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Crispen Mutsvangwa Reticulation Design & Management

Chapter 1

Water Demand & Planning


Contents
1.0 Water Demand ....................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Types of water demand .......................................................................................... 2
1.2 Water Losses.......................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Wastage ................................................................................................................. 3
1.4 Determination of Water Demand ............................................................................ 3
1.5 Factors to be considered in estimating demand ..................................................... 3
1.10.1 Determination of the peak factor ......................................................................... 5
1.10.2 Instantaneous Peak factor................................................................................... 5
1.10.2 Some recommendations for Peak Factors .......................................................... 7
1.15.1 Arithmetic ............................................................................................................ 8
1.15.2 Linear Model ....................................................................................................... 8
1.16 Sizing of Storage Reservoirs .................................................................................. 8
1.17.1 Bulk Storage ........................................................................................................ 9
1.18.2 Service Reservoirs .............................................................................................. 9
1.18.3 Detailed Investigations and Economic Aspects ................................................. 10
1.18.4 Preliminary & Detailed Designs ......................................................................... 10
1.18.4 Tendering, Documentation & Project Implementation ....................................... 11
References ..................................................................................................................... 11

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Crispen Mutsvangwa Reticulation Design & Management

Chapter 1

Water Demand

1.0 Water Demand


Water demand is the amount of water required to satisfy a specific use.

1.1 Types of water demand


 Domestic (e.g. households or residential areas etc)
 Commercial (e.g. shops, offices)
 Industrial (food processing, mining)
 Agricultural (for irrigation)
 Instantaneous

Before the design of a water supply scheme is carried out, the water demand has
to be determined. By adding all the values for different types of developments,
the annual average daily water demand (AADD) is computed.

The demand per household varies depending on the level of income. Lower
income groups use less water than the high affluent class. The per capita water
demand varies from 20 to 1000l/ca.day. Detailed water demand for South Africa
is given in “Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning & Design, CSIR”. The
City of Cape Town uses a design value of 250l/ca.day (City of Cape Town, 2001).
This value does not taking into consideration the various income groups.
However, the current minimum water demand for low cost housing is
600/litre/stand.day (Cape Town 2013). Table 1 gives a guideline for the City of
Cape Town and the detailed guidelines are given in “Minimum Standards for Civil
Engineering Services in Townships, Version 1” (City of Cape Town 2013).

Table 1: Design Guidelines for City of Cape Town

Water Reticulation Design Criteria


Minimum water demand for low cost housing 600 litre I erf I day
Minimum 4, or as given in Figure 9.11 of
Peak Factor
the Red Book.
Hydrant Spacing for Fire Fighting (for all risk
120m
groups
Fire Flows for High to Moderate Risk Groups
1500 litre I min
(minimum hydrant flow rate)
Fire Flows for all Low Risk Groups (minimum
900 litre I min
hydrant flow rate

Source: “MinimumStandardsfor Civil Engineering Services in Townships, Version 1” (City of Cape Town 2013).

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1.2 Water Losses


Poor operation and maintenance of the infrastructure result in leakages in the
distribution system. Unfortunately the water being lost is treated water.
Unaccounted water can vary from 5 to 40%. An acceptable level is about 20%
and the City of Cape Town reported a value of 23% (WSDP, 2001). For bulk
lines 8% can be assumed unless accurate information is available. In reticulation,
15% can be assumed for design purposes.

1.3 Wastage
Low tariffs and un-metered water supply systems may contribute to wastage of
water.

1.4 Determination of Water Demand


Water demand is usually based on historical consumption. Where water
consumption records are not available, per capita water demand can be
estimated. For South Africa, the tables in the “Red Book” are applied to estimate
typical consumption. An improved estimate could be obtained by studying
existing water supply systems and demand patterns in the same area. The water
demand in the City of Cape Town is assumed to increase at 4% per annum
(Water Services Development Plan, 2001).

1.5 Factors to be considered in estimating demand


 Current population
 Projected population
 Planned area of development from the City lay-outs (can be obtained from the
Planning Department in a particular Municipality). These include current and
future planned developments like residential areas, schools, commercial
centres etc.
 Type of industry e.g. mining, agriculture etc. Normally industries know already
what they will be using and their projected consumptions.

1.6 Estimating Demand for domestic uses


Demand =per capita demand (l/ca.day) x the population

The per capita demand is the amount required by a person per day and can be
established from tables (Red Book).

1.7 Developed Areas


The demand is based on the size of the development e.g. 400l/day per 1000m2
gross area. The specific developed areas and their demand are outlined in the
“Red Book”.

