings and priests had
been adopted by God11. All four canonical gospels assert that at Jesus’ baptism with
water, John the Baptist stated that one would come after him who would baptise with the
Holy Spirit (according to Mark and John), or with the Holy Spirit and fire (according to
Matthew and Luke)12. At John_1:33 this one is identified as Jesus, although no further
mention is made of Jesus baptising with either the Holy Spirit or with fire during his
lifetime. After his resurrection, according to Acts_1:4-5, he told his followers that they
would be baptised with the Holy Spirit13. This happened at Pentecost, when the Holy
Spirit reportedly descended along with (or in the likeness of) tongues of flame upon 120
disciples14, who were then sent out to preach the word and to baptise others.
Baptism by the Laying on of Hands

Something like the laying on of hands, semikhah (‫)סמיכה‬, was practiced by the Hebrews
in ancient times to pass on a blessing, an inheritance, or authority15. Moses used it in
appointing Aaron and his sons to the office of priesthood (Leviticus_8:12-13), and again
for 70 elders (Numbers 11:16–25). In the New Testament, the laying on of hands is used
10 Examples taken from Anders Hultgård, “The Mandean Water Ritual in Late Antiquity”, in David
Hellholm, et_al, (eds), Ablution, Initiation, and Baptism in Late Antiquity, Early Judaism, and Early
Christianity, 3rd Ed. (Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter, 2010), pp _68-94.
11 Mark_1:10-11, Matthew_3:16-17, Luke_3:21-22, Cf._John_1:32-34. John Hick discusses the question
of adoption in “Jesus and the World Religions”, John Hick (Ed), The Myth of God Incarnate (SCM
Press, 1977), pp.174-5_&_p.184.
12 Mark_1:4-11; John_1:24-34; Matthew_3:1-17; Luke_3:15-22.
13 Acts_1:4-5, Cf._Matthew_28:16-19 (and Mark_16:15-18 in some late manuscripts). Cf._1_Corinthians
12:13.
14 Acts_2.
15 Genesis_48:14 and Numbers_27:18,_23.

by Jesus to restore health to the sick and life to the dead16. Otherwise, the practice appears
without introduction or explanation, associated with baptism17, reception of the Holy
Spirit18, and spiritual powers19. Although the texts do not say so explicitly, it is apparent
that the laying on of hands represented the second baptism of which John and Jesus had
spoken20. According to the gospel attributed to John, Jesus claimed that the Holy Spirit
will dwell within those who keep his commandments. The Holy Spirit is here called a
paraclete21 rendered variously in English as Advocate, Consoler, Comforter or Helper.
The laying on of hands invokes the Holy Spirit (Acts_8:17), “comforting” or “consoling”
the initiate22.
Which is the real Baptism?

The relationship between baptism with water and baptism with the Holy Spirit is not
obvious. Both were believed to call down the Holy Spirit, and both bestowed perfection23.
From surviving texts, it is not clear whether water alone, or laying on of hands alone,
could ever be fully efficacious. Baptism with water is associated with repentance,
purification and the remission of sins, but water alone administered in the name of Jesus
did not apparently convey the Holy Spirit24. The Holy Spirit sometimes descended before
water baptism25, though its descent normally coincided with the laying on of hands after
the water baptism. The author of the John gospel asserts that both elements of baptism
are necessary for salvation26.
16 (Health) Mark_6:5; Luke_4:40,_13:11-13; 6:19; Cf._healing by touch, Mark_1:40-44,_7:32, 8:22-25;

Matthew 8:1-4,_8:14-15,_20:32-34; Luke_5:12-14,_22:50-51. (Life) Matthew_9:18-26.
17 Acts_8:17,_19:6; Cf._Acts_6:6_&_13:3; 1_Timothy_4:14.
18 Acts_8:14-19,_9:10-18,_9:12-17,_19.6. Cf._1_Timothy_4:14; 2_Timothy_1:6-7.
19 Acts 9:10-18,_19:6,_28:8-9;_1_Timothy_4:14; 2_Timothy_1:6. Cf. Mark_16:17-18; Acts_5:12, 6:1-6,
13:1-3,_14:3.
20 Mark_1:8;_Matthew_3:11;_Luke_3:16;_John_1:26-33;_Acts_1:5. Cf._Acts_11: 15-17_&_19:1-6.
21 Παράκλητον, John 14:16 (cf 1_John_2:1); παράκλητος, John_14:26, 15:26, and 16:7.
22 In the New Testament, the word παρακαλέω is conventionally translated by the verbs “console”,
“comfort” or “encourage”, though in some cases the word may be intended to denote baptism, for
example, Acts_16:40; Colossians_2:2_&_4.8.
23 For Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on Joel, 32, confirmation signified the ‘perfecting’ (τελείωσις)
of those who had been justified in baptism. Other writers continue to associate perfection with
baptism: Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechetical Lectures, 14.25; Macarius of Jerusalem, Letter to the
Armenians; Augustine of Hippo, On Baptism Against the Donatists, 4.29.
24 Acts_8:12-19_&_8:14-19; Cf._19:1-7.
25 Acts_10:44-48. Also, Paul’s baptism at Acts_2:17-19.
26 John_3:5.

Initiation from the Second Century

By the second century, Christian baptismal practice had evidently evolved, though details
remain unclear. Paul Bradshaw has dedicated one part of a three-part book to
reconstructing early baptismal practice27. Our earliest reports of baptism after the first
century broadly agree with the information we have from the gospels and the Didache,
and provide additional detail. They date from the late second century. Tertullian allowed
for varying approaches to baptism28, extending the flexibility permitted in the Didache
7.1-3, though immersion was still the norm29. He also mentioned the laying on of hands
or “imposition of hands” as part of baptism30. In the third century, Cyprian of Carthage
affirmed that the amount of water was inconsequential and defended immersion, affusion,
and aspersion practices31. Some groups rejected the use of water altogether32.
Baptism with Chrism

None of our earliest sources mentions oil in relation to Christian initiation. Bradshaw
notes that some sources (such as the Didache and Justin Martyr’s First Apology) seem to
preclude the possibility that these omissions could be accidental33.
Hebrew followers of Jesus would have been aware that anointing oil had been used in the
consecration of priests, kings and prophets34. For kings, the unction conferred ru’ah ( ַ‫רּוח‬
“the Spirit of the Lord”)35. Through it, an anointed king absorbed divine attributes36. For
the Hebrews, an “anointed one” was a Mashiaẖ or Messiah37, translated into Greek as
Χρίστος. Association of Jesus of Nazareth with Israelite prophesies of an "anointed one"
27 Part_2 of Paul F Bradshaw. Reconstructing Early Christian Worship. (London: SPCK, 2009).
28 Tertullian, Of the Soldier's Crown, 3.
29 Tertullian, On_Baptism, 7.
30 Ibid. 6,_7_ff.
31 Cyprian_of_Carthage, Letter_75.12.
32 Opposition to water-baptism is evident in The Paraphrase of Shem 30.20-27_(NHL_VII.1_p.354);
Testimony of Truth 30.19-31.5, (NHL_IX,3_p.450); and P._Oxyrhynchus 840; Irenaeus, Against
Heresies, 1.21.3–4. Cf._The Apocalypse of Adam, 84.4-85.32. (NHL_V.5_p.286).
33 Bradshaw, Christian_Worship, p.85.
34 Priests_&_High Priests: Exodus 29:7_&_Leviticus_4:3. Kings: 1_Samuel_10:1 (even foreign kings:
I_Kings_19:15; Isaiah_45:1; Cf._II_Kings_8:7). Prophets (1_Kings_19:16;_Isaiah_61:1; 1_Chronicles
16:22; Psalms_105:15).
35 Specifically his support (I_Samuel_16:13–14;_18:12), strength (Psalms_89:21–25), and wisdom
(Isaiah_11:1–4).
36 “Anointing”, Encyclopedia Judaica, accessed 1 January, 2018.
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/anointing
37 Leviticus_4:3-5;_4:16_&_6:20; Psalm_132:10, Daniel_7:13_&_9:25-26.

is explicit in the New Testament38. If Jesus could be thought to have been anointed by the
Holy Spirit at his baptism, then perhaps Christian initiates could be thought to have been
anointed by the Holy Spirit at theirs, and it would be a small step to symbolise this using
the anointing oil of kings and priests from the Old Covenant. Additional resonances may
have been significant. For example, Hebrews used anointing oil for purification, the
manumission of slaves, marking an elevation in status, preparation for marriage, and
making covenants39, all of which had echoes in Christian baptism.
When anointing was added to Christian baptism is not at all clear, but it is not evidenced
before the second half of the second century. That it was a post-apostolic innovation is
supported by the fact that it seems to have appeared in different Christian communities in
different places at different times, was carried out in different ways and at different stages
of the baptismal rite, and had different significance attributed to it by different writers40.
Earliest mentions of anointing associated with baptism seem to cluster around intellectual
Christian groups later regarded as gnostic41. Baptismal chrismations are described
throughout the Acts of (Judas)Thomas, a work probably dating from the early third
century42. Here, anointing marks the beginning of the baptism ceremony and is essential
to becoming “Christian”. God knows his children by his seal, which is received through
the chrism43. The Gospel of Philip from around the same period asserts that
The chrism is superior to baptism, for it is from the word "Chrism" that
we have been called "Christians," certainly not because of the word
"baptism". And it is because of the chrism that "the Christ" has his name44.
38 John_1:41; Acts_9:22,_17:2-3,_18:5,_18:28.
39 “Anointing”, Encyclopedia Judaica, accessed 1_January, 2018.
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/anointing
40 My conclusion from the evidence presented in Bradshaw, “Varieties of Anointing” in Christian
Worship, pp.85-100.
41 For example Irenaeus, Against Heresies,_1.21.4 and Epiphanius, Medicine_Chest, 34,20,7-8, both
mention baptismal anointing in connection with Marcosians. Baptismal anointing also features in
several works in the NHL including some thought to have originated in the second century.
42 Acts of (Judas)Thomas, 27, 132, 157. Cf._The Gospel of Truth, 37.19-20. (NHL I.3/ XII.2,_p.48).
43 Acts of (Judas)Thomas, 26-7.
44 Gosp.Phil._74.11-16_(NHL_p.153).

Alastair Logan has suggested that gnostics could also have been the first to introduce
post-baptismal chrismation45. Anointing might originally have marked a higher form of
baptism (or “redemption”) reserved for spiritual (πνευματικῇ) Christians46, and
administered after baptism with water, the lesser form of baptism also available to more
worldly psychic (ψυχικός) Christians47. Hints that Christians might be anointed with oil
occur in proto-orthodox texts, but none links it unambiguously with Christian baptism
before Tertullian48. From Tertullian onwards, baptismal chrismation was explicitly
associated with the ancient anointing of Hebrew priests and kings49.
By the fourth century, mention of baptismal anointing had become common. Cyril of
Jerusalem detailed how ointment or oil was applied to the forehead and the organs of
sense50. He echoed the Gospel of Philip in discussing the significance of the words chrism,
Christ and Christian51. Chrism could be seen as conferring baptism by fire, since some
thought that there was fire in Chrism, or that fire was Chrism52. In the sixth century,
Arians were being reconciled to the Großkirche by the imposition of hands in the West,
but by the application of holy chrism in the East53.
Significance of Baptism
No known first-century text suggests that the concept of a sacrament existed in early
Christianities, though initiation through baptism was clearly central to followers of Jesus.
Doctrine concerning baptism evolved during the poorly-documented second century. By
the third, Christian communities comprised two distinct classes, an elite inner-circle of
baptised Christians, and a larger outer-circle of believers, not yet baptised, who would
45 Alastair Logan, “The Mystery of the Five Seals: Gnostic Initiation Reconsidered” in Vigiliae
Christianae Vol._51, No.2, (May,_1997),_pp.188-206. (p.190).
46 As seems to have been the case for Marcosians, according to Irenaeus, Against_Heresies, 1.21.2-4.
Cf. Epiphanius, Medicine_Chest, 34.20.7-8.
47 Irenaeus, Against_Heresies 1.21.1 (referring to Marcosians). See, Gaye Strathearn, “The Valentinian
Bridal Chamber in the Gospel of Philip,” in Studies in the Bible and Antiquity, vol.1 (2009), 81–103.
Cf._Origen, Homilies_on_Luke 22.27.
48 Tertullian, On_Baptism, 7. Cf. 1_John_2:20_&_2:27; Theophilus of Antioch, Letter to Autolycus, 1.12.
49 Tertullian, On_Baptism, 7; Teaching of the Apostles 16.3.12. Cf._Hippolytus, Commentary on the
Song of Songs 2:19-21; Ephrem the Syrian, Hymns For the Feast of the Epiphany, 14.27; Augustine,
Exposition on the Psalms, 45.17_&_105.9.
50 Cyril of Jerusalem, Mystagogical_Cathecheses, 3.4.
51 Ibid. 3.5.
52 Gosp.Phil._28_&_71. Ephrem the Syrian, Hymns on Faith, 40.10; Cf._Justin_Martyr, Dialogue with
Trypho, 88.
53 Gregory the Great, Letter_11.68, to Quiricus et_al.

