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Chapter 1
Chapter 1
Water Demand
Before the design of a water supply scheme is carried out, the water demand has
to be determined. By adding all the values for different types of developments,
the annual average daily water demand (AADD) is computed.
The demand per household varies depending on the level of income. Lower
income groups use less water than the high affluent class. The per capita water
demand varies from 20 to 1000l/ca.day. Detailed water demand for South Africa
is given in “Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning & Design, CSIR”. The
City of Cape Town uses a design value of 250l/ca.day (City of Cape Town, 2001).
This value does not taking into consideration the various income groups.
However, the current minimum water demand for low cost housing is
600/litre/stand.day (Cape Town 2013). Table 1 gives a guideline for the City of
Cape Town and the detailed guidelines are given in “Minimum Standards for Civil
Engineering Services in Townships, Version 1” (City of Cape Town 2013).
Source: “MinimumStandardsfor Civil Engineering Services in Townships, Version 1” (City of Cape Town 2013).
1.3 Wastage
Low tariffs and un-metered water supply systems may contribute to wastage of
water.
The per capita demand is the amount required by a person per day and can be
established from tables (Red Book).
The data from Central Statistical Office is used to project the population growth
whilst the future developments due to industrial growth are found from the Town
Planning Department. Therefore historical data of local population
movement/growths should be investigated. Growth rates should be selected after
considerations of social and economic factors. Typical ranges are:
Sources: Kamalie/Unesco-IHE
72
PFhour 3 (Thiart, 2012)
P
or
5
PFhour 1
(Mara, 1986)
6
P
480+500+180+300=1460litres/hr
If there are 5 people in the household with a per capita water demand of
250litres/day, the instantaneous peak factor will be:
1460
28
250 5 24
Hence there was one short moment within 24hrs when flow to the house was 28
times more than the average daily demand.
Peak Factor
Population
Fig.2 Relationship between peak factor and population
GAADD=(1+LF)×AADD
Where;-
LF =Design loss factor as a fraction (0.01 i.e. 10%)
The design flow to the treatment plant will be based on the summer peak factor
(SPF). The summer peak factors vary from 1.2 to 2. The summer daily water
demand (SDD) for a water treatment works taking into consideration the summer
peak factor (SPF) can be computed as:
Water treatment plants are sized to deal with the amount of water used by fire
fighters. When compared to the SDD, the amount for fire fighting is meagre and
seldom more than 5-10%. In most cases, the treatment plant can be sized to
merely deal with the SDD as long as the storage facility is large enough to deal
with fire flows. The total design flow for the plant if fire fighting is taken into
consideration is calculated as:-
The fire flow for a region can be calculated in a variety of ways and most methods
require knowledge of the size and type of buildings within the distribution system.
Normally a risk factor is put into consideration based on the level of risk of the
development CSIR, 2001). A simple method which is based on the population of
the community can be applied to establish the volume of water for fire-fighting:-
Bulky Supply
Use 1.5 times the average flow expected after 20 years. The urban practise
of using an additional summer peak factor (SPF) is necessary.
Reticulation
A water reticulation system is typically designed to cater for the peak hourly
demand. Use a peak factor of 4 where the number of dwellings exceeds 200
(or refer to the “Red Book”.
The system has to be designed for a specific design horizon to cater for future
population growth.
1.15.1 Arithmetic
Pt PO 1 r
t
Where:
Po = initial population
Pt =population after time t
t = time interval
r = growth rate as a decimal
demand. This is not economic and at the same time not technically feasible.
Storage reservoirs serve the following purposes:-
To meet variable supply into the network
To meet variable demand from the network
To provide supply during emergencies
To maintain stable operating pressure
Service reservoir
Bulk storage
1.18 Planning
The planning stages include:
Preliminary investigations
Detailed investigations
Preliminary Designs
Detailed Designs
Specifications, Tendering and Documentation
Implementation/construction
Operation & Maintenance
Evaluation
Decommissioning
Alternative options are proposed with cost estimates. A cost benefit analysis is
carried on the proposed alternatives to come out with economic alternatives
(Feasibility studies). The cost benefit analysis of the alternatives is carried out
with the same design horizon, discount rate (interest rate) and to include all other
costs like capital, social and environmental costs, operation and maintenance
costs. The most economic alternative will be the one with more benefits (a
positive net present value, NPV) and may not necessarily have the lowest capital
costs. The detailed report presents all the options and costs and
recommendations on all the proposed aspects.
become clearer and is pursued in the detailed design stage, where project
specifications are outlined in detail.
References
1. Department of Water Affairs (DWA), Technical Guidelines for the Development of
Water & Sanitation Infrastructure, (2004), South Africa
2. Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning and Design, CSIR, 2001
3. Kamalie A (2010), Reticulation Design and Management, CPUT/UNESCO-IHE,
Cape Town.
4. Minimum Standards for Civil Engineering Services in Townships, Version 1” (City of
Cape Town 2013
5. Trifinovich N. (2008), Introduction to urban water distribution,UNESCO-IHE Lecture Notes,
Balkema. Netherlands
6. Water Services Development Plan, City of Cape Town, 2001
Source: Technical Guidelines for the Development of Water & Sanitation Infrastructure, DWA(2004)
Fig. 3: Peak factors for low cost housing based on erven number
(Source: Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning and Design, CSIR, 2001)
(Source: Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning and Design, CSIR, 2001)
Source: Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning and Design, CSIR, 2001)
Source: Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning and Design, CSIR, 2001)
Source: Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning and Design, CSIR, 2001)
Fig. 7: Annual average daily water demand for ervn in developed areas
Source: Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning and Design, CSIR, 2001)
Source: Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning and Design, CSIR, 2001)
Fig. 8: Water consumption in areas with standpipes, yard connections and house
connections. Source: Guidelines for Human Settlements, Planning and Design,
CSIR, 2001)