1.9 Projected Demand and Design Periods/Horizon


If you are designing for a new area, the current demand should be projected to
cater for future growth. The design period of a reticulation system is the time

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Crispen Mutsvangwa Reticulation Design & Management

through which it is expected to perform satisfactorily. The system is expected to


be adequate unless water demand scenarios start differing from the predictions.
The technical lifetime is the period the project may operate satisfactorily and
ranges are in Table 2. The economic lifetime represents the time the project
component can operate without being more costly than the replacement costs
and is less than the technical lifetime and is normally considered as the design
horizon (Table 2).

Normally the design horizon varies from 5 to 20 years. A 5 to 10 years design


horizon is recommended by DWA for all above ground civil works, mechanical
and electrical equipment. The actual design period is normally less than the
projected due to unforeseen uncertainties (Fig. 1).

The data from Central Statistical Office is used to project the population growth
whilst the future developments due to industrial growth are found from the Town
Planning Department. Therefore historical data of local population
movement/growths should be investigated. Growth rates should be selected after
considerations of social and economic factors. Typical ranges are:

 Urban areas =2%-3.5%


 Rural =2.5%

Table 2: Technical design life time

n/n Component Technical design Economic design


Life Time (yrs) life time
1 Transmission mains 30-50 15-25
2 Distribution mains 30-100 15-25
3 Reservoirs 20-80 15-25
4 Pumping stations 20-80 10-15
5 Pumping equipment 15-30 10-15

Sources: Kamalie/Unesco-IHE

Fig. 1: Actual versus projected design horizon

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1.10 Peak factors


They cater for the fluctuations in demand during the hour, day, season and on a
yearly basis. The peak factors vary between 1.5 to 4. The following are some of
the factors that may significantly influence the choice of a specific peak factor:

• Employment trends and practices in the community;


• Gardening activities;
• Number of persons per tap;
• Agricultural activities;
• Number of dwellings (small communities have a higher peak factor);
• Level of economic development
• Extent of illegal connections;

1.10.1 Determination of the peak factor


If data is available, the peak factor is equal to the peak flow divided by the
average flow. Empirical formulae can also be used like:

72
PFhour  3 (Thiart, 2012)
P

Where P is the population

or

5
PFhour  1
(Mara, 1986)
6
P

Where P is the population in thousands

1.10.2 Instantaneous Peak factor


Demand required by a small number of consumers during a short period of time
(e.g minutes/seconds) and is much more unpredictable compared to demand by
a larger number of consumers (Fig. 2). For example the water demands for
various domestic activities shown in Table 3. The instantaneous water demand
which can occur during the morning include toilet flushing, showering, washing of
face and teeth and drinking is:-

480+500+180+300=1460litres/hr

If there are 5 people in the household with a per capita water demand of
250litres/day, the instantaneous peak factor will be:

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1460
28
250 5 24

Hence there was one short moment within 24hrs when flow to the house was 28
times more than the average daily demand.

Peak Factor

Population
Fig.2 Relationship between peak factor and population

Table 3: Typical domestic water consumptions for various activities

Source Trifinovich (2008): Introduction to urban water distribution

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1.10.2 Some recommendations for Peak Factors

 Water treatment Plant


The gross average annual daily water demand (GAADD) takes into consideration
the design loss factor of the plant and this account for water losses during
treatment. The design loss factor can be taken as 10% (DWA, 2004) and the
GAADD can be expresses as:-

GAADD=(1+LF)×AADD

Where;-
LF =Design loss factor as a fraction (0.01 i.e. 10%)

The design flow to the treatment plant will be based on the summer peak factor
(SPF). The summer peak factors vary from 1.2 to 2. The summer daily water
demand (SDD) for a water treatment works taking into consideration the summer
peak factor (SPF) can be computed as:

SPF = Summer peak factor

Water treatment plants are sized to deal with the amount of water used by fire
fighters. When compared to the SDD, the amount for fire fighting is meagre and
seldom more than 5-10%. In most cases, the treatment plant can be sized to
merely deal with the SDD as long as the storage facility is large enough to deal
with fire flows. The total design flow for the plant if fire fighting is taken into
consideration is calculated as:-

Total design flow = Maximum daily water demand + Fire flow

The fire flow for a region can be calculated in a variety of ways and most methods
require knowledge of the size and type of buildings within the distribution system.
Normally a risk factor is put into consideration based on the level of risk of the
development CSIR, 2001). A simple method which is based on the population of
the community can be applied to establish the volume of water for fire-fighting:-

187.156√ 1 0.01√ m3/day

Where "P" is the population in 1000's of people.