hope to undergo baptism in later life54. Only members of the inner-circle were properly
Christians. Ordinary believers were hearers55. Clinical baptism was offered freely to
those thought to be about to die. Others who wanted to join the spiritual elite were
required to undergo a period of rigorous training, asceticism and scrutiny56. Not all
catechumens completed this period successfully. Those who did were permitted to pass
through the rite of passage of baptism, qualifying them to attend and participate in
characteristic Christian activities such as communal meals, the baptism of others,
exchanging kisses, and the recitation of certain prayers57.
Baptism, specifically water-baptism, entailed the washing away of sin, leaving the
neophyte clean and pure (καθαρός), an idea possibly inherited from John’s baptism58. As
circumcision represented initiation for the Hebrews as the People of God under the Old
Covenant, so baptism represented initiation for Christians as the People of God under the
New Covenant59. The significance of baptism could be extended by reference to types in
Hebrew scripture. Significance was found in any Hebrew story that featured water, for
example Noah’s flood60 and Moses parting the Red Sea61. According to St-Paul, Baptism
entails in some way death (through crucifixion), burial, resurrection or rebirth, and a “new
life”62: The old sinful person was dead. The new one was a neonate, innocent, pure, free
of sin, justified, and able to look forward to the resurrection of the body63. For Justin
Martyr, baptism was the gateway to salvation, an initiation as in mystery religions64. The
54 St-Augustine’s own baptism was postponed to minimise the risk of post-baptismal sin (Confessions,
1.17). Cf._Tertullian, On_Baptism, 18.5.
55 Origen, Against_Celsus, 3.5; Augustine. On the Catechising of the Uninstructed 10_&_15. The term
“hearer” was also applied to those who had fallen into sin and were seeking reconciliation, First
Council of Nicaea, Canon 11,_12_&_14 & Basil_of_Caesarea, Letters, 217, passim.
56 Other differences between ordinary and clinical baptism are described in John Chrysostom,
Instructions to Catechumens, 1.1.
57 Pseudo-Dionysius, Ecclesiastical_Hierarchy, 2.1.1;_3.2;_3.3.6; 4.2;_7.2;_7.3.3; Basil_of_Caesarea,
On the Holy Spirit , 27.66. (PG_32,132). Cf. Apostolic Tradition 18.1,_19.1, 27.1,_41.11; Apostolic
Constitutions, 21.25.
58 It certainly was according to Origen, Against_Celsus, 1.47, citing (or mis-citing) Josephus, Jewish
Antiquities, 18.
59 Colossians_2:9-12; Aphrahat, Demonstrations 11.11; Hilary of Poitiers, On_the_Trinity, 9:9.
Chrysostom, Instructions to Catechumens 1.2. Cf._Augustine, On Baptism against the Donatists, 4:32.
60 1_Peter_3:20-21.
61 1_Corinthians_10:2; Cf._Exodus_13:22_&_Numbers_35:8.
62 Romans_6:2-7; Colossians_2:12
63 1_Corinthians_12: 29.
64 Justin_Martyr, Trypho, 8.

theme of baptismal death and rebirth was popular among patristic writers65. One analogy
for the figurative death and rebirth was the putting off of an old garment and the putting
on of a new one. Taking off one set of clothes before baptism and putting on a white robe
after baptism provided a material analogy for the change of spiritual clothing for the soul.
In some sense, the soul put off the “old man” and put on Jesus Christ66. Baptism entailed
a transformation or regeneration67. The new Christian’s radical new lifestyle was based
on that of the 120 disciples and the 3,000 or so others baptised at Pentecost68, who devoted
themselves to the apostles’ teaching and to fellowship69. The Didache suggests that the
initiated were expected to earn their keep through manual labour70.
Enrolment into the Christian community is implicit in Baptism. Baptism makes a person
a member of a select group that can be likened to the organ of a body71. 1_Peter spells out
information about this community. It is a chosen race, a royal priesthood, and a holy
nation, whose members constitute “God's people”72. The Hebrew word for “chosen” or
“elect”, ‫בָּ חּור‬, was applied to the whole Jewish community73. Like other Jewish concepts
of late antiquity, this one was carried over by Jewish followers of Jesus to Christianities
as they emerged as distinct groups within Judaism. The term Elect (ἐκλεκτός) was applied
both to Jesus74 and to his followers.. As Jesus was chosen by God at his baptism and
became Christ, so believers were chosen by God at theirs, and became Christians. They
were referred to explicitly as the chosen people or the Elect of God75, and identified with
65 For example, Cyril of Jerusalem, Mystagogical_Catecheses, 2.6; On the Mystery of Baptism, passim;
Chrysostom, Homily 25 on John, 25.2.
66 Galatians 3:26-29.
67 For example, Clement of Alexandria, Instructor 1.6. Cf._Excerpts from Theodotus, 77; Cyril of
Alexandria, Commentary on John 10.2.7-13.
68 Acts_1:14-15;_2.1-42.
69 Acts_2:42-47. Cf._Mark_6:7-13, Matthew_10:5-42,_28:19; Luke_9:1-6,_10:1-5.
70 Didache_4.6.
71 1_Corinthians_12:12-14.
72 1_Peter_2:9-10.
73 The idea of divine choice or election features throughout Deuteronomy, Isaiah 40-66;_65:9, 15 and
23, and Psalms_104:6;_104.43_&_105:5. It also appears in Tobit 13:10, Wisdom 3:9_&_4:15, and
Sirach 24:4,_13_&_46:2.
74 Luke_9:35_&_23:35, Cf._John_1:34. See Bart D._Ehrman. The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture: The
Effect of Early Christological Controversies on the Text of the New Testament. (New_York and
Oxford:_Oxford_University_Press, 1993), p.22_&_p.67.
75 Matthew_20:16,_22:14,_24:22,_24.24,_24.31; Mark_13:20,_22,_27; Luke_18:7; Romans_8:33, 16:13,
11:5-7,_ 28,_29:30; 1_Thessalonians_1:4.; Colossians_3:12; Ephesians_4:17; Titus_1:1-2;
2_Timothy_2:10; Titus_1:1, 1_Peter_1:2,_2:4;_2:6;_2:9; 2_John_1:1_&_1:13; Revelation 17:14.
_Ignatius, To the Philadelphians _11:1.

Christ’s saints and with his whole Church76. The words Elect or Chosen are used in the
New Testament to translate the Greek word ἐκλέκτος, sometimes in a context that would
later be associated with baptism. The term also appears in the context of purity, perfection
and illumination77. In the early Church, the term “Elect” could also be applied to
catechumens who had passed their “scrutiny” and were awaiting baptism. At their
baptism, initiates were adopted as “sons” or children of God, as Jesus had been adopted
at his baptism78. St-Paul had explicitly described the new relationship with God as taking
place through an adoption79. The significance of the baptised being “sons of God” was
recognised by Irenaeus in the early second century80. By the fourth century it was a major
theme for Christian writers81. The indwelling Holy Spirit conducted prayers to the Father,
enabling the newly adopted child of God to communicate with him82. The adopted child
was entitled to address God as Father (Abba)83. Before adoption, daring to refer to God as
Father would have been presumptuous if not blasphemous84. A corollary of this is that
the Lord’s Prayer must originally have been reserved to the baptised. It was evidently
taught to initiates during their baptism85, possibly as the culmination of their initiation86.
76 Augustine, Exposition on the Psalms, 45.20.

77 Didache 1:10,_6:2,_16:5; Letter of Barnabas, 4:14; (Cf._Matthew_22:14), also 6:19_&_13:7;
Shepherd of Hermas, passim (& “perfection” Vision_3.5.3, Mandate_5.2.3, Parable_5.3.6); Clement
of Alexandria, Miscellenies, 4.5_&_Excerpts from Theodotus, passim; and throughout the Gospel of
Philip and the Book of Enoch 1:1;_1:8; 40:3-4;_58:2-3. Cf._Gosp.Thom. 49-50_NHL_p.132);
Aphrahat, Demonstrations, 1.3,_6.1,_6.11,_17.6-7. Cf. Teaching of the Apostles 1.1.1_&_9.2.26.
78 Faith or baptism, or both, make one a “son of God” or a “child of God”: Galations_3:26,_4:4-5;
Romans_4:6–7,_8:8-17; Cf._Barnabas 2:1,_4:9,_4:10,_18:1,_21:3; John_1:12,_11:52; and 1_John
3:1-2, 10,_5:2. Cf._Hebrews 2:10-11.
79 Galations_4:5-6, Cf._3:26; Romans_8:15-16; John_1:12, 11:52; and 1_John_3:1–2,_3.10,_5:2;
Cf._Barnabas 2:1,_4:9-10,_18:1,_21:3.
80 Irenaeus, Demonstration of the Apostolic Preaching, 3.
81 . E.g. Basil of Caesarea, On_the_Holy_Spirit, 15.36. (PG_32,132). Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechetical
Lectures, 3.14-15.
82 Often implied in early texts, but explicit in Tertullian, Exhortation to Chastity, 10.
83 Romans_8:8-17.
84 Peter Chrysologus, Sermon 71.3: (PL_52,401); Cf._Galations_4:6; Teaching of the Apostles 1.1.1.
85 Tertullian, On_Baptism, 20. A number of scholars have proposed that, in early times, transmission of
the Lord’s Prayer took place at, or immediately before baptism. Among them are Ernst Dobschütz,
“The Lord’s Prayer”, Harvard Theological Review 7 (1914), pp.293-321; (p.295); Ludwig Eisenhofer,
Handbuch der Katholischen Liturgik (Theologische Bibliothek) 2 vols, Fribourg-en-Brisgau,
1932-1933. Vol.2, p.249; Jonathan_A. Draper, “Ritual Symbol in ‘Didache’ 7-10,” in Vigiliae
Christianae 54 (2000), 121-158, (p136).
86 Joachim Jeremias, “The Prayers of Jesus”; Studies in Biblical Theology, 2nd series, 6 (Naperville,_Ill.:
Alec R._Allenson, 1967), p.79.

This would have been consistent with fourth century practice87 and with the tradition of
the Orthodox Church88. Adoption was a common practice in the milieu of early
Christianity. Adopted initiates ceased to belong to their old family and thenceforth
belonged to their new family. As adopted children of God, baptised Christians become
“heirs of God” and “co-heirs with Christ”89. They were also co-heirs with all other
baptised Christians, their adoptive brothers and sisters. In early centuries at least, they
could kiss members of their new families, permitting the mingling of their souls90.
Closely associated with baptism was the idea of “sealing” by the Holy Spirit (Ephesians
1:3-14). Indeed, the verb to seal (σφραγίζω) was sometimes used to denote baptism.
Sealing seems to have carried two meanings. One is the idea of sealing up the bodily
orifices during the anointing, to prevent demons gaining entry to the physical body during
or after baptism. The second is closer to the English “marking” or “branding”. At baptism,
the soul was thought to receive a permanent mark, a symbol that identified the owner as
now being a slave of God. This resembled permanent bodily marks that identified slaves
(and soldiers and animals) in late antiquity91.
The laying on of hands at baptism was believed to invoke the Holy Spirit. The Spirit
descended through the baptismal water onto baptismal initiates and thenceforth dwelt
87 Cyril of Jerusalem, Mystagogical_Catecheses, 1-5; Cf._Basil of Caesarea, On_the_Holy_Spirit, 15.36;

Peter_Chrysologus, Sermon 71.3:_(PL_52,401); Cf._Galations_4:6. Theodore of Mopsuestia’s
post-baptismal mystagogic instructions include the Lord’s Prayer.
88 Fr. Vladimir Berzonsky, The Privilege to Pray the Lord’s Prayer,
http://oca.org/reflections/berzonsky/the-privilege-to-pray-the-lords-prayer, retrieved 3rd_January
2018.
89 Romans_8:16-17.
90 Hippolytus of Rome, Commentary on the Song of Songs, 2.2; Cyril of Jerusalem, Mystagogical
Catecheses 5.3; Chrysostom, Baptismal_Instruction 11.32-34; Cf._Gosp.Phil._35; Chrysostom,
Commentary on 2_Corinthians 3.2, likens kissing fellow Christians to kissing the portal of a temple.
For kissing between the Elect more generally see Tripartite Tractate 58.23-30 (NHL I,5_p.64);
Apostolic Tradition 18.1;_21.22-26; Clement of Alexander, The Instructor,_11. For kisses from Jesus
see Ambrose of Milan, Treatise on the Sacraments 5.5-7. Cf._Gosp.Phil._59; First Apocalypse of
James, 31.1-5_(NHL V.3_p.264)_&_Second Apocalypse of James 56.14-15_(NHL_V.4_p.274).
91 Clement of Alexandria, Excerpts from Theodotus, 86; Chrysostom, Instructions to Catechumens,
2.5.5. Cf._CCC_1295.

within them92. The neophyte thus became a temple of the Holy Spirit or a temple of God93.
A common theme in early Christianity is that human beings, or their souls, have their
natural home in paradise. They are strangers on earth, temporary visitors, described
variously as foreigners, travellers, wanderers, sojourners, exiles, captives or prisoners94.
The Holy Spirit provided them with a guided path back to paradise, where souls naturally
belong95. As the Holy Spirit was held to dwell within all baptized Christians, all could
be considered the equals of the first apostles, sharing the same apostolic mission and
divine favour. Baptism itself could be viewed as apostles passing on their apostolic status
to others. This helps explain why writers into the fourth century could refer to followers
other than the Twelve, including women, as “apostles”96. Through the indwelling Holy
Spirit, baptized Christians enjoyed prophetic gifts97 and so could also be regarded as
prophets. For Tertullian, spirituals (as opposed to psychics) occupied the roles of apostle
and prophet by the agency of the Holy Spirit98. Christian baptism in some way replicated
the baptism of Jesus and of the 120 Disciples at Pentecost99. In each case the baptism
invoked the Holy Spirit and initiated a public ministry. In the absence of a Christian
priesthood in the earliest Christianities, responsibly for public ministry, teaching and
evangelisation appears to have belonged to all of the earthly Elect, in other words to all
92 J.N.D Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, pp.428-430, cites Hilary, Jerome, Chrysostom, Theodore of
Mopsuestia, and Augustine. TCE, referring specifically to epiclesis for the water of baptism, cites
Tertullian, Optatus of Milevis, Jerome, Augustine, Basil of Caesarea, and Gregory of Nyssa. (Adrian
Fortescue, "Epiklesis", TCE). See also Macarius of Jerusalem, Letter to the Armenians, Cyril of
Jerusalem, Catechetical Lectures, 3.3-4, 17:14; Aphrahat Demonstrations 1.3,_6.1,_6.11,_6.14; and
Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on John 10.2.7-13.
93 1_Corinthians_3:16-17;_6:19; 2_Corinthians_6.16; Romans_8.9-11; Cf._Galations_2.20; Barnabas
4:11; Irenaeus, Against_Heresies, 5.9.4; (Pseudo)Clement, First Epistle on Virginity 12. Aphrahat,
Demonstrations, 6.14; Ephrem, Hymns for Epiphany, 3.9; Chrysostom, An Exhortation To Theodore
After His Fall, Letter 1.1.
94 1_Peter_2:11; Letter to Diognetus, 5_&_6; Apocryphon of John 31:3-10; Hippolytus, Refutation of All
Heresies, 10:30; Aphrahat, Demonstrations, 6.1_&_6.7; Basil of Caesarea, Letter 200, To
Amphilochius; Gregory of Nazianzus, Discourse 7, On the Soul; Chrysostom, Homily_82 on Matthew,
Exhortation To Theodore, 1.16_&_2.5; Narsai of Nisibis, Liturgical_Homilies 22.362.
95 Basil_of_Caesarea, On the Holy Spirit , 15.36. (PG_32,132); Narsai of Nisibis, Liturgical_Homilies
22.362.9-20.
96 Acts_14:14;_Romans_16:7;_1_Thessalonians_1:1; 1_Corinthians_4:9; Tertullian, On_Modesty 15;
Hippolytus, Commentary on the Song_of_Songs 25.6; Didache 11.4-8; Gregory of Nyssa, Funeral
Oration for Meletius; Chrysostom, Against_the_Jews,_2.3.5.
96 Acts_14:14;_Romans_16:7;_1_Thessalonians_1:1; 1_Corinthians_4:9; Tertullian, On_Modesty 15;
Hippolytus, Commentary on the Song_of_Songs 25.6; Didache 11.4-8; Gregory of Nyssa, Funeral
Oration for Meletius; Chrysostom, Against_the_Jews,_2.3.5.
97 Romans_12:6-8, 1_Corinthians_12:4-11,_12:27-31, Ephesians_4:11. Cf._1_Timothy_4:14.
98 Tertullian, On_Modesty, 21. Cf._Ephesians_12:27-31.
99 Acts_2:42-47.

baptised Christians100. Having received the Holy Spirit as anointed children of God, or
specifically sons of God, all baptised Christians might correctly be called “Christs”101.
Renunciation of evil during baptism involved the rejection of the Devil and all his works.
At least in some early Christianities, the Devil’s works included “the world” and “the
flesh”. The idea that this world (κόσμος) or this age (αἰῶνος) was in the power of an Evil
Principal seems to have been common in the early centuries of Christianity. The Devil
reigned on earth. St-Paul explicitly acknowledged him as θεὸς τοῦ αἰῶνος102, and the
same idea occurs in canonical writings103 and other proto-orthodox works104. Like Jesus,
baptised Christians might be in the world, but they are not of the world, and they should
renounce and despise it105. As a material creation, the present world, a world of
“nothingness”, was contrasted with God’s infinitely more worthy immaterial kingdom106.
Satan’s realm, the material world, was evil, changeable, visible, flawed, temporal and
vile. God’s realm, the immaterial world, was good, changeless, invisible, perfect, eternal,
and glorious. While the soul was eternal, invisible and immaterial, the body was
corruptible, visible and composed of material flesh, associated with sin, death, the
material world, and hostility to God107. Flesh (σάρξ) was inherently vile or filthy108. In
this classically “dualist” view, the material body was seen as a sort of soiled vestment for
100 An idea preserved perhaps in the terminology of the Didache in referring to those who carry out
baptisms (Didache 7), and explicit in Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechetical_Lectures, 3.13.
101 Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechetical_Lectures, 21.1. Cf._Gosp.Phil._48,_72; and (Pseudo)Clement, First
Epistle on Virginity, 7.
102 2_Corinthians_4:4.
103 John_12:31,_14:30,_16:11; 1_John_4:4,_5:4,_5:19. Cf._John_17:14_&_18:36. That the world is in the
power of Evil explains the outlook of the Mark_author, and otherwise puzzling passages such as
Luke_4:5-7.
104 The Epistle of Barnabas 2.1, Polycarp, Letter to the Philippians_9:2; Ignatius,
Letter_to_the_Ephesians_17.72,_19.1; To the Romans_7.1; To the Philadelphians_6.2, ; Cf. To the
Smyrneans, 6.1; Tertullian, On_Modesty, 9; Ephrem, Hymns on the Nativity, 14.11; Jerome,
Letter_130 (To Demetrias); Augustine Acts (or Disputation Against Fortunatus), 23. Cf._ Augustine,
Exposition on Psalms, 106.8.
105 John_17:14-16. Cf._Gosp.Thom. 16,_21,_27-28,_56 (NHL_pp.128,_129,_130,_132.); Letter to
Diognetus; 5_&_6; Aphrahat, Demonstrations 6.1_&_6.7; Chrysostom, Exhortation To Theodore,
Letter_1.9_&_2.5; Cf._John_8:23;_14:17-19;_27;_15:18-25; 16:8-11,_33;_17:6,_9,_14-18,_25, 18:36;
James_1:27, _4.4; 1_John_4:5-6; Ambrose, Treatise on the Sacraments, 1.5.
106 (Pseudo)Dionysius, Mystical_Theology, 1.
107 Romans_8:6-8_&_8.13;_Colossians_3:5, Galatians_5:19-21, 5:24; Didache_1. Cf._Ignatius, Letter to
the Ephesianss_8:2;_Letter to the Romans_3.3; Gregory of Nazianzus, Oration 40 On_Baptism,_3.
Cf._1_Peter_2:11; Galatians 5:17; Romans_6:12;_7:15-23;_Jude 1:23.
108 1_Peter_3:20-21. Cf._Philippians_3:21; Augustine of Hippo, On_Baptism Against the Donatists 5.39.
Cf._Tertullian, Exhortation to Chastity,_10_&_Chrysostom, Exhortation To Theodore, 1.14.

the immaterial soul, a tunic of flesh or a garment of shame responsible for carnal desire109.
This material body was put on at birth. It was provisionally taken off at baptism, in a
figurative sense110, and replaced by an immaterial robe, a robe of light or a robe of
immortality111. The body was then definitively taken off at death. Early Christian baptism
signified what Bradshaw calls a “change of ownership”112. Before initiation, catechumens
belonged to the Power of Darkness. Only after renouncing the Power of Darkness, could
they be adopted by the God of Light. In the language of early Christianity, human beings
were by default slaves of the Devil; at their baptism, they became slaves of God113. They
exchanged the yoke of the Devil for the yoke of righteousness 114. Along with a new
owner, the newly baptised now had a new lifestyle: a new family, new knowledge and
understanding, new clothing, a new status, new ambitions, new ascetic practices to
follow, and possibly a new name, diet, residence and occupation.
Illumination (φωτισμός) was a key element of early Christian Baptism. The association
seems to have originated in the East where light was also especially associated with the
baptism of Jesus115. To be illumined (φωτίζεσθαι) was to be initiated (τελεĩσθαι).
Baptism illuminates people, bringing them out of darkness into the light. The idea is
explicit in 1 Peter 2:9, where the Elect ― baptised Christians ― are “called from darkness
into God's marvellous light”. Peter makes much of the significance of light, as do other
New Testament writers116. Other writers also identify illumination with baptism117. Some
109 Jude_1:21; The Apocryphon of John 21.10-11 (NHL_p.117). Cf._26.23-27.31 (NHL_p.120) and
Clement of Alexandria, Miscellenies, 3.13.92.
110 Colossians_2:11-12.
111 Gregory of Nazianzus, Oration_40 On_Baptism, 4; Theodore of Mopsuestia, Sermon 4.
112 Bradshaw, Christian_Worship, pp.72,_78,_&_82.
113 Christian slavery to God is a theme in early patristic writings: Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to the
Philadelphians, 4; The Shepherd of Hermas, Parable_5.2; Chrysostom, Instructions to Catechumens
2.5; Peter Chrysologus, Sermon_71.3: (PL_52.401); Cf._Romans_7:25. Cyril of Jerusalem,
Catechetical_Lectures,1.2. and Paulinus of Nola, Letter_1.10 (to Severus).
114 Augustine, Acts (Disputation_Against_Fortunatus), 23; Cf._Basil_of_Caesarea, Letters 199, Canon
20; Chrysostom, Instructions to Catechumens, 1.1.
115 See for example, Ephrem, Hymns For Epiphany, 14.48. Fabrizio Tiddia, "Terminologia della lute e
battisimo nelle iscrizioni greche cristiane," cetera Christianorum 38 (2001): 103-124, shows the
preponderance of inscriptions referring to light to be of eastern origin.
116 Ephesians_4:17-32_&_5:8; Romans_13:12; 1_Thessalonians_5:5; Mark_9:3; John_12:46,_8:12 &
12:36, 1_John_1:5; Cf._2_Corinthians_4.4_&_4.6 and 1_Thessalonians_5:5-7.
117 Justin Martyr, First_Apology, 61, Cf._Trypho, 7; Clement of Alexandria, The_Instructor, 1.6;.
Cf._Miscellanies 5.10 ; Gosp.Phil._passim; Gregory of Nazianzus, Oration_40 On_Baptism. 3.
Chrysostom’s Instructions to Catechumens are both addressed “to those about to be illuminated”.

use the term Illumination as a synonym for Baptism118 a practice notable among so-called
“gnostic” Christians119. According to Basil of Caesarea, children of God are also called
children of light120. The illuminated or enlightened are those whose “eyes are opened”
and who now “see the light”. Before illumination they lived in darkness, in blindness, in
obscurity. Now illuminated, they experience a brilliant, radiant lucidity. As Jesus
explains to Nicodemus in discussing the significance of baptism, evil people live in
darkness and hate the light. In contrast, those who live by the truth, come into the light
and into the sight of God121. Implicitly, those still in the dark are not visible to God. As
God sees the initiated, so the initiated are now able to see God122. A theme in early
Christianities, including ones that would coalesce into the normative synthesis, is that of
seeing without really seeing, and hearing without really hearing. Even if information is
available to everyone, only initiates fully perceive and fully comprehend it – only they
have eyes to see and ears to hear. This theme occurs in so-called gnostic gospels, notably
the Gospel of Thomas, and in canonical gospels123. Esoteric ideas, in the form of secret
knowledge or gnosis, permeate the New Testament124 and the works of patristic writers125.
The Roman baptismal tradition included “The Exposition of the Gospels to the Elect at
the Opening of the Ears”126. It is the Elect, and only the Elect, who have ears to hear.
When John Chrysostom preached about baptism and the resurrection, he had to choose
his words carefully to address the Elect in the presence of the uninitiated. His solution
was to speak through a (presumably metaphorical) “veil”, so that baptised Christians with
ears to hear would understand him, but ordinary believers would not127. From the second
118 J._Ysebaert: Greek Baptismal Terminology: Its Origins and early Development (Nijmegen:
Dekker_&_Van_de_Vegt, 1962), pp.158-178.
119 Arkadi Choufrine, Gnosis, Theophany, Theosis: Studies in Clement of Alexandria's Appropriation of
His Background (New_York: Peter_Lang, 2002), pp.41-45_&_69-76.
120 Basil_of_Caesarea, On_the_Holy_Spirit,_15.36. Cf. 1_Thessalonians 5:5.
121 John_3:19-21. Cf._Apocryphon_of_John, 10:14-20 (NHL_p.110).
122 Clement of Alexandria, Excerpts from Theodotus,_11,_23,_27. Cf._Commentary on John 10.2.7-13;
Narsai of Nisibis, Liturgical_Homilies, 22B (On Baptism). In the Orthodox tradition, seeing God was
associated with theoria (θεωρία), and later with Symeon the New Theologian’s teachings on theosis
and Hesychasm; and often linked to 1_Corinthians,_13:12.
123 Mark_4:8-10,_4:23; Matthew_11:15,_13:9; Luke_10:23-24,_24:30-31,_45; Acts_26:18. See also
accounts of Paul’s conversion at Acts_9:8,_17-18,_22:11-13.
124 Bradshaw, Christian_Worship,_p.67.
125 Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechetical_Lectures, Prologue_12, Lecture_6.29; Clement of Alexandria,
Excerpts from Theodotus, 66; Cf._78; Apostolic_Tradition_21.40.
126 Gelasian Sacramentary 42; Apertio aurium in Ordo Romanus 11.29_&_11.44-60. Cf. Ambrose, On
the Mysteries, 1:3.
127 Chrysostom, Homily_40.2, on 1_Corinthians_15:29.

century, formal catechesis normally stretched over years, culminating in a Profession of

Faith followed within a month by Baptism proper. Catechumens judged suitable were
admitted to the ranks of the Elect during their Profession of Faith and permitted to
proceed to their final phase of instruction. This final phase of instruction evidently
included at least some of the disciplina arcani, esoteric knowledge denied to ordinary
believers128. It may have included some of the most central Christian teachings 129,
including an exegesis of the Lord’s Prayer (see note 85). A recurring theme was that the
newly baptised were now ready for more advanced Christian teachings. This was often
likened to feeding. The uninitiated are infants, unable to digest solid food, so restricted
to a diet of milk130. Some English bibles translate perfect (τέλειον) by the word mature,
likening the perfected to adults, contrasting them with infants131. The initiated are grown
up, mature, complete (τέλειος) and able to digest solid food, including perhaps the
superstantial (ἐπιούσιον) bread requested in the Lord’s_Prayer132. Milk and solid food are
contrasted in the New Testament133 and the theme runs through Origen’s Commentaries
on the Song of Songs. In texts generally considered gnostic, the food may be given from
God’s own mouth134, perhaps like pap. From the context, solid food is evidently eternal
gnosis or wisdom135, part of the disciplina arcani, and may be associated with celibacy136.
The New Testament contains references to those who have been perfected137. The word
carries a sense of completion, specifically the completion of a phase of initiation.
Believers receive instruction and then apply what they have learned. Only then do they
receive baptism. Only then does the Holy Spirit descent upon them. Only then are they
128 Bradshaw, Christian_Worship, p.55. Here he is speaking specifically of the Syrian Church, but the
rest of chapter 4 shows that the observation applied equally to other parts of the early Church. See
also Yuri Stoyanov, “Esoteric and Initiatory Traditions in Ancient and Medieval Gnostic Dualism”.
A. Panaino (ed.), Sulla soglia del sacro: esoterismo ed iniziazione. Milano, Mimesis Edizioni, 2002.
pp 122–146. (p.126, notes 8-11) for extensive citations.
129 Bradshaw, Christian_Worship, p.72.
130 Ignatius, Letter to the Ephesians_5:1.; Clement of Alexandria, The_Instructor 1.12; Hippolytus,
Commentary on the Song of Songs 2.3-4.
131 Hebrews_5:13-14; Ephesians_4:11-14.
132 Matthew_6:11; Luke_11:3; Cf._the Bread of Life in John_6:26-35_&_6:48-58; Aphrahat,
Demonstrations, 21.9.
133 Hebrews_5.11-14; Cf._ 1_Peter_2.2; Gosp.Thom._22:1-3.
134 Gosp.Phil._34_&_35; Gosp.Thom.108; Cf._Gospel of Truth 26.30–27.7. (NHL_I.3/XII.2_p.44).
135 John_6:27-68.Cf._(Pseudo)Clement, First Epistle on Virginity; Gosp.Thom._22 (NHL_p.129)
Augustine, On Baptism Against the Donatists, 3.19.
136 Eusebius, Church_History,_4.23.7-8.
137 Philippians_3:12-16; Colossians_1:28,_4:12.

illuminated. Only then do they become complete (i.e. “perfect”) followers. According
to the New Testament, Jesus himself gave instructions to be perfect138. In the New
Testament, perfection implies wisdom, specifically “hidden wisdom”139. In the Didache,
the status of “perfect” is promised to those who follow the Way of Life in full140. The
terminology of perfection is common in early works discussing Christian baptism141
including those considered gnostic142. A perfect Christian was a perfect “man”, his
perfection reflected in his various qualities: he was perfect in righteousness, perfect in
virtue, perfect in knowledge, perfect in faith, and so on. Some Christianities evidently
included perfection in continence. Certainly, sexual continence had been important for
Christians from early times143 and had been remarked upon even by non-Christians144.
Christian writers almost universally accepted that celibacy was preferable to marriage and
cited Paul to this effect145. Celibacy was associated with heaven146, an angelic nature147
and proximity to God148. Celibacy, and especial virginity, conferred spiritual
superiority149. This provided a major theme in early Christian writings, where continence
138 Matthew_5:48; Cf._Matthew_19:21_&_Cyprian_of_Carthage, On the Lord's Prayer, Treatise_4.20.

139 According to Colossians_1:28 wisdom makes us “perfect in Christ.” According to 1_Corinthians
2:6 -7, the perfect (τελείοις) have “hidden wisdom”.
140 Didache_6:2.
141 For example, Tertullian, On_Baptism, 10; Polycarp, Letter to the Philippians_12:3; Irenaeus,
Against_Heresies, 1.21.2. (referring to Marcosians); Clement of Alexandria, The Instructor,
1.5_&_1.6; Miscellenies, 4.21;_4.25;_4.26. According to Clement, Theodotus, a Valentinian, also
made extensive references to perfection, Excerpts from Theodotus, 10,_11,_15,_73; Origen,
On_First_Principles 4.7_&_4.11; Gregory of Nazianzus, Oration_40 On_Baptism, 3.
(Pseudo)Dionysius, Ecclesiastical_Hierarchy 4.3.11. (PG_3.484).
142 The theme of perfection is pervasive in “gnostic” literature, for example in most texts in the Nag
Hammadi Library. It was also familiar to the Essenes (Community_Rule, [1QS]_3,4–6).
143 1_Corinthians_7; Didache_1.4.
144 Galen, correspondence with Marcus Aurelius and his son, Commodus. See R._Waltzer, Galen on Jews
and Christians (London: Oxford_University_Press, 1949), pp.14-15.
145 1_Corinthians_7:25-40. Jovinian was a notable dissenter from this position.
146 Jesus claimed that there would be no marriage in heaven (Matthew_22:30; Luke_20:35-6).
Cf._Revelation_14:1-5; Justin_Martyr, On the Resurrection, 3; Aphrahat, Demonstrations, 22.12-13.
147 E.g. Aphrahat, Demonstrations, 21.13; Athanasius, Letter_48 (to_Amun), Defence Before
Constantius, 33.
148 Athenagoras of Athens, A Plea for the Christians 33; Acts_of_Paul_&_Thecla, 2.5-6.
149 Tertullian, On Exhortation to Chastity, 1_&_10; Marcus Minucius Felix, The Octavius, 31,_33.
(Pseudo)Clement, First Epistle on Virginity, 2; Chrysostom, Exhortation To Theodore, 2.5. The
purported superiority associated with chastity seems to have been behind boasting as in Smyrna
(Ignatius, Letter to Polycarp, 5.2) and perhaps a schism in Corinth (Clement of Rome, First Letter to
the Corinthians_38). By the early third century, celibacy was regarded as part of Church tradition
(Tertullian, On the Veiling of Virgins). Correctives feature in a number of church councils, including
Ancyra_(314), Neocaesarea_(ca._315), Gangra_(ca._320-40), and Laodicea (340s).

(ἐγκράτεια) was virtually synonymous with purity and righteousness150, and constituted
an important form of mortification of the flesh151. Sexual continence sanctified the body
as a Temple of the Holy Spirit and so facilitated prayer152. For some, celibacy was the
only acceptable option after baptism153. In Encratite groups, married baptismal initiates
would be expected to abandon their spouses, or to live together as brother and sister.
Contemporary sources confirm the survival of celibate groups throughout Christendom
over the first few centuries154, notably ἀειπάρθενοί, Egyptian ἀποτακτικοί and Syrian
Îhîdāyā. Some Christian groups distinguished two classes of member: celibate
renouncers (πνευματικοὶ), and lesser worldly people (ψυχικοί) not able – or not yet able
– to bear the celibate life155. Renunciation of the world and the flesh continued to be a
strong theme for centuries. Augustine saw men as captives of the devil held by chains of
sin, until rescued by baptism to become children of God156. He was opposed to “the works
150 The importance of continence is a major theme in the Shepherd of Hermas, e.g. Vision_3.8.4; Acts_of
Peter, Acts_of_Andrew, Acts_of_(Judas)Thomas, Acts_of_John, and Acts_of_Paul and Thecla 2:5-6.
Cf._the views of Pinytus recorded by Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth, and reported in
Eusebius,_Ecclesiastical_History, 4.23.6-10. Early Christians took the trouble to keep registers of
virgins and (celibate) widows. Cf. Justin_Martyr, First_Apology, 14_&_19; Basil_of_Caesarea,
Letter_199, canon_18; Socrates Scholasticus, Ecclesiastical_History 1.17. See also Tertullian, On
Exhortation to Chastity; Teaching of the Apostles 14.3.1-4; Apostolic Constitutions 3.1-2;
(Pseudo)Clement, First Epistle to Virgins. In the fourth century, entire Christian works were devoted
to the subject of virginity, for example, Methodius of Olympus, Symposium; Gregory of Nyssa, On
Virginity; Basil of Ancyra, On the True Purity of Virginity; Augustine, On Marriage and
Concupiscence; Chrysostom, On_Virginity; and Jerome, Letter 130 (To_Demetrias); Aphrahat,
Demonstrations, 6.6; Cf._Epiphanius, Medicine_Chest 67.1. (PG_173AB) (referring to Hierakas and
his followers). Cyril of Jerusalem; Catechetical_Lectures, Prologue,_4.
151 This is a major theme of (Pseudo)Clement, First Epistle on Virginity. 4-5, 11-12.
152 Clement of Alexandria, Miscellenies, 3.59,_3.81 (reporting Tatian). Cf._Tertullian, On Exhortation to
Chastity, 10.
153 This seems to be the position opposed in 1_Timothy_4:1-4 and 1_Corinthians_7, (where celibate
Christians were trying to enforce celibacy upon others or were divorcing their spouses in order to be
celibate in their service to God) and was certainly the position of Hierakas the Egyptian according to
Epiphanius, Medicine_Chest 67.1. Early Syrian Christians sought to return to the prelapsarian state
of androgynous perfection. – see Dennis MacDonald, There is no Male and Female: The Fate of a
Dominical Saying in Paul and Gnosticism (Philadelphia; Fortress, 1987). Cf._Augustine, Exposition
on the Psalms, 45.2. (Pseudo)Clement, First Epistle on Virginity, chapter 6, advocates imitating
Christ in everything, which would include his presumed virginity; Gregory of Nyssa, On_Virginity 20
permits ordinary marriage and spiritual marriage (i.e. baptism), but not both.
154 1_Corinthians_7; Acts_of Paul_&_Thecla, 12_&_16; Justin_Martyr, On the Resurrection, 3; Acts_of
(Judas)Thomas 12-13,_51,_131_144-7. Irenaeus, Against_Heresies, 1.28.1; Clement of Alexandria,
The_Instructor,_2.10; Miscellenies_3.13.9 referring to Julius Casinos and Tatian, (Book_3 of
Miscellenies is an extended attempt at reconciling marriage with the celibate ideal); (Pseudo)Clement,
Homilies,_13.13_& Recognitions,_7.38. Aphrahat, Demonstrations, 6.6_&_7:20-21; Epiphanius,
Medicine_Chest, 67.1 referring to followers of Hierakas; Cf._John Chrysostom, Homily_10 on
1_Timothy &_Jerome, Life of Malchus 6.7-9.
155 Cf. 1_Corinthians 2:14-5,_15:44-46,_15:46; James_3:15; Jude_1:19.
156 Augustine, On Marriage and Concupiscence 1.13 and 5.14. Cf._Galatians_5:19-21.

of the flesh”157. For him, sexual desire, “fleshly concupiscence”, was wholly evil. For
Clement of Alexandria, the ideal had been not to overcome desire, but to extinguish it
altogether158. A perceived need for post-baptismal chastity, with no opportunity for a
second metanoia, may explain why some believers opted for baptism on their
deathbeds159.
The mystery of the “Bridal Chamber” played an important part in early Christianity but
its nature and significance are not clear160. The term is evidently metonymic with the
spiritual marriage (ἱερὸς γάμος) held there, during which the initiate’s soul (the νύμφη)
was united with the divine (the νυμφίος)161. The marriage took place in an inner sanctuary,
the bridal chamber (νυμφών) or bedchamber (κοιτών). The theme is prominent in
Christianities generally considered gnostic162 as in those considered proto-orthodox163. A
number of New Testament passages could be interpreted as presenting marriage as
spiritual rather than carnal164. The royal marriage of Solomon and his bride in the Song
157 Augustine, On_Baptism_Against_the_Donatists, 5.16;_Cf. 3.27;

158 Clement of Alexandria, Miscellenies, 3.57.
159 A possible explanation for Shepherd_of_Hermas, Vision 3.7.3. For a discussion, see Carolyn Osiek
and Helmut Koester, Shepherd of Hermas: A Commentary (Hermeneia, Minneapolis: Fortress Press,
1999), p.74.
160 See especially John_3:29–30_&_2_Corinthians_11:2. Cf._Mark_2:19, Matthew_9:15,_22:1-14,
&_25:1–13, Luke_5:34, Revelation_18:23,_19:6–9,_21:2,_21:9.
161 The marriage was usually seen as being to the Holy Spirit, sometimes to Christ or the Trinity, but for
Valentinians, it was to an angel, a celestial double representing their divine self (Irenaeus, Against
Heresies 1.7.5).
162 The Bridal Chamber features in three Valentinian texts from the Nag Hammadi Library (Exegesis of
the Soul; Tripartite Tractate; Gospel of Philip) in and five others (Gospel of Thomas, Dialogue of the
Saviour, Second Treatise of the Great Seth, Authoritative_Teaching, Teachings of Silvanus); Acts of
(Judas)Thomas, 124; Irenaeus Against_Heresies, 1.6.4 (re_Valentinians), 1.13.3-6; 1.21.3
(re_Marcosians) and 2.27.2; Epiphanius, Medicine_Chest, 31.7.10-11,_31.21.12,_31.23.1
(re_Valentinians) & 34.2.7,_34.20.1 (re_Marcosians); Clement of Alexandria, Excerpts from
Theodotus, 63-65.
163 Clement of Alexandria, The_Instructor, 3.12; Origen, Commentary on the Song of Songs, 1:6-9;
Cf._On First Principles, 4.11; Gregory of Nyssa, Funeral Oration for Meletius. The relation of the
post-baptismal soul to Christ is that of a bride to the bridegroom in Ambrose of Milan's mystagogical
sermons, On the Mysteries and Treatise on the Sacraments, cf. Concerning_Virginity 2.16,_2.40-41;
Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechetical_Lectures, Prologue, passim & Lectures 1.1,_2.16,_3.2,_9.6
and_12.25. Cf._Mystagogical Catecheses, 4.2. The imagery of divine marriage (or “union”) also
features in Tertullian, On_Baptism, 8, and On Exhortation to Chastity, 13; the baptismal hymns of
Ephrem (Hymns For Epiphany 7.13_&_7.14_passim), and in Aphrahat, Demonstrations, 6.1_&_6.6;
Chrysostom, Exhortation To Theodore, 1.9, Instructions to Catechumens, 1.1_&_2.2; Jerome,
Letter_22 (to_Eustochium) and Letter_130 (to_Demetrias); Cf._Teaching of the Apostles,_9.2.26. For
Augustine, Christ is the Bridegroom (Exposition on the Psalms 3.1,_19.6,_42.2,_45ff.,_47.1,_89.28),
and John the Baptist the Bridegroom’s friend. (Exposition on the Psalms
39.4,_62.12,_79.2,_96.8,_132.7). See also Augustine, Lecture_8 (on John_2:1-4), 4_&_13.
164 Galations_4:27; Ephesians_5:25-32; 2_Corinthians_11:1-2; John_3:29; Revelation,_19:7-9.