Bulky Supply
 Use 1.5 times the average flow expected after 20 years. The urban practise
of using an additional summer peak factor (SPF) is necessary.

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Reticulation
 A water reticulation system is typically designed to cater for the peak hourly
demand. Use a peak factor of 4 where the number of dwellings exceeds 200
(or refer to the “Red Book”.

1.11 Peak Demand

Peak hourly demand = Hourly peak factor x Average Hourly Demand


Peak daily demand =Daily peak factor x average daily demand
Summer peak demand =Summer peak factor x average summer demand

1.12 Population Projection

The system has to be designed for a specific design horizon to cater for future
population growth.

1.13 Population Equivalent


An equivalent amount of people that consume the same amount like a factory or
school

1.14 Method to project population


There are several methods which can be applied to project population and
common ones are as follows:
 Arithmetic
 Linear
 Exponential

1.15.1 Arithmetic
Pt  PO 1  r 
t

Where:
Po = initial population
Pt =population after time t
t = time interval
r = growth rate as a decimal

1.15.2 Linear Model


1

r = growth rate as a decimal

1.16 Sizing of Storage Reservoirs


Without a storage reservoir in the distribution system, the source of supply and
the water treatment plant would have to cope with the fluctuations in water

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demand. This is not economic and at the same time not technically feasible.
Storage reservoirs serve the following purposes:-
 To meet variable supply into the network
 To meet variable demand from the network
 To provide supply during emergencies
 To maintain stable operating pressure

The storage reservoirs can be categorized as:

 Service reservoir
 Bulk storage

In the design of storage reservoirs, the following 5 storage components may be


considered:

i. Operational storage:-volume dedicated to supplying the system under


normal operating conditions
ii. Equalizing storage:- when pumping capacity cannot meet the periodic
daily peak demands
iii. Stand-by storage: to provide a measure of consistency should there be
failure or when there are unusual demands (say 24 to 48hrs)
iv. Fire suppression storage:- volumes are as required by the regulatory
authority for fire fighting and protection
v. Dead storage:- water not available to consumers at the minimum design
pressure

1.17.1 Bulk Storage


These are large reservoirs on the main distribution network and hold usually 1-3
day demand. They control pressure, cater for major daily annual fluctuations and
major breakdowns and are located at high altitudes to provide adequate
pressures.

1.18.2 Service Reservoirs


They are much smaller than the bulk storage and normally have 8 to 24 hour
storage. They are located strategically within the distribution network. They
balance water demand during local peaks and for local emergencies. A service
reservoir is therefore provided to balance the supply and demand. A simpler
method is as follows:-
 Plot cumulative flow rates over two days (48hrs=a normal storage time in
a distribution system) against time
 Calculate the average flow rate and plot
 Calculate the average flow rate and plot

1.18 Planning
The planning stages include:

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 Preliminary investigations
 Detailed investigations
 Preliminary Designs
 Detailed Designs
 Specifications, Tendering and Documentation
 Implementation/construction
 Operation & Maintenance
 Evaluation
 Decommissioning

1.18.2 Preliminary Investigations


The preliminary investigations define the project objectives. In other words it
looks at whether there is a need for the project and identifies the end users.
Existing problems are identified as well as the existing infrastructure, and why it is
not adequate enough to meet the intended design objectives. Generally,
meetings and discussions are held with all stakeholders and a common
consensus is reached on whether the project is necessary and thereby avoiding
duplication of developments. At this stage a scoping/status report is produced
and in some cases with a rough estimate (thumb sucking) of the works to give an
idea to the funders on what should be budgeted.

1.18.3 Detailed Investigations and Economic Aspects


The identified problem is investigated in much detail with regards to existing
information and long term physical planning objectives of the area where the
reticulation system will be constructed or upgraded. This includes collecting and
reviewing available data and relevant information pertaining to the existing water
distribution scheme, or the wastewater reticulation system. Such information may
include current and projected population, design reports, existing and planned
infrastructure (master plans). This data is normally available from the Local
Authorities (Department of Planning). If it is not available then, physical counting
of the developments has to be conducted.

Alternative options are proposed with cost estimates. A cost benefit analysis is
carried on the proposed alternatives to come out with economic alternatives
(Feasibility studies). The cost benefit analysis of the alternatives is carried out
with the same design horizon, discount rate (interest rate) and to include all other
costs like capital, social and environmental costs, operation and maintenance
costs. The most economic alternative will be the one with more benefits (a
positive net present value, NPV) and may not necessarily have the lowest capital
costs. The detailed report presents all the options and costs and
recommendations on all the proposed aspects.