of Songs provided a model for three forms of Christian marriage – that between a man
and woman, that between Christ and his Church, and that between the Holy Spirit and a
human soul, in other words the spiritual marriage within baptism. In these three forms of
marriage the Shulamite woman or Queen of Sheba represented respectively a human
bride, the Church, or the baptismal initiate. Her counterpart, the Beloved or Solomon,
represented respectively the human bridegroom, Christ, or the Holy Spirit. From the
fourth century, the idea of a spiritual marriage would be increasingly associated with
female virgins who more naturally fulfilled the role of bride (specifically Bride of Christ),
though baptised men could be regarded as brides too165. The union of a human soul with
the Holy Spirit made Christians “sharers in the divine nature” (2_Peter 1:4). This union
with God (θέωσις) was achieved at baptism through purification (κάθαρσις) of mind and
body, and by divine illumination (θεωρία). For Christian writers, the implication of this
was that baptized Christians not only became perfect and immortal, but achieved unity
with God. They were deified. They became gods. Early Christian writers refer to
divinization using these terms166, often citing a psalm quoted by Jesus: “I have said, Ye
are gods; and all of you are children of the most High”167.
165 Acts of (Judas)Thomas, 146; Tertullian, Against the Valentinians, 32, (which is scathing about
Valentinian men being considered brides); Methodius of Olympus, Symposium, Discourse
6.5.145,_7.3.157; Gregory of Nazianzius, Exhortation to Virgins, 1-6 (PG 37.637ff); Gregory of
Nyssa, On_Virginity 20; Ambrose, On_Virginity, 1.22; Chrysostom, Exhortation To Theodore,
1.13.4_&_2.3; Augustine, On Holy Virginity, 8.11_&_56; Paulinus of Nola, Letter to Severus,
Letter_23.42. Brides of Christ were considered to have committed adultery if they lost their virginity:
Cyprian_of_Carthage, Letter 62 & The Discipline and Habit of Virgins, 20; Eusebius of Emesa,
Homilies, 7.26; Basil of Ancyra, On the True Purity of Virginity 42; Basil_of_Caesarea, Letter_199,
canon 18_&_217, canon 60; Letters. 46.2; Chrysostom, Against_Remarriage, 3; Jerome, Letters,
22.13; or even if they practised syneisaktism, cohabitting chastely with a member of the opposite sex
(Cyprian_of_Carthage, Letter 61.3-4; Chrysostom, Quod regulares feminae viris cohabitare non
debeant, 4. Cf. Adversus eos qui apud se habent virgins subintroductas. According to canon 19 of
the Council of Ancyra (314 CE) lapsed virgins are to be considered bigamists.
166 Justin_Martyr, Trypho, 124; Irenaeus, Against_Heresies, 1.21.3_& 4.38.4; Cf._5,_Preface; Clement of
Alexandria, The_Instructor 1.6_&_3.1; Exhortation to the Greeks,_1; Miscellanies 5.10,_7.13_&_7.16;
Theophilus of Antioch, Letter_to_Autolycus, 2.27; Hippolytus of Rome, Refutation, 10:30 &
Discourse on the Holy Theophany; Origen, On_First_Principles, 2.9.2_& 3.6.3, Commentary on the
Song_of_Songs, passim (especially_1.1), Homily_on_Numbers 20.3; Athanasius of Alexandria,
Against_the_Arians, 1.39_&_3.34, On the Incarnation of the Word 54.3 [PG_25,
192B]_&_Letter_to_Serapion, 1.24.1; Gregory of Nyssa, The_Great_Catechism, 37_&
On_Christian_Perfection, PG_46.278-9. Gregory of Nazianzus, Orations 29.19,_30.14; 33.15;
Augustine of Hippo, Exposition on the Book of Psalms, Psalm_50; Basil_of_Caesarea, On the Holy
Spirit, 9.23; (Pseudo)Dionysius, Ecclesiastical_Hierarchy, 1.3,_2.3.8,_3.1,_3.3.7,_5.1.4, 6.3.5;
On_Mystical_Theology, 1; Cf._Divine_Names, 4.13. Cf._Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary_on_John,
10.2.7-13 . Cf._ 1_Corinthians_6:17.
167 John_10:34 (Authorized_Version) citing Psalms_82:6.

⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜⁜
Taken together, these characteristics suggest a radical and unconventional lifestyle for
baptised Christians. It involved an ascetic, itinerant, charismatic, inspired, missionary
life of evangelism and healing. This lifestyle is the one portrayed by the Didache, Q (as
reconstructed), the Gospel of Thomas, and the Book of Acts. Such a prophetic and
apostolic lifestyle is essentially the one proposed for early Christians by Gerd Theissen,
which he called Wanderradikalismus.
Baptism In Whose Name?

For Tertullian, John’s baptism had been as valid as baptism by an apostle168. Several texts
refer to John’s baptism, but it is not clear in whose name baptism was performed when
carried out either by John, or by the early followers of Jesus. There seems to have been
confusion as to whose name should be used in carrying out baptism, sometimes confusing
the person carrying out the baptism with the figure on whose behalf the baptism was
carried out169. If there was a normative early Christian practice it seems to have been to
baptise in the name of Jesus, using one of his appellations170. This usage is also preserved
in other early documents171. An apparently later practice – destined to become normative
– was to baptise in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit.
Who can be Baptised?

John’s baptism was apparently available to anyone who was prepared to repent their sins,
and some passages suggest that it was the same for those baptised by Jesus and his
followers172. New Testament sources do not mention any form of formal catechesis as a
prerequisite for baptism, but the Didache does. Initiates had the Two Ways repeated to

169 The practice of “following” whoever performed the baptism, and the question of in whose name the
baptism should be carried out were confused. Cf._Chloe’s household in 1_Corinthians 1:10-17.
170 Initiates were baptised in, or into, the name of “Jesus Christ” (Acts_2:38,_8:12,_10:48); “Christ Jesus”
(Romans_6:3); “Christ” (Galations_3:27); the “Lord_Jesus” (Acts_8:16;_19:5), Cf. The “Lord” (Acts
9:14-15,_22:12-16); and “me” (Acts_26:12-18).
171 For example, Shepherd of Hermas, Vision_3.7.3; Cf_Parable_8.6.4_&_9.12.4; Cf. Cyprian of
Carthage, Letter to Pompey (Letter 73:5).
172 Acts_2:38-41;_8:12;_8:30-36. Cf._Matthew_28:19-20;_and_Didache_7.1-3.

them, although there is no suggestion that they should know it themselves173. They were
also required to fast for a day or two before their baptism (Didache 7.4). Both men and
women received Christian baptism (The Holy Spirit had descended on men and women
alike at the first Pentecost174). Baptised women were prophets, apostles, children of God,
perfect Christians, and members of the Elect, just as much as baptised men. This equality
could be expressed either by regarding baptised Christians as asexual 175, or by regarding
baptised women as having become men176. A few households and even “whole
households” were baptised177. Households at this time included extended families, clients,
servants and slaves. As far as we can tell from early sources, baptism was reserved for
those able to make a choice and give their explicit assent: children are not explicitly
mentioned so there is no reason to assume that these households included non-adult
children. By the second century, baptism symbolised a profound metanoia. This is
consonant with infants not being baptised, except perhaps in danger of death. Tertullian
advocated delaying baptism for all, but especially for children 178. Anticipating St-
Augustine, Origen in the mid-third century was the first to suggest that infants should be
baptized because of inherited sin179, but Gregory of Nazianzus in the fourth century could
still affirm that the baptism of very young children should be performed only when there
was a present danger to the child’s life180. (Nestorians would hold to this conservative
position for centuries to come). Initiates normally needed to respond during the baptismal
rite. Infants could not do this, so for them provision was made for Sponsors to speak on
their behalf. A similar problem arose for those who planned to be baptised before their
death, but who were stricken by accident or illness that left them alive yet unable to
respond. A solution was a sort of pre-baptism conducted while they were in good health.
If they were subsequently stricken, they could then be validly baptised, even though now
173 Didache,_7.1.
174 Acts_1:15–2:21. Those who received the Holy Spirit are referred to repeatedly as “brothers and
sisters”.
175 Galatians_3:26-28. Cf._Clement of Alexandria, The_Instructor_1.6, Miscellenies 3.13.92; Aphrahat,
Demonstrations, 6.6; Gosp.Thom.22.28-31; Cf._Luke_20.35; 2_Clement_12.2-5.
176 Clement of Alexandria, The Instructor,_1.4.1, Cf._Gosp.Thom._22_(NHL_p.129) & 114 (NHL_p.138);
Aphrahat, Demonstration 21:12-13. Cf._Zostrianos, 131.5-10 (NHL VIII.1_p.430).
177 Acts_16:15. Cf._16:8_&_16:33.
178 Tertullian, On_Baptism,_18.5.
179 Origen, Homily_on_Luke, 14.3.
180 Gregory of Nazianzus, On_Baptism, 28. Gregory recommends waiting until the third year.

unable to answer for themselves. Evidence of this practice dates from the fourth
century181.
It is not certain whether repeated baptism was permitted either by John, or by the earliest
followers of Jesus. First century evidence is circumstantial, but tends to suggest that it
was. Ceremonies of purification and remission of sins are typically repeatable, since sins
may continue to accumulate after the most recent catharsis. Jewish Tvilah was repeatable,
as were Mandaean and Essene practices. Mandaean baptism, supposedly reflecting the
original practices of John the Baptist, is still repeatable182. Duplicate baptisms are
mentioned several times in the canonical New Testament. Jesus himself envisages a
second baptism183. According to the author of the Mark gospel, Jesus stated that James
and John, sons of Zebedee, could be baptised with “the baptism I am baptized with”184.
This suggests either that some of the disciples had not then yet been baptised, or that a
second baptism was envisaged for them. Disciples were baptised for a second time in
Acts 19:1-6, but it is not clear why they needed rebaptism. The text mentions that they
had previously received John’s baptism but it is not obvious why this was not sufficient
– perhaps because it was done in the name of John, perhaps because it involved only
water. Christian groups certainly performed second baptisms where they considered the
initial baptism by another Christian group to be invalid185. Alternatively, an inadequate
baptism could be completed by the laying on of hands186. This seems to have been the
justification for second baptisms performed by Valentinian Christians187. Some
Christians might have considered initiation to involve a series of separate baptisms 188.
181 Bradshaw, Christian_Worship, p.83, note_46.

182 Hultgård, “Mandean Water Ritual”, p.68.
183 Luke_12:50.
184 Mark_10:35-39.
185 Valentinian followers of Marcus for example rejected normative baptism and administered a second
baptism, their own invisible mystery of redemption, to converts from normative Christianity (Irenaeus,
Against_Heresies, 1.13-21_&_Hippolytus, Refutation,_6.36). Normative Christians did likewise. In
the fourth century, Church Councils authorised rebaptism. The Council of Arles (Canon 8) noted that
Africans (presumably Montanists) practiced rebaptism, and also envisaged rebaptism if the first
baptism had not been performed in the name of the Trinity. The Council of Nicaea (Canon 19)
permitted rebaptism for Paulianists.
186 Cyprian_of_Carthage, Letter_71 (to Stephen); 72 (with quotes from Stephen’s letter) _ &_73
187 Irenaeus, Against_Heresies 1.21.2; Cf._Hippolytus, Refutation, 6.36-37 (re_Marcosians).
188 The Second Book of Ieu, 45-7 envisages three separate baptisms: baptism of water, of fire, and of the
Holy Spirit;. Valentinians recognised five sacraments, which might have constituted a five-stage
baptismal initiation, see Gosp.Phil._67.27-30 (NHL_p.150).

One consideration was the loss of justification (and so of guaranteed salvation) as a

consequence of post-baptismal sin. This should have been impossible if baptism
conferred perfect freedom from temptation, and invincibility against Satan’s wiles189, but
practice evidently did not always match theory. Possible solutions were (a) To take the
hard-line that failure was disastrous, as no second metanoia was possible190, (b) To employ
a different form of metanoia to wipe clean the sin (e.g. Penance, the orthodox solution),
or (c) to permit second baptism. This is the solution offered in the Shepherd of Hermas191,
hinted at by others192, and practiced by Montanists. Since Montanists were generally
conservative193, their solution might have been the older one, superseded by the
mainstream Church which preferred option (b).
Who can baptise?

As far as we know, men and women in early Christianities were equally able to perform
key activities: presiding over agapes and communal meals (proto-Eucharists), leading
prayers, teaching, prophesying, and conducting baptisms194. The Didache refers to the
officiant at a baptism not by any special title, but as “the person baptising”195. It would
be natural for an “Elder” or “Senior” – perhaps the eldest member of the Elect present, or
perhaps the one who had been baptised the longest – to take the lead in activities such as
presiding at communal meals and baptising. By the third century the default position
would be for bishops, presbyters and deacons to take on special roles like this. Tertullian,
writing around 200 CE appears to capture the transition196. Soon, the act of baptising
would be reserved to bishops, who might then delegate the duty to others. Conservative
communities who preserved the primitive flexibility and egalitarianism associated with
189 Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on John 10.2.7-13.

190 Hebrews 6:4-6. Cf._Tertullian, On_Modesty; Hippolytus,_ Refutation,_6.36,_20; Chrysostom,
Instructions to Catechumens, 1.2; Cyril of Jerusalem; Catechetical_Lectures, Prologue, 7.
191 Shepherd_of_Hermas, Mandate_4.3.1-6. Vision_2:2.4-5; Parable_8.6.3. See Vemund Blomkvist, “The
Teaching on Baptism in the Shepherd of Hermas”, in Hellholm. Ed, Initiation, pp.849-870.
192 Contestatio of James 1.1–2 (appended to the Greek MS. of the (Pseudo)Clementine Homilies).
193 For example, Montanists retained early-style prophesy, denied priestly privileges, distinguished
between spiritales (pneumatics) and psychici (psychics), advocated asceticism, and recognised
women presbyters and bishops. At least some retained the Hebrew calendar.
194 Before the development of a priesthood, all baptised Christians including women, presumably enjoyed
the same sacerdotal powers. Women in leadership roles are mentioned in Galatians 3:26-28,
1_Corinthians_12:13, and Romans_16:1-2_&_16:7. Cf._Pliny the Younger’s letter to Trajan .
195 Didache 7.4. This is from Tom O’Loughlin’s translation, in line with Ehrman’s “the one baptising”
and other translators’ “the baptizer”.

Wanderradikalismus evidently started to be regarded as heretical 197. Even so, normative

Churches preserve the primitive practice in extremis, allowing anyone to administer valid
baptism198.
When questions of authority arose in the early Church, a powerful argument reduced to
who had the most direct tradition from Jesus or his immediate apostles. The earliest
version of the doctrine of Apostolic Succession emphasised the public manner in which
apostles had passed on authentic teaching to others. The fewer intermediaries the better.
Apostolic succession provided a powerful argument when it came to esoteric teachings,
and groups that would later be regarded as gnostic would wield it to effect199. In the
Gospel of Philip this form of apostolic succession is explicitly passed on through
chrismation200. For others, it was effected by the laying on of hands, perhaps based on
Hebrew semikhah. Either way, it was passed on at baptism by existing members of the
Elect to new members of the Elect. The Großkirche adapted this system of apostolic
succession to a new form. Now, bishops passed on apostolic status along with divine
grace at their consecration, similarly effected through the laying on of hands and
chrismation. In this new version, the successors to the Apostles were no longer all of the
Elect, but only consecrated bishops, a small (male) subset of the Elect201. Henceforth,
apostolic status would be passed down chains of bishops instead of chains of baptised
Christians.
When?
Baptism could be carried out at any time, but already in the first century Paul noted the
importance of the festival of Pentecost to Christian communities (Acts_20:16 &
1_Corinthians_16:8). In the East, the Feast of Epiphany (supposedly corresponding to
197 Tertullian, On_Prescription_of_Heretics, 41.5-8. Cf. Firmilian of Caesarea, Letter to Cyprian of

Carthage, Against the Letter of Stephen, (Cyprian, Letter 74:10-11).
198 CCC_861 §1. Cf._Pope Eugene_IV, Exultate Deo ("The Decree for the Armenians").
199 Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, p.37. Cf._Henry Chadwick, The_Early_Church, (London:_Penguin
Books, 1967), p.42.
200 Gosp.Phil._74:12-21.
201 Firmilian of Caesarea, Letter to Cyprian of Carthage, Against the Letter of Stephen, (Cyprian, Letter
74:16); Basil_of_Caesarea, To Amphilochius, Letter_188:1; Jerome, To_Evangelus, Letter_146:1;
Augustine, Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental,_4; To_Generosus, Letter_53:2;
Pope_Leo_I, Sermons,_3:1.

Jesus’ baptism) became the preferred season for baptism, but in the west, Pentecost
continued to be favoured.
Initiation from the Fourth Century

The Baptism Ceremony
The first surviving liturgy of baptism is the Apostolic Tradition, previously attributed to
Hippolytus of Rome, but probably a later composition. From this we learn that baptism
was carried out in the early morning; that living water was still being used; that initiates
were baptised naked; that children, men, and women were being baptised (in that order),
and that nothing should be carried “down into the water”, which suggests that total
immersion was still the normal practice202. Other sources confirm that this was normal
practice into the fourth century203. By then, mainstream baptism was normally carried out
by a bishop, and involved:
• A period of 1 to 3 years’ catechesis, asceticism and scrutiny.
• A period of several week’s intense instruction, fasting, and daily exorcism.
• A Profession of Faith, corresponding to formal enrollment into the community of

the Christian “Elect”.
• A final week of more intense instruction, fasting, and daily exorcism

(progressively reduced until the previous stage and the next stage merged).
• Renunciation of Satan and his works, facing West in a church. Further exorcism,
exsufflation by the initiate, and insufflation, the officiator breathing on the
initiate’s face204, sealing, and tasting blessed salt. (Ephphatha is documented only
from the seventh century205).
• Procession to a photisterion or baptistery.
• An all-night vigil.
202 Apostolic_Tradition, 21.

203 Basil_of_Caesarea, On the Holy Spirit, 15.35; Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechetical_Lectures, 17.14.
204 Apostolic_Tradition, 20.8.
205 Gelasian_Sacramentary 42.

• Exorcism and Consecration of the baptismal water.
• Further exorcism of the initiate.
• Removal of the initiates’ clothing, and treading or trampling on them206
• Anointing of the whole body with oil (in the East).
• Baptism by total immersion in water three times, with a laying-on of hands while
standing naked in the water.
• Anointing of the head with oil (in the East) or the whole body (in the West).
• Drying.
• Donning a white robe, girding with a thread, cord, belt or girdle207, and possibly a
bridal garland.
• A further anointing with scented oil, sometimes referred to as sealing, typically

anointing some of the following with oil: eyes, nostrils, ears, shoulders, breasts,
hands and feet; followed by a laying on of hands.
• Conferring a new Christian name (evidenced from the third century)208.
• Praying the Lord’s Prayer.
• Foot Washing (evidenced by Ambrose of Milan).
• Lighting and carrying candles, torches or lamps209 to signify Enlightenment.
• Tonsuring.
206 Gosp.Thom._37_(p.130); Clement of Alexandria, Miscellenies, 3.13.92 on the beliefs of Julius

Cassianus. Cf. Theodore of Mopsuestia, Baptismal_Homilies, 1.32 & 2.36.5-6.
207 Perhaps for those undertaking post-baptismal celibacy, as suggested by the Shepherd of Hermas.
(Vision_3.8.4._Cf. Parable_8.4.1); (Pseudo)Clement, First Epistle on Virginity, 3; Irenaeus,
Against_Heresies, 3.23.5; Clement of Alexandria, The_Instructor, 11; Chrysostom, Instructions to
Catechumens, 1.1. This is possibly the origin of the medieval idea of a girdle of chastity, such as the
one possessed by Thomas Aquinas.
208 The earliest known mention of a name conferred at baptism appears to be the one recorded in the
Acts_of St-Peter Balsamus who died in 331.
209 1_Thessalonians 5:5. See Ephrem, Hymns For Epiphany, 7.9; Gregory of Nyssa, Funeral Oration for
Meletius. Cf._Aphrahat, Demonstrations, 6.1_&_6.6; Acts of (Judas)Thomas, 26.

• The pax, exchanging the Peace and kisses (perhaps a vestige of spiritual marriage
in the Bridal Chamber).
• Sharing a meal featuring milk and honey with other baptized Christians210, perhaps
a vestige of the wedding feast held after the spiritual marriage, now conflated
with the Eucharist.
• A further week of mystagogical instruction.
In the fourth century, Cyril of Jerusalem spoke of the mysteries of Baptism, largely
relating established practices211. The period between Profession and Baptism proper
seems to have gradually shrunk from several weeks to one day before the two stages
merged into one during the fourth century212. Anointing with oil had clearly become
paramount, at least to Syrian Christians like Aphrahat who asserted that unction is “a life-
giving sacrament that bestows perfection on Christians, priests, kings and prophets;
brings light into darkness, anoints the sick, and brings penitents back”213.
Chrismation/Confirmation
In the early fourth century it was still normal practice for Christian believers to be baptised
as late as possible, often on their death-beds. Over the following century child baptism
seems to have become ever more popular, especially after Saint Augustine’s doctrine of
Original Sin was adopted into Nicene orthodoxy. The transformative, life-changing
effects of baptism could not reasonably be expected of infants. A solution was to divide
the initiatory rite into two. Children could undergo baptism with water for the remission
of their sin. Years later, as adults, they could undertake baptism of fire. So it was that
the laying-on of hands along with anointing started to be separated off as a distinct rite,
becoming known as consignation or chrismation214. As the two parts of the fundamental
initiatory rite diverged it became possible for initiates to have undertaken baptism, but
not chrismation, a circumstance that invited questions about the significance of the two
ceremonies215. In time, a solution of sorts was found: the second part of the ceremony
210 Apostolic_Tradition, 21.27.

211 Cyril of Jerusalem, Mystagogical_Catecheses, 2; Cf._Apostolic_Tradition.
212 Bradshaw, Christian_Worship, pp.64-68.
213 Aphrahat, Demonstrations, 23.
214 J.N.D. Kelly, Early_Christian_Doctrines, p.432.
215 Ibid. p.435.

became a ceremony of “strengthening”, a separate rite, later to become the sacrament of

Confirmation in the west216.
Extreme Unction / Euchelaion

Evidently, the age of confirmation was progressively reduced, limited by the age of
reason. But confirmation for a seven-year-old, can have been little better than infant
baptism insofar as it could reflect a genuine metanoia. Confirmation would be effective
only if the initiate could expect to live the rest of their lives without committing serious
sins. A solution was to repurpose the most solemn part of baptism and confirmation, and
to provide it as a third distinct rite for those thought to be facing death. Repackaged as
“Extreme Unction”, this new rite fulfilled the role that had been played by clinical baptism
for believers over the first three centuries. In the west, extreme unction seems to have
become widely accepted by the twelfth century, as witnessed by churchmen debating
whether it could be applied more than once to the same person. The range of alternative
names (“Final Unction”, “Anointing of the Sick”, etc), along with divergent practices in
normative Churches, along with the absence of any unambiguous mention of it over the
first millennium, all witness its late development. It was defined by the Council of
Trent217. Final Unction replicated elements of Confirmation, most notably the laying on
of hands to induce epiclesis, followed by anointing the organs of the senses, remission of
sins and “strengthening” by the Holy Spirit. It was placed between Penance (confession)
and the older Viaticum218 to provide the familiar Catholic “Last Rites”. In the East, the
Orthodox Church solved the problem in a similar way, and around the same time, with a
rite for the sick called euchelaion (εὐχέλαιον) 219, administered by a bishop assisted by
seven priests.
Priestly Initiation
Priesthood of the baptised is the only sort of priesthood identified in the canonical New
Testament220. All of the Elect shared equally as children of God, prophets, priests and
216 The name Confirmation (confirmatio) was apparently first used by the Council of Orange in 441. See
Kelly, Op.Cit, p.435.
217 Council of Trent, Session_14, On the Sacrament of Extreme Unction. It is based on James 5:14-15.
Cf. Aphrahat, Demonstrations, 23.
218 The Viaticum, but not Final Unction, is mentioned in Canon_13 of the First Council of Nicaea.
219 Ware, The_Orthodox_Church,_pp.302-3.
220 1_Peter_2:9 and 2:5; Revelation 1:6,_5:10_&_20:6. Cf._Exodus 19:6.

apostles. Bishops, presbyters and deacons evidently started monopolising key activities
and acquiring sacerdotal roles in baptism and the Eucharist from the third century. The
word priest (ἱερός, sacerdos) would first be applied to Christian bishops, then to other
clergy221. Once a clergy existed, holy ceremonies would be needed to mark their
initiatory rites of passage – to consecrate bishops and to ordain priests and deacons. In
time, further rites would be needed for the initiation of more senior hierophants. As other
secondary initiations had been created from existing baptismal elements – laying on of
hands, anointing, insufflation – so were these new priestly initiations.
Monastic Initiation
Some early Christians undertook perpetual celibacy at their baptism, especially in Syria
and Egypt, sometimes living in single-sex communities. By the fourth century, such
communities had evidently evolved into eremitic, lavritic or coenobitic communities, or
into sketes. Monastic Orders would soon follow, and they too would require rules for
formal admission, including ceremonies of initiation. Such ceremonies once again
reproduced transformative elements of Christian baptism – but seem to have avoided
those used for sacramental initiation. Instead they focused on adoption (in this case by
an abbot or an abbess) into a new family, death and rebirth as a new person, and a new
lifestyle including new dress, new name, new diet, new status, and new rights and
obligations. Novices were tonsured like early Christian (and modern Orthodox)
baptizands. Like early Catechumens, novices normally served a rigorous period of
several years’ training and testing before undergoing the rite of initiation that transformed
them into full members of the community. An element of early baptism which has all
but disappeared from modern baptismal rites appears to be preserved intact in monastic
Orders, especially in women’s Orders. This is the idea of spiritual marriage. Instead of
the soul uniting with the Holy Spirit at baptism, the novice weds Jesus Christ (complete
until the present century with wedding dress, veil, ring, and garland or crown) and lives
henceforth as a celibate Bride of Christ.
221 Paul Bradshaw, The Search for the Origins of Christian Worship: Sources and Methods for the Study
of Early Liturgy, (SPCK,_2002), p.201_ff.

Modern Christian Initiation.

In the west, rites of adult baptism atrophied in the West from the medieval period, but
they have been revived since the 1970s222. Most modern Christian initiation replicates the
primary elements of fourth century baptism, notably the use of water, the laying on of
hands, the application of chrism, and the invocation of the Holy Spirit. Today, these last
three elements are found not only at baptism, but all important Christian rites of passage:
confirmation; the ordination of deacons and priests; the consecration of bishops;
exorcisms; extreme unction/euchelaion; the blessings of abbots and virgins; and the
reconciliation of public penitents, schismatics, heretics, and apostates223. They also
feature in the anointing of Christian monarchs at their coronations224. Anointing oil has
evolved into "Sacred Chrism", with specific variations for Baptism ("oil of the
catechumens") and Final Unction ("oil of the infirm"). The idealisation of virginity, and
recognition of marriage as acceptable but second-best, is still the position of most
normative Churches. The desirability of chastity is reflected in vows of chastity
undertaken by monks and nuns, consecrated virgins, anchorites and hermits, and also in
the vows of celibacy expected of priests in the Catholic Church and of black clergy of the
Orthodox Church. It is also why the Catholic Church traditionally accords honour and
pre-eminence to virgins225.
Ancient elements of baptismal practice are still recognised in modern mainstream

practice. The Orthodox Church and other Eastern Churches retain the original practice
of total immersion in living water, but affusion, and aspersion also survive. The
significance of baptism is also preserved. Baptizands are still adopted by the Father 226,
reborn as “sons of God” through baptism227, and restored to paradise and eternal glory228.
222 RCIA includes an extended initiation where the initiate explicitly passes through the phases of
Catechumen, Elect, and Neophyte. Other western churches saw similar revivals of rites of adult
baptism around the same time.
223 Patrick Morrisroe, "Imposition of Hands." TCE, vol._7.
224 Royal anointing was an innovation of the Western Church for the coronation of Pepin the Short in
751. See Janet L. Nelson “Carolingian Royal Ritual”, in Rituals of Royalty Power and Ceremonial in
Traditional Societies, Edited by David Cannadine and Simon Price, (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1992), pp.142-152. Today, anointing, inducing epiclesis, is considered the most
sacred part of British coronations.
225 Arthur Vermeersch. TCE. “Nuns” vol._11"_&_“Virginity" vol._15. Council of Trent (Session_24,
Canon._10); Aquinas, Summa theologiæ, Question_152, “Virginity”, Article_4.
226 CCC_2777,_citing Peter_Chrysologus.
227 For example, in Catholic teaching. CCC_Article 1: The Sacrament of Baptism,_1213.
228 CCC_736, citing Basil_of_Caesarea, On_the_Holy_Spirit,_15.36.

They are justified through baptism229. In theory, if not in practice, the ancient practice of
reserving the Lord’s_Prayer for initiates is echoed in modern Churches230. Both Catholic
and Orthodox Churches still consider the use of the word Father in the Lord’s Prayer as
“daring”231, and envisage prayer to the Father being facilitated through the Holy Spirit232.
Baptism is still identified with purity and enlightenment233. The pax, originally exchanged
“promiscuously”234, had been restricted by the late fourth century so that men kissed only
men and women kissed only women235. Since the mid-thirteenth century, an intermediate
object also called a “pax” has been used in the West to enable men and women to
exchange kisses236. Some Churches retain the teaching that all baptised Christians are
priests237 and apostles238, and possess prophetic gifts239. Terminology of the Elect is still
used in the Catholic Church240, though it is emphasised more by Protestant Churches.
Exorcism still forms part of baptism in the Orthodox Church, the Catholic Church241, and
traditionalist parts of the Anglican Church. The idea that the immaterial soul is
imprisoned in the body has become less poplar in modern times, along with the idea that
the world and flesh are both intrinsically evil242. For reasons of hygiene, modesty or
modern sensibilities, some traditional elements of baptismal practice have been
229 See for example CCC_1987-1995, citing 1_Peter_3:21. Cf._Mark_16:16, John_3:5, and Acts_2:38.
230 CCC_1243. For the Orthodox Church, see “The Privilege to Pray the Lord’s Prayer”,
https://oca.org/reflections/berzonsky/the-privilege-to-pray-the-lords-prayer retrieved 8th_January,
2018.
231 Preface by the celebrant to the Divine Liturgy in the Orthodox Church; CCC_2777.
232 See for example the Roman Catholic Order of Confirmation, 2016. Translation of the 1st edition of
the Latin Ordo Confirmationis, International Committee on English in the Liturgy, Inc.: “it is the
Spirit who prays in us”.
233 RCIA; CCC_1216_&_CCC_1227. In the Orthodox Church, a baptistery is a photisterion, a place of
light.
234 Andrew Meehan, “Pax”, TCE_vol.11.
235 Apostolic_Constitutions,_8.11.
236 A pax-board is first attested in England in 1248 and in France the following century. Craig Koglofsky,
“The Kiss of Peace in the German Reformation”, 18-35, Karen Harvey (ed), The Kiss in History, p.21.
The pax was subsequently abandoned in popular usage, though reinstituted by some Churches in the
twentieth century.
237 CCC_1268_&_1547. Cf._Norman Nagel, "Luther and the Priesthood of All Believers," Concordia
Theological Quarterly, 61 (October 1997), 4:283-284.
238 That all baptised Christians are apostles is explicit in the Orthodox Church: Timothy Ware, The
Orthodox_Church, (London: Penguin, 1964), p.285, and implicit in the Catholic Church (CCC_1270).
239 Ware, Orthodox_Church, p.285, and more ambiguously in CCC_1268_&_1547.
240 RCIA. Cf._CCC_1308,_1025,_1031,_1045,_1308,_1344,_1994.
241 In a reduced form since 1969: CCC_1237.
242 Explicit mentions of the evil triad of Devil, World and Flesh are difficult to find in modern statements
of doctrine, but not in traditional formulae, for example, The Catechism of The Council of Trent,
Article_9.

eliminated or at least made optional. Among them might be numbered stripping nude,
oiling the whole body, insufflation, exsufflation, ephphatha, and the language of slavery
to God.
Some elements have been preserved in the East but lost in the west. Orthodox baptism
for example still involves a vestigial form of tonsuring, and anointing the sense organs.
Ancient Christian ideas of deification are preserved in the East, and less obviously in the
West243. The concept of spiritual marriage has also survived. References to the bridal
chamber are rare in the West, but spiritual marriage in the context of baptism is alluded
to in recondite works of western theology244. By contrast, the significance and the
terminology of other elements of early Christian initiation have survived openly into
modern times, among them purity, perfection, and illumination. Pentecost is still
associated with sacramental rites derived from early Christian initiation: not only Baptism
itself, Confirmation, and Ordination, but other rites involving the laying on of hands and
invocation of the Holy Spirit.
Echoes in Catharism
Cathars were medieval Christians, commonly known as “Good Christians”245, and
concentrated in the Languedoc. Surviving medieval texts describe the Cathar ritual of
baptism246. It was a two-part ritual, consisting of a “Transmission of the Lord’s Prayer”
followed by the “Consolamentum”. The Transmission was undertaken before the
Consolamentum ― either immediately before, or, like the early Christian Profession of
Faith247, days or weeks before248. For Cathars, as for early followers of Jesus, baptism
was the only rite of Christian initiation. It was available to believers in two distinct
circumstances: first, for adults, after two or three years’ catechesis, probation and
examination; second, as clinical baptism, virtually on demand for those of any age in
243 CCC_460,_1265,_1988. See also Barthelemy Froget, The Indwelling of the Holy Spirit in the Souls of
the Just According to The Teaching of St-Thomas Aquinas, Translated by Sydney A. Raemers. 3rd Ed
(New_York: The Paulist Press, 1921), p.155.
244 Froget, Op.Cit. p._155, Cf. pp._62-72, 111,_&_154-6.
245 LR_passim; BGui_3_(p.383). Pierre des Vaux-de-Cernay, Hystoria Albigenses, 13.
246 Arno Borst, Die Katharer (Stuttgart:_Anton Hiersemann, 1953), translated by Charles Roy, Les
Cathars, (Paris:_Payot, 1984)._p.168, note 3, provides comprehensive references.
247 LR_3.1-3.47.
248 LR_4.1. For a discussion see of the two-part Cathar initiation see Borst, Les Cathares, p.164, note_3.

expectation of death249. In this, Cathar practice reflected normative practice over the first
three centuries of Christianity. In both cases, there were no church buildings or
baptistries, no fonts, no anointing oil, no priests, and no intricate ceremonial. The word
“church” (Occitan gleisa) was used like ἐκκλησία in the New Testament to designate not
a building but an assembly of Christians250. Again, as in the early Church, secret teachings
were reserved for the initiated251, and baptism constituted a “spiritual marriage”252.
Cathars distinguished between an inner-circle of baptised Christians sometimes known
as the “Elect” and an outer-circle of “hearers”253.
Cathars rejected the use of material elements in their baptisms254. In rejecting oil, they
resembled normative early Christian practice, and in rejecting water they resembled some
known early Christian groups255. Water was referred to in their baptism ritual, but only
in the context of emphasising that water-baptism had been superseded by spiritual
baptism256. This spiritual baptism was accomplished by the laying on of hands257 and was
necessary for salvation258. Cathars stressed that this was the form of baptism conferred
on Saint Paul259. Repeated references to the laying on of hands are made in Cathar ritual,
citing New Testament passages260, and emphasising the descent of the Holy Spirit. The
very name Consolamentum (Occitan Cossolatz or Cossolament), reflects the role of the
Paraclete as Consoler or Comforter (Occitan Cofortador)261. In Cathar belief, the body,
a “tunic of flesh”, imprisoned the soul262. During baptism, the Holy Spirit descended and
the initiate’s body became a Temple of the Holy Spirit263. A chaste, austere lifestyle
249 The Lyons Ritual gives two forms of the Consolamentum for use for the two types of initiate.
250 LR_3.11.
251 Bernard of Clairvaux, Sermons,_65.2-3.
252 BGui_1_(p.380).
253 Eberwin of Steinfeld, Letter to St-Bernard (St-Bernard’s_Letters, 472). English translation at
HotHMA, 15.3_(p.130).
254 BGui_4_(p.384).
255 Irenaeus, Against_Heresies, 1.24.4 & Epiphanius, Medicine_Chest, 34.20.7-8.
256 LR_4.8-10; BGui_1 (p.379).
257 LR_4.3,_4.8,_4.12,_4.15-21,_4.29; BGui_1_(p.379).
258 LR_4.7; Cf._4.43.
259 LR_4.13.
260 LR_3.13-14,_3.22-24,_3.30,_4.3;_4.12,_4.15-17,_4.52.
261 Cossolatz_LR_4.1; Cossolament_LR_4.2; Cofortador_LR_3.23.
262 Flesh as clothing: LR_2.4_&_4.41; Cf._Jude 1:23. Flesh as a prison: LR_2.20; Cf. Moneta of Cremona,
Summa against the Cathars, 2.1, [HotHMA,_50_(p.318)].
263 LR_3.14-16,_3.23-24,_3.26-28,_3.30-31. This indwelling also explained the melioramentum:
BGui_2_(p.382).

ensured a pure dwelling place for the Holy Spirit. The theme of illumination was also
important264. As in traditional Christian practice, the person administering the baptism
would breath upon the initiate as part of the baptismal rite265. Any serious sin committed
after baptism would cause the Holy Spirit to depart, abandoning the initiate and reducing
him or her to a mere hearer again, although the Consolamentum could be repeated266. As
in early Christianity, baptism entailed adoption by God267. God could now be addressed
as “Father” and all other baptised Cathars were adoptive brothers and sisters268. For
Cathars, as for early Christians, the Lord’s_Prayer was reserved for the initiated269 and
first used at their baptism270. Baptised men and women avoided touching each other271.
Such rules posed problems since the consolamentum required kissing on the mouth272.
Men could kiss men, and women, women; but men could not kiss women. Instead, among
Cathars, the man would kiss a holy book and then pass it to a woman for her to kiss 273.
Again, as for early Christians, baptism for Cathars was a life-changing experience.
Initiates passed from being creatures of the material world into a state of holiness,
reconnected to the immaterial realm of light. Like early Christians, they were perfected,
and could be referred to as Perfects (perfecti)274, members of the Elect275, or disciples
(Occitan decipols)276. They emulated the lives of the first Apostles277. They devoted
themselves to the breaking of bread and to prayer (Acts_2:42); they lived together and
264 John_1:1-17 was recited during the most solemn part of the Consolamentum, LR_4:54.
265 LR_4.20; Vaux-de-Cernay, Hystoria, 19.
266 James_Capelli, On_the_Cathars, English translation at HotHMA 49._(p.303).
267 LR_1.31,_3.14,_3.17-18;_3.31.
268 LR_2.11. Cf._2.2,_2.6,_2.9,_3.46.
269 LR_3.36-43. Cf._4.3. Eberwin of Steinfeld, (St-Bernard’s_Letters, 472). English translation at
HotHMA, 15.3,_(p.130).
270 LR_4.3, 4.54. Cf._ BGui_3_(p.383). James_Capelli, On_the_Cathars, HotHMA 49 (p.303).
271 LR_4.58, 6.47; BGui_2,_(p.382) &_3,_(p.383); Cf._(Pseudo)Clement, Second Epistle on Virginity
1-3_&_9.
272 LR_4.56-8; Vaux-de-Cernay, Hystoria, 19.
273 LR_4.56.
274 Eckbert of Schönau, Sermon_13. For “perfect heretics” as opposed to “perfect Christians”, see
BGui_1_(p.381) and Vaux-de-Cernay, Hystoria. 13,_14,_117,_159. For discussions of the term see
Borst, Les Cathares, p.175_n.3; also, Caterina Bruschi, Peter Biller, Text and the Repression of
Medieval Heresy, (York Medieval Press, 2003). p.129, and Lucy._J._Sackville, “Heresy and Heretics
in the Thirteenth Century: The Textual Representations”, (Woodbridge:_Boydell,_2014),_p.201.
275 Eberwin of Steinfeld, (St-Bernard’s Letters, 472). English translation at HotHMA, 15.3 (p.130).
276 LR_3.36.
277 Bernard of Clairvaux, Sermons, 65. Cf._Eberwin of Steinfeld, (St-Bernard’s Letters, 472.3, English
translation at HotHMA p._129).

held possessions in common (Acts_2:44); they ate together in ordinary homes (Acts_2:46).
They ate frugally and dressed simply (Mark_6:7-13).
They taught others in the open air and in private houses (Luke 10:5). They travelled in
pairs278, sent out “Like sheep among wolves”279. They were expected to earn their keep
through manual labour280. They undertook not to lie, swear oaths, kill, rob, pass
judgement, expose their bodies to luxury, or abandon their faith even in danger of death281.
They were obliged to forgive, bless and pray for their enemies 282. They adopted lives of
strict asceticism, hating both the world and the flesh283. They explicitly saw themselves
as being in the world but not of the world284. By virtue of the indwelling Holy Spirit,
baptised Cathars believed themselves to enjoy the spiritual gifts (χαρίσματα) of the Holy
Spirit285. These gifts conferred the role of apostle286, prophet287, evangelist288, teacher289,
preacher290, healer and miracle worker291. Like some early Christian groups, they rejected
marriage and the eating of meat292. All baptised Cathars belonged to the same ordo293,
and shared equal spiritual authority. As successors to the Apostles, all enjoyed the power
278 Inquisition records frequently refer to Good Men travelling in pairs, each with their socius or allotted
companion. Cf._Mark_6:7-13;_Matthew_10:5-42, Luke_9:1-6_&_10:1.
279 Eberwin of Steinfeld, (St-Bernard’s Letters,_472.3, English translation at HotHMA, 15.3 [pp.
127-138]). Cf._Luke_10:3.
280 Cf._Didache_4.6. Cathars were especially associated with weaving and the cloth trade, an association
so strong that in some places they were known as Tisserands, Tisseyres, Tixerands or Textores.
281 LR_4.32-33. English translation by Lance S._Owens, http://gnosis.org/library/traditio.htm, accessed
7th February,_2018.
282 LR_4.32-3.
283 LR_4.34-42; BGui_1. (p.379).
284 LR_4.34-42; Eberwin of Steinfeld, (St-Bernard’s Letters, 472.3, English translation at HotHMA, 15.3
(pp.127-138). Cf._1_John_2.15-17.
285 Romans_12:6-8; 1_Corinthians_12:8-10_&_12:28; Ephesians_4:11, 1_Peter_4.11.
286 LR_4.17-24. Cf._Corinthians_12:28, Ephesians_4:11. BGui_4_(p.383), Cf._1_(p.380).
287 LR_3.19,_3.29,_4.12,_4.27-31. Cf._Acts_4:14_&_14:23;_Romans_12:6-8; 1_Corinthians_12:8-10;
12:28, Ephesians_4:11; 1_Timothy_4:14.
288 LR_4.6. Cf._Ephesians_4:11;_Mark_16:15.
289 LR_4.3-4. _Cf._Matthew_28:19-20; 1_Timothy_4:13; Hebrews 5:11-14.
290 LR_4.6 citing Mark_16.15-16. Cf._Romans_12:6-8; 1_Corinthians_12:28; Ephesians_4:11,
1_Timothy_4:1.
291 LR_3.19,_3.29,_4.12,_4.27-31. Cf._Mark_16:18, Luke_10:19_&_1_Corinthians_12:8-10 & 12:28.
292 LR_3.39; Eberwin of Steinfeld, (St-Bernard’s Letters, 472.3, English translation at HotHMA _p._128).
Cf._1 Timothy_4:3-4; Irenaeus, Against Heresies,_1.24.2,_1.28.1. Epiphanius, Medicine Chest, 1.13.1-
2,_13.1.1 (re_Dositheans), 23.2.5_(re_Satornilus), 30.15.3-4_(re_Ebionites), 67.1.6_(re_Encratites).
293 Occitan azordenament, LR_2.1. Borst, Les Cathares, p.175 note_4 cites texts that refer to the Cathar
ordo. BGui, passim, refers repeatedly to their “sect and order”.

to bind and loose, the power of the keys, and the power to forgive sins294. All were able
to baptise295. Cathars claimed the earliest form of Apostolic Succession through an
unbroken chain of baptised Christians296. As in the second century proto-orthodox
Church, the hierarchy seems to have been two-fold and primarily administrative,
consisting of bishops/elders and deacons297. Like early Christians (see page 25), Cathars
made provision for a sort of pre-baptism. If believers feared becoming incapacitated and
so unable to play their part in the baptism ceremony, they could undergo a preparatory
ritual298. If they were subsequently incapacitated, baptism could then be administered
even though they were unable to respond. This option was exercised by members of the
military garrison at Montsegur during the siege of 1244299.
Aspects of Cathar beliefs and practices, along with their Wanderradikalismus lifestyle,
suggest that those beliefs and practices might have survived from early Christian times
into the middle ages, preserved in the communal memory of a concealed Christian
tradition. It has long been recognised that their practices resembled those of early
Christians300, and this resemblance is consistent with their own claim to have survived
from apostolic times301. If they did, then Cathar baptismal practices might preserve those
of early Christianities, and could perhaps shed light on areas of uncertainty concerning
early practice. For example, if the premiss is accepted, Cathar practise would support
scholarly opinion that the Lord’s Prayer was used only by baptised Christians and learned
294 LR_4.17-24. Cf._BGui_1_(p.380)_&_4_(p.383).

295 LR_4.3-4; Eberwin of Steinfeld, (St-Bernard’s Letters, 472.3, English translation at HotHMA,
15.3_[pp.130]). According to James Capelli the Consolamentum was administered by a large number
of brothers and sisters lead by one especially qualified by age or wisdom. James Capelli on the
Cathars, HotHMA 49 (p.303).
296 LR_4.17-24. Even more explicit in the Latin version of the rite: HotHMA 57A (p.477). See also
Eberwin of Steinfeld, (St-Bernard’s Letters, 472.3, English translation at HotHMA, 15.3 [p.129]); and
Eckbert of Schönau, Sermon_13, Against_the_Cathars, (PL_195.13–14).
297 Although all Good Christian’s possess equal rights and powers, in practice deacons were responsible
for conducting monthly confessions, and bishops preside over baptisms whenever they are present. If
not, the rites seem to be conducted by the one present who has been baptised the longest. The
Provençal Ritual presumes the rite to be conducted by an ancia (“Elder”); In the Latin Ritual it is an
ordinatus (“Organiser”), with an ancianus (“Elder” or “Senior”) acting as sponsor. .
298 La covenensa (Occitan for “the Pact” or “the Agreement”), BGui_2_(p.382).
299 Michel Roquebert, L’Epopée Cathar, 5_vols. (Toulouse:_Privat, 1989), Vol.4,_p.393.
300 Sir Steven Runciman, The Medieval Manichee (Cambridge University Press, 1999), p.173. Jean-
Louis Biget, Hérésie et Inquisition dans le midi de la France (Paris:_Picard, 2007), pp.63-105.
Christine Thouzellier, Rituel_Cathare. (Paris:_Éditions du Cerf, 1977),_p.51.
301 LR_4.18; Eckbert of Schönau, Sermon_13 Against_the_Cathars, (PL 195.13–14). Eberwin of
Steinfeld, (St-Bernard’s Letters, 472.3, English translation at HotHMA_15.3_[p.129]); Walter Mapp,
De nugis curialium,_1.3 (English translation at HotHMA_42B_[p.254]).

only at a late stage of catechesis. Again, the fact that Cathar women could baptise would
add weight to the likelihood that women routinely baptised in the early Church.
Distinctive practices might point to the specific form of early Christianity from which
Catharism derived. The insistence on celibacy and strict dietary rules for example might
suggest early Egyptian or Syrian origins, in line with the opinion of some scholars 302.
Spiritual marriage had once been accepted by all Christians, but Cathars had a distinctive
interpretation by which the soul was reunited with its own heavenly counterpart 303. This
had also been a distinctive belief of followers of Valentinus, a second century theologian
educated in Egypt. Could this similarity with an early Christian group be more than a
coincidence? The rejection of water-baptism might also be significant. Water-baptism
had also been rejected by at least some Valentinians304. Similarly, distinctive Cathar
practices might point to the period in which they were formulated. Features such as
baptism as the sole form of initiation; baptism in two-phases; baptism offered in two
distinct circumstances; baptism as spiritual marriage; a priesthood of all believers; the
primitive form of Apostolic Succession; the two-fold administrative hierarchy; the
absence of church buildings, of anointing oil, and of baptismal Christian names; the
theoretical equality of women; the manual labour expected of the Elect; the acceptability
of repeated baptisms, and the Wanderradikalismus lifestyle, might together suggest
second century origins. This would also match the hypothetical transitional period in the
Großkirche where baptisms could still be administered by any member of the Elect, but
were increasingly reserved to senior members of the Elect (and would soon be restricted
to clergymen).
Cathar practices offer tantalising insights into other possibilities. Did early Christians
attribute significance to the girdle (or belt, chord, thread, or cincture) that girded the
baptismal robe? And could it be related to the thread worn by baptised Cathars under their
302 Yuri Stoyanov, The Other God, (New_Haven_ &_London, Yale University Press, 2000), p.195.
303 Peter of Gaillac, reporting the teaching of one of the Authie brothers in L’inquisiteur Geoffroy d’Ablis
et les cathares du comté de Foix (1308-9), ed. & trans. Annette Pales-Gobilliard (Paris, 1984), p.336;
Moneta of Cremona, Summa against the Cathars, English translation at HotHMA, 50 (p.310).
304 François Bovon, “Fragment of Oxyrhynchus 840,” Journal_of_Biblical_Literature 119 (2000)
705-728 shows that rejection of water baptism is typical of groups traditionally identified as Gnostic,
notably Naasenes and Valentinians. Irenaeus, Against_Heresies, 1.21.3–4, is explicit that some
Valentinians reject water baptism.

robes?305. And did these girdles symbolise chastity? Again, did part of the early baptismal
rite include touching a copy of a testament on the initiate’s head, as preserved in Cathar
baptisms306 and in normative initiations such as ordinations, episcopal consecrations,
coronations, and the conferring of higher degrees in ancient universities. From the late
twelfth century, male and female Cathars are known to have exchanged kisses by the
intermediary of a testament. They were thus using a sort of “pax” generations before the
Catholic Church is known to have adopted the practice. Is this how early Christian men
and women performed the pax, after the earliest phase of “promiscuous” kissing, and
before a specific object was invented for the purpose? Once Final Unction had been
developed in the medieval period, a popular superstition arose that those who recovered
their health after receiving it should lead a radically new life – for example that they
should not marry or eat meat. Where did such ideas come from? And why do they
resemble early Encratite ideas associated with baptism? Could they have been preserved
in communal memories for a millennium? Could the Cathars have played any part in this?
Again, in normative Christianity, the newly baptised wore white. Newly baptised Cathars
wore black307. Is it a coincidence that celibate monks and priests traditionally wear
black?308 Could it be that in early Christianity ordinary (psychic) neophytes wore white,
but more spiritual pneumatics, distinguished themselves by wearing black to signal their
superior celibate status? Were Cathars their sartorial successors, along with monks, nuns
and priests. And is it more than a coincidence that the Orthodox Church recognises
“white clergy” who may marry, and a superior category of “black clergy” who may not?
Conclusion
Christian initiation by the third century, though relatively simple, entailed a profound
metanoia. This metanoia was compromised when child baptism became the norm, giving
rise to a secondary form of initiation, Confirmation, which replicated core elements of
baptism. These same elements were replicated again wherever the Holy Spirit was
needed to provide sanctification: to ordain priests, to consecrate bishops, to anoint
Christian monarchs, and to expiate the sins of those facing death. Other baptismal
305 The use of cords or belts by baptised Cathars is discussed in Borst, Les Cathares, p.167._note 1.
306 LR_4.52. Cf. the rather vague “delivery of the gospel” during baptism in some early Christian texts.
307 Vaux-de-Cernay, Hystoria, 13_&_19, HotHMA_p.239_&_241.
308 Gregory of Nyssa in his Funeral Oration for Meletius contrasts baptismal white with the black worn
by preachers.

elements were repurposed for other forms of initiatory rites of passage: joining monastic
orders, committing to a life of sacred virginity, graduating to higher university degrees,
and so on.
The rich symbolism and terminology of baptism provides a toolkit for interpreting early
Christian texts, including so-called “gnostic gospels”, works of mystagogy, and
documents that have proved difficult to classify. This toolkit provides access to their
esoteric significance. In reconstructing the transition of baptism between the apostolic
period and the late second century we could make more use of this toolkit of baptismal
symbolism and terminology. Without it, some works are puzzling or even impenetrable
(the Shepherd of Hermas for example contains no explicit mention of baptism, yet its
symbology and terminology reveal baptism to be a central theme). We could also make
use of monastic conventions which might, through conscious conservatism or
unconscious inertia, incorporate fossilised practices of early Christian communities.
Other potential sources include ancient traditions of ritual purity and the initiatory
practices of those outside the circle of proto-orthodoxy. These sources would include not
only those traditionally considered “heretical”, but also pagan mystery cults, Essene and
other Jewish groups, and the Mandaeans, whose practices bear striking similarities to both
Jewish Tvilah and early Christian baptism. The same applies to medieval Cathars, whose
doctrines and practices have not yet been rigorously analysed in the light of what we now
know about early Christianities following advances in scholarship over the last century.
Traditionally, the focus of theologians has been proto-orthodox and orthodox documents.
Other texts have often been dismissed as aberrant, heretical, or merely quasi-Christian
hybrid monsters. In recent decades the paradigm of one orthodox Christianity beset by
deviant hybrids has come to be widely recognized as inadequate. The received academic
model is now one of competing Christianities. In the old model, modern normative
Christianity was the successor to the one true apostolic form of Christianity, and
indubitably best preserved its authentic teachings. In the new model, concepts of
normality and authenticity may be decoupled. Normative Christianity is not necessarily
the one that has most faithfully preserved early Christian beliefs and practices. Medieval
Catharism appears to provide an illustration of this. Catharism cannot be considered
normative (it seems always to have been a minority confession), yet it appears to have
preserved with extraordinary fidelity the initiatory practices of an early form of

Christianity. It differs from normative Christianity in major respects ― not least in its
rejection of water-baptism ― but in many other respects it appears to have preserved
into the medieval period beliefs and practices of early “proto-orthodox” Christianity with
greater fidelity than any normative Church.

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Christian Initiation: From Baptism to Multiple Sacraments

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ON CHRISTIAN INITIATION

James McDonald, M.A. (Oxon.), MSc. (Sussex)

24th February, 2018

Dissertation submitted in partial requirement

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Gosp.Thom. The Gospel of Thomas, NHL, II,2.

Gosp.Phil. The Gospel of Philip, NHL, II,3.

LR The “Lyons Ritual”, MS. Bibliothèque municipale de Lyon, PA 36,

RCIA Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults, English version of the Ordo

TCE The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the

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Initiation in the First Century

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Baptism by Fire and the Holy Spirit

Baptism by the Laying on of Hands

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Which is the real Baptism?

16 (Health) Mark_6:5; Luke_4:40,_13:11-13; 6:19; Cf._healing by touch, Mark_1:40-44,_7:32, 8:22-25;

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Initiation from the Second Century

Baptism with Chrism

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76 Augustine, Exposition on the Psalms, 45.20.

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87 Cyril of Jerusalem, Mystagogical_Catecheses, 1-5; Cf._Basil of Caesarea, On_the_Holy_Spirit, 15.36;

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century, formal catechesis normally stretched over years, culminating in a Profession of

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138 Matthew_5:48; Cf._Matthew_19:21_&_Cyprian_of_Carthage, On the Lord's Prayer, Treatise_4.20.

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157 Augustine, On_Baptism_Against_the_Donatists, 5.16;_Cf. 3.27;

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Baptism In Whose Name?

Who can be Baptised?

168 Tertullian, On_Baptism, 4.

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181 Bradshaw, Christian_Worship, p.83, note_46.

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One consideration was the loss of justification (and so of guaranteed salvation) as a

Who can baptise?

189 Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on John 10.2.7-13.

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Wanderradikalismus evidently started to be regarded as heretical 197. Even so, normative

197 Tertullian, On_Prescription_of_Heretics, 41.5-8. Cf. Firmilian of Caesarea, Letter to Cyprian of

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Initiation from the Fourth Century

• A period of 1 to 3 years’ catechesis, asceticism and scrutiny.

• A period of several week’s intense instruction, fasting, and daily exorcism.

• A Profession of Faith, corresponding to formal enrollment into the community of

• A final week of more intense instruction, fasting, and daily exorcism