1.18.4 Preliminary & Detailed Designs


At this stage one or more alternatives are pursued in detail to produce a more
accurate picture of the project. The most economic and sustainable option will

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become clearer and is pursued in the detailed design stage, where project
specifications are outlined in detail.

1.18.4 Tendering, Documentation & Project Implementation


The final design project is put forward to contractors for implementation and
commissioning.

References
1. Department of Water Affairs (DWA), Technical Guidelines for the Development of
Water & Sanitation Infrastructure, (2004), South Africa
2. Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning and Design, CSIR, 2001
3. Kamalie A (2010), Reticulation Design and Management, CPUT/UNESCO-IHE,
Cape Town.
4. Minimum Standards for Civil Engineering Services in Townships, Version 1” (City of
Cape Town 2013
5. Trifinovich N. (2008), Introduction to urban water distribution,UNESCO-IHE Lecture Notes,
Balkema. Netherlands
6. Water Services Development Plan, City of Cape Town, 2001

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Table 4: Recommended Planning/Design Criteria (DWA)

Source: Technical Guidelines for the Development of Water & Sanitation Infrastructure, DWA(2004)

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Table 5: Recommended Planning/Design Criteria (Cont.)

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Annexures which may be applied for computing water demand


(These annexures are extracts from the Red Book and hence refer to it for more detailed
information).

Fig. 3: Peak factors for low cost housing based on erven number

(Source: Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning and Design, CSIR, 2001)

Fig. 2 Peak Factors for developing areas

(Source: Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning and Design, CSIR, 2001)

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Fig. 4: Water Demand for developed areas

Source: Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning and Design, CSIR, 2001)

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Fig. 5: Water Demand for stock

Source: Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning and Design, CSIR, 2001)

Fig. 6: Non-domestic water demand

Source: Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning and Design, CSIR, 2001)

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Fig. 7: Annual average daily water demand for ervn in developed areas

Source: Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning and Design, CSIR, 2001)

Fig 7: Water demand for developed areas

Source: Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning and Design, CSIR, 2001)

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Crispen Mutsvangwa Reticulation Design & Management

Fig. 8: Water consumption in areas with standpipes, yard connections and house
connections. Source: Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning and Design,
CSIR, 2001)

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Typical Example on computation of flows

Water Demand (AADD) ADWF


Unit Total Total Total Total
MOGWADI LAND USE ZONE 1 (CBD) ZONE 2 ZONE 3 ZONE 4 ZONE 5 Current Future Current Future
CategoType of DevelopmeUnit CurrentFuture CurrentFuture CurrentFuture CurrentFuture CurrentFuture l kl/d kl/d kl/d kl/d
1 Residential 1 No. 302 508 350 287 851 600 696.00 682.80 522.00 512.10
2 Residential 2 No. 0 80 30 0 600 48.00 18.00 36.00 13.50
3 Residential 3 No. 0 0 0 800 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
4.1 Offices/Shops/Test ha 2.4 0 0 0 0.26 40000 96.00 10.40 72.00 7.80
4.2 Garages ha 0.2 0 0 0 50000 10.00 0.00 7.50 0.00
2
5 Clinic m 330 0 0 0 4 1.32 0.00 0.99 0.00
6 Church/Hall No. 4 2 2 3 2000 16.00 6.00 12.00 4.50
2
7 Hotels/Senior Club m 245 0 0 0 4 0.98 0.00 0.74 0.00
8 Developed Parks No @ 2 ha 0.51 1.1 0.83 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
9.1 Pre-School Erf Ha 0.4 0 0.21 0.62 15000 9.15 9.30 6.86 6.98
9.2 Secondary School Erf Ha 4.2 1.35 0 12500 69.38 0.00 52.03 0.00
9.3 Primary School Erf Ha 1.64 1.35 2.5 12500 37.38 31.25 28.03 23.44
10.1 Stadium No @ 2 ha 0.2 0 0 0 10000 2.00 0.00 1.50 0.00
10.2 Public Open Space Erf Ha 0.67 2.9 3.9 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Town Total 986 758 740 568

Summary unit Value

Current Average Annual Daily Demand, AADD (Potable water consumption) 3


m /day 986
Future Average Annual Daily Demand, AADD (Potable water consumption) 3
m /day 758
3
Total AADD (Current +Future) m /day 1744

Current Average Dry Weather Flow, ADWF (Wastewater generation) 3


m /day 740
Future Average Dry Weather Flow, ADWF (Wastewater generation) 3
m /day 568
3
Total ADWF (Current +Future) m /day 1308